77-32,719

SKELLIE, Walter James, 1899- ......

'!HE RELIGIOUS PSYODIDGY OF AL-GHAZZALI:

A TRANSLATION OF HIS soor OF '!HE IHYJ' ON THE EXPLANATION OF 1HE \\UNDERS OF THE HEARl' WITH INl'ROOOcrICN AND NOTES.

The Hartford Seminary Foundation, Ph.D., 1938 Religion, history

University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor. Michigan 48106

® 1977

WALTER JAMES SKELLIE

ALL RI GIliS RESERVED

~.-.

, -

THE RELIGIOUS PSYCHOLOGY OF AL-GP.AZzALt

A Translativn of His Book of the If-YAI on

THE EXPLANA '!'ION OF THE WONDERS OF ':'HE HEART

with Introduction and Notes

! ~SIS

Submitted "t~ the Faculty

of the

KENNEDY SCHOOL OF J.!!SSIOllS

HARTFORD SEJA1NARY FOUNDATION

In Pertial i'llfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

ia1ter James Ske11ie

April 1938

~.

VITA.

lalter James Skellie was born in Argyle, ~w To~k, on Dec. 20, 1899, the son of Archibald ~ow and Elizabeth Harsha Skellie. Re attended country school, and graduated from Argyle High School in 1916. :fis college was ':lestminster Colleg6, New T.i~ngton, Fa., where he graduated with honor in 1921. He entered Pittsburgh Theological Seminary that fall and received the degree of Th. 3. with honor in 1924 and was awarded the Jamieson Scholarship for thet 1~~r.

In the Church in which he had been reared he was ordained to the ministry of the Gospel for Foreign Uissionary :erYice by

the Argyle presbyter)' of th~ United Presbyterian r.hurch in l!a7 1924. He has served the 3gyptian Mission under the Board of Foreign Missions of that Church from October 1924 until the present time. From 1924 until 1926 he was located in Cairo for language study, and then he was sent to Alexandria to assist in the work of that city and district.

!U.s first furlough in AI!Ieriea was spent at the Kennedy School of Missions in Hartford, where he received the M.A. degraa in Islamics in 1930.

Returning to 3:gypt in 5"piambElr 1930 he was located in Luxor for evangelistic work in that district, with supervision of some schools in the district. This service has been rendered in cloee cooperation ~th the ~gyptian ~ngelical Church.

In 1931 he registered with the Kennedy School of Missions for advanced st~dy, end hss been wor-king on this book of al-Ghazzal!'s and releted subjecis since that time. He spent the school yeer 1937 - 38 in residence in Hertford for the c~mpletion of thia work.

TABIE OF CON'lEN":'S.

Table of Contents.

•

pe.ge i •

Introduction •

• •

A. A Biographical Sketch of Al-Ghazzill •

. iii.

B. A Sketch of Al-Ghazzil1's Psychology.

• xiv.

C. Texts Used in Translation • • • •

111i.

D. A SWllClP.ry of the Translation.

liV.

Translation •

Introduction •

•

1 •

Chapter I. The Meaning of 'Heart', 'Spirit'

'Soul' and 'Inte lligence • • S.

Chapte r II. '!'be Armies of the Heart •

13.

Ghapter III. The Similitudes of the Heart

with its Internal Armies • 19.

Chapter IV. The Special Properties of the

Heart of Man • 25.

~hapter V. The Qualities and Similitudes of

the Heart. • 36.

Cbapter VI. The Heart as Related to the

special Sciences •• 46.

Chapter VII. The Heart as Related to the Divisions of the Sciences •

•

61.

Chapter VIII. The Difference between the way of the ~Gri and that of the Specu-

lative Philosophers • 70.

Chapter IL A Tangible Example of the Differ-

ence in Rank of the TWo Positions • 78.

i

ii.

Chapter X. 'l11e validity of the Experiential

Knowledge of the Uystic • 90.

Chapter XI. Satan' 5 Domination over the Heart

through Evil Promptings • 102.

Chapter XI!. The ways by which Satan Enters

the Heart. •

•

124.

Chaptar XI!I. That for which Man is Held !~~ountable, and that for 7hich He is

rorgi ven. • 160.

Chapter XIV. Are Evil Promptings Ent.irely Cut

orf by Devotional Exercises? 170.

Chapter XV.

'!11e Rhpidity of the Heart's ~anges

178.

Notes.

•

190.

Bibliography •

•

229.

iii.

INTRODUCTION.

A. A Biographical Sketch ot Al-GhauiU.

AbU L'mid Jlu~ell!!!l!d bin UUtw!!l!l!d !biD wtmmmad bin Atlad al-Ghanill al-pisl _I born in ,.as, Perlia in the year 450 A. H. (1058-9 A. D.) and died in 505/1111. His biography has

been thoroughly studied and sympathetically written by COlllpetOzrt a)

authorities, and an understanding of his 11t. is indlsptnsible

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) These biographical souraes are I D. B. 1facdollald, The Lit. ct! Al-Ghazai11, Jouraal or the AIIlerican Orieatal Society, zz, 1899, pp. 71-132, and his article In the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 11. pp. 146 ttl S. JI. hellier, A Voalem Seeter after God, Renll,

New York, 1920; w. R. W. Gardner, .Al-GbaliU, in tftle Islam SIri!', of the Christian IJ.teraturs Society tor India, Vadras, 1919. TO these should be added two articles by lIacdoDald in lsia, llay 1936, pp. 9-15, and lIaY 1937, pp. 9-10, wh1ch make a~other needed clarification or the misapprehension of some Western IIl8dien.l .~hol.a~ regarding a1-0baua11', purpo6e in his -aisid al-taasitah; aleo

a modern UU81im appreciation by S. JI. Rahman, Al-Ghauil.1, in ~c Culture, July 1927, jJp. 406 ttl For readers of Arabic l18ation ~hould be _de of the folloring recent works, AbU uimid al-Ghauill by \lUqamed R1~, cairo 1343/1924, al-athl&g t iDd

iv.

tor any adequate uDderstaDd1Dg ot his principles or religious

psy~hology as touad in this book from his great work, !Ii!! 'ulu al-d1n. Only a briet SUlIIIIIlry ot the priDcipal e~euts ot

his lite caD be given here.

Al-Ghauil1' s tather died when hb-:.soD:'"_ who ft.S .. t9

aciUen such tame was but a sall boy. Betore his death the

rather gaTe his two SODS iuto the charge ot a ~un fnead who raithfully cu'ed tor them aDd began their traiDing. Al-Chanil! studied in a madrasah in ~8, and later in JUrjin 'aad Nishapar.

In this last place his teacher _s a ramous and devout ~n t Abii~ l-!f'A'ilt t Abd al-Iblik al-Juwaim, better knoWD as Imb- al-tJaruain. Al-Ohall~ll reained· with him as his pupil aDd probably also hi .. au!staDt uDtil the death ot the Imia. He _s a raithtul studetrt

aDd acquired a broad knowledge ot may bra:n~h.1!I of learning. BY

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - . -

al-Ghaui11, by Zat!. IlUbirsk, Cairo 1343/1924, ehrat 11'8' alGhallall. by ~d 'All Qiri'ah, Cairo 1353/1935. For a lilt or the writings ot al-Ghallill see Ency. of Islam, op.~it.; Brockle-

i,

!!!a' i. pp. 421 tt. , SupP./PP. 744 rr., also the books meDtioned

aboTe

A liet ot thirty-eight ot his

best known aDd most .. sily obtainable writingsis given in the appeDdiz ot aardDer's Al-Obalal1, pp. 105 tr.

v.

his diligeDt application aDd constaDt study he probably did a !aBtiag 1cjury to his health at this period of his ute.

A!~8r the death of the Imia al-varamaia, al-G~::~l! nnt to the court at the great rider, Nbu al-UUlk, where he

•

yon tame and praiae tor hia learning. He _8 later appointed to

teach in the great school at Baghd&d, and there he lectared to 10DIe three hundred studelSts, and ga'fe legal opiDioJ1S ot ,nat iBportance. Be preached to large aDd appreciati'fl crowds in the

~t although he ft.8 outwardly (luce.ashl, laa had za. pea.ce at heart. He ft.S Ixperienc1ag a deep and lasting change in his lit.. II\ all his stady and learning he had not found reality, and he was noy plunged into the depths ot Itepticil.. Be sought

the answer to the doubts ot his soal in scholastio theology, in the teaching ot the '_'lbdtes no said that one IIIIlst tolloyan iD!allible living teacher, aad in the study ot philosophy, bat the result was not satiltying. Be turned to the Itudy ot ~utta=. and then realized that yh_a~ he needed wal not so much reliiioul iDstruction al religious experience. He say that his OYD lite was so full ot lham and covetousness that if he coutiuued thus

he could not possibly find rest or reality. Hia IIDDtal ltat. 10 attected his physical condition that it was impossible tor him to

oontiDUe teachiag.

So in the year 488 he suddenly forsoot position, .. alth.

vi.

aDd ta. aDd ri~hdrey trom the yo.rld. b brlllialSt teacher yho

'·4'

hac! gloried ill worldly 8UC"S. od 1'0,.1 tayor now turud hi_ back upon it all aDd became _ wandering dervish ascetic. R. had blah ginn dbiJle grace to renoullce all tor an ezperi.UJtial knowledge ot Allah. He Uyed in retire_1St iJl Duascus, visited Jerasale. aDd

Hebr,!n, _de the. pilgrlage to Vecca aDd 1IediDa. Filially, draw by the tie. of tamily affection and recogn1aing the propriety of Buch relationships, he returD8d to BIlghd&d. 'ftlis period of re-·

ezercises, &Dd tht study and writing of booka. Early in this period he wrote hie IIIB.sterpiece, ibri' 'u1u al-db, and be taqht it in Dama.8aua and Bagbdid. It is quite p~!~!bl. that he rerieed thia york at a later period in hi. life.

At-ahallill's return to pablic 1if. came in 499 wheD h.

wae appoiDted to teach in the 8chooi at Hishapar; bat only tor a short time did he remain tbere. p~ desired the lit. ot retire .. nt

and lDed1tatlon on spiritual things, and 80 remOYfJd to hi. llatb. city of ,.0.. where b. eetabl1~h.d a ~u!1 scbool and thans!h. '!'here he spelSt his time in study and .. ditation until his end came quietly in the rear 505/1111.

From hi. on day up to the pre.ent time al-OhaniU baa held a secure poeition ot leadership in Islam. With him tbe reUgious philosophy and ezperienc. of Islam reached its &eDith,

vii.

and the system ot ethics whfcla hfI produced hal becOIIe the tiDal authority tor orthodoz Islam. His _s a _rming and "vi taIidq intluence upon Is~ in hil own day, and it has coDtiDued tc be such in a pot.urt _y for eight and a quarter cezrturies. 'ftle dtaUty or his ezperienC8, the breadth ot hil leamiDg. the high plaDe on which he linci his cnrn transtormed 111., and the depth ot his desire to eerYe Ailah and hia fellowmen in complete and lelrdenying devotion made him the mau whoee influence is considered

by any to have been second to nODe among the leaders ot Islam,

Rft tha~ of IlDpmmacl h1mae 1t. '""I·

Al-Sa17id al-llIlrtafi al-Zabtdt, in hie coum.zrtary on the ~y!' called itbit al-aadah al-muttagtu, bas a la~hy treatise on the Ute and i:U'lu8uce ot al-Ghanal!.. In it he ehon how -ny Jlusllm write" have used al-GhalaiU '8 boob and ideas as a bade tor their own thinking a.nd writing. '!'be tact that DeY books on al-ChanaU are still being written by modern IllIslilll write" aDd by .. stern orieutaUate is concluaive eYidence ot his high plac= in the world ot JlUsllm thought. Jabran l'Jlal!l Jabran, well-knOWD &8 a writer both in English and Arabic, wrote ot al-Ghallalt in his book al-badR'lt .. 1 tara'it, Cairo 1923, pp. 116-118, aa tollona

WAl-abBllal1 hold a a very high placa in the minds of Western on.eutaliats aud scholars. ~ey place him along with

viii.

Ibn sha. aDd Ibn Ruehd in the tint ftDk of oriental philoeoph6rs. !be spiritually minded among thea consider him to represent the noblest aDd highest thought which bas appeared in Islam. strange to _y, I .w on the 'Rlla of a church in Florence, Italy, built in the tifteenth ceDtury, a picture of al-Ghallill among the pictures ot other philosophere, saints. and theolog1aD8 whom the leaders ot the Church i~ the mddle ages conaidered as the pUl&rs aDd colQlllDfJ in

the temple ot Absolute Spirit.

"But stranger than this is the tact that- the people ot the West mow more about al-Gballil1 than do the people of

the East. '!!ley tl'8.D8late his "orts and inT8stigate hi. t_chi~. aDd searcb out C8.retally his philosophic colltell'tiona ud QlJ'etio u.s. !lilt w, who still speak and writ. Aftbic, seldom melltion a1-GbauiU or' di:cus:!1i.m. !e ere still baded nth the eheUe, as though shells were all that come out from the •• a of urI to the shoree ot days and nipts.·

Another quotation will be giyea ire. a bOot used in Eg)"ptian secondary and teacher training schoo18 in the stucty ot the history of .Arabic literature. It is d--ttl rt 1 '_dab !!,'arabl _ tirtthihi • by ShaUh AJ.mIad a1-IsDndart and Shaith

UUf1af'i 'Amnia!, Cairo 1925. as 1'ol1owel

"There iF a real eou1 bond between al-Ghazlal1 and St.

1x.

AUgultill8. '!!ley are two limilar appear&.DCII ot 0118 principle ~ in spite ot the sectariaD and social differeDces eziniDg between their times aDd environmeuts. This principle il aD instinct in inclination Y1thiD the soul which leeds its pOlsessor on step by step from t~ ~.e~ ~ ~h61r .zterDal appearaDces to the thUgs ot realOD, philosophy, and dirlDity.

"Al-Ghaz,al! separated hims.lt from th,wo~ld aDd from

the lusu!,)" and high POsitioD which he bad 1D it, aDd lbed

the lozely solitary lite of a -ratic, peDetrating deeply iuto the search for tho.e till8 threads which join the utmost limit. ot lcience to the begimUngl of religiGnl aDd searchiDc diUgeutly for that hiddeD Tessel iD which men's perceptlone aDd experieDcel are 1Id.Dg18d with their teeli:!gs aDd dreus.

"Augustine had dODe this tin centuries before bill. Whoe'ftr read I hi. boot 'Conte,done' rill tiMd that he toot the earih aDd everythiDg 4"rived therefrom .. a ladder OD which

to mount liP to the 8ecret thought ot the Supreme Being.

"However I IJave fouDd al-G_lIil! to be Dearer to the real es.eDce ot thiDga aDd their .ecrete thaD st. juga.tine was. Perbap. the reaSOD tor this lies in the diftereDce between the Arab aDd Greet acientific theories which preceded hie time to which the former feU heir, and the theologr

... ~. whioh occupied the tdhers ()t the Church in the seeoDd and

x.

third C.i1'tl4-i5e A. D •• which the latter iZlherit.d. B7 inheri";ance I mean the thing which i, pe.eeed 021 with the age trom one mind to another, just as certain physical attain_nt, are CO!!!!~:t iil the e%tenlal appearance of people,

trOll age to age.

"t found in al-Ghazsal1 that which mate, him a golden lint joining the 1II18tice of India who had preceded him with.

the 8eeter! for the divine who followed him. For in the

attaiZlllentll at Blddhist thcught there i8 something atiD to al-Ghanal1; aDd likewise in what Spin~18 and ftlllam Blake

ha.e written ia .odern time8 there i. 8 028 thing ot hi. teelinge.

"Al-Ghalaall is considered a. a ,upporter ot the A8hlar! sect _Ued the people ot the SUDDI.l1, aDd as one ot the greateet of sb&1!I!11aa. He is rectoad as the best of tho8e who spoke on 88cet1c1811, babg unlite to the ~rt sects which

went beyond the ordillal")' experience of the hlDllln reaBon. Hi8 bo~t, !fzi' 'u1Om aI-din, i8 one of the fiu8t bOO~' on as-

. .

ceticiem, .ti1:lce,._·, and ezpol1tion of the 'riedom ot :the

QUr1in and the Shari'ab. 81, writ1ngs on the.e lubjecte are IIOlt eloquent, and hie 8ty1e ot writing i8 aimed at by ,ch~lare ill this field and 'by other re1'ol'll8Z'1 nen up to the

present time."

A8 a writer al-;Ghauall _s not origblal in the aee ot

xi.

the MDterial which he iDcorporated iD hie .. DY book.. This wae ollly .taral ill the light ot hi. ezperi.Dce ot study aDd search

tor truth trOll eo _DY dirterem loureee. He _8 iDflueDced by

all the systems which he &tud1.d,aDd appropriatod tor hi. OWD

teachiDg wbat be de._d to be the tNth wherenr he toud it. Be followed the teachiDg of the prOT.rb be quoted, (p. 151),

"EILt the vegetable wherever it comes trom, and do Dot uk where

the gardeD 1 •• - He took .uch from hi8 study of the philo.ophy or al-Jtra.b! aDd IbD sba. eapecially the latter. Re cOllstamly

quote. from-the q!t al-9u1ab of AbU Tilib a1-Makt! aDd al~r1.alah al-guah&.:lrimh, aDd he ehon the iDtlueDce or al-~r1th al-JlU\lidbl.

a) Aba ~a!d al-Bi.t£m!, a1-Shib11, aDd others who.e york. be .tudi.~.

III 8umming up aD article on al-Ghaaaal!'a debt to alb)

~a1b!, Dr. IIIlrpl"8t Smith writee, ·'nI.ae eD.!!!lp1ea • • •• shOY

clearly al-Ghaalali'l 1l1debt.dD888 to his great predeces80r, botil tor the main treDd of hie uc.tica1, deYotioDal, and mystical t.achiDg and tor maDY of the idea. and 1l1u.tratioDa ot which h. mate. use in hi. rule for the religiou8 I1t •• " • • nTh. touDdat1oD8 01' that great .y.tem of orthodoz IS~~ myeticism Yhich al-Obaual! _de it hil bu.1'11eSB to bring to cOlllp1etioD, had already 'beeD ... 11 aDd traly Wei.·

- - - - . - - - - -

- - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - -

a) !he Conr8esioDl of a1-Ghellill, Field, LoDdon 1909, p. 41.

b) Tb. For.ruDDer 01' al-Gbalilt, JRlS, 1936, pp. 65-78.

xii.

BUt al-Ghanilt did more than merely oit~ qaotationa from thea. aources, he yoye thea iuto a harmonious system bas.d upon his cnm '%pIri.DC. of gaiDiag aDd realiliDg reality. His whole moral philo8ophy was a syJlthesis, and a practicsl .zpreslion of the golden IDI8.De He toot the rigid tramework of the scholastic theologian and clothed it with the warm plraoual faith of the mystic. To the Iaunrledge or the philosopher which is pined through the proc.sses of study. reasoning, and deduction he added. the 1mIer knowledge ot the ~tt who sels with the light of certainty, and experiences Unict revelationa aDd unyeiUngs of the Di'YiDI ReaUty. Be ftS careful, how ..... r. to anid the extreme Yagaries ot ~Grism and especially its tendencies to aaiinomiaD1lm aDd panthe1na. He uDit.d the best results ot philosophic speculation nth orthodox Islam. aDd, while denying the _terialu. ot the phil08ophers. he _yenhales, ueed their _thode to develop his on thought, and to refute the. where they diftered with the teachiDg2 ot orthodox Ia~

Al-GbaJli11 was well acquaiDted with the technical language of allot these different groups and used i~ to ezpresl his 01t'D idoas, bat he often quoted it quite loosely. similar to this ft8 hie izaoourate use of tradition tor which !1. has been .ritici,.d b7 both his friends and hi' foes. He quoted tra41tiona carelesaly ed often iD8D.etly. Bat eyen lIore serious .. I his

xiii.

UJlcrit1ca.l leleci:ioD of tradit1oJ!.U. IIaJlf of wi:tiCD wre Tery

poorly attested or even quite uDfouDded, aacordimg to the best authorities. Perbapa the ezplall8.t1on ot thia ItJ"llD8e iM_d-

_u in Reb a learued _n lies in the fact that al-Ghanall.

with all his learning, was leIs a theologian, a philosopher, a trad1t1onilt, or even a ~f't mystic, tun he _I a preacher and teacher whose great eDd and aim waa to move _n's Uves aJl4 to

turn their heartl to leet Allah. III hb spiritaal ellthudan to pin thb end he wal ofton carele .. in the tonmlation ot the statements aDd quotatiollll which ho aled as a l118ana of attailliDg it.

!l-Ghauill put gnat emphasis apon _n's need for spiritual leaders, and his Dla' givea the ethical teachinga ot a kindly paator who cares tor hil £1ock. Se waa cODSiderate and huaD8 in his dealings with 118n in general, and, although reviled by others, he ._ alow to condellD tho.e who diea.greld ri til hUI. Even when be did condemn the ph1loeophere his chief concern wa, to poiut out the errors of their 11atam ot thought and teaching, J"Ilther than to denouDce them perao_ll1.

xiv.

B. A Sketch of Al-Ghaalali's Psychology.

IDtroduction.

!~ t;king up a somewhat systematic study of the P8Y-

cholOjj" of al-Ghanili it rill be observed that _ny or his ideas

follow closely those gf the philosophers who8e heretical doctrines

he opposed 80 strongly. But, no matter how JllU.ch .y be laid about

his borrQwingB trom the Greeks and their RucceSBors, we ~st tate

care not to con8ider him as a mere eclectic philosopher who took

what he chose from his predecessors, for he was first of all a

Muslim teacher and preacher. ae weighed all of the teachingl of the philosophers in the balaDce of the Islamic faith, and incor-

por.ted into his sYltem only thol(l principles which l118aBured up to tbat standard. In 80 far as he did follow the phil080phers

he adapted and modified their teachings so al to make them contOl'lll

to the orthodox IllasUm J"_8ligion.

"nle p8ychology cf al-Ghauill .... Platonic in _Ii:; of

l~s idea8, but it included much of the Aristotelian developm8Dt in itl analysis. Neoplatonic thought which had so strongly influenced al-Jiri.bl and Ibn slna was iuvitab11 present in the thinking ot al-Ghal&ili a180, and ltcolored many of his philosophical and

PS1chological concepts.

The fact that al-~haaaili use. the term 'heart'

- ,

- ........

xv.

instead of soul in the title of this book is an indication ot the

primal position this word had in the vocabulary of )!.Uslim religious

teachers, and also in that of the philosophers. The term was used

in Is~ for the seat of intellectual and emotio~l life even aa

it had already been used by Judaiam and Christianity. Among the

Greeks and Rocans the heart took the place of the liver as the a)

seat of life, Boul, intellect, and emotion. Aristotle gave the b) heart the place of honor as the seat of the noblest 9motions.

Although al-Ghazzali uses the term 'secrets' of the

heart as a synonym for its 'wonders', it apparently does not con-

note any special mystical signification, although it has such a c) meaning in ~ur1 usage. The heart is the seat of secrets.

Al-Ghazzi11 limits tee discussion of the subject largely to the field of practical religiouB philosophy (Iilm al-mulamalah). His aim is ethical, and, although he does at times inevit~bly deal

71th questions of metaphysics, it is nevertheless with ethics that

he is primn~ily concerned. He would not go as far as Zano and I d)

reduce all virtues to practical risdom (~fO '(~dIS), yet that 11188

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - -

a) Hastings, Ency. of Religion and Ethics, vi. p. 557.

b) Brett, A History of Psychology, i. p. 106; Ross, Aristotle, p. 143, n. 1.

c) Dict. of Tech. Terms, p'-.653.

d) Uaberweg, A History of Philosophy, i. p. 200.

xvi.

for him the important way of achieving his desired end, - the good a)

life. He agreed with Aristotle that understanding included both

, I b)

wisdom (110rf£4..) and practical sense (tfoV"7trlS), but what he

stressed was th1latter, vhich they both held to be ~practical ability, under rational direction, in the choice ot things good

0)

and avoidance of things wltich are evil tor _n." This practical end

was kept ever in view by al-Ghaszil1 as the logical outcoce of

mn's knowledge and experience.

1. 'nle Nature.. of the Soul.

In order to understand clearly al-Ghazlali's concept of

the nature or the heart, or soul, it is necessary to discuss tour

terms which are applied to it. They area 'heart' (~), 'spirit' (~); 'soul' (5!!!); and 'intelligence' (lag1), Each ~f theae terms bas two .aDings, but the second meaning of each term is

the same as the 3econd meaning of each of the other three terms.

'nle term 'heart' meaDS the heart of flesh in the body ot

a _n or animal, whether living or dead; but it also means tbat subtile tenuous substance, spiritual in nature, which is the knmng

- - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - -

a) llUre, Aristotle, p. 129.

b) Brett, OPe cit. i. p. 144.

c) Uebenreg, OPe cit. i. p. 176.

xvii.

aM perceiving useDce ot _D. 'l'here is some connection ~tnen

the physical heart and 'this spiritual 'heart', but practical

wisdom aDd prophetic precedent do not demand nor warrant the ex-

plaDation of this relationship.

'Spirit' means that refined IIBterial substance which is

produced by the blood in the left cavity ot the heart and which

rises up to the brain and passes to all parts of the body through

the bleod vessels carrying the animal powers of lite and sense a) perception.

,.....

This resembles Aristotle's theory of the -rrv~U f"-

as a "sentient orga1lism of a subtle Datura spread through the b)

body and actiDg as the universal medium of sensation." 'Spirit'

also means the above mentioned subtile spiritual substance which

is the second meaniDg of 'heart'.

'lhe third term i'9 'soul' (~.>. This may mean the

e)

lite-giving soul whose seat is in the heart. JUrjinI detines

~ as "that refined vaporous substance (jawhar) which bears the powers ot life, scnae perception, aDd voluntary motion", and says that al-ijakim (Ibn S1na) called it the aDima1 spirit (al-rUh al-bazawaniyzah). A1-Gha"i11 and othe~ ~urt writers common1r

- - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - -

a) It_!, vii. p .: 203; note 20, p. 192.

b) Brett, i. p. 119.

c) EnCl. ot Religion and Ethics, 1. p. 679 b.

xviii.

bring the word naf'!t which is the ordinary Arabic equivalent for . I

the \f uX?'J of GrettK philosophy I down to the appeti tiTe soul

) /

(err, 8 (J f' t a. ) in which are united man's blameworthy qualities.

/

'!his is the tf IJ "t "? of ~uline theology and the nepheah of

Hebrew. It is not clear from this book of the Ihzi', nor from his matarij al-quds r1 madirij matrifat al-nafs, or al-riaalah al-ladunnirrah, or ktmiyiJ al-saladah, whether or not al-Ghazzall

hald that the 'soul' in this sense was material or immaterial in

its nature. Some hints of a material soul are found, for example a)

in klmira' al-saladah where he speaks of the ~ as the vehicle

(markab) of the heart, a term usually applied to the body; and

b)

again in al-risalah al-ladunniyyah where he says that ~ufts call

the animal spirit (al-rUb al-ha}'!ftm) a!!!!!. '!'he clearest hint

c)

is perhaps that in miz8.n al-Iamal where he speaks of the two

meanings,Of the soul as the aniall soul (al-nafs al-barn_nimh) and the human soul (al-nds a.l-insanimh). It is clear that there

d)

was in Islam the concept of a material!!!!. BUt al-GhBzz8.lt does

Dot stress the Datura of this appetitive soul as l'9g!!.rdS its

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) Cairo 1343, pp. 8, 10.

b) Cairo 1343, p. 27.

c) Cairo 1342, pp. 18, 20.

d} Uacdonald, The Development of the Idea of Spirit in Islami Jurjin1; Dict. ot '!'echo Terms, pp. l39b rr.

,..ix.

materiality or immateriality, but ra~her as regards

.;""- -'- .-.+ .... _

."CiJ __ ._.

istic ot uniting the blameworthy qualities ot man.

These blame-

worthy qualities are the animal powers in IIII.n which are opposed a)

to his ratioD8.l powers. It is thua, liktl Plato 's irrational

/

soul, _de up ot anger (ghadab, e uUoS) aDd appetence (shahwah,

) 11 /

Err!. f7ufAt&t ).

The second meaning ot ~ is that subtile spiritual

substance which is the real essence of man.

~e fourth term is 'intelligence' or 'reason' ('agl).

'""

'Ibis ~ord is commonly used to translate the Greek V OU S • ~

is applied to man's knowledge ot the true nature of things, and

also to. his power to perceive and know. This latter meaning is

that same subtile spiritual Bubstance of which Aristotle said, b)

ftReaaon, more than anything else, ia man.-

It is this second meaning, common to all four terms, ot

which al-Ghazzilt writes in the volume before us. Thus his con-

~ept of 'heart', or 'soul', may be defined as that subtile tenuous

substance, spiritual in ~ture, which is the perceiving and knowing

essence of man, and in reality is man. Its seat 1s the physical

beart. It is immaterial and immortal. It is created directly by

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - -

a) ma.1arij al guds, Cairo 1346/1927, p. 11.

b) Hicomacbean Ethics, 1177 b 26-78 a 7~ in Mure, Aristotle, p.165.

xx.

Allah, capable of knowing Him, and is morally responsible to Him.

Al-Ghazz~ll, following Ibn sill8. and other Are.b philo-

sophers, conceived of the human soul as being between the lower

realm of the animal and the higber realm of the divine, and as

a) partaking of the characteristics of each of these realms. In the

elaboration of their aoctrine of the soul they combined the ideas

of Plato and Aristotle, and joined to them additional ideas from

Neoplatonic sources. Perhaps the mast systematic statement of

the resulting doctriDe ~r the soul is that given by Ibn sill&.

which m&y be summarized i~ the following scheme which is adapted b) from Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Re!igian and Ethics, ii. pp.274 f.

(vegetative Soul

(

Soul ------- (Animal Soul (

(Ruman (Rational) Soul

l!:ach one of these divisions is furth ··r subdivided as follon.

(Powers of nutrition
(
Vegetative Soul ---- ( " " growth
(
( " " reproduction
------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - a) Brett, ii. p. 484 Plotiuus, Enneads, III, ii, 8.

b) Cf. Brett, ii. pp. S4 ff.; Islamic Culture, April 1935, pp. 341 ft.

xxi.

(Appetitive ( power

{

(Iloti ve (

{faculties (

( {Efficient

( ( power

(

(

Anial Soul- ( (

( (sight

{ (hearing

( (exterml -------- (smell

( ( (taste

( { {touch

(Fe rca pti ve (

(faculties (

~

(attractive poyor ( (concupiscence)

------ (

(

(npulshe po ... ~r ( (irascibility

( and passion)

in

motor nerves and muscles

(common sense (formative faculty

(internal --------(cogitative "

(estimative " (memory

(Active Intelligence ( (practical reason)

HUman or (

Ratioaal --- ( (ate rial intellect or

Soul ~ ~poteaiiality of knoyledga

(Speculative Intelligence (intellect of possessioD

( (theoretical reason) ( recognizes axiomatic

perceives ( knowledge

ideas 'vi ----- (perfected intellect ( lays hold on

( Intelligibles

This system was adopted in large part by al-Ghelzali, and it tormed

the framework of his intellectual philoeophy.

In aaalydng the aoove scheme as developed by al-Ghanal!

xxii.

in this book we find ideas eorresponding closely to the platonic a)

thought of the ratiosl and irrational souls. The ratiollal soul.

according to plato was created by God and placed in the head, bat

the irrational part was the creation of the demiourgoi. Its

I nobler part is anger, or the spirited, irascible nature (9LJ!4QS),

and has its seat in the heart or thorax; while the base part llhich

> /

is appetence, or the concupiscible nature (E-1f18ujA (4), has its

seat in the abdominal cavity.

For al-Ghazzil1, of ccr..tree, Allah is the creator of.. all

that man 1s and does, and he follows Aristotle in holding t~~~ the

heart 1s the seat of the rational soul. But, in spite of these

differences, the Platonic division is an important ~rt of the b}

thinking of al-Ghazzali. plato's 'rational soul' is al-Ghazzali's

'soul' or 'heart' or 'imellect', depending on the illustrations

he uses. T.he irrational soul of Plato includes the powers of

appetence and anger which, for him and for al-Ghazzali too, must be held in check by the rational soul or intellect. When the in-

tellect dominates these lo .. ~ powers justice is established tor

both eoul and body, but when the lower powers dominate the intellect it becomes their slave. '!'he excellence or virtue of the rational

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - -~-

a) Brett, i. p. 68; Timae!! 44 E, 69 E, 70 B D E. cr. Aristotle, De Anima, 1.i; 1I1,iX4 Plotinus, Enneads, IV, Tiii, 5-8.

b) cr. note 23, p.193.

xxiii.

soul is wisdom, that of anger is courage, and that of appetence a)

is tempe rance.

~en more clearly do we see the Aristotelian analysis

in al-Gbalzili;s psychology with its vegetative, animal, and human b)

'souls'. Aristotle tried to explain accurately the phenomell8. of c) psychic life, approaching it from the side of metaphysics •. All

known things are included in an ascending seale from pure matter

to pure form. The body alone is matter, and the soul alone is

form. The sphere of psychology is the relationship of the two \ )/

( t» (:f ..,U 1.0"). soul and body must be defined in relation to

each other. The soul is the tru6 essence of that vhich we call

body, and is man in reality. It is the first actualization

(sntelechy) of the body, and represents a possibility of psychic

activity. The second entelechy is the actual realilation of this

possibility. This is illustrated in the eye which has the power

to see even when that power is inactive, as in sleepi and the eye

yhich is actuallY seeing. Al-Ghalzilt holds quite a similar position, and gives the SaDe illustration of powers potential and

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) Brett, i. p. 97.
b) De Anima, II, i; III, 1%1 ll\lre, Aristotle, pp. 95 rr.
IJf. PlotiDus, ~~~ads, III, iv, 2. Note S6, p. 197.
c) Brett, i. pp. 100 rr. xxiv.

actual.

Man's powsr of reaction is three-foldt Re absorbs

nounsbUll!tnt and reproduces, as does the plam. He has sense per-

captions, powers of discrimination, and vol~ntary movement like

the animal. He differs from them both in possessing ratioDal

power, and is capable of that higher knowledge which includes

the knowledge of Allah. By virtue of this quality of experieutial

knowledge man occupies a place between the animals and the angels.

"There are in him the desires of the beast united with a reason a)

that· is godlike." By neglecting the rational soul he cen sink

toward the level of the animal,and by cultivating it he can strive

tovard the level of the angels.

2. The Soul's Knowledge aDd the Means by which it is tcquired.

According to the Neoplatonic idea of man, "K~owledge is

b)

always an activity of the soul." Through this activity man gains

a firm and lasting grasp of reality. Al-Ghazzalt held that man's peculiar glory 1s the aptitude which he has for that highest of all kinds of knowledge, the kuawledge of Allah. In this knoylddge is man's joy and happiness. The seat of this knowledge is the

- - - - - - - - -

----------

a) Brett, i. p. 137.

b) Brett, i. p. 305.

xxv.

heart. vbich:~s created to know Him just as the eye was created

to see objective fonns. The physical members are used by the

heart to attain the end of knowledge even as the craftsman uses

his tool to accomplish his purposes. ~an's potential capacity

for knowledge is practically unlimited, that is, save by infinity

itself.

Although knowledge may to a certain degree be the result

of man's activity, yet it requires a cause outside of man himself

to bestow true wisdom. plato found this outside cause in the world

r.-

of Ideas. Aristotle said that intelligence ( Vo uS) comes into

a)

man "from without as something divine and immortal". Intelligence

i8 not a mere functiou of the Datural body. "Knowledge seemed to

the Arab to be an eternal and abidi~g reality, ! •• which for a b)

time reproduced itself in the individual."

Man i8 potentially capable of knowledge because of the c)

principle that like can know like. 'l'be old Graek idea of _n as d)

a microcosm is accepted by al-Ghazzill, who said, (p. 81), " ••••

were it not that He bas placod an image of the whole world withi.~

- - - - - - -

a) Ueberweg, i. p. 168. Cf. Brett, i. pp. 153 f.

b) Brett, il. p. 51.

c) Plato, TiDBeus, 37 B Cf Introd. p. 10 (Loeb Classical Library).

d) S8.e note 127, p. 207.

xxvi.

your very being you would beve no knowledge of t}mi which is

apart from yourself." He further develops this idea in kimiYiI a)

al-sa1adah. "Know that man is an epitomy (mukhtasarah) of the

world in which there is a trace of every form in the world. For

these bones are like the mountains, his flesh as the dust, his

hair as the plants, his head as heaven, his senses as the planets,

••• c ••• The power in the stomach is like the cook, that in the liTer

like the baker, that in the intestines like the fuller, and that

which makes milk white and blood red is like the dyer." In man

there are many worlds represeuted, all of which serve him tire-

lessly although he does not know of them nor give thanks to Him

who bestowed them upon him.

Al-Ghazzili also U89S the Platonic idea of man baing b) the copy of the archetype.

He connects this with the YUslim c) doctrine of the PreAerved Tablet (al-lawh al-mahful).

The

Archetype of the world was written on the Tablet. The real Zl8.ture of things is made known to man by disclosure to him of what is

there'. written through the reflection of these truths in th& mirror

or the heal"t.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) oairo 1343, p. 19.

b) Timaeul, 37 ~ E; translation, p. 79. cr. plotinus, ~nneads, III. viii, 10; i; i, 4, VI. vii, 15.

c) See Dote Ill, p. 205.

xxvii.

a)

This introduces us to the example of the mirror which

is a favorite of al-~hazzili's. MRn's heart, as a mirror, is

potentially capable of having reflected in it the real essenco ot

all things, and thus of coming to know them. In this knowledge

there are three factorss (1) The intellect, or heart, in which exists the image of the specific aatures of things, is like the mirror. (2) The intelligible, cr specific nature ot the known

thing, is like the object reflected in the mirror. (3) The in-

telligence, or the representation of the known thing ~n the heart,

is like the representation ot the image in the mirror.

The reflection of knowledge in the beart lillY be prevauted

by one or more of five causess (1) The heart of a youth is in a

crude unformed condition and is incapable of knowledge, just as a

crude unpolished piece of metal is incapable of reflecting objects. (2) Disobedient acts tarnish and corrode the mirror ot the heart

so that the reflection of reality therein is dimmed :~ destroyed. (3) Man may not know Allah because his heart is not turned towards Him: eyen as the mirror does not reflect the desired object unless it is turned towards: it. (4) Tbe heart may be veiled to true knowledge by blindly accepting dogmatic teaching without understanding or thought. (S) The heart may not even knOW' in which direction to

- - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) Cf. Plotinus, Euneads, I, i. 8.

lIXViii.

turn in order to bave reality reflected in it.

Uan can polish and burnish the mirrOi" of his heart by

meaDS of acts of obedience so that it rill reflect the image of true reality. He thus gains knowledge by IIII.king it possi'ble for

the image of the archetype to be reflected in his heart.

The sum-total of man's kncwledge is thus rooted in his

knowledge of himself. He knoW'S only himself in the proper sel18e,

and knows other things only through hill'Self. This is true also

of man's highest attainment of knowledge, the knowledge of Allah; for the quality of the Divine B9ing is reflected in the human soul.

"Be who knows himself knows his Lord" is the true statement of

tradition. EYery heart is thus a microcosm and a mirror, and

a) being thus coutituted is capable of knowing self a.nd the divine •.

'lb. heart of man bas two til!ds of knowledge 1 intellectual

b}

and religious. Intellectual knowledge may be the intuitive know-

ledge of a21olll8, or acquired knowledge which is the result of study. Acquired knowledge may deal with the things of this world, such as

medicine, geometry, astronomy, a.nd the various professions and trades; or it may be concerned with the things of the world to come, such as the doctrines or religion. Speculative theologians stress

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - -

a) Of. development of microcosm and III!I.crocosm in Viindelband,

A History of Philosophy, trans. by TUfts, NeW York. 1907, pp. 366 ff.

b) cr. tables on p. lxi.

xxix.

this sort of acquired knowledge as being most important.

Religious knoyledge is the knowledge of Allah, His

attributes, and His acts. It is accepted on authority by the

common people as do~ in a blind and unreasoning fashion which

bas in it nothiDP, of direct inspiration. To people of deep re-

ligious experience, however, this knowledge is given directly. Saints and mystics receive it through general inspiration (!!e!!), ,hile it is received by prophets directly from the aDgel through

prophetic inspiration (wahy).

Both intellectual and religiou: :~wwledge are needed

and neither one is sufficient without the other. This is true in

spite of the fact that each tends to exclude the other except in the case of unusual men who are both learned and saintly. Intel-

lectual knowledge may be compared to food, and religious know-

ledge to medicine. Both are needed tor the preservation of health.

Even as there are two kinds of knowledge which enter the

heart, so also the heart has two doors by which this k~~wledge a)

comes into it. There is an outer door to the knowledge of material

things which is eense perception. The inner door is that of diVine b)

inspiration and mystical revelation. Here again the principle

obtains that like knows like, for the senses belong to this present

- - - - - - - -

a)

,

Dict. of 79ch. Terme, p. 371; Asin, Algazel, pp. 79 f.

cr. Plotinus, Enneads, i, i, 12; III, viii, 9.

b)

xxx.

world for which they were created, while the heart belongs also

to the invisibl~ world of the spirit (al-malakUt).

The external senses of sight, bearing, smell, taste,

and touch act through the bodily members, the eye, ear, nose,

tongue, and fingers. Sense perceptions reach the individual by

means of these extertlal senses, but they are perceived and under-

stood only by mean! of the five inner senses which are (1) common

sense or sensus communis (hiss mushtarak), (2) retentive imagination!

(khayil, takhayyul), (3) reflection (tafakkur), (4) recollection (tadhakkur), and (S) memory (hUI). '!'bese e.re internal powers e.nd

their seats are internal.

Here al-Ghazzali follows loosely Ibn Sina's dev8lopme~t a)

of Aristotle's views on these inner senses. The coemon sense is

that power .bich receives the impressions which come through the

different external senses and unites them into a harmonious and

unified whole. Retentive imagination is the.t power which takes from the common sense the physical sensation and transforms it into a psychic possession. This power is located in the front pnrt of the brain. Reflection is the pondering, cogitative faculty of the heart. Recollection is the power to recall the mental ~ges of

- - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - -

a) Cf. Avicenna's Offering to the Prince, van Dyck, Verona 1906, pp. 65 rf. and other references in notes 37 ! 38, p. 195.

xxxi.

past sensations which have been forgotten for a time. llemory is

the storehouse for the meanings of sensible objects formerly per-

ceived. Its seat is in the back pert of the brain.

!his list of the internal senses differs from some other

classifications of them by al-Ghazza11. Five other lists will be

presented in tabular form. In this book al-GhazzalI deals with

practical and ethical ends, and perhaps did not feel that it was

necessary to be scientifically accurate in his statement. It .ill

be noted that the classifications given in the first tour of the

books as tabulated below are definite attecpts to present the sub-

ject systemetically. It would be of added interest if we could

know for certain the chronological order of these books. It a~-

pears to be quite safe to put the maqasid and tahafut first. u1zan al-tamal is placed third because it seems logically nearer

to the first two than does matarij aI-guds tt madanj matrifat

a)

al-nafs,(also known as ma'arij al-silikln). The analyses given

in the ~ and ma'arij ate particularly worthy of note as being systematic and detailed in form, ~nd as coming from the later period of al-Ghazzil1's life. The list from k1mir!' al-satadah is given as an interesting parallel to that in this book of the

!hyi .••

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - -

a) Broekelmann, Supplement, i, p. 751.

xxxii.

lIlBgisid tabifut ~

1. COn:J!llon sense common sense; comon sense;
imagination imagine.tlon
hiss mushtank hiss mushte.rek i hiss mushtan!.k;
khaye.liyveh khayalimh

anterior ventricle
of brain
2. Retentive retentive retent:i.ve
imagination; irmgination ima. gina tion
Conservation
mutasawwirah: ~afi,e.h hUizah
hifizah .
anterior ventricle anterior ventricle
3. :sti.mation ?:stimation :<;stication
wahmiyp.h wahmi rf£. h wahmine.h

posterior posterior end of middle
ventricle ventricle ventricle
4-. Composi~ive animal compoeitive animal compoeitive animal
l human imagination ! human imagination &: human imagination
mutakhs Uilah mutakhanilah mutakhayjilah
mufakkirah mufakkirah mufakkirah
middle ventricle middle ventricle middle ventricle
5. Uemory memory memory
ci~idrah dhikirah :lhe1cire.h
posterior ventricle posterior ventricle posterior ventricle xxxiii.

ihy!', iii. 1.

1. Common sense; phantasiaj tablet

imngination

cOl!ll:lon sense

hiss mushtarak; bintisYi; lawh

. -

khavil

hiss ClUshtara.k

front of anterior ventricle

2. ~etentive imagination estimation

retentive ~gine.tion

khayal; khayaliyzeh ~ mu:es.wwirah

khe.z€l; te.khayyul

bE::k of anterior ventricle

anterior ventricle

3. ~stime.tion

reflection

reflection

w.h!IIimh

te.fakkur

tafekkur

whole of brein, but especially back of middle ventricle

4. Compositive imag1ne.- recollection tion, animal & human

recollection

takhayyul; mutakhay- tadhakkur yile.h; ~akkira.h

te.dhakkur

front of middle ventricle

s. !.tel!lory

!!lemory

. mel!lory

hBfizahj dh81t1rah

hitz

-

hifz

-

posterior ventricle

p08t~rior ventricle

XXXi ....

Another interesting parallel is founrl in al-risalah a)

al-ladunniyyah where al-Ghazzal! speaks ot the soul's activities

~, recollection (tadhakkur), memorizing (tah~ffuz), reflection

(tafakkur), discrimination (tamyiz), end deliberation (rawiyyah).

Eut it is evident that this also 1s not an atte~pt et a systematic

arw.lysis.

b)

Al-Ghanal! in his ma'ari.j gives a suegestion regarding

the inner senses which enables us to undel~tend more cle~rly their

varying names and functions. ~e seys that they include: (1) that

which perceives but does not conserve; (2) that which cons.rves

but does not reason; and (3) that which perceives (understands)

and deals ~~th perceptions. !hese three powers in their relation

to the forms of sense ;mpre~8ione and to their ide~l meanings

place before us the entire range of the internal senses. These

relationships are shown in the following tables.

~t which

(the fom received ( through sense

( impression

(lil-,aTah

(

is

cOMon sense piss mushtarak

pe rcd va s --- ( al-mudrik

(the ideal meaning (Iil-mtni

is

th~ estim£tive facult~ nhm; wahmimh

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - -

a) Cairo 1343, p. 27.

b) Cairo 1346/1927, p. 46.

xxxv.

'!'bet which conserves al-Mfiz

(the form received ( through sense

( impression

(lil-surah

(

----( (

(the ideal meaning (lil-m t DR

is

retentive imagination al-kbayal; al-hifiaah

is

memory; recollection el-hafizah; al-dhBkirah

(the form received)

( through sense ) (of human

( impression ) (intellect

(al-surah) (mufnkkirah

Thet which ( ) ~ it. (

deals w1th,----( )----19-- f::P~~t~~:-(

al-mutssarrl.f ( ) g (

d (the ideal meaning) (of animal

(al-ma'm) (powers

(iiI\ltakhayyilah

From this arrangement it is also easy to see how these functions

are sometimes combined end et other times separated in the different

classifications, and elso how the terms may easily vary in their

me~nings in the different books.

From the foregoing discussion we see tbat al-Ghazzal1

followed the lead of Aristotle, Galen, end the later philosophers

of the Aristotelian school in his ideas of the body and sense

perceptions both outer and inner. W$ shall now see that in the

realm of intuition, mys~ic revelation, and ecstasy there is a more

pronounced Neoplatonic trend in his thought which involves also a)

elements from Eastern sources.

- - - - - - - - - - -

a} Cf. 3rett, i, ?p. 200 ff.j ii, p. 48.

xxxvi.

~rning then to th~ inner door of the heart we find

al-Ghazzell's second source of knowledge in divine inspir£tion

and mystical revelation. !he experience of this sort of knowledge

~s given to only ~ fJW people, but all men are obligated to believe

in its reality. It is attested by the ,urIan, by tradition, and

by many experiences and stories of the saints. Revelation does

not differ from acquisition as regards the knowledge itself, its

seat, and its cause, but only in the recoval of the veil which

does not come about by man's volition. Mystical revelation eomes

to him whose heart is prepared to receive it, either through the

medium of dream-vision during sleep, or, more rarely, in a vision a)

seen during waking hours.

In the cese of the prophets inspiration (wahy) is accompanied by a vision of the angel who imparts the knowledge.

The inspiration (ilhim) of saints differs from it in tfiet there is no such vision of the angel which brings the knowledge. AlGhazzali i~ not quite consistent in his statements of the part which the angel plays in imparting the knowledge given through revelation. His position seems to be that general inspiration (~) is always the result of angelic activity, even thouga the angel does not appear to tho recipient of the revelation. He

- - - - - - - - -

a) cr. The Hebrew Tradition, Brett, i. pp. 233 f.

xxxvii.

goes so far as to say that "our hearts attain knowledge only by a}

means of the angels." But in a.nother place he speaks of directly

given divine knot/ledge ('i1m lad':lnai) apart from the usual means

a} b}

from without. In al-risilah al-ladunniyyah he says that ~

ladunni is from the Creator directly with nc mediating agent.

!his inconsistency is probably explained by his ideas about in-

voluntary suggestions (khawitir) which will be dealt with later.

The mediated knowledge corresponds to the suggestion of the angel '~hht:i." al-malak1), while the immediate snc direct knowledge corresponds to the suggestion of the Lord (al-khStir al-rabaan1).

Through divine inspiration the true nature of reality

is revealed to the heart of man. ~e veils of sense are drawn

aside by divine power, and man's heart can perceive, even if it

is but for a moment, the truth of the Eternal reflected from the

Preserved ~blet which is in the world of the unseen. At death

the veils of sense are removed entirely and reality 1s clearly

seen by the heart.

Man must prepare his heart to recd '7e this gift of di-:-:'ala I"a7alation. He ean do this by cutting off all Garthly ties and making the thought of Allah not only supreme in every part ot

- - - - - - - - - - - -

--------

a) ~nslation, p. 72 ! p. 94.

b) p. 42.

xxxviii.

his being, but the sole idea which occupies his heart and mind.

This is done by withdrawing from the v: orld and engaging in the

devotional exercise of the dhikr in addition to the prescribed

worship. He keeps on repeating the name of Allah, with his mind

fixed on Him, until the motio·n of the tongue ceases and the word

seems to be flowing over it. He continues until every trace of

the word and of its form and letters and appearance is effaced

from his heart and nothing remains save its ideal meaning. All

dualism is removed. The heart loses all co!'.!~i.':)'.!~r.ass of anything

other than .~le.h, and in its contemplation of Him reaches the a)

highest possible state. 12D is then prepared to rec~ive the gift

of divine revelation. ~e has done all that be can do for he has

reached the state of ecstasy. Allah then bestows such gifts as

He pleases.

Such s.re the two ways that mn :-eceives kno~ledge end

the two types of knowledge that he may have. Both intellectual and religious knowledge were important to al-Ghezza1!. 30th acquired and revealed knowledge played a large part in his scheme e! life. He himself was a learned man, and he could never cease to

give learning a place of honor and to account it a factor of great importance in human life and experience. But learninE had failed

- - - - - - - - - -

a) cr. 3rett, i. p. 310; ii, p. 43; Plotinus,Enneads, VI, vii, 34.

xxxix.

him and had led him into skepticism et the importent crieis of his

life, while in the experience of mystical reveletion be bed found

ee~,inty end peace. ~e two factors are Btrengely int~rmingled

in his writings. At one moment he seees almost to despise the

common man because he does not have the intellectual power to coo-

prehend knowledge; and et another time we find him bestowing high

praise upon an almost illiterate saint because of the miraculous

gifts (karamat) and divinely revealed knowledge which hay. been

beetowed upon him. Ictelleetual knowledge is great, but even it must bow before that which is manifestly a divine bestowment.

This al-Ghazzil! knew from experience.

3. The Relation of Soul to Body and of Thought to let.

The relation of the soul to the body has already been

touched upon in the discussion of the nature of the soul. plato

said that the soul was imprisoned in the body, while Aris~otle made it an entelechY or aetualization. Both of these ideas find

a place in al-Ghazz£li's thought. But the metaphor which al-Qhazzali a)

chooses to express this relationship comes froe ?lato's !imaeus,

where the body is spoken of as the vehicle of the soul. Plato's ;1

word is 0 X'? fa Q.. al-Ghazz8.1!· s if: me.rka b.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) 44:::; 69 c.

xl.

For al-Ghazzali, as for Ibn Sina, the soul is " a

saps.rate independent reality, which is only united to the body

accidentally, thnt is to say, without any relation ~hich affects a)

its essencs." Both the vegetable and animal powers "are made

possible by the union of the soul with the body: but if we go

beyond these we come to other activities which belong to the soul a)

itself." Such soul activity is first of all potential, then

nascent, then developed. This is illustratad by a youth who is

at first potentially capable of learning to ~ite. Then he comes

to know inkstand, pen, and the letters in their separate forms.

And finally he becomes skilled in writing and composition.

~e heart is the center for both the psychic and

physical actions of man and thus in it are to be found the threads b)

4hich bind thought to act. The question of moral qualities and

responsibilities as related to the soul's activity and the resultant physical action viII be dealt with in the folloving section

of this sketch. The first link in the chain connecting the psychic and the physical is the involuntary suggestion (kh~tir) which comes to the heart. ~is is of such importance in al-GhazzaI1's scheme

t~at it must be examined in some detail.

- - - - - - - - - - - -

a) Brett, ii, p. 57.

b) Brett, i, pp. 141 f.

xli.

The kh8tir (plu. kha~tir), (elsa khatrah, p1u. khatarat),

is an opinion, idea, or object of thought bestirring itself in the a}

~nd. It is the allocution or suggestion vhich comes to the heart b)

of man, with whose cOming man himself has nothing to do. This term

is used largely in ~ufl writings, End especially byal-Ghezzili.

~ere are various divisions of the khawatir, the most

common being a four-fold ones (1). The suggestion of the Lord,

(of the Absolute ~eality), (al-khRtir al-rabbRn1; al-nagoent).

It is that which is c~st directly into the heertF of mystics who

dwell, as it were, in His Presence. Nothing can oppose it, but

the other sorts of khawitir fade away and disappear before it. !o

deny it vexes the soul. !t is a warning and a sign for guidance.

(2) The suggestion of the angel (al-khitir al-melaki) exhorts to

obedience and good acts, and warns against acts of disobedience

and things which are disapproved. It blames man for committing

acts contrary to divine law and for being slo~ in doing ihat which

is in agreement therewith. (3) The suggestion of the self (al-khitir a1-nafsi) demands the pleasant fF-vors of this swiftly passing world, and sets forth its invi.tations to vanity. !t is

not cut off by the light of the devotional practice of the

- - - - - - - - - -

a) Lane, Lexicon, p. 765.

b) Cf. JUrjini, kitnb al-tatritet, p. 101.

xlii.

remembrance of Allah but continues to decand its desire, unless it comes to enjoy divinely given success (tewf1g) in which cese its demends are uprooted. (4) The suggestion of the demon (al-kbitir al-shaitani). ~is is the suggestion of the enemy who summons to ects of disobedience and to things which ere forbidden and disapproved.

Some say that all krAwatir are from the angel, end may

be approved or disapproved by the individual. An exception to

this is the suggestion of Absolute Reality with which man never disagrees. 3y the light of the Divine Unity (al-tawhid) man receives the suggestion of Allah, and by the light of 9xperiential knowledge the suggestion of the angel. By the light of faith en end is put to the suggestion of the self, and by the light of :slam it is restored to obedience.

All types of suggestions come ultimately from Allah. but some come directly, and others indirectly. Those which come from Him directly, and those ~hich come through the engel, are good. 7be commentator on al-risalah al-gushairiYyah seys that

the suggestion of the Lord is equivalent to true insight (firasah) and is ~ ~iraculous gift (ka~h). The suggestions which come from the self mey be either good or evil, although the latter is to be expected. The euggestion which comes from the demon is

always evil. Some have added to the foregoing division the following: the suggestion of the spirit (k~tir al-rUh); the suggestion of

xliii.

the shaikh (khitir aI-shaikh); the suggestion of the intellect (~2~ir al-tagl); and the suggestion of certainty (khitir al~). But all of these can be proper17 placed under the fourfold division already given.

~ne eorrect differentiation of these suggestions and their sources cae be made only when the mirror of the heart is carefully cleared of n1l the fleshly and natural desires by means of asceticism, piety, and remembrsncej nnd then the true nature

of the suggestions vdll be manifest. He who has not re~ched this stage in the ascetic life should weigh the suggestion in the balances of the divine law to determine its nature. If it is an obligation or a virtue he should do it; but if it is a thing !orbidden or disapproved he should put it away from himself. If it

is something permitted and rather inclines toward disagreeing ~th the self, then he should dc it; !cr :ost of the suggestions of the self are base. Some of the demands of the self are its just rights to things which are necessary, and these must be satisfied. other demands of the self are for fortune's favors, end these should be denied. He who succeeds in properly recognizing and dealing with these suggestions enters into the ~y of abund~nt life and mystic vision, where the suggestions which seek for fortune's favors pees

away and trouble man no more.

xliv.

a) Se.yyid !'!\1rtn~i al-Zabidl, the co::centator on the IPya/,

says thrt the novice must ?ut at.ay the suggestions of the~sel:,

the angel, and the demon, and give the primary plece to the sug-

gestion of the Absolute Reality. Al-Ghazzal! ~ke! the suggestion of the angel equivalent to general inspi~tion (~), and that of the demon the same as evil prompting (Wis,is). Sometimes he

speaks as though there were but this two-fold division, and he

refers to these two as 'visitations' (lammatan).

~e sorts of khawitir found in gut al-oulGb by AbU ~lib al-L~kki which was one of al-Ghazzal!'s prineipel sourceb)

books, e.re found in a list given by Z. They are: (1) General

iI::;pire.tion (ilh8.m). (2) E7i1";pr~!~1iag (nhis). (3) Dread ('ljas). (4) Intention (niyya~). (5) Rope and desire (~; 'umniyah). (6) Recolleetion and reflection (tadhakkurj tnfakkur). (7) Mystic vision (mushihndan). (8) Anxious desire (~).

(9) Seizure of !:le.cness (~).

Z. mentions the six-fold division, adding intellect (~) and certainty (~) to the usual four, but denies that" the intellect has a thitir?)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

a) Hereafter Z.

b)

Ithif, vii, p. 266; gut, i. pp. 187 t.

-

c) Sources of above arel Diet. of Tech. Terms, pp. 415-417; Ithat, vii. pp. 199,249,266,301 fo; sharh al-risa1ah al-qushairiXZ!l, Cairo, 1290, ii. p. 964 jimi' al-usul, Cairo 1328, p. 100.

Nicholson, studies in Islamic l{ysticism, p. 212.

xlv.

The other states of the heart which lead up to physical action are dealt with quite summarily by el-Ghazzili. For when

a man once gives heed to the suggestion in hid heart the other stages follow almost automatically. Tbus the suggestion stirs up the inherent inclination of the nature (mayl al-tabt) to do the thing suggested. Inclination of the Dature leeds to a conviction (it~i9id), or a reasoned judgment that the thing ~u~t b@ done. This conviction leads to a definite decision (~) to do it. !hereupon the phyeieal members act in obedience to the deeision and command of the heart, and the act is done.

Al-Ghazzil! illustrates the various kinds of suggestions (khawitir) by many traditions and stori~s. All of the different stages between s~ggestion and action are made elear by ~n illust~tiOn' of whieh a brief summary is here given. The suggestion comes into the mind of a man that there is a woman behind him in the way, end that, if he were to turn around, he would see her. The inclination of his nature is then to turn and see her. But his inhibitions of modesty and fear must first be removed betore he reaches the stage of conYiction that he must turn and look. :Mxt he determiD8s and decides finally to look and see her. This state of the heart is followed by the act of t~rning and looking unless some new i~luence is brought to bear upon the man to prevent the act.

xlvi.

4. 'nle Soul '8 Experien-:e of Good and Evil.

It has already been stated that al-Ghazzall's purpose

in the Th,yil is primarily ethical. His aim is the enlightenment of the soul in order that it may attein its perfection in the full

and imm~diate knowledge of Allah. 'l1lere are potent forces which

help man toward that end. But there are also evil tendencies

which appeal to his lover nature and constantly drag him down and

prevent him from reaching the desired goal. Tbe soul is constantly

swaying backwards and forwards between these forces for good end

evil. Sometimos the good prevails, and again the evil influence

predOminates.

If We ask about the source of these good and evil intlu-

ences which act upon the soul va find that Allah is the First

Cause of all. Here al-Ghazzili is the orthodox theologian.

"Tbere is no doer (~) save Allah. ~ery existing thing, whether creature or provision, gift or prohibition, life or death, wealth

or poverty, or whatever is called by a name, hes been created by a)

Allah alone. II He creates lIIenand what they do.

But although Al~h is the ultimate cause of all sug-

gestions and acts, both good and evil, there are elso secondary

causes. These are angels and demons. Here again we see the

- - - - - - - - - -

a} Ith8.f, 1.%. p. 400.

xlvii.

Neoplatonic influence at work providing a parallel in the realm

of morals to what the Neoplatonic chain does in metaphysics in

putting the Absolute Cause far away from the indi?idual. There a)

are a great many angels and a corresponding host of demons. Each

type of good or evil act is the result of the soul'e acceptance

of the suggestion of a particular angel ~r demon. A number of

demons are :entioned by name and their specific fields of activity

mentioned. ~ is the demon who stirs up strife end affliction.

AI-IA(war incites to adultery, and lliswat to lying. ~ stirs up trouble between a man and his family. ZalanbUr leads to dis-

honesty in the marketplace. Khinzib interrupts a man during the

ritual prayer, and al-walh&n interferes with ceremonial purification.

In this development ~ find suggestions of Eastern influences, ecpecially Persian and Hebrew, in the angelology and b)

demonology, as well as in the apparent dualism. In certain passages

al-Gbaz%il! seems to say that each individual has a demon and an

angel which accompany him in life. Tnis suggests the 'daemon' ot c)

Socrates and Plutarch.

The heart has ~ny doors through which ~he demons enter

a) Cf. the further development in I~yi', iv. pp. 104 f.

b)

cr. Brett.,

c) Cf. Brett, i. pp. 62, 258.

xlviii.

in order to lead it astray. All of these are connected with the

qualities of the irrational soul. Man must know these d~ors which

are: anger and appetence; envy and greed; overeating; love of

adornment; striving to gain the favor of men; haste; love of money;

stinginess; sectarianism; the study of theology by the common

people; thinlting evil of Muslims.

~er6 is but one door, however, by which the angels may

gain access to the heart. Al-Ghazzill does not explicitly define

this door, but it is clear that he is speaking of the rational

soul as illuminated by inner piety and outer conformity to the

teachings of the ~urlin and the Sunnah.

AI-Ghazzill is careful also to show that, although good

and evil are both inevitably present in man's experience, yet

every individual is responsible for the development of his char-

acter. Man must discipline hie soul.

The book of the ·hvil which :..--

immediately follows this one deals with the subject of this discipline. But in this book we find the subject constantly stressed.

The rational soul must be ma.de and icept thii iilii6t6r, .hi16 anger

and appetence must be kept in the position of servants. The demands of the appetent and spirited natures must be balanced over against each other 80 that desire and will may all be harmoniously

a)

developed into a compl8te character. But .hen man habitually

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - -

a) cr. Brett's discussion of Aristotle, i. pp. 142 f.

xlix.

yields to the demands of his lower nature his intellect becomes

the slave of his passions, and is entirely occupied with schemes

to attain the ends of his lower desires. The master has become

enslaved, and the soul is overcome by confusion, immorality and

sin.

The discipline of the 80ul is accomplished through

ascetic and devotional practices. This present vorld and the de-

sire for the things of the world must be denied, and the entrances of Satan may thus be stopped up. There must be complete dependance

upon Allah and submission to Him. As long as man desires any of the things of this world, be it but a stone to use for a pillow, just so long will Satan find in his desire a way to approach his

heart and lead it astray.

Al-Ghazza11 uses another figure to express the same idea.

Satan's food is IIBn's appetellce or desire. It therefore becomes man's duty to empty his heart of all desire for worldly things,

and thus remove that upon which Satan feeds.

The ~, or the devotional practice of the remembrance of ;Allah and the repeated mention of His name, is the best way to fix the heart's desire upon Him, and eO to ward off the attackl Tradition says that the ~ causes satan to slink

of Satan.

away and hide himself. It is therefore the best means of defense against the evil promptings which Satan suggests to the human

1.

heart. It is conceivable that some of Saten's evil promptings ~y thus be cut off entirely, but for the most part there is no complete victory over Satan in this life. Man may triumph over him for a moment or for an hour by means of pious practices, but he returns to man again and again. Only the prophets,who ere preserved from sin (matsUmUn), are able to battle satan indefinitely. It is therefore essential that man shall maintein a constant life-long struggle against Satan, for only thus can he develop his character as he ought to do.

In dealing with man's moral responsibility for his own good and evil acts, al-Ghezzil! lays down one clear ~le. Han i8 held accountable for his own voluntary choices. He will be judged in accordance with the purpose (gasd) on which he has fixed his heart, his determination (~), his intention (ni;xah), and his decision (~). Wben two men engage in a sword fight both slayer and slain will be cond:=ned to the fire, because each one intended to kill the other.

On the other hand man is not held accountable for the involuntary suggestion (k~itir) which occurs to his mind, nor tor the inclination of his nature (mayl-al-labt), since there is no element of volition on his part in either of them. In regard to man's conviction (ittigid) that he must do a certain thing, alGhezzil! says that this may have been reached involuntarily

lie

through ci~:~stances beyond his control, end in such a case the

man is not accountable. But when the co~viction has been reached

as the result of voluntary deliberation, then he is held morally

responsible for it.

AI-Ghazzil! deals with the subject of the soul's destiny

in a rather disappointing way. Because of the fact that he waa

able to accept so 2any of the positions of the Aristotelian philo-

sophers and to find a harmony between their teachings and thoae

of orthodox Islam, tnt naturally expect him to say, with Ibn stna,

that the re.tioml soul, prepared by the practice of the virtues, a)

attains perfection after death. In fact al-Ghazzil! does make

almost that same sta"tement. But he does it quite incidentally

when he says that at death the veils of sense are removed, and the

soul sees clearly and ~nows fully the t~e nature of reality.

BUt in the closing portion of this book al-Ghnllal! does

not stress the philosophical position. Indeed he 8ee~s almost to

lose sight of it altogether as he turns to the inflexible fatalism of Isl!i'.!!!~ '!'he general and particular decrees (9!!~il 118. gadr) of Allah determine inevitably and inexorably the fate of the soul. Some hearts are built up by means of piety e.nd purified through discipline. others are burdened by passion and utterly corrupted by foul actions so that they have no place for goed. The hearts

----------

_-----

a) Hastings, Ency. of Religion and ~hics, ii. p. 276 a.

ns.,

of most men are swaying between the good end the evil, the angel and the demon, until the dominant factor obtains the victory.

But this factor has been caused to predominate by the predestination of Allah. Because of the divine decree obedience ""

has been made easy for some, end disobedience for others. Allah guides aright and leads ast~y. Some are destined for the Garden, and othsrs for the fil~, but He does not care.

Why did al-Ghazzali close his book in this stern fashion1 He was a ~ufi saint who had experienced the joys of spiritual ecstasy and had seen the wonders of divine revelation. He found his own spiritual needs satisfied only in the immediate experienco of reality. But he was also an orthodox Muslim, end the Ashtarite dogmatiC theology of Islam was unyielding. It may be that he felt it necessary to close on a strictly orthodox note in order to maintain his position in Islam and thus accomplish his purpose in harmonizing ~ufism and orthodoxy. It may be that he did not fully realize the paradox of bis own life as a mystic and as an orthodox theologi.an.

Succeeding generatioDs did see this paradox. Some have been logical in their orthodoxy and have scorned his mysticism. Others haTe been lOgical in their mysticism, and have gone all the way into pantheism. But all, whether friends or foes, have united in paying their respects to al-Ghazzili's sincere efforts to guide the heart of man into larger and fuller life.

1_iii.

c. Texts Used in Translation.

The translation is made from the text in Ithaf

-

al-sadah al-uuttagtn, which is the commentary on the ~yil a)

by Sayyid l!Urta~a al-Zabidi. This commentator is hereafter

referred to as Z.

Ref~rences are also made to other texts, es folloWSt

(1) Ihyil 'UIGm al-Din, published by al-~labi, Cairo, 1346,

which is hereafter referred to as Cairo text.

(2) The text in the mrgin of the Ithaf.

-

(3) A Manuscript in the Princeton Universi+.y Library, probably from the fifteenth century. It is no. 1481, end is described in

A Descriptive Catalog of the Garrett Manuscripts DepOSited in the

Princeton University Library, Princeton University Press, 1938,

p. 448.

It is referred to as US or Princeton l~.

(4) A recently acquired mnuscript called mhel1at al-bai~a.J !'1 i~yal al-ihyi', which is a text with occasional comment. It is refer~d to s.;; Cairo MS. "miere both llanuscripts agree they are

indicated by LtSS. Cairo lIS is dated 1047 A.H.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - -

a) Brockelmann, i. p.422i ii. pp. 287 f. See also biographical note in Calverley, Worship in Islam, Madras, 1925, pp.38 f. note.

liVe

D. A stJ1OU.RY OF THE TRANSLATI011.

Int roduction.

JlB.n DaS been given an aptitude tor knowing Allah. It

is this characteristic which giToS him his position ot hoaor, aDel distinguiehes him trom all other creatures. Tbis capacity has its seat in the heart which alone can know Allah. The heart is morally respoll8ible to Allah, joyfully drawing D8ar to Him it obedient,

but being punished when neglected or corrupted. Be who knows his heart knows bis Lord. SUch knowledge is thus the root ot religion, and the lasia or the mystic _y to Allah.

'nie eecret wonders of the heart rill nOY be explained and illustrated so that the dull minde of aen _y eee eomething ot them.

Chapter One.

Very rew IIIIn Dave an accurate understanding or the teras 'heart', 'Ipirit', 'Ioul', and 'intelligence', so we shall I118.ke a par;;ial ezplaJl8tion ot them.

'!he term 'heart t lII\y mean the organ ot nesh nich i. in the chest at man and animal both when living and when dead.

It is the heart which physicians etudy and treat. Another meaniag,

lv.

which is the one intended in this book, is that subtile teauou8 substance, spiritual in J'Jature, which is the knowing and perceiving usence of _n, and in reality is _n. There is a connection between the phys~cal and spiritual 'heans', the ezplaaation of

which is not demanded by practical religion nor warranted by prophetic precedent.

'Spir1t' _y mean that retined material substance which carries lite and senae perception trom the heart throughout the ~hysical body. With this 'spirit' doctors deal. The other meanillS of 'spirit' is the subtile tesous substance meDtioaed a bcwe.

'Soul' is applied, especially by ~ut18, to the powers 01' anger and appetence in man. A second meaning is that subtile "tenuous subatance 1I'h.ich is _n in reality. This soul is referred to 1n the Qur1an as 'at rest', 'upbraiding', and 'co~nding to evil', depending upon its state in relation to Allah.

·Intelligence' may be used to mean knowledge; or it may be applied to that subtile teauous substance which pIIrce1ves and tnoys.

Theee four terms then, in addition to denoting the corporeal hean, the corporeal spirit, th6 a.ppe'tent soul, and intelligences, share in a common meaning which is this subtile tenuous substance.

lvi.

Cliapter TIro.

'l!le bean bas two armies. ~e one is external, beiq made up of the bodily members which perform their functions at tbe heart's bebest. "nle other is iDtenal, being _de up of ideas a nd perceptions. For nample, the appetite which is illtemal needs tbe hand which is exteraal to supply it with food.

Of these armies there are three claasest The will points out the desired ends. Power moves tbe I118mbers to attain those ends. Knowledge aDd perception furnish information gathered through the tive e%teraal .en.e. of hearing, sight, amell, taate, and touch; and the tive internal aena.1 which are oOllDDon een8e, imgi_tion, reflection, recollection, and memory.

The next chapter will cite examples to II'Ilke clear the meaning ot theae armies.

Chapter '!hr.e.

'!he armies ot appetence and anger are IOlll9tiJDeS

obedient to the heart and aometimes rebellious againat it. 'l11e aid of the army of knowledge whicb is trom Allah should be gained in order to direct those or appeteDce and aDger which migbt otberrise join the party ot Satan.

The body is the kingdom of the soul. The iDtellect 18 the king's wise minister whose advice should be followed rather

i-ss.

than that of the slave which is appetence. Anger, as chief ot police, is direct6d by the minister to discipline this slave.

The body is like a city whose king is the mind. The eDemy is anger and appeteDce, and the defeDding army or reason mDst strive to protect the city.

The iDtellect is like a horaean no has gone bunting.

Bis horse is appetence and his dog anger. As long as be is tbe skillful master and they are well trained, he succeeds, but otherrise he tails.

Chapter Four.

Animals have appetence, anger-, ~d seDSe perception, but iliaD bas the special gUt ot naSOD by which he caD draw near to Allah. Knowledge aDd the rill to act upon it are properties peculiar to an.

ReUOD is potential in youth. later it is _de actual as man gains tor himself, first, the knawledge ot axioms and flret priDciples, and afterward, ex;eriential knowledge. This knowledge :la gained by some through learning and instruction, aDd by others through direct revelation and mystical uuveil1Dg. AdTancemeDt in tDawledge i ... liIost· uDl1ll1tecl~ aDd in it ED draws near to Allah. Tbe prophet bas the highest rank through immediately revealed kDowledge. )Ian caD prepare bis heart tor divine inspiration by

1v1ii.

purifying it from evil, aDd in such illSpiration is his pertection.

The human eoul includes the faculties of the vegetative aDd aDiJE.l souls, but experiential knowledge gins _n a place between the animals and the angels. ae may sink to the level of the ODe, or strive toward the other.

Each one of the bodily members and sellSe perceptions lIIB.y be used by the heart as a help toward Allah. '111us man call successfully complete his Journey through this present world to the eterDal abode. But if the heart is negligellt maD rill raU to reach Him.

Cbapter Five.

Within _ll'S heart there ie a mixture of tour quaU Ues I lordly, demonic, beastly, aDd brutish. '111e brutish quality of appetence may be Ukened to a pig, the beastly quality of anger to a dog, and the lordly quality of the iatellect to a Sagl. The demon urges on both pig aDd dog to their natural evil desires.

If the iatellect as master sets anger aDd appeteDce over against each other, Justice is established, aDd lordly and Doble qualities appear in the heart. But it the intellect tails in this

it ls enslaved to their service. Such servitude causes a de.truoti~ stain and corrosion to be heaped up upon the heart through the -DY evil qualities which are prodQued by their domination.

lix.

Tbe beart is a mirror which is polished by praiseworthy action, especially the devotional practice at remembraDce, 10 that the dlviDl will is clearly reflected therein; bat it is tarnished aDd rusted by blameworthy action so that good is not perceived.

Chapter Size

Tbe beart, or intellect, as the seat of k6o.ledge, 1s like a mirror which renects the specific Datllres of things. The form which 1s retlscted corresponds to the iDtelligible, or the thing Enam, while its actual reflection in the mirror is lite intelligence.

)laD'S heart is ot a lordly -tun!; aDd it alone ot Allah's creatures il potent:lally capable of knoring all realities through their reflection iD it. SUch complete knowledge 1s preTented by ODe or more ot the following caUSI8. (1) The heart ot

a youth, tor instance, is impertect lits aD unfinished metal mirror, and 80 iDcapable of reflecting reality. (2) Acts ot disobedience so tarnish the heart that the reflection of rea11ty is dimmed or destroyed. Acts of obedieDce correspondinglY cleaDle aDd polish it. (3) The heart .y not be turned toward Allah, th; Absolute Reality, but toward S01l8 detail of daily lhing which aloDl ie reflected in 1t. (4) The blind acceptance of dogma acts as a Y8i1 betweeD the heart aDd reality. (5) Ignorance of the

lx.

direction of reality and of the sources of knowledge prevents intelligent percepti~n.

A IIIlll'S eye can see the back of his neck by the 1188 ot two mirrors. Similarly the heart can percebe the truth by the proper correlation of two items of kDowledge from which a third is derived as in the syllogism.

The purpose of obedieDce is the purification ot the heart so that it l118.y receive divine illumimtion. 'l11is illumination and the corresponding knowledge in the heart bas three degreess (1) The faith ~f those who accept dogma OD authority

is like believing that za1d is in the houle 'becaule a trust"ortpy persoD said 80. (2) The faith ot the theologians has aD elemeDt or proof, like hearing Zaid's voioe from within tho house, aDd 10 believing that he is there. (3) The taith of prophets and laiuts il like the kDowledge or ODe who euters the house aDd S881 zaid face to face.

eba pte r S .. en.

The kno"ledge ot the heart il of t.o lortes iDtellectual, and religious. 'ftlea8 are subdivided according to the follo.iDg tables

Iatellectual Knowledge

I

I

Intuitive

I Acquired

I

)

or this world

,

J

Of the world

to come

\

Uedicine, astronomy, geometry,

arithmetic, other profes8ions and trades

In.

ReligiouB Knowledge

ot Allah, His attributes 8: acts

I

I I

Accepted on Received

authority directly

I ,

by by

the c~mmon \

people \

Prophets

,

through

,

prophetic inspiration

I

Saints

,

through

L

,eneral il18 piZ'B. tion

It is evident that in the field ot intellectual know-

ledge it is ueceS88.ry tor IIIBll to have the acquired knowledge which

18 gained through insight 1n order to lupplement his stunll endowment at tdt.uU1.. knowledge.

Intellectual Icience8 are like foods. BUt food alone

will not giTe health to the loul, and 80 religiou8 Iciencel, which

are like medicines, are allo needed. Some people haT. ~hought

that the two type8 ot knowledge are inccmJII:Ubl. aDCl 10 haT. tor-

laten religion. There i8, hanTer, an iDller baJ"lllony between them.

It 18 wery seldom that ine indiridQal can combine a thorough understanding ot intellectQal and re11gioul kllowledge ill

hi. own ezperiellce, for the emphasis of the olle usually obscurel

the other. So it is not ftIidfIDr:..a-"lIB1l whose knowledg. is pre-

liomiDalltly ot the 011. sort to deny the soulldn.1I of another 111111'.

Ini.

knowledge which differs in kiDde for he who walks tbe Eastern path cannot know what i8 in the Welt. '!be prophets, aided by the Holy Spirit have both types of knowledge in abundant I118UU!'8.

Cbapter Eight.

1l1ere are two ditf.reDt _ya by which the heart _y receive such knowledge as li.a beyond the realm of the tntuitite. The learned gain knowledge through meDtal activity, sai~1 and prophetl gain it through inspin-tiou. 'ftle inspin.tion of saints is ot a genen.l lort, while that of the prophets 1a specific prophetic ill8piration giTen through an angel.

'!be heart as a mirror is capable ot haviag tne reality revealed in it by meanl ot reflection tram the Preserved Tablet.

The ii.,.. aiorementiiiii6d himinuaoea are as a veU between the beart and the Tablet. The veil _y be drawn aside by _nls volition, or by direct divine QDveilillg. 'taL. latter _y come ill deep or duriDg _kiDg bourse 'ftle resulting revela:ti;:;n ot knowledge COllIeS as a danUiIg flash, or, in n.re iutancea, it lIIII.y be continuous up to

I. certain point.

~t1a seet knowledge through iupin-tion. '!bey lay that to attain it one lIII1at cut ott all earthly ties, purify his heart ot all evil traita, and set his whole heart upon seeting the vision of Allah .. 10118. While in a solitary place of devotion the

!xiii.

~un must concentrate on repeatiDg the IIBJDe of Allah until onlr the ideal msaDiDg ot that Dame occupies his whole being. It i. within hi. power to progress thus tar by hi. OYD Tolition, but

he must then wait tor the gitt ot Allah who reveal. what ae wills.

Speculative theologians admi~ that such revelation i8 possible and that it has been the experience of prophet8 and saiIRs, but they think that it is extremely unlikely tor the ordimry seeker to enjoy 1t. ~ey 8ay that tor a IIIln to give up

his study in the hope of experiencing nch &. <iiT1ne revelation i! like a fal'lll8r who p.T8S up tilling the adl to hullt tor hidden treasure. Such an eftort might be succeoatal, but is ~rely '%perienced.

Chapter RiDe.

TWo tangible e%amples are given to illustrate these two ways of pilling mowledge.

1. The heart can gather blodedge through the outer door of the senses even as a pond may be tilled with water from streams whose channels are turned into it. It _y also gain knowledge trom within through the iuner door which opens upon the un.e.n world, even as the water supply of the pond may be .ecured by digging dOWD to the subterranean springs.

There are four degrees ot existence in the world:

lnv.

(1) archetypal existence in the Preserved Tablet, (2) real existence; (3) the existence of the fo~~withiD·the imagination I (4) the existence of the form within the heart.

YaD is a microcosm and is capable therefore ot understanding the macrocosm. There is a diUerence between the know· ledge of the philosophers and the learned and that of saints and prophets, for the former gain it through the outer door, but the latter through the iuner door.

2. One side of a portico was once decorated by By_antine workmen, and the other side, which was concealed by a veil, _s de corated by Chinese. 'ftle By_antines \Iud all sorts at paints and colors in their artistry, while the Chinese merely polished their side until it was a perfect mirror in which the handiwork ot the Byzantines was reflected with added brilliance. 'nle learned, with ~heir use of erlerDal means, an lite the By:antines, while the mystiC8 are like the Chinese.

The heart and its mystical knowledge are both iDllllortal.

This kno.ledge aids it in its journey toward Allah. He who has a large endowment of it i8 rich in this world aDd in the next, even though he may be ignorant of philosophical speculations and theories.

Chapter Ten.

Tbe experisntial knowledge ot the mystics ie given only

lxv.

to e. fe., but the fact ot such kDowledge MUst be believed by all. It is directly given diTine kno.ledge, and it is made known through iupiration to those who by doctriDal end alcetic practices have prepered their heart. to receive it.

Witness to such knowledge is borne bYI (1) The ~rlin; tor emmple, "But those who strive tor us ". rill surely guide !uto our way • (29169). (2) Tradition; for example, "Beware ot the natural insight (physiognomy) ot the believer, tor he s.es with the light ot Allah." (3) '11le experience or Companions, Followers, and those who succeeded them, as ahoYD in many tales ot miraculous gitts, mental telepathy, seeing al-Khidr, hearing the voice ot an unseen bodiless speater, etc.

'the experience ot true dream-Tision, in sleep or while awake, is indubitable. So also is the fact that Ku~ammad was able to predict tuture evente unknown to others. Such tno.ledse is possible tor other prophets and saints.

Chs.pter Eleven.

The h~art is constaatly influenced by the senses, both .Denal and iatenal, aDd tempted through them. ~us its state ill always chaup.ug from ODe IIIOment to another. Involuntary suggestione ~re the most important of these influence.~ Tbey stir up desire which leads first to resolution, then to intention, and then to the overt act.

lxvi.

There are two classes of involuntary 8uggestions, (1) inspiration from the angel which leads to good, (2) evil prompting from the demon which leads to evil. The heart is prepared by divine succor to receive the formen and by desertion to accept the latter.

The heart is between the angel aDd the demon, and Allah causes both of them to illfluence it. To follOY desire is to give the demon his opportunity; but to strive against it is to BtreDgthen the angel IS illfluence. 'l1le heart is thus the scene of attack and counter-attack on the part of the two powers.

Evil prompting is removed by the remembrance of Allah. llan should not ~peculate about Sata~·s Dature, but rather stn." to ward off his attacks. Especially is this true when Satan portrays evil in the form of good, as Yh6~ he e%horts a person to preach for _n's guidance, ouly that he may thereby stir up pride in the heart ot the preacher.

It is obligatory,. fOr! eTery penon, to learn the -1S by which Satan deceiTee. ~e pious can fiDd the sate path 'by a life of self-control, careful self-denial, and the study of the qur1an and the Surmah.

Chapter TnlTe.

It is _D'S duty to keep the tortn88 of hie heart

•• cure, and 80 be 1llU8t kDOY the -1'8 by which Satan "ould eDter

lxvii.

it. 'l!1e most important of these ways are the tolloringl (1) 'PIer" and appetence, for when these dominate man, his intellect cannot oope with Satan's attacks. (2) EnTJ and greed which _ke the heart blind and deal to the truth. (3) Satiety ot tood which mat.e prayer a burden. (4) Love of adorm.Dt in apparel, furnishiDgs, and house; this aloDe is sufficient to preoccupy a man throughout his whole lite. (5) Covetous desire towards ~n and striTing to gain their favors. (6) Haste, which is from Satan; and foreating Allah's gitt of leisurely action. (7) Dirhems and dis" which only call for more constantly and lead away trom Allah. (8) Stinginess and the rear ot poverty which prevent almsgiving.

(9) Sectarian and partisan prejudices which lead to strite and diYisiQn, aad mate IDSD blind to the moral lite and the religious praotice ot those leaders whom they profess to follow. (10) IDciting the common people to the study ot theology which 1s beyond their iDtelligence, and which leads them to innovation or unbeliet. (11) Thin~ing .Ti1 of MUslims, which leads to false accusations against which all should be on guard.

Satan's attacks can be warded off if these .ntrance,

are blocked up by parltying the heart. When this is dODe he still passe. through the heart, but does not find opportunity to share in its Ufe. ~. remembrance of Allah is lite _dicine for the sict hoart, aDd a life ot piety is lite abstin.nce which giv •• the

lxviii.

medicine eff&.:tiwe opportunity to do its yort.

~ ntual prayer 1. the highest poillt of Yorship,and

Satan's .... il promptings are strongest at the time of prayer.

Jhen ODe gi~es heed to demoDic suggestions prayer i. of no aTail.

'l1len an great uwnbers of demoDS, and each one of them

summoDS to a specific type of evil. Similarly there are hosts of

angela, and each one has his OVD specific good work to do.

For the most part the spirit-being, whether angel or

demon, appears to Mrstics by uaTetling to them an image of his being, rather than his true tOI'lL The de.on thus appears as a dog, a frog, a pig, etc., The angel appears as a beautitul form, eTen as Jibril used to appear to ~d in the likeDes8 ot the ftll-fa~ored Dihyah. On rare occasions, hOft~er, the mystic does

•

se. these beings in their true forms.

Chapter Thirteen.

It is Dot easy to know to what extent man i. held

accountable tor the heart's ezpensnce. of evil suggestions, decisions, thoughts, and purposes. There are Qur1aDic texts and also traditions which appear to affirm accountability, and wthers

which see. to deny it. Rer" the matter of 1ntelltion plays an 1m-

portant part.

The stage. between thought and act are four, (1) the

lux.

involuntary suggesti~~1 (2) the incliuation of the aature, (3) a reasoned judgment, or convictionl (4) .otermination.

Uan is held accountable only for voluutary thoughts, intentions and acta. 'nlus the first tyO of the above-DallIed canes involve no 1I0ral responsibility. Tradition says, "Vy people are pardoned the sugse.tions ot the self." It convistion is brought about by campulsion, man is not accouutable, but it voluntary, he is accountable. Man is always held accountable for his decision to evil, unless, after making it, he, through tear of Allah, gives it up again. Such change of decision would be accounted to him

as a good aeed. "People will be Judged according to their intentions alOIl8", as tradition userts. It tyO UusliJllS tight, both slayer ud slain will be in the tire, because each one desired .. nd intended

to till the other.

Allah could hold man responsible tor involuntary thoughts, but bas giTen the a.seurance that He "rill not require of the soul save ita capacity" (21286).

Chapter Fourteen.

Can the nil promptings ot Satan be cut off entirely

by devotional exercises? The reply depends upon the nature ot the .... il suggestion. The sort which 1& clothed with a degree of truth, such ae the suggestion of pride in man's service of Allah, can be

In.

cut off by the mystic when he remembers that his bodily members and their acts are Allah's creation, and therefore nO reason for pride.

The suggestion that stirs up appetence does not entirely cease, but it is effectively warded off by remembrance when the latter is the heart'e chief concern.

Another type is an iDYoluntary thought or recollection, such as thinking of some other subject during the time of prayer. This lillY be warded off Plomentari1y, but it returns at once. It: is conceivable that it might be tept off for some little time, as is suggested in the tradition, ~ihoever prays a two-cycle prayer, without experiencing any 8uggeetions of the self about this present world during the prayer, rill have all his former sillS forgiven."

Salvation from Satan tor a moment or for an hour is possibls, but not for a litetime. ~en 1IU~d did not neape Satan's nil suggestiol18, but _s distracted during prayer by his gold ring and embroidered garment which reminded him of the attractive things of this present world.

Chapter Fifteen.

The heart of IIIln is quict to change, being susceptible to the different influences which a~ constantly brought to bear upon it. These eutice it to all eorts of good and evil. It is

lxxi.

always turning about lite a spa.rrn; boiling up like the coutents ot a cooting-pot, aDd being blown about lite a feather in the desert.

ODe type of heart il built up by·piety, purified by discipline, and thus cleared of all evil characteristics and f1zed on good. It is constantly aided by angels, aDd SataD tries in 'ftiD to deceive it. It is '-11led with saTiDg qualities and has found rest.

Another sort or heart is that which is burdened by passion, corrupted by raul actions, and stained by evil characteristics. DemoDS work their evil will therein, but angels are lamld from it. 50l1li bearts 'are in this ltate,c6eiag"tized on evil in all their desires, others in specitic desires only, as tor instance, love ot money, or' uncontrollable anger.

'ftle third sort of heart, which is that ot 1II0st I18D, is constantly swaying between the suggestion or the angel and that ot the demon, between 1ntellect and passion. Such hearts Join, nOW

to the ODe party,aDd again to the other, unt11 t1Dally their st.te ie determined by the characteristics, which, in accord with Allah's predetermined decree, are predominant in them. Allah guides

aright and leads astray. He has destined sIlme for the Garden, and others tor the i"1re. He is King of all, and none _y question Him about what Be doee.

1.

INTRODUCTION.

1 In the Dame of Allah the Kercitul, the Compassionate.

2

Praise belongs to Allah whoae majesty doth perplex the hearts 3

and thoughts of thoae "ho leek in ?ain to compreheDd it; whose

shining light at its beginning is such as to bewilder eye and

sight; who 1s acqua1Dted with all hiddeD sscretl; ~ho kDOweth

all that COD8CieDCe doth conceal; who hath DO Deed of counselor

or helper in ruling or His kingdom; the OTerturner of hearts

and the ForgiTer of ofteDses; the Concealer of faultl; the

DeliTerer trom anxieties. ADd may blessing and peace relt in abuDdance upon the chiel of the messeDgers, the uaiter ot

religion, the e%terminator of heretics, and upon his delcend-

ants, good and pure.

'l'he honor and excellence of man in which he IU:'paS-

ses all other 80rtl of creaturas i. his aptitude for knowing

Allah, who.e is the praise. 'nlis knowledge is man's beauty and perfection and glory in the preseDt world, aDd his provi-

sion and store tor the world to come. He is prepared tor thil

knowledge only through his heart, aDd Dot by meaDS of any ot

hi. members. For it is the heart which knows Allah, aDd workl

tor Allah, and striTee toward Allah, aad draW'll aear to Rim,

and reTeall that which i& in the pralence of Allah. The mem-

2.

bers ot the body, on the other hand, are mers11 fo 11 on rs ,

slaves, and instrumeDts which the heart uaes and employs as

the king uses his slave, as the shepherd mates use of his

flock, or as the craftsman uses his tool.

For it is the heart which is accepted with Allah

vhen it is tree trom all save Him, but veiled tram Allah when

it becomes wholly occupied with anything other than Him. It

is the heart upon which claims are made, with which CODverea-

tioDl are C8ITied OD, aDd with which remonstrance is made, and

.hich is punished. It ~joices in nearnass to Allah and pros-

pers it kept true, and is undone and miserable it debased and

/I

corrupted. It is that .hich in reality is obedient to Allah,

and the acts ot devotion which are minitest in the members of

fJ#

the body are but its light. It is that also which is dis-

obedient and rebellious a!&inst Allah, and the acts of turpi-

tude which course through the members are but its ettects.

By its darkening and its enlightening there appear the good

and evil qualities ot its ezternal .ppearance, since nev.ry 4-

vessel drips that which it contains. n 'ttl. heart ie that whioh,

if a man knows ~~; ~: kDowa himselt, and if he knows himself h.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I ct. QUr1an, 9119-10.

#II Following Cairo and lIS texts.

3.

5

knows his Lord. It is that which, it a man knows it not, h.

knon not himself, and it he knows not himself b. knows not hi.

Lord. He who knows not his own heart is still more ignorant ot

everything else, since the majority of mankind know not their

on hearts and their own selves, tor intervention has been _d.

between them and their own selves. For "Allah ibterveneth be-

tween a man 8.l1d his own heart" (8,24). Hie intervention con-

sists in preventing man tro= observing it (i ••• his heart),

and watching over it, and becoming acquainted with its qualities, and perceiving hoy it is turned between tyO ot the ling- 6

ers ot the Uercitul, and how at one time it lusts tor tbe lOY-

est ot the low and is brought down to the plane ot the demons; and at another time, it mounts up to the highest ot the high.

and advances to the world ot the angels who are draft near to 7

Allah (al-1Il1al ikah al-ID'..lqarni bun) • He who knowl3 nut hie

heart to watch over it and be mindful ot it, and to observe

what shiDes on it and in it ot the treasures of the unaeen 8

world ot spirits (al-malakut). he is one of those ot whom Allah 1!

has said," -they forget Allah, so He hath therefore caused them

to torget themselves. ~ey are the evil doers" (59119). Tbu.

the knowledge 0: the heart and ot the real nature of its qual-

- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

# Following cairo and MS texts.

ities is the root of religion and the foundation of the mystic

traveler's way·

9 Since we bave completed the first part of this book

which deals with those acts of worship and customs which are

~rried on by the external bodily members, which is external

#

knawledge, and since we have promised to explain in the sec-

ond part those destroying and saving qualities which come upon

the heart, which is inner knowledge, we must preface this part

with two books. One book will deal with the explanation of

the heart's qualities and chara~eristics, and the second with

the manner of disciplining the heart and improving its charlO

acteristics. After that we will Launch forth iDto a detailed

discussion of the things which destroy and save. So we shall

now mention that which can be most readily understood of the

exposition of the wonders of the heart by means of examples.

Yost intelligences are too dull to comprehend a plain Itate-

ment of its ~:=d=rs, and of its secrets which pertain to the

realm of the unseen world ot spirits.

: 5ft8 ~ya' text in It~r al-sidah, vol.i, p. 63.

5.

An Exposition at the veaning of 'soul', 'Spirit', 'Heart',

and 'Intelligence', and of the pUrport at these Names.

Know that theee are four names which are used in

these chapters. But fey of the leading savants have a comprehensive knowledge of these DameS and their different meanings,

and of the definitions ot the things Damed. Most of the lIIis-

takes regarding them originate in ignorance of the meaning ot

these names, and of the way in which they are applied to dif-

ferent objects. Werlll explain as much of the meaning ot

these names as pertains to our purpose.

One of the.. is the term 'heart' (qalb), and it is

used with two meanings. ODe ot them is the cone-shaped organ

of fleah which is located at t~~ left aide of the chest. It

is flesh of a particular sort within which there is a cavity,

and in this cavity there is black blood which is the source n

(_nba') and seat (.'dan) ot the spirit (ril}). We do not now

propos. to explain its shape nor its mode ot operation since

religious ends have no connection therewith, but only the aim 12

ot physicians. Animals and even the dead have this heart ot

flesh. WbeDever we use the term 'heart' in this book, we do

not mean this sort ot heart, for it is but an impotent bit ot

flesh, belonging to the visible material world (talam al-mulk ft.1-"hahidah), and is percoiTed by the sense of sight, by ani-

ala as well as by mankind.

The second meaning of the 'heart' 1s a subtile ten- 13

uous substance of an ethereal spiritual sort (la11fah rabbi-

Diyah ~niyah), which is connected with the physical heart.

This subtile teDUOUs substance is th~ real essence of man.

The heart is the part of man which perceives and knOW8 and ex-

parlances; it is addressed and beld responsible and rebuked,

and it has 1I0me connection with the physical heart. 'nle_-

jority of men have been mentally bewildered when they tried to

parceive the nature ot this connection. Its connection there-

with resembles the conneetion of accideDts rith substances, of

qualities with the things they quality, of the user of a tool

with the tool, or ot that which occupies a place with the place.

we rill guard against trying to explain this for two reasons, firstly, because it deals with mystical sciencee (tu1Um al-mu- 14

kishafah), aDd our aim in this book includes only the Icience

of practical religion (film al mu'imalah)1 and aecoadly, be-

cause to ascertain it calls for a disclosing of the secret of 15

the spirit (~), concerning which the Apostle or Allah, on 16

whom be the blessings and peace of Allah, did not speak, and

17

therefore no one else should speak. OUr aim then lsthis,

7.

wneaever we use the term 'heart' (qalb) in this book we .ean by

it this subtile tenuous substance. And what we propose is to IE mention its characteristics (aw,if) and states (a~.al), not its

19

real Dature (~qlqah) in itselt, for the science of practical

religion does not r~quire the mention of its real Dature.

The second term is the • spirit , (~), and it is also

used with two meanings relsvant to our purpose. On. of these

is a subtile body whose source is the cavity of the physical

heart, and which spreads by meaDS ot the pulsative arteries to 20

all the other parts of the body. Its circulation in the body

and the overflowing from it of the light ot life, sense percep-

tion, sight, hearing, and smelling to the members of the body

resemble the flood ot light trom a ~p which is moved about

throughout a house. Whenever the lamp is brought to any part

of the house it is lighted by it. Lite is like the light wbioh

falls upon the walls; the spirit is like the lamPI the circulation of the spirit aDd its movement within correspond to the

movement of the lamp throughout the house by the moving of him

who moves it. Whenevar physicians use the term 'spirit' they have in mind this meaning, which is a subtile vapour produced by the beat of the ~eart. It is not our purpose to explain

this usage of the term sine. its connections are within the

scope of physicians who treat the body. The purpose of physi-

8.

cians of religion Ybo treat the heart that it .y be led near

to the Lord ot the worlds, has no connection at all with the

explanation or this 'spirit'.

The 8econd meaning is that subtile teDQOUS substance

in _n which knOWll and perceives, which .. have already explain-

ed in one or the meanings ot the 'heart'. It is the meaning

intended by Allah in His statement,"They will aak the. ot the spirit. Says 'the spirit is 111'1 Lord's affair '". (17187). It

. 21

is a strange and lordly aftair, the real and ultimate Datura

ot which moat intelligences (tuq61) and understandings (afhim)

are unable to grasp.

22

The third term --'soul' (Da!s) partakes ot many

meanings, two ot which pertain to our purpose. By one is de-

Doted that meaning which includes both the taculty ot anger 23

(gha9ab) and or appetence (shahfth) in man, which we rill ex-

plain later. '1'his _anng predomi:aates among sGfia, tor they

mean by the 'soul' that principleLin man which includes his

blameworthy qualities (,ilit madhmUma~}. So they say, "The soul

mast be striven a~iD8t and brot.n." :his ie alluded to by the

Prophet in his statement, "Thy aoul which !a between thy ~wo 24

sides is thy worst enemy."

!be second mea Ding i8 that subtile tenuous substance eich .. have mentioned, which is _n in reality. It is the

Q

..

soul of man end his essence. But it is described by ditterent

descriptives according as its states difter. When it is at

rest under His command, and agitation bas lett it on account ot

its opposition to the fleshly appetites, it i8 called 'the loul

at rest' (al-Dafe al-~tmallDDah). Of such a soul did Allah

say, ·Oh, thou soul which art at rest, "tun to thy Lord,

plealed, and pl.asing Him" (89,27-28). The soul according to the first definition, cannot be conceived ot as retarning to

Allah for it is tar removed trom ~lah and belongs to the party of Sc.tan. 3ut ..nen the soul is not completely at rest,

but is striving to drive otf aDd oppose the appetent soul, it is called 'the upbraiding soul' (al-Dafs al-lawwamah); tor it

~pbraid8 its possessor whenever he talls short in the yorsbip

ot his vaster. .ulah said, "I swear by the upbraiding loul" (75:2). But it the loul leaves ott its opposition and becomes

lubmissive and obedient to the demandl ot the fleshly appati-

tes and the iDTitationl ot Satan, it is callid 'the loul that

I

commands to Ivil' (al-oafs al-ammirah bil-sul). Allah aaid_,

"ADd I do not acquit myself, tor verily the soul commands to eTi-l" (12153). yet it may sometimes be said, "By the 'soul

- . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

# Cairo text inserts, "relatiD,.i, the yords ot Joseph or the wit, ot the prince, •• II

that commands to evil', i8 me~ the soul according to the

first definition,· for that 'soul' is most blameworthy. But

the soul according to the second detinition is praiseworthy,

for it is man's very self, or his essence and real Dature, 25

which knows Allah aDd all other knowable things.

26

The tourth term, which is intelligence (Iaql), also

partakes of ftrious meanings which we have _DUoned in the 27

Book of Knowledge. Of these two pertain to our purpose. 'In-

telligence' may be used with the foroe of knowledge (111m) ot

the real _ture ot things, and is thus an expression tor the

quality of knowledge whose seat i8 the heart. Secondly. '1n-

telligence' may be uaed to denote that which perceives know-

ledge, or the heart in the aeDSe ot the aubtile teuuoua sub-

stanc.. And we know that every knonr has within himselt an

eDtity (wujud) which is a selt-existing principle (a,l qalim bi-Datsihi), and knowledge is a quality (,ifah) reaiding in it, and the quality is other than the thing qualified. So

'intelligence' ., be uaed as _aDing the quality of the kno .. er, and it _, be used to mean the seat ot perceptien, the mind

which perceives. The latter mea Ding 1s that referred to in

the Prophet's saying, ·'l'he tirst thins Allah created _8 btel- 28

ligen08." For knowledge i8 an accident which caDDot be cODcei-

v,d as the first created thiDgl indeed its seat must Deeds have

11.

been created betore it or along with it, and because one can-

not couverae with it (i.e. knawledge '11m). Tradition also re-

lates that He said to intelligence, -Dray near", and lt drew

near. Then He said, -Retreat", and it retreatea.

So it is noy made clear to you that there exist the

following meanings of these DameS, the corporeal heart, the

corporeal spirit, the appetent soul, and iDtelligences. These

#

are four me1Dings which are denoted by tour terms. There i.

also a fifth meaning which is that subtile tenuous 8ubstance

in man which kno .. and perceive., and all tour ot the •• Damel

are successively applied to it. There are then tive meaniDgs

and four terms, and each term is u.ed with tyO meanings.

Moat ot the learned C'ulamil) are contused in dis-

tinguishing between these terms, and in regard to their IUC-

cessive use. So you find them talking about involuntary sug- 29

gastionl (tha.atir), and laying, -This is the suggestion of

•

the intelligenCl, this is the suggestioD ot the spirit. this 1s the suggestion ot the heart, and this is the luggestlon of the soul", and the observer does not underatand the distinct-

10D in the meaDings ot these aam8S. sO tor the sake ot un-

covering this matter we have put here at the beginning an tZ-

- - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

# Following Cairo l IS text,.

12.

ple.D8.tion of these IIalIIeS' thereTer the expression 'heart I oc-

curs in the Qar1in and in the SUDDab its intended meaning 1s

that in man which discerns and comes to know tbe real Dature

ot things. 'l11is _y be alluded to by meton)'lllY as th. h.art

which is in the breast, because between that subtil. t.DUOQS

30 substance and the physical heart there is a special connectione

For although this subtile teDuous substance 1s conn.cted with

and used by the rest ot the body as well, yet this eonaeetion

1s by meaDS ot the hH.rt, .0 there tore its prilllary connection

is with the heart. It is as though the heart were its s.at. 31

its kingdom, its world, and ita mouDt. Therefore Sahl al-TUa-

tad has l:1keaed the heart to the throne and the breast to the

.eat. He said, "The heart ls the throne (farsh) and the breast

is the seat (kursl)." But it mast Dot be supposed that he

l118aDt that it is the throne ot All.:Ul and Bls seat, tor that 18

impossible, But he meant that the heart is it.Ci.e. the sub-

til~ tsuuous sUbstance'a) kingdom and the primary ehannel tor

its plauning and actiT1ty. Tbese then (l.e. tbe physical heart and ti:.e breaat) stand in the same relatiouhip to the h.a~~ (the subtile teuuou. substance) as do the throDe and seat to

32

~lah. "I'lis metaphor is appropriate only izI certain respects.

The ezpla_tioD of this is not vital to our purpose and so let

us pass it by.

13.

CHAPTER TWO

An Exposition of the Armies of the Heart.

Allah has said, -And none knoweth the armies ot thy

Lord saTe HimBelf" (74,34). For in hearts and spirits and in 33

other worlds Allah has ftarmies levied", whose nature and the

details of whose number none know. save He. We vill now refer

to some of the armies of the heart such as pertain to our

purpose.

'!he heart has two armiesl an al'lll)' seen with the eyes,

and an army seen only by insight. The heart is aa king, and

the armies are as se rTants and helpers, and this is the lIIeaD-

ing of 'army' (jund). Now its army which is visible to the

eye includes the hand, the foot, the eye, the ear, the tongue,

and the rest of the melllbers both outer and inner~ The!. ~ll

serve the heart and are in subjection thereto, aDd it has the disposition ot them, and repels for them. They were created

with an inherent disposition to obey it, and cannot disobey it

nor rebel against it. For if it orders the eye to be opened, it is opened, if it orders the foot to move, it movesl if it orders the tongue to spe~t and is fully d.t.rmined in the mat-

br, it speaks; and so alao for the rest or the I118l11bare. 111e

14.

subjection ot the members and the senses to the heart resembles, trom one poiDt ot view, th9 subjection of the angels to Allah; tor they were created with an inherent disposition to obedience, and they cannot disobey Him. "'!'hey disobey not Allab in what ge bids them, but they do what they are bidden- (6616). There 1.

however tbis one difterence that the angels know their own ohe-

dience and conformity, whereas the eyelids obey the beart in

opening and closing because they are in subjeciion to it, and

they have no knowledge ot themselves nor of ~heir obedience to

the heart.

The heart needs the.e armies because of its need tor

a vehicle, and tor provisioD: for·.:tliat journey tor which it was

created, the jouruy to Allah, and tor passiDg through its stages (maniail) uutil ae is met face to face. For this caus.

we" hearts created as Allah has said, "I have not ~reated the

jinn and mankind save that they lillY worship IN" (51,56). 'l12e

vehicle of the heart is the body alone, its prOVision is kno" ledge alODe; and the meana ot attaining the proriaioll tor the jouraey and supplying ODS 'a selt thererith 11e only in right-

eoua acta.

It is impossible for the creature to reach Allah except by dwelling in the body and passing through this pre- 34

aent world (al-dunyi), for the nearest stage must be passed

15.

through in order that the most distaDt stage may be attained. This present world is the seed-bed (malra'ah) ot the world to 35

come (al-/akhirah). aDd it is ODS of the stages ot right

guidance (hudi). It is called 'nearer' (dunyi) only beoause it

is the Dearer of the two abodes. The heart must theretore get

its supply of provision trom this world. The body is its ve-

hicle by which it COIll8S iDto C(\Dtact with this world. 'nlul the

body needs to be cared tor and preserved, and it is preserved

only by procuring for it such tood and other things as are

suitable tor it, aDd by warding ott trom it the causes ot des-

traction which are repugnant to it and destroy it.

The heart thus needs two armies in order to procure

foods an iJ1tenal army which is the appetite, and an erternal

which is the hand and the Embers which procure food. So the

needed appetites are created in the heart, and the II8mbere ot

the body are created which are the instrumeDts of the appe-

tites.

Likewise the heart needs two armies to drive off the

things which destroys aD iDternal army ot anger (gha~ab) by

which it drives ott things which destroy aDd takes ~veDge upon

its enemiel, and an estenal which is the hand and the foot by

which it carries out the dictatea of anger. This is completed

by meaDS of things outside of the body, such as weapons, etc.

16.

Then, too, the appetite for food and the means of

securing it are or no profit to him who Deeds food as long as

he bas no tnowledge ot food. So in order to gain this know-

ledge the heart needs two armiesl an interuBl armJ, which is

the perception of sight, taste, lmelling, hearing, and touch;

and an external, which is the eye, ear, nose, etc. A detail-

ed account ot the need tor these and the wisdoM in them would

be very long, and many Tolumes would not contain it. lie haTe 36 reterred to a small portion of it in the Book ot Thanksgiving,

and this will sutfice.

All the armies of the heart are limited to three

clas.e.. One clan iDcitee and instigates either to the ob-

taiD1ng ot that which is protitable and suitable, as, tor example, appetence (shalnrah); or to the warding ott ot that

which is harmful and destructive, as, tor example, anger

(gha~b). This impulse _y be called the will (iradab). The

second clase is that which mowes the members to the attain-

.ent ot the.e desired ends, and it is calle~ power (qadrah). These are armies which are ditfu.ed throughout the rest ot the

membere, especially the .sele. and sineft. Tbe third class IJ

"

ia that which perceives and gathers info~tion as apiee.

-

- - - - - - -

/I Following cairo and US texts.

17.

Theae include the power of sight, hearing, smell, taste, etc.,

.. hieh are divided among certain appoirrted member,. '11li' is

called kno .. ledge (tilm) and perception (idrik).

Corresponding to each ot these internal al'lidl8 there

are external armies .. hich are the physical member,. '!'bese are

made up of flesh, fat, DIrT., blood, and bone, which are pre-

pared e.s the 1nstruments of these armie80 'ftlus the power to

seiae lies only in the fingers, the power to see only in the

if

eye, and 80 on for the other powers. we are not now speaking

of the external arm1.es, I mean the physical members, lor they

belong to the visible material world, but rather ot thOle un-

seen arm .. by which the beart 18 helped. '11li' third ela88,

.. hieh alone of this group pe~ceives, is divided into that

.. hieh is lodg.d in the outer abodes, or the five senS8S, I

mean Mearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch. and that .. hieh

bas been l~dged in inner abodes, or the ventricles of the

brain whieh are also tive. Tbus a man after seeing an object

closes his eye and perceives its image (,urah) within himself· This is the retentive imagination (thayil). 'nUs image then

relllB.ins with him by reason of something which preserves it,

Ybieh 1s the army of memory (al-jUDd al-~fi,). He then

- - - - - - - - - - . - - - -

6 rollowing Cairo text.

18.

thiDks about "bat he bas remembered and combines part with

part, after "hich he recalls "hat he bad forgotten and it

comes back to him again. Then he gathers together 1n his re"

tentive imagiaation all the meanings of his sense impressions 37

by meaDS of the common sense (~iss mushtarak). For there are

within _n common seDse, imagination (takhayyul), reflection 38 (tafakkur), recollection (tadhakkur), and memory (~if,).

Were it not that Allah created the powers of memory, thought,

recollection, and imagination, the brain "ould be devoid of

them even as is the band and the foot. !bus these powers are

internal armies and their seats are internal.

Such then are the armies of the neart. It "ould

#

take a long time to ezplain this by citing ezamples.so that

the understanding of the .. ak could comprehend it, .hile our

purpose in such a book as this is that the strong and superior

from among the learned shall be profited thereby. yet we will

strive to make the weak understand by the citation of examples

80 that this may be brought within the range of their under ..

standing.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

# Following Cairo text.

19.

CHAP'mR THREE·

An Exposition of the Similitudes of the Heart with its

Inte 1'118.1 Armie s •

Knn that the two armies 'f anger and appetsnce are

sometimes perfectly obedient to the hsart, which helps it

along ths path it Journeys, and their companionship on the

journey which lies before it is desirable. But these two also

disobey the heart at times, in trelpass and revolt, until they gain the ~stery over it and bring it ~to subjection. This

results in destrOying it and cutUng it off from its journey

by which it might reach eterual happiness.

The heart has another army which is knowledge,

wisdom (~ikmah), and reflection, th; explanation of which will

follaw. It should gain the assistance of this army, for it is 39

the party of Allah, against the other two armies, for they _y

join themselves to the party of satan. It it neglects this

help and gives the army ot anger and appetence dominion over

itself, it will surely perish and sufter a _nifest loss. This is the state ot the majority of people, for their in-

tellects have been forced by their appetence to labor at de-

Vising stratagems to latisly the appetence, whereas appetence

should be forced by their iDtellects to labor at that which

the mind hae need of.

/I

derstanding by meaDS of three ulI.mplu.

40 Emmple One·

we will mate this clearer to your un-

We may eay that the soul (I mean by

1#1

the soul the aforementioned subtile teDUous substance) 1s like

a ruler in his city and his kingdom, for the body is the king-

dom of the eoul, its world, its abode, its city. The powers

and members of the body occupy the place of craftemen and la-

borers. The intelligent reflective power is lite the sincere

adTtsor and intelligent minieter. Appetence is like an evil

slave who brings food and prOVisions to the city. Anger and

ardor (pmiyyah) are like the chief of police. The elave who

brings the prOVisions 1s a liar, a deceiver, an impostor, and

a malicious persOD who plays the part of a sincere advisor,

while beneath his advice there is dreadful evil and deadly

poison. It is his wont and his custom to contend against

every plan which the wise minister makee, so that not even

for an hour does he cease his contentioD and opposition to his

opinions. When the ruler in his kingdom eeeks the advice ot his minister and shuni the counsel of this vile slave,iDferri~g

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

!) FollonDg Cairo text; Z. I: 115 ree.d 'heart'.

~ Following Cairo! US texts.

21.

ind.ed from his counsel that the right course is that which is

contradictory to his opinion; and the chief of police discipli-

!I

nes him and brings him under the authority of the minister and

causes him to be under his orders, empowering him on his part

over this vile slave and his followers and helpers, so that the

slave is under authority and not the possessor of it, and so

that he is subject to orders and directions and not one who

gives orders and directs; then the rule of his state 1s up- 11.

1T

right and justice is ordered because of him.

Thus when the soul seeks the aid of the intellect

and is disciplined by the ardor of anger which it empowers

over appetence, seeking the aid of one of the two against the

other; sometimes through lessening the degree and excess of

anger by making an ally of appetence and gradually modifying

it; sometimes through subduing and overcoming the appetence

by giVing anger and ardor power over it and by di8appr~ing

of ite demands; then its powers are made harmonious and its

charact.r comely. Who .... r turns aside from this path is like

uno him of whom Allah has laid, "Hast thOll leen him who tak.s

his lUlts for his god, and Allah leads him astray wittingly" (45.22). He also said, " ••• and followed his lust and his

likeness was as the likeness of a dog ••• " (7,175). Again He

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

ff FollOwing Cairo and US te%ts.

22 •

.!l Ir

said about him who restrains his soul from lust, "But as for

him who leared the dignity of his Lord, and restrained his

soul from lust, verily he shall have the Garden as his dwell-

ing place" (79140-4l). The way in which these armies strive,

and the way in which some of them are given power over others

will be told, if Allah so wills, in the Book of the Discipline

of the Soul.

Example Two· The body is like a city and the mind

('aql), I mean the perceptive power in man, is like a king who

rules over it. Its perceptive powers of the senses botb ez-

ternal and iatera&l are like to its armies and belpers. Its

members are like tbe people of the city. 'The soul which com-

1#

mands to evil', which i. appetence and anger, is like the

enemy who opposes him in his kingdom and strives to destroy

his people. His body thus becomes as it were a frontier out-

post, and hi. soul the place in which guards are stationed.

So if he is ODe who strives against the IDeDl,. and routs him and conquers him as he ought, then will his deeds be praised

in the day when he returns to the Presence (i ••• of Allah).

Aa s:ith the Kost Righ, • •••• and those who strive in Allah's

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

# Following Cairo tezt; Z omits the first clause of verse. #I ct. QUr1an, 12153.

23,

way with their wealth and their persons, Allah hath pref.rred

those who strive with ~beir wealth and their persODs above

those who sit still· (4,97). But if he losee the froutier aDd

neglects bis people, bis deeds will be blamed and vengeance

will be taken against him when he meets Allah. Tradition says,

"It will be said to bim on the day of resurrection, '0 evil

shepherd, thou didst eat meat and drink milk and didst Dot

bring back the lost nor restore tbe broken; today will I be 41

revenged a~inst thee.'· It is also to this struggle that

reference is made in the saying of the Prophet, 8We haTe re-

turned from the lesser religious warfare (jibid) to the 42

greater.·

Example Three. The intellect is like a borseman

wbo bas gone bUnting. His appetence is his horse and his

anger is his dog. iben the horseman is skilled and his horse

well broken and his dog trained and taugbt, then he is able

to succeed. But when he is himself clumsy, his horae UD-

governablo, and his dog vicious, then his horse is neither

guided under him, nor doee his dog go forth in obedience to

bis signs. 50 he himself deserves to perish rather than to

gain that which he seeks. The clumsiness of the horseman i8

like the ignorance or a man, his paucity of wisdom, and his

dim insight. The restiveness of the borse is 11ke the victory

24.

ot appetence, and especially the appetite tor food and tor

sezual indulgence. The Tioiousnes8 ot the dog is like the

#

Tictory ot anger and its domination.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

# Cairo text adds. "we ask Allah in His grace to grant us 43

success."

25.

An Exposition ot the Special Properties of the Heart ot van.

Know that Allah has bestowed on all aDimsll other

than IIIB.n all of these things which W8 have mentioned. for

animals have appetence and anger, and the senses both outer

and inner. Tbus the sheep .ees the wolf with her eye and

knows in her heart its enmity, and so flees from it. That is

an inner perception.

We rill now mention that which peculiarly character-

iles the heart of man, and because of which he bas been given

great honor and is qualified to draw near to Allah. This

special characteristic has its basis in Enowledge and rill.

By 'knowledge' is meant that knowledge which deals with the

I

things at this world and the world to come, and with intellec-

tual realities (pqil1.q taqliyyah). These things are beyond

the objects of sense perception, and animals do not share with

_n in them. Nay rather, knowledge of axioms and univenab

(al-/ulGm al-tulliyrah al-darGriyyah) 1s a peculiar property

•

of the reason. Tbull a. IIIBn judges that a single

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I Following Cairo text, Z ! US read 'of religion. '