VSAT Installation and Maintenance Training - Version - 1

VSAT INSTALLATION
and
MAINTENANCE
Organized By SKANNET
Trainer: Ajuyah, Silvanus
December 9th, 10th and 14th 2009
Introduction
The VSAT Field Installation and Maintenance Training
Course, is an Intensive Structured Program designed to
ensure that Installers of bi-directional Satellite Earth
Station acquire an understanding of the operational
technology used in SCPC-SCPC, SCPC-DVB and
SCPC-TDMA VSAT Industry.
The goals are to enable the participants achieve a better

understanding of the range of equipment and systems in
use, and realize how they can relate to the various
technical job responsibilities. The training will offer both
theoretical and practical skills transfer as applicable to
VSAT Field Engineers, Support Engineers and
Operational Managers
VSAT Installation and 2

Maintenance Training (SKANNET)
Training Objectives
Through a series of intensive structured lecture and
hands-on training the course aims to:
• Provide an in-depth treatment of basic concepts relating

to Satellite communication
• Provide in-depth understanding of VSAT Installation and
Site Survey
• Provide in-depth understanding of how to use Test
Equipment (Inclinometer, Compass, GPS and Spectrum
Analyzer)
• Provide in-depth understanding of Mechanical VSAT
Assembly, Satellite Tracking and Antenna Alignment
Training Objectives
• Provide how to perform Peak and Poll and
Commission a Full VSAT Installation
• Provide an in-depth understanding of fault
diagnostics
• Provide specific Preventive Maintenance
Procedures and Documentation
• Provide Communication tips on working
with Network Operation Centres (NOC)
Who Should Attend
• All those requiring technical understanding
of VSAT System
• Support Engineers
• Freelance VSAT Installers
• Practicing Engineers, Information
Technologists, as well as managers, users
and those concern about the impact of
VSAT
Basic Principles of Satellite
Communication
What is a Satellite?
• A satellite is any object that orbits or revolves
around another object. For example, the Moon is
a satellite of Earth, and Earth is a satellite of the
Sun.
• Communication satellites act as relay stations in

space. People use them to transmit messages
from one part of the globe to another. These
messages can voice, data or video

Types of Satellite Orbits
• Before discussing satellite orbits in more general terms,
it is important to understand the natural laws that control
the movement of satellites.
• These are based on Kepler’s Laws and state that:
1. The orbital plane of any Earth satellite must bisect the

Earth centrally.
2. The Earth must be at the center of any orbit.
• There are basically three orbits: polar, equatorial, and

inclined.
• The shape of the orbit is limited to circular and elliptical.

Types of Satellite Orbits

Low Earth orbit (LEO)
• When a satellite circles close to
Earth we say it's in Low Earth
Orbit (LEO). Satellites in LEO are
just 200 -500 miles (320 -800
kilometers) high. Because they
orbit so close to Earth, they must
travel very fast so gravity won't
pull them back into the
atmosphere. Satellites in LEO
speed along at 17,000 miles per
hour (27,359 kilometers per hour)!
They can circle Earth in about 90
minutes.

Polar Orbit
• A Polar orbit is a
particular type of Low
Earth Orbit. The only
difference is that a
satellite in polar orbit
travels a north-south
direction, rather than
the more common
east-west direction.

Why use a Polar Orbit
• Polar orbits are useful for viewing the planet's
surface. As a satellite orbits in a north-south
direction, Earth spins beneath it in an east-west
direction. As a result, a satellite in polar orbit can
eventually scan the entire surface. For this
reason, satellites that monitor the global
environment, like remote sensing satellites and
certain weather satellites, are almost always in
polar orbit. No other orbit gives such thorough
coverage of Earth.
Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit
• A satellite in geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO) is located
directly above the equator, exactly 22,300 miles out in space. At that
distance, it takes the satellite a full 24 hours to circle the planet.
Since it takes Earth 24 hours to spin on in its axis, the satellite and
Earth move together. So, a satellite in GEO always stays directly
over the same spot on Earth. (A geosynchronous orbit can also be
called a GeoSTATIONARYOrbit.)

The Orbit of a Geosynchronous
Satellite

GEO Footprints
• Because they're so far away,
GEO satellites have a very
broad view of Earth. For
instance, the footprint of one
satellite covers almost all of
North America.
• And, since they stay over the

same spot on Earth, we always
know where GEO satellites
are. If our antenna points in the
right direction, we'll always
have direct contact with the
satellite.

Satellite Anatomy
• A satellite is a complex machine. All
satellites are made up of several
subsystems that work together as one
large system to help the satellite achieve
its mission. This simplified illustration
shows the key parts of a remote-sensing
satellite. The main subsystems are
grouped by color.

Satellite Anatomy

Satellite Anatomy

Satellite Stabilization
• Stabilization of the satellite is necessary because the
Earth is not truly spherical. The Earth’s tidal motion, the
Moon and the Sun have gravitational effects on the
satellite, which tends to make it drift from its correct
position.
• An orbit that is inclined towards the equatorial plane

produces a sinusoidal variation in longitude, seen from
Earth as motion around an ellipse once every 24 hours.
• Incorrect velocity results in incorrect altitude and a drift to

the east or to the west.

Satellite Position
• The satellite must be maintained in position for its required lifetime
(typically 10 to 15 years). This positioning is regularly corrected to
within ±0.10°.
• To extend the life of the satellites, less frequent corrections may be

made. For example, keeping the satellite in its current North-South
position is particularly demanding on satellite fuel reserves.
• If the North-South positioning is left unchecked, the satellite will tend

to move to a natural position (Inclination) of 15°away from the
geostationary orbit.
• INTELSAT allows some of its satellites to increase inclination up to

about ± 3 degrees, which extends the operational life up to 3 years
or more. These satellites are said to be in "inclined orbit".

Satellite Payloads
• The payloads on communications
satellites are effectively just
repeaters.
• They receive the signals that are

transmitted to them and then
retransmit them at a different
frequency back to earth.
• They receive the signals and then

sometimes demodulate them to
access the data, the data can
then be processed before being
modulated and retransmitted. The
data can be stored for later
retransmission or modulated
using a different method, even at
a different data rate.

Satellite Transponders
• The basic building block of any satellite
communications package is the
transponder. This device receives the
uplink carriers, amplifies them, converts
them to the correct downlink frequency
band, and then transmits them, via a high-
powered amplifier, back to Earth.
• Today satellite can carry up to 30

transponders.
VSAT Architecture

VSAT Architecture
• Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a
satellite-based telecommunications
technology.
• There are three components in a VSAT

network: The master earth station
(Teleport or Hub), The remote earth
station and The satellite

VSAT Network Architecture

The Master Earth Station (Teleport)
• The first is called the Teleport. They are the ‘intermodal hubs’ of the
broadband and broadcast world. It is a gateway that connect
satellite circuits with terrestial fiber optics
• The Teleports are facilities located throughout the world, built for the
purpose of maintaining high quality communications with orbiting
satellites.
• Configuration, monitoring, and management of the VSAT network

are done at this location. The master earth station has a large dish
(6 m or bigger), fully redundant electronics, a self-contained backup
power system, and a regulated air conditioning system.
• In addition, the master earth station is manned 24x7 throughout the

year.

The Remote Earth Station
• The Second is called the Remote Earth Station. The remote (VSAT
Terminal) is comprised of the hardware installed at the customer’s
premises, including the outdoor unit (ODU), the indoor unit (IDU),
and the inter-facility link (IFL).
• The size depends on the data to be transmitted and its location. It

can handle data, voice and video signals.
• The ODU consists of a standard VSAT dish antenna, a solid state

power amplifier (SSPA) or Block Up Converter (BUC), a low noise
amplifier (LNA) or Low Noise Block Converter (LNB), and a
Feedhorn.
• The IDU provides this interface in the form of a modem and a router;
which houses the communications electronics, including interface
with the customer’s equipment such as computers
• The IFL consists of coaxial cables that connect the ODU to the IDU.
The Satellite
• The third component of a VSAT network is
the satellite itself. All signals sent between
the VSAT earth stations are beamed
through the satellite.
• The VSAT uses a geostationary (GEO)

satellite which is orbiting at 36,000 km
above the ground.

VSAT ODU
• The outdoor unit (ODU) is mounted on the feed arm in front of the
antenna and houses the Radio Frequency (RF) equipment required
to transmit (TX) and receive (RX) from the antenna.
• The outdoor unit (ODU) mainly consists of these devices:
1. Low Noise Block (LNB) which is a down converter and receiver

2. Block Up Converter (BUC) this is the up converter and transmitter
3. Ortho-Mode Transducer (OMT) the Tx and Rx waveguide joint.
4. Microwave filters which protect the LNB from the Tx signals.

VSAT IDU
• The indoor unit (IDU) usually consists of a single
box (normally referred to as a Modem) which
should be located in a dry, cool and clean place.
An office environment is ideal.
• The IDU requires a stable mains supply and

connection to the end user equipment. This
could be further units for telephone exchanges
or networks for internet or intranet connections.

A Typical VSAT Terminal
Block Diagram of a Typical VSAT Terminal

Basic Satellite Antenna Theory
• A standard satellite dish
antenna works by
concentrating signals, that are
picked up along its axis, to a
single point.
• This point is called the focal
point. The receiving amplifier is
usually placed near the focal
point and the concentrated
signals are collected into the
• receiver using a small horn.
This serves to further
concentrate the signals to get
the maximum possible signal
level at the amplifier input.

Basic Satellite Antenna Theory
• The focal point can be offset
from the main axis so that the
receiving equipment does not
obstruct the beam in any way.
• This offset has the effect of

raising the beam of the
antenna. The exact amount
that the beam is raised is equal
to the amount of offset.
• Thus, if the offset is 20

degrees then the beam is
raised by 20 degrees.

Types of Satellite Antenna

Basic RF Theory and
Operating Frequency Range
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The entire electromagnetic spectrum is composed of
electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of energies
and wavelengths: radio waves, microwaves, infrared
light, visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma
rays.
• Radio frequency (RF) is a term given to the portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum with long wavelengths and low
frequencies. This includes radio waves and microwaves
ranging from a few hertz (Hz)—a measurement of
frequency in cycles per second—to about 300 billion
hertz (or 300 gigahertz [GHz]).


Electromagnetic Fields and Waves
• Electromagnetic radiation, also known as
Electromagnetic wave, is a propagating wave in space
with electrical and magnetic components. The electrical
and the magnetic components oscillate perpendicular
to each other and to the direction of the propagation.

Characteristics of Electromagnetic
Waves
• Some of the characteristics of electromagnetic waves are
described below:
1. E and H Fields: Electromagnetic forces act between electric

charges and electric currents. For every point in space, an
electromagnetic field (the force felt by a charge or current at that
very point) can be defined and measured.
The electric field E describes the force between charges.

The magnetic field H describes the forces between currents.

Waves
.
2 Carrier Medium: One very important quality of electromagnetic
waves is that they do not need any carrier medium. There is no air
or ether needed to propagate them electromagnetic waves, unlike
sound, air pressure waves that propagates, that needs a carrier.
Examples of electromagnetic waves are light, Xrays, microwaves
and other radio waves.

Waves
3. Wavelength and Frequency: An electromagnetic wave, like any
wave, has by its basic shape of a sinus, troughs and crests. The
wavelength is the distance between two crests (or 2 troughs) and is
measured in meter. The wavelength is represented by the Greek
letter l(lambda).
• The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in

hertz (Hz). The SU unit of frequency is the 1 oscillation per second
(1/s)

Waves
Characteristics of an Electromagnetic Wave

Waves
• The frequency and the wavelength of a wave
has the following relation:
c=l*f
whereas:
c = the speed of light [m/s] (3x108 m/s =
300,000 km/s)
l = wavelength [m]
f = frequency* [1/s]
(*) the frequency is also called n (Nu)
Signal Polarization
• Polarization is determined by
the orientation of the electric
and magnetic fields radiating
from the transmitting antenna.
• In satellite communications,
the term Polarity refers to a
physical property of the
transmission of the satellite
to/from earth. Since it costs a
lot of money to send a satellite
up to space, and since the
satellite has a limited lifespan,
the satellite company wishes
to use as much of the
frequency band as possible.

Signal Polarization
• One of the ways to do it is to use the frequency
range twice, with the transmissions separated by
90 degrees from each other, so that they do not
cause interference to one another.
• This is called a Linear polarization.
• Circular polarization uses the direction of a helix

around the direction of the electric field vector.
Signal Polarization
• Digital signals are transmitted from the satellites
on either Vertical (V) or Horizontal (H) polarity
for linear feeds, or on Right (R) and Left (L)
polarity for circular feeds.
• Standard big dishes are most likely to have feed

horn that can receive linear (H/V) polarity.

Linear Polarization
• Linear Polarization
allows the to use the
frequency range twice,
with the transmissions
separated by 90
degrees from each
other, so that they do
not cause interference
to one another.
• This can be either

Cross-Pol or Co-Pol

Cross-Polarization (X-Pol)
• The term Cross-Pol refers to a linear
polarization or feed, in which the
receive (Rx) and transmit (Tx)
polarizations are in 90 degrees to
each other, forming the shape of a
cross, or X (this is also called X-Pol).
• This happens when the customer is

working on a transponder (or a
combination of transponders), that
results in this setting. In order to
both receive and transmit, the
customer will have to have a Cross-
Pol feed (see antenna parts).

Co-Polarization (Co-Pol)
• The term Cross-Pol refers to
a linear polarization or feed,
in which the receive (Rx) and
transmit (Tx) polarizations
are parallel to each other.
• In order to both receive and

transmit, the customer will
have to have a Co-Pol feed

Circular Polarization
• A circular polarization comes
in two flavors: LHCP (Left Hand
Circular polarization) and
RHCP (Right Hand Circular
Polarization).
• It is different from linear

polarizations, and in order to
work, requires a circular feed.
The feed can be converted
from LHCP to RHCP and vice-
versa

Satellite Operating Frequency
Ranges
• There are 4 frequency ranges which we
use in satellite communications: C-Band,
Ku-Band, L-Band, and IF.
• Some are used to communicate from the

ground to the satellite, and some are used
inside the teleport equipment

C-Band Frequency
• C-Band is used in communication from the earth
station to the satellite and was the first frequency
band allocated for commercial ground-to-
satellite communications.
• A typical C band satellite uses 3.7–4.2 GHz for

downlink and 5.925–6.425 GHz for uplink. Slight
variations of C band frequencies are approved
for use in various parts of the world:

C-Band Frequency

Ku-Band Frequency
• Ku-Band is used in communication from the

earth station to the satellite. The range of
frequencies is between 11 and 14 gigahertz,
used increasingly by communication satellites.
• Requires smaller ground antennas, but is more

susceptible to rain fade (when raining, receive
quality drops dramatically).

C-Band Versus Ku-Band

L-Band Frequency
• L-Band is the frequency band between
950 - 2150 MHz.
• It is used for communication between

earth station components (modems,
receivers, up and down converters).

Intermediate Frequency (IF)
• IF is the frequency band between 50 - 180

MHz. It is used for communication
between earth station components
(modems and transceivers).

Uplink and Downlink Frequencies
• In general, the term “Uplink” refers to the transmission
from the ground to the satellite. The term “Downlink”
refers to the transmission from the satellite to the
ground.
• The satellite, by design, receives a transmission from the

ground, as long as the earth station transmitting is inside
the satellite’s footprint.
• The satellite bounces that transmission back down to the

surface, where it is received by another earth station,
assuming it also is inside the footprint (note the
transmission is going out to the ENTIRE footprint, not a
specific station).
• However, the satellite cannot transmit the carrier
back on the same frequency on which it was
received, or it will cause interference.
• The satellite therefore must convert the

frequency on which is received the transmission
(the UPLINK frequency) to a new frequency on
which to transmit the downlink signal (the
DOWNLINK frequency).

• The conversion between the downlink and
uplink frequencies is constant, so that
each uplink frequency has a
corresponding downlink frequency.
• Thus, each frequency range is divided into

an Uplink range and a downlink range that
do not overlap.

• In C-band, the conversion is done by subtracting
2225MHz from the uplink frequency so that:
UF – Uplink frequency (in MHz)
DF – Downlink frequency (in MHz)
UF – 2225Mhz = DF
• In Ku-band, the conversion is done in the same

way, but the difference between the uplink and
downlink frequencies is 1745MHz:
UF – 1745Mhz = DF
Frequency Conversions
• There are two frequency bands (C-band and Ku-
band) which are used when communicating with
the satellite from the ground, and there are two
frequency bands (L-band and IF) which are used
on the modems and receivers that we use in the
earth stations.
• The conversion between these two frequency

ranges is done by specialized equipment, and is
different for each frequency band. In this
segment we will cover the various conversions
that may take place
Frequency Conversions
• Local oscillators
The term “Local Oscillator” (LO) refers to the
amount subtracted or added to a frequency in
order to convert it from one frequency band to
another. The LO is a property of the equipment
performing the conversion (LNB, BUC,
Transceiver, etc.), and is sometimes set by the
equipment type, and sometimes configurable on
the device itself.

Frequency Conversion
• L-band
Conversions to and from L-band (whether
to C-band or Ku-band), are done through
devices called LNB and BUC. They are
separate devices, and their LO is constant
and not configurable. Modems that work in
the L-band frequency band require them to
work.

• BUC
BUC stands for “Block Up Converter”. It is
a device that converts from L-band to C-
band/Ku-band, and therefore is
responsible for the uplink (Tx) from the
earth station to the satellite.

• BUC
The BUC performs 2 functions:
1. Conversion of the signal from L-band

to the appropriate frequency range
2. Amplification of the signal in order to
transmit it to the satellite.

• In C-band, there are two possible LOs for a
BUC – 4900MHz or 7375MHz. Each performs the
conversion differently:
• In 4900MHz BUCs, the incoming L-band frequency from

the modem is simply added to the LO, and the result (In
C-band now – uplink segment), is outputted to the
Antenna.
MF – L-band frequency from the modem
(In MHz)
UF – Uplink frequency (In MHz)
MF + 4900 = UF

• In BUCs with a local Oscillator or 7375Mhz, however, the
conversion is done by subtracting the incoming L-band
frequency from the LO, and outputting the result:
7375 – MF = UF
• If we want to calculate which frequency to put on the

modem given an uplink frequency, you just have to
isolate the MF variable:
MF(4900) = UF – 4900
MF(7375) = 7375 – UF
• In Ku-band, conversion is done in the same way, but the

normal LOs are 13000MHz and 13050 MHz
• Amplification – Apart from conversion, the BUC
also performs amplification of the signal in order
to ensure it is strong enough to be received at
the satellite. The amount of amplification
depends on the BUC output. Models range from
2 watt, through 5 and 10 watt, up to hundreds of
watts. The minimum output needed is
determined by the satellite, frequency range,
size of dish, geographic location, etc.

• BUCs usually receive their voltage from
the modem (should be about 24v), but
there are models with external power
supplies (usually the more robust ones).
• BUCs also require a 10MHz reference

carrier to work, which is supplied by the
modem (in very rare cases, the reference
is supplied by an external device).
• LNB
LNB stands for “Low Noise Block”. This is the
device that performs the conversion from C-
band/Ku-band to L-band and is therefore
responsible for the downlink (Rx) part of the
link.
• The LNB performs 3 functions:

1. Conversion of the signal to L-band
2. Amplification of the signal
3. Cleaning the signal from noise
• Conversion – All C-band LNBs use the same LO –
515Mhz. All of them also perform the same conversion.
They subtract the incoming C-band frequency from
5150, and the result is the L-band frequency they output
to the modem/receiver:
DF – Downlink frequency (in MHz)
MF – L-band frequency to the modem (in MHz)
5150 – DF = MF
• In Ku-Band, there are several types of LNBs. The most

common ones have LOs of 10GHz and 11.3Ghz. Be
sure to verify what LO you are working with!
• Amplification – The signal received from the
satellite is fairly weak. The LNB amplifies the
signal logarithmically, i.e. the stronger a signal
is, the more amplification it receives. This is
done automatically.
• Cleaning – As a byproduct of the amplification

process, the LNB cleans the signal from small
interference and noise, which are usually
smaller than carriers (hence the name “Low
Noise Block”).
• IF
IF is the Intermediate Frequency range (50-180MHz).
Conversion to and from IF to C-band/Ku-Band is done by
devices called transceivers.
• Transceivers
The term “Transceiver” is combination of the words
Transmitter and Receiver. As implied by their name,
Transceivers perform frequency conversion and
amplification on both the uplink and downlink.

• Transceivers
Transceivers differ from BUCs and LNBs
in that their LO is not constant, but
configurable.
Modems working in the IF frequency band

require a transceiver to communicate with
the satellite.
• Transceivers
The configurable LO is needed to solve a
fundamental problem: The IF frequency
band is only 130MHz wide, while both the
C-band and Ku-Band transmit bands are
much wider. The variable LO is needed in
order to ensure that the entire band is
covered. This is how it is done:

• Transceivers
1. Each IF modem has a Center frequency. This

frequency is part of the modem, and is not
configurable. IF modems come in two flavors –
one with 70Mhz as a center frequency, and a
span of +/-20 MHz around it (meaning it can
work in the range of 50-90MHz), and one with
140Mhz as a center frequency, with a span of
+/-40Mhz, meaning it can work at 100-
180MHz.
• Transceivers
2. On the Transceiver, we configure a center frequency as well. This
center frequency is in C-band/Ku-Band (depending on the
transceiver).
3. The difference between the center frequency on the transceiver

and the center frequency on the modem is the LO:
CF – Center frequency
CF(transceiver) – CF(modem) = LO
• In effect, this causes the two center frequencies to become

“matched” to each other.

Modulation Scheme and
Techniques
Modulation Techniques
• In telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying a
periodic waveform, i.e. a tone, in order to use that signal to convey a
message.
• The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over

an analog bandpass channel.
• A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a

device that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known
as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod).
• A device that can do both operations is a modem (short for

"Modulate-Demodulate"). In short, modulation aims to transfer
information by changing one of the carrier parameters between
several states (in PSK modulation, for example, the phase of the
carrier is changed).

• Modulation Used in Modems
There are the 3 basic types of modulation
used in modems:
1. FSK - Frequency Shifted Keying
2. QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shifted
Keying
3. QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Modulation Technique
• FSK - Frequency Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying (or FSK) is the
frequency modulation of a carrier that represents
digital intelligence. For Simplex or Half Duplex
operation, a single carrier is used -
communication can only be transmitted in one
direction at a time. A Mark or 1 is represented by
Freq A, and a Space or 0 is represented by Freq
B. FSK is not really used in satellite
communications because of the inefficient use of
bandwidth and frequencies.
• QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying employs shifting the
phase of the carrier plus an encoding technique. QPSK
is used in almost all modems. The digital information is
encoded using 4 (Quad) level differential PSK.
• The data is encoded as follows:
DIGIT PHASE SHIFT

00 +90
01 0
10 180
11 270
• 8PSK
Any number of phases may be used to
construct a PSK constellation but 8-PSK is
usually the highest order PSK
constellation deployed. With more than 8
phases, the error-rate becomes too high.

• QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation refers to QPSK with Amplitude
Modulation. Basically, it is a mix of phase modulation and amplitude
modulation. QAM phase modulates the carrier and also modulates
the amplitude of the carrier.
• Phase Modulated and Amplitude Modulated Carrier:

There are two types, 8-QAM and 16-QAM:
8-QAM encodes 3 bits of data (2^3=8) and 16-QAM encodes 4 bits
of data (2^4=16).
16-QAM has 12 phase angles, 4 of which have 2 amplitude values!
Higher data rates use much more complex QAM methods

• In summary depending on the type of modulation, 1 or
more bits can be encoded per symbol.
• Therefore, the better the modulation, the less bandwidth

will be required for a given data-rate. The downside is
that the “higher” the modulation, the more error prone it
is, and we will need better error correction and receive
level in order to ensure a lossless link.
• There is also a direct link between the modulation and

the bandwidth of the carrier. The higher the modulation,
the less bandwidth will be required to deliver the same
number of bits.

Forward Error Correction (FEC)
• FEC stands for “Forward Error Correction”, a system of error control
for data transmission whereby the sender adds redundant data to its
messages, also known as an error correction code.
• This allows the receiver to detect and correct errors (within some
bound) without the need to ask the sender for additional data. The
advantage of forward error correction is that a back-channel is not
required, or that retransmission of data can often be avoided, at the
cost of higher bandwidth requirements on average.
• FEC is therefore applied in situations where retransmissions are

relatively costly or impossible. This parameter indicates which error-
correction algorithm is used in the link. The FEC type must be
identical on both the transmitting and receiving sides of the carrier is
order to gain a lock.

• Viterbi
Viterbi FEC has been around since 1967. It is an established FEC
type, supported by almost all modems, and there is inter-
compatibility between modem types that support it.
• Turbo
Turbo is a relatively new (early 1990’s) type of error-correction
algorithm. It allows much better error correction than the Viterbi
algorithm. This means the receive level of carriers can be lower,
which in turn leads to smaller transmissions, allowing either less
investment in equipment, or working in poorer conditions (rain fade,
distance from center of footprint, etc.).

• Code rate
The code rate is the measure of how much data
is added to the carrier in order to provide FEC. It
is measured as a fraction (1/2, ¾, 5/6, etc.). The
fraction denotes how many bits go to data out of
the total, with the remainder going to FEC.
For example, if we have a FEC code of ¾

active, this means that out of every 4 bits, 3 are
dedicated to data, and 1 goes to error
correction. 5/6 means that of every 6 bits, 5 go
to data and 1 to error correction and so on.
• The code rate does not come at the expanse of the data
rate!
• If we wish to transmit 128Kbps with a FEC rate of ¾,

than the total bits transmitted on the carrier will be
128Kbps X 4/3 = 170.66Kbps.
• The data rate will be delivered, but the total number of

bits will be increased to accommodate the FEC code.
This of course has an effect on the bandwidth of the
carrier. The higher the FEC, less bits will have to be
added, and the carrier will be narrower.

• In Summary, the FEC rate also determines
the amount of error correction done on the
carrier. As such, the lower the FEC, the
more error correction will be done, and the
carrier will be less error prone, allowing us
to work at lower Eb/No levels while
maintaining a good BER

Symbol Rate
• In digital communications, symbol rate, also known as baud rate or
modulation rate; it is the number of symbol changes (signaling
events) made to the transmission medium per second using a
digitally modulated signal or a line code.
• The Symbol rate is measured in baud (Bd) or symbols/second. In

the case of a line code, the symbol rate is the pulse rate in
pulses/second. Each symbol can represent or convey one or several
bit of data. The symbol rate is related to but should not be confused
with gross bitrate expressed in bit/s.
• The symbol rate is the sum of all the configurations of the carrier
and is not configurable in and of itself .It is a single number.

RF Signal Measurement and
Testing

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VSAT INSTALLATION

The goals are to enable the participants achieve a better

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• Provide an in-depth treatment of basic concepts relating

• Communication satellites act as relay stations in

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1. The orbital plane of any Earth satellite must bisect the

2. The Earth must be at the center of any orbit.

• There are basically three orbits: polar, equatorial, and

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• And, since they stay over the

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• An orbit that is inclined towards the equatorial plane

• Incorrect velocity results in incorrect altitude and a drift to

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• To extend the life of the satellites, less frequent corrections may be

• If the North-South positioning is left unchecked, the satellite will tend

• INTELSAT allows some of its satellites to increase inclination up to

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• They receive the signals that are

• They receive the signals and then

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• Today satellite can carry up to 30

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• There are three components in a VSAT

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• Configuration, monitoring, and management of the VSAT network

• In addition, the master earth station is manned 24x7 throughout the

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• The size depends on the data to be transmitted and its location. It

• The ODU consists of a standard VSAT dish antenna, a solid state

• The VSAT uses a geostationary (GEO)

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• The outdoor unit (ODU) mainly consists of these devices:

1. Low Noise Block (LNB) which is a down converter and receiver

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• The IDU requires a stable mains supply and

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Block Diagram of a Typical VSAT Terminal

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• This offset has the effect of

• Thus, if the offset is 20

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• Radio frequency (RF) is a term given to the portion of the

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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1. E and H Fields: Electromagnetic forces act between electric

The electric field E describes the force between charges.

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