Medirays Corporation 4.

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

THE X-RAY MACHINE

1. Theory:
X-rays are highly penetrating electromagnetic radiations having a very short wavelength in the
range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers. It was discovered by Wilhelm C.Roentgen in 1895. Most
applications of x rays are based on their penetrating property. X-rays are produced by energy
conversion when a fast moving stream of electrons is suddenly decelerated. Ninety nine
percent of the energy is dissipated as heat only one percent is produced into x rays. This takes
place due to a large potential difference applied between two electrodes namely cathode and
anode inside a vacuum tube known as an x ray tube. When such rays pass through a patient’s
body, the fluids and soft tissues inside are easily penetrated but dense materials like bones
absorb it. This when projected on a film similar to a photographic film gives us an image which
is used for diagnostic purposes.

2. Block diagram of an X ray machine

Fig1. The Generalized block diagram of an X ray machine

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2. Block diagram of an X ray machine (contd.)

The generalized block diagram of an x ray machine consists of power supply, phase
transformer, control panel, high tension tank, high tension cables and the x ray tube. The
diagram displays various interconnecting wires/cables between two consecutive blocks each
having its own significance. The function of each block is explained below:

2.1 Power Supply:

As discussed earlier, to produce x rays large amount of potential difference is applied between
anode and cathode of and x ray tube. To generate such a huge potential difference (in kV) we
require a three phase, 400V to 440V power supply. Three phase supply is a common method of
alternating current electric power transmission usually used in industries. In a three phase
system three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents of same frequency which reach
instantaneous peak values at different times as shown in fig2.

Fig2. Three phase supply signal

There are three wires- red, yellow and blue. These wires transmit power signals to the phase
transformer via the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker as the name says breaks the circuit in
case of short circuit to prevent occurrence of any damage to the machine.

2.2 Phase Transformer:

Fig3 (a) GE phase transformer Fig3 (b) Internal view of GE phase transformer
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.2 Phase Transformer (contd.)

The phase transformer converts the three phase signal
into two phase (Siemens phase transformer) or single
phase (GE phase transformer) signal depending upon the
requirement of the control panel. The control panel of a
Siemens x ray machine (Pleophos-D) requires input as
two phase, 380V supply whereas in the case of a GE
control panel (DX 300/SRD 300) it requires an input as
single phase, 230V supply. This phase conversion is done
by a transformer known as a phase transformer.
However, it is very important to know that the conversion
from three phase to single phase is much needed in order
to increase the current capacity. Along with voltage,
Fig3(c) Siemens phase transformer
current too should be taken into consideration as it plays
a vital role in x ray production.

2.3 Control Panel

The output of the phase transformer Fuses S1 & F2
comes into the next unit i.e. the
control panel. The control panel is a
unit where the operator / doctor
comes into picture. It has various
knobs which control the entire x ray
machine right from switching ON to
adjusting a proper dose for the
required x ray scan. The knobs and its
functions will be dealt later on. The
outputs of the phase transformer are
nothing but two wires carrying 230V
signal to the control panel. They
entire the control panel as L1 and L2
shown in fig4 (a), then via two fuses
they entire the internal circuitry of the Fig4 (a)Line voltage L1 & L2
Inputs
control panel. L1 & L2

Outputs
P1 & P2
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.3.1 Display section:

kVp mA mA Fluoro kVp
display display meter display

Display
section
Technic
Selector

Timer
On/Off
Switch Fluoro mA
Stand By
Fluoroscopy
Radiography X ray
Test shoot
Extra switch

Voltage Major kVp Minor kVp Fluoro kVp

compensator
Fig4 (b) Control panel of GE - DX 300

Large Small
Focus Focus

> 230 V

= 230 V

< 230 V Tube

overload

X ray shoot

Fig4(c) Display section on control panel of GE-DX 300

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

KVp display PCB MA metering PCB

Connecting
Strips

Constant voltage
The Autotransformer transformer
Fig4(d) Top view of the internal circuitry of DX-300

2.3.2 Introduction to Autotransformer:

This type of transformer has no primary nor secondary windings. The input is normally applied across
most or all the winding while the output is taken from a smaller part of it. If the winding consists of 20
turns and a voltage of 20V a.c. is applied to it then each turn will have a potential of 1V a.c. If the output
is taken across 10 turns then the voltage will be 10V a.c. It can be seen that the turns ratio is 2:1 and the
transformer principle is maintained.

20 V AC

10 V AC

Fig5(a) The Autotransformer

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Fig5(b) Auto transformer and KVp selection

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.3.3 Autotransformer and KVp selection:

Till now we know that, the three phase, 440V supply connection goes to the phase transformer
where it gets converted to one phase 230V, for GE DX-300. Moving further ahead , the output
of the phase transformer is connected to the ON/OFF switch via two fuses (30F1 & 30F2) and a
circuit breaker (MCB) as shown in fig5(b). They are known as line input L1 & L2 and are
connected to the ON/OFF switch with the help of a contactor known as “Mains contactor”. The
contacts of this contactor can be seen clearly in fig5(b) as 30K1-A, 30K1-B, and 30K1-C.
Once the ON button is pressed, the coil inside the contactor gets energized and the circuit is
activated. Now, the line L1, 230V, is connected to the voltage compensator switch. The voltage
compensator switch maintains constant 230V input at the autotransformer input winding. If the
supply input is less than 230V, the low signal LED on the display section of the control panel
glows. Similarly, when the input is greater than 230V, the high signal LED on the display section
of the control panel glows. When the input supply is equal to 230V then the Go signal LED on
the control panel is activated.
The Autotransformer has four windings: (refer fig5(b))
Winding No.1- Major KVp selection
Winding No.2- Minor KVp selection
Winding No.3- Collimator circuitry
Winding No.4- Timer section
The first winding of the autotransformer has 32 taps, each tap has a specific voltage as shown in
fig5(b). 12 taps are selected for major KVp selection and some for fluoroscopy KVp selection.
The L2 line after passing through mains contactor is connected to autotransformer tap having
0Volts and is directly taken as output P2.
The major KVp selector is connected to the first tap of winding no.2 used for minor KVp
selection. The major and minor KVp both have 12 taps. The line wire from the minor KVp
selector goes to x ray contactor known as AS contactor and after that it is taken as output P1.
Also for fluoroscopy a separate contactor is used known as DS contactor of fluoroscopy
contactor.

Fig5(c) A Contactor
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Fig6 Internal circuit diagram of HV tank

2.4 High Tension Tank:

The outputs of control panel i.e. P1 & P2 stand for primary windings of the high tension
transformers inside the HV tank. Also along with P1 & P2, other signal like Xs (small filament),
Xl(large filament), A1 (common) enter the high tension tank from the control panel. Inside the
high tension tank there three transformers:
High tension step up transformer (Voltage at Anode)
Two step down filament transformers (Voltage at Cathode)
Also along with transformers there is a bridge rectifier which converts the AC signal to DC
signal. The presence of spark gap helps the technicians to ground the circuitry incase of any
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

improper functioning of the tank. There are two types of HV tanks depending upon the number
of x ray tubes it is connected to. Single and Dual HV tanks are the two types. In the Dual type
HV tank there are two x ray tubes, one above the patient and the other below the patient table
(refer fig6).

2.4.1 High voltage Generation:

The range of voltages required to produce diagnostic x rays is between 30kV to 200kV. Such
huge potentials are developed with the help of high voltage transformers. A step up
transformer with a turns ratio of 1:400 is used for this purpose so that an input of 250V would
produce an output of 100kV. This high voltage signal is applied to the anode of the x ray tube. In
a similar fashion a low voltage supply, generally of few volts is given to the filament i.e. cathode
of the x ray tube. This cathode supply is given via two filament transformers which are step
down transformers, typically having a ratio 10:1. Thus inside one High tension tank we have one
step up transformer (high tension transformer) and two step down transformers (filament
transformers).

Filament
transformers

Bridge rectifier
assembly

High Tension
Transformer

Fig7(a) Internal view of the HV tank

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

10 A diodes
connected in
series such
that one
strip acts as
one diode.

Fig7(b) Bridge rectifier diodes

As shown in figures above, the high tension tank comprises of two filament transformers and
one high tension transformer along with a bridge rectifier circuitry. This entire assembly is
submerged in power oil. The low viscosity power oil serves as a heat absorber and prevents
occurrence of sparks, if any, produced inside the tank. The purpose of the bridge rectifier is to
convert AC signal to DC. The X ray tube works on both AC and DC, for smaller values of potential
difference, it directly works on AC. Hence in portable x ray machines like Stallon 20 and
Unimax-E there is no such bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier consists of four diode strips
which are nothing but set of diodes (10A) connected in series. Thus one strip acts as one diode.
This bridge rectifier circuitry can be seen just below the filament transformers as shown in fig
above.

High tension cables

Coil

Anode
Filament side terminals
shorted
Metal plates

Filament
Transformers

Bridge rectifier

Fig7(c) Internal connections of the HV tank

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Coil

Metal plates

Fig7(d) Actual circuitry inside the tank

In above figures we can see the connections inside the tank. The coil when actuated attracts
the metal plates connecting the internal circuitry with the cables. Thus for a small amount of
time the high potential developed inside the HV tank is supplied to the X ray tube.

Fig7(e) Interface between the Generator tank and the x ray tube.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.5 High Tension Cables:

The high voltage tank is connected to the x ray tube with the help of two special cables known
as high tension cables. A cross sectional view of the cable is shown.
The centre comprises of three conductors (Small, Large and Common) insulated individually, for
the low filament voltages and surrounded by a semi-conducting rubber. This assembly is then
surrounded by a non conducting rubber which provides insulation against the high voltage
carried by the centre conductors. The copper braiding is earthed and finally covered with a
protective layer (plastic).

Fig8(a) Internal view of the HT cable

Fig8(b) The High Tension cable

The construction of the cable is such that it acts as a capacitor. The value of capacitance
depends upon the length of the cable. This capacitance has three effects.
1. For low tube currents it tends to smooth the high voltage waveform reducing the amount of
soft radiation produced by the tube.
2. A small capacitive current flows in addition to the actual tube current.
3. The stored charge in the cable can lead to “after glow” which is especially noticeable after
fluoroscopy at very low tube current. This energy can be dangerous and should be discharged
by connecting the conductors to earth prior to handling the exposed cable end.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.6 The X ray Tube:

The output of the HV tank i.e. the two HT cables enter the x ray tube at the respective
electrodes, cathode and anode. The x ray tube acts as a diode having two electrodes and
produces x rays on developing a potential difference. Both the electrodes are made up of
Tungsten.

Fig9(a) Anatomy of x ray tube

2.6.1 Why vacuum?

It is necessary to seal the two electrodes of the x ray tube in a vacuum so that the beam of
electrons is prevented from colliding with air molecules. Such collisions (ionization) with gas
molecules would result in lose of energy and produce a large variation in tube current and the
energy of x rays produced. The glass envelope of modern x ray tubes is made from a
borosilicate glass as, or similar to, Pyrex. This is known as a “Hard” glass, and is very resistant to
thermal shock. In this way it differs from lead or soda, “Soft” glasses used to manufacturer the
earlier air insulated tubes.

2.6.2 Why Tungsten?

The main advantages that Tungsten possesses over other elements and alloys are:
High atomic number – 74
High melting point - 3410°C
It can be drawn in a fine wire unlike its alloys
It has a long life expectancy.
Tungsten also has some disadvantages like it is a poor conductor of heat and is prone to surface
cracking due to high internal stresses resulting from repeated thermal loads. Although the
melting point of Tungsten is 3410°C, the working temperature has to be kept well below this to
avoid damage and is usually limited to a surface temperature of 2200°C. The Tungsten anode is
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

soldered into Copper. Cu being an excellent thermal conductor helps in heat dissipation. The
melting point of Cu is 1083°C.

Fig9(b).The X ray tube (Rotating anode type)

2.6.3 Anode:
The positive electrode of the x ray tube is known as Anode or the Target. The x ray tube is
commercially available in two forms depending upon the type of anode used. There are two
types of anode:
Stationary anode
Rotating anode

Stationary anode:
In this type of X ray tube
the anode is small
tungsten plate 2 to 3mm
thick embedded inside a
large mass of Copper.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Rotating anode:
In this type of X ray tube
the anode rotates at a
constant speed helping
heat dissipation by
increasing the target area.

X ray tubes are now a days classified as “Standard speed” and “High speed”
Standard speed x ray tube are those which have an anode rotated slightly less than 3000rpm on
a frequency of 50Hz. High speed tubes operate at about 9000rpm and supply frequency of
150Hz.

Fig10. Rotating anode

2.6.4 Cathode:
The negative terminal of the x ray tube is known as Cathode of the Filament. The filament is
made up of Tungsten wire about 0.2mm diameter that is coiled to form a vertical spiral about
0.2cm in diameter and 1cm or less in length. This filament when heated to a particular
temperature (2200°C) emits electrons due to “Thermionic emission”.
In addition to the filament, the cathode also consists of two other elements i.e. connecting
wires and metallic focusing cup. The connecting wires contain the required voltage (10 V) and
current (3 to 5 mA). The tube current refers to the number of electrons flowing per second
from the filament to the target. Also when the x ray tube is conducting, the focusing cup is
maintained at the same negative potential as the filament. The focusing cup is designed so that
its electrical forces cause the electron stream to converge onto the target anode in the required
size and shape. The filament should never be heated for long periods than necessary. When the
x ray circuit is turned ON but no exposure is being made, a “Stand by” current heats the
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

filament (5 mA). This is what is done in fluoroscopy. When large currents are desired a boosting
circuit raises this current from the stand by value to the required higher value.

Large Small
Filament Filament

Fig11. Filament/cathode

2.6.5 X ray tube Life:

Fig12. A X ray tube “Tested OK”

However well a tube is treated, it is nevertheless a “Wearing” thing like an automobile engine
or an electric light bulb. There is bearing wear to be considered, filament evaporation and the
equally unavoidable crazing of the focal track. Experience extending over many years has
shown that the majority of tubes eventually fail due to the formation of a heavy tungsten
deposit known as a mirror on the inside of the glass envelope, followed by increasing electron
bombardment of the glass. This finally leads to destructive glass attack, with eventual
penetration of the glass envelope.
Firstly, when a tube is switched ON after a period of rest, by no means all the electrons leaving
the cathode travel straight to the anode. A high percentage spray inside of the glass. Also those
that do hit the anode frequently liberate secondary electrons. Since glass is a good insulator,
and electrons are negatively charged particles, a negative charge will be built up that cannot
readily leak away. This charge on the glass strongly repels further electrons and thus forms a
powerful protection against “puncture” or erosion of the glass surface by further electron
bombardment.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Fig13. X ray tube showing damaged parts

Secondly, the focal track of the anode very

Fig14. Anode with a damaged focal track
soon begins to open up in a minute crazy-
paving pattern. This is both normal and
inevitable and provided the tube is use
within its rating, this target erosion will
have no significant effect for a long time.
Eventually, however, the focal track
crazing may reach the stage where flakes
of tungsten are lifting and presenting
edges to the electron beam. These edges
will become molten and will add a further
tungsten mirror to the one building up
from filament evaporation

Combined, the two mirrors stretch from below the cathode block to well behind the tungsten
disc, and form a third, and unwanted electrode in the tube. This causes the negative charge to
leak away at an increasing rate, until eventually it has no chance to build up at all. If the mirror,
as frequently happens, extends to within a few millimeters of the rotor it becomes a virtual
extension of the anode. Bombardment of the glass now becomes heavy, a surface cracks and,
later, some surface melting. In either case gases are released with detriment to the vacuum and
the destruction of the tube follows rapidly by actual penetration of the glass in the region of the
cathode block.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.6.6 X ray output- “fall off”:

When a tube is new the disc has only experienced those radiographic loads necessary to
condition it during manufacture. The process of crazing therefore has either not commenced or
is not very advanced. Once the crazing process has commenced, some fall in radiation of the
output is inevitable since a small proportion of the electrons are going to enter the cracks and
generate x rays that will be absorbed completely by the sides of the crack. In other words,
electrons will fall into the “valley” and the x rays will be absorbed by the “hills”. This is normally
followed by tube failure within a fairly short time. The x ray tube may fail for other reasons
which may include bearing failure (sometimes due to overheating on continuous running with
consequential damage to the lubricant), accidental breakage, mechanical damage to the tube
structure and vacuum deterioration.

2.6.7 Tubes overload protection:

X ray tubes are designed to operate within defined limits of power input as published by the
manufacturer in the manual. It is important, therefore, that the x ray unit includes a device to
prevent to overloading of the x ray tube. It is possible by mechanical means to interlock the kV,
mA and time selectors such that they cannot be turned when this would overload the tube. If
an overload combination is selected, the exposure circuit is blocked by means of a relay.
Depending upon the resultant voltage the exposure may be blocked or allowed to take place.

2.7 Beam Restrictors:

2.7.1 Aperture Diaphragms:
The simplest type of x ray beam restrictor is an aperture diaphragm. It consists of a sheet of
lead with a hole in the center: the size and shape of the “hole” determine the size and shape of
the x ray beam. Its principal advantage is its simplicity. Lead is soft, so the aperture can be
easily altered to any desired size or shape. The principal disadvantage of an aperture diaphragm
is that it produces a fairly large penumbra at the periphery of the x ray beam.

Collimator

Fig15. Collimator attached to the x ray tube

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.7.2 Collimators:
The collimator is the best all around x ray beam restrictor. It has two advantages over the other
types :
1. It provides an infinite variety of rectangular x ray fields
2. A light beam shows the center and exact configuration of the x ray field.

Fig16. Shutters of the collimator

Two sets of shutters control the beam dimensions. They move together as a unit so that the
second shutter aligns with the first to clean up its penumbra. The shutters function as two
adjustable aperture diaphragms. Each shutter consists of four or more lead plates. These plates
move in independent pairs. One pair can be adjusted without moving the other, which permits
an infinite variety of square or rectangular fields. When the shutters are closed they meet at
the center of the x ray field. The x ray field is illuminated by a light beam from a light bulb in the
collimator. The light beam is deflected by a mirror mounted in the path of the x ray beam at an
angle of 45°.

Fig 17.Collimator
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

2.8 The X ray table:

Fig18 The Bucky beneath the patient inside the table

The x ray table consists of the grid and cassette inside the Bucky.

2.8.1 Grids:

Fig19. Patient positioning

The radiographic grid consists of a series of lead foil strips separated by x ray transparent
spacers. The interspaces of grids are filled either with aluminum or some organic compound.
The main purpose of the inters pace material is to support the thin lead foil strips. Aluminum
interspace grids can probably be manufactured more precisely, and they are structurally
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

stronger than grids with organic inters pacers. Patient exposures are higher with aluminum
because it absorbs more primary radiation. It also absorbs secondary radiations.

2.8.2 Cassette:
A light tight case, usually made of thin, low x ray absorption plastic for holding x ray film. One
or two intensifying screens for the conversion of x rays to visible light photons mounted inside
the cassette in close contact with the film.

Fig20. Cassette

2.8.3 Film:
The most important material used to decode the information carried by the attenuated x ray
beam is photographic film. The film may be exposed by the direct action of x rays. More
commonly, the energy of the x ray beam is converted into light by intensifying screens and this
light is used to expose the film. X ray film is photographic film consisting of a photographically
active or radiation sensitive, emulsion that is usually coated on both sides of a transparent
sheet of plastic called the base. Firm attachment between the emulsion layer and the film base
is achieved by use of a thin layer of adhesive. The delicate emulsion is protected from
mechanical damage by layers known as the super coating.

Fig21. Anatomy of the x ray film

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

History of The X ray Machine:

The discovery of X rays in 1895 was the beginning of a revolutionary change in our
understanding of the physical world. In the winter of the year of his fiftieth birthday, and the
year following his appointment to the leadership of the University of Wurzburg, Rector Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen noticed a barium platinocyanide screen fluorescing in his laboratory as he
generated cathode rays in a Crookes tube some distance away. Leaving aside for a time his
duties to the university and to his students, Rector Roentgen spent the next six weeks in his
laboratory, working alone, and sharing nothing with his colleagues. Three days before
Christmas he brought his wife into his laboratory, and they emerged with a photograph of the
bones in her hand and of the ring on her finger. The Wurzburg Physico-Medical Society was the
first to hear of the new rays that could penetrate the body and photograph its bones. Roentgen
delivered the news on the 28th of December 1895. Emil Warburg relayed it to the Berlin
Physical Society on the 4th of January. The next day the Wiener Press carried the news, and the
day following word of Roentgen’s discovery began to spread by telegraph around the world. On
the 13th of January, Roentgen presented himself to the Kaiser and was awarded the Prussian
Order of the Crown, Second Class. And on the 16th of January the The New-York Times
announced the discovery as a new form of photography, which revealed hidden solids,
penetrated wood, paper, and flesh, and exposed the bones of the human frame. “Men of
science in this city are awaiting with the utmost impatience the arrival of English technical
journals which will give them the full particulars of Professor Roentgen’s discovery of a method
of photographing opaque bodies,” The New-York Times began, and it concluded by predicting
the “transformation of modern surgery by enabling the surgeon to detect the presence of
foreign bodies.” (Jan. 16, 1896, p. 9) The public was enthralled by this new form of photography
and curious to know the nature of the new rays. Physicians put it to immediate use. Physicists
sat up and took notice. The discovery of X rays was the first in a series of three discoveries that
jolted the finde-siècle discipline out of its mood of finality, of closing down the books with ever
more precise measurements, of losing itself in debates over statistical mechanics, or of trying to
ground all physical phenomena in mathematically precise fluctuations of the ether. All three
discoveries, X rays, uranium rays, and the electron, followed from one of the major
experimental traditions in the second half of the nineteenth century, the study of the discharge
of electricity in gases. All three contributed to a profound transformation of physics. In the 20th
century, the discipline has been grounded in the study of elementary particles.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Fig22. Roentgen’s apparatus for studying the ionization of air by X rays

Fig23. Forms of tubes used by Roentgen in 1895-1896

Fig24. First X ray made in public

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The X ray machine – GE DX 300

Bremsstrahlung Radiation:

Fig25 Bremsstrahlung Radiation

Bremsstrahlung radiation is the radiation given off by a charged particle (most often an
electron) due to its acceleration caused by an electric field of another charged particle (most
often a proton or an atomic nucleus). The word "Bremsstrahlung" is a German word meaning
"braking radiation," which refers to the way in which electrons are "braked" when they hit a
metal target. The incident electrons are free, meaning they're not bound to an atom or ion,
both before and after the braking. Consequently, this kind of radiation's spectrum is continuous
(unlike atomic spectra, which contain sharp spectral lines) and sometimes referred to as "free-
free" radiation. If the energy of the incident electrons is high enough, they emit X-rays after
they have been braked.
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The X ray machine – GE DX 300