Moment of Inertia of Cracked Section

560.325 Lecture Notes © T.
Igusa 10
III. FLEXURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS

CHAPTER 9, Sections 1–2
1. Introduction
The analysis of beams will proceed as follows:
Chapter III: Dimensioning of the concrete cross section.
Selection and placement of reinforcing steel.
Chapter IV: Shear reinforcement.
Chapter V: Bond and anchorage of rebars.
Chapter VI: Serviceability, deflections, and cracking.
2. Bending of Homogeneous Beams

For elastic analysis, the elementary equations from mechanics of materials is used:
f = My/I
f = stress
M = moment applied to the beam
I = moment of inertia of the cross section
y = distance from the neutral axis
Example 3.1
Consider a plain concrete beam that is 10 inches wide and 30 inches deep. The
strength of the concrete is given by f'c = 4000 psi and fr = 475 psi.
What is the maximum (nominal) moment that can be applied to the beam?
maximum compression strength = .85 f'c =

maximum tension strength = fr = 475 psi
moment of inertia = I = b h3 / 12 =
concrete stress = f = M y / I =
maximum (nominal) moment = Mn =

560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 11
3. Reinforced Concrete Beam Behavior

Plain concrete beams are not practical because as soon as a crack is formed, the entire
beam splits into two parts causing immediate and sudden structural failure. The
basic mechanics problem is that concrete is very weak under tension stresses.
To increase both the strength and the safety of concrete beams, reinforcing steel is
added where the stresses are in tension. The figures below illustrate how the
stresses in the beam change as the moment load is increased.
Four-point bending test
Failure configurations
Stages of stress-strain behavior

Stresses elastic and section uncracked:
h d
b
no tension cracks if: fct < fr
Stresses elastic and section cracked:
no tension stress (fct = 0) because of cracks

compression stress is linear elastic if: fc < f'c/2
steel stress is linear elastic if: εs < εy
Stresses inelastic:
steel is yielding
compression stress is inelastic
concrete is still intact
Review of section properties

Before beginning the analysis of reinforced concrete beams, some of the properties of
the cross section are reviewed.
A 1 , I1
A 2 , I2
The centeroid is given by:
y = 1 y dA
Area
y =
∑ A i yi
∑ Ai
The moment of inertia is given by:
I = (y – y )2 dA
I = ∑ Ii + ∑ A i (y – yi )2
A rectangular stress distribution can be replaced by a single force as follows:
f
a/2
a
C = abf
A triangular stress distribution can be replaced by a single force as follows:
f
a/3
a
C = a b f /2
a. Stresses elastic and section uncracked

To find the stresses in an uncracked beam, it is useful to replace the reinforced
concrete cross section with an equivalent, purely concrete, transformed section.
Basically, the steel is replaced by an equivalent amount of concrete. Since the
modulus of elasticity of steel, Es, is much larger than that of concrete, Ec, the area of
the steel must be replaced by a much larger area of concrete.
The idea of a transformed section is best explained using diagrams. First, some
definitions are introduced:
As = area of reinforcing steel (under tension)

b = width of a rectangular beam
h = total depth of a rectangular beam
d = distance from the top of the beam to the centeroid of the steel
Iut = moment of inertia of the uncracked, transformed section
fc = compression stress in the concrete

fct = tension stress in the concrete
fs = tension stress in the steel
n = Es / Ec = modular ratio
In the transformed section, the area of the steel, As, is replaced by a larger area, nAs,
of concrete. Some of the concrete "fills" the area, As, originally occupied by the steel.
The remaining concrete, which has area (n–1)As, is placed outside of the rectangular
dimensions of the beam at the centeroid of the steel.
h d
b
(n–1)A s
To prove that the transformed concrete section is equivalent section, it is

necessary only to examine the stresses at the steel:
stress at steel rebars = fs = Es εs =
total tension force

from steel rebars = stress × area =
total tension force

from equivalent
concrete area =
One important relation from the preceeding proof is:
fs = n fct (at the location of the steel, As)

Example 3.2
Consider the same concrete beam examined in Example 3.1 (10" wide, 30" deep,
f'c = 4000 psi, and fr = 475 psi). Two inches from the bottom of the beam, two
Number 9 bars are inserted. The strength of the steel is fy = 60,000 psi.
What is the largest moment that can be applied to the beam before it cracks?
Solution
First, find the modular ratio, n:
Ec = 57,000 √f'c (see page 7) =
n = Es / Ec =
Next, the basic geometric properties of the cross section are found:
No. 9 bar has dia. = 9/8 in.

The area of one bar is π (dia.)2 / 4 =
As =
A1 = b h =
A 2 = (n–1) As =
I1 = b h3 / 12 =
I2 ≈ 0 (usual approximation)
(n–1)A s
The neutral axis and uncracked moment of inertia are:
y =
∑ A i yi = A1 y1 + A2 y2 =
∑ Ai A 1 + A2
Iut = ∑ Ii + ∑ A i (y – yi )2 =
Next, the stresses are computed using the usual formula, f = M y / I :
(n–1)A s
Make sure the concrete tension stress is less than the rupture strength, fr:
fct = M y / Iut =
Make sure the steel tension stress is less than the yield strength, fy :
fs = n fct (at As) = n M y / Iut =
Make sure the concrete compression stress is less than the linear elastic limit, f'c /2:
fc = M y / Iut =
b. Stresses elastic and section cracked

To find the stresses in a cracked beam, the equivalent, purely concrete, transformed
section is still used. The difference between the analysis of cracked and uncracked
sections is that no tensile stresses are allowed in the cracked case.
The following definitions are useful:
kd = distance from the top of the beam to the neutral axis

jd = moment arm for the equivalent compression and tension forces
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked, transformed section
C = equivalent compression force in the concrete

T = equivalent tension force in the steel
M = moment applied to beam
ρ = As / bd = ratio between steel and concrete areas
Using basic principles of mechanics, it is possible to find the location of the neutral
axis, kd, and the stresses in the concrete and steel. The final results are:
k = (ρ n )2 + 2ρ n – ρ n (9-3)
j = 1 – k/3
fs = M (9-5)
As j d
fc = 2M (9-4)
k j bd2
Icr = b k2 j d3 / 2
The derivations are based on the diagram of the concrete stresses on the next page.
kd
b nA s
The properties of the two areas, A1 and A2 are:

A1 = b k d ȳ1 = k d / 2 ȳ = k d
A 2 = n As = n ρ b d ȳ2 = d
The equations for the forces and moments are:
C = area × average stress =

T = area × average stress =
M = Tjd =
= Cjd =
Equation (9-3) for the neutral axis is derived from the following:
y =
∑ A i yi =
A1 y1 + A2 y2
or ȳ ( A1 + A2 ) = A1 ȳ1 + A2 ȳ2
∑ Ai A 1 + A2
It is necessary to substitute the terms for A1, A2, ȳ1, ȳ2, and ȳ:
kd ( bkd + nρbd ) = bkd ( kd/2 ) + nρbd ( d )

Example 3.3
f'c = 4000 psi, fr = 475 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, two No. 9 bars 2" from bottom).
Determine the maximum moment that can be carried without stressing the concrete
beyond f'c/2 or the steel beyond fy/2.
Solution
First, the neutral axis is determined:
ρ = As / bd =
ρn =
k = (ρ n )2 + 2ρ n – ρ n =
kd =
j = 1 – k/3 =
Then, the maximum stresses in the steel and concrete are found:
fs = M =
As j d
fc = 2M =
k j bd2
Just for checking, the stresses are recalculated using the cracked moment of inertia,
Icr, and the usual stress formula, f = My/I:
Icr = b k2 j d3 / 2 =
fc = M y / Icr =
fs = n fct (at As) = n M y / Icr =

4. Design of Tension-Reinforced Rectangular Beams

CHAPTER 4, Sections 1–2, 3 (up to "Upper Limit ...", Example 4-2, skip SI units), 4.
In this section, the strength of rectangular beams is analyzed and a design method is
developed. The strength capacity is the maximum moment a beam can handle
before it becomes essentially destroyed.
A fundamental assumption is that the steel is yielding and the concrete strains are
not high enough to cause crushing. To make sure this type of failure occurs, the
steel ratio must be less than the so-called balanced steel ratio, i.e., ρ ≤ ρb.
The analysis is more difficult than in Section 3 because the concrete stresses are no
longer linear. This means that the linear relation between stress and strain is no
longer valid, i.e., fc ≠ Ec εc. However, researchers have found a moderately simple
approximation for beam analysis which closely agrees with experiments. This
approximation is presented in the following.
a. Equivalent rectangular stress distribution
The concrete stresses just before the beam fails has a nonlinear distribution. To
make the analysis relatively simple, the nonlinear stresses are replaced with an
equivalent rectangular (constant) stress distribution. The magnitude and location of
the equivalent stress distribution is defined in the diagram below.
ACTUAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION
d c
EQUIVALENT STRESS DISTRIBUTION
a/2
a
c
d
d – a/2
The relationship between the distance to the neutral axis, c, and the depth of the
stress distribution, a, is given by:
Equivalent stress parameters
a = β1 c
0.85, if f'c ≤ 4000 psi;
β1 = 0.85 – 0.05(f'c – 4000)/1000, if 4000 psi ≤ f'c ≤ 8000 psi; (4-8)
0.65, if 8000 psi ≤ f'c
With the preceding information, it is now possible to derive the following:
Location of the neutral axis

A s fy ρ fy d
a = = (4-11, 4-14a)
0.85f'c b 0.85 f'c
c = a / β1
Maximum nominal moment
M n = As fy (d – a/2) = R b d2 (4-12a)
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59
f'c
design strength = φ Mn = 0.9 Mn
Minimum and maximum values for the steel ratio, ρ

ρ min ≤ ρ ≤ ρ max
ρmin = 200 / fy (f'c < 4440psi) or ρmin = 3 f' c / fy (f'c > 4440psi) (4-31)
ρmax = 0.75 ρb
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
To determine the location of the neutral axis, it is necessary only to enforce

equilibrium. The equivalent forces, C and T, are:
C = compression stress × area =

T = tensile stress × area =
Solving for a:
a =
The maximum nominal moment is obtained from statics:
M n = force × moment arm =
b. Balanced steel ratio

The balanced steel ratio, ρ b , is the steel ratio where the concrete crushes and the
steel yields at the same time. For other steel ratios, we have:
ρ < ρb under-reinforced, εs > εy steel yields before concrete crushes
ρ > ρb over-reinforced, εs < εy concrete crushes before steel yields
The analytical formula for ρb is derived by looking at the strains instead of the
stresses. The strains we are interested are:
εu = 0.003 compressive strain where concrete crushes
εy = fy / Ey = fy / 29,000,000 tensile strain where steel yields
Using similar triangles, we find the following ratios where the maximum concrete
strain is εc = εu and the steel strain is εs = εy:
c. Under-reinforced beams
If the steel ratio, ρ, is less than the balanced steel ratio, ρb, then the beam is
under-reinforced, and the steel will yield before the concrete crushes. However, if
the steel ratio is larger than ρb, then the beam is over-reinforced, and the concrete
will crush before the steel yields. As explained in Section 3 (page 11), yielding steel
makes the beam fail slowly with large deflections, while crushing concrete makes
the beam fail explosively with immediate, catostrophic collapse.
To allow for possible variations in the concrete and steel properties, it is safer to
make ρ significantly less than ρb. The ACI Code gives the following design limit:
ρ ≤ ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Thus, the steel ratio must be at least 25% less than the balanced steel ratio.
d. Minimum steel ratio
If the moment capacity of an uncracked beam (Section 3a) is greater than the
moment capacity of a cracked beam (Section 4), then the beam will fail as soon as a
crack is formed. This type of failure is not as catostrophic as concrete crushing,
because the steel will still yield. However, it is sudden, because it will occur
immediately after the concrete cracks.
To eliminate this possibility, the ACI Code gives a lower limit for the steel ratio:
ρ ≥ ρ min where
e. Examples of rectangular beam review and design

There are two type of problems to consider:
Review is where the beam dimensions and reinforcing steel sizes are given, and
the beam strength is to be computed. Review is very straightforward since it is
necessary only to "plug in" the dimensions into a set of formulas.
Design is where the required beam strength (or load) is given, and the
dimensions of the beam and reinforcing steel are determined. Design is more
challenging than review for two reasons: First, it may be necessary to iterate to
find the optimal beam dimensions. Second, there is, in general, no unique
solution to the problem.
In the following are examples of review and design problems.

Example 3.4. Review of a tension-reinforced beam.

f'c = 4000 psi, fr = 475 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, two No. 9 bars 2" from bottom).
Determine the maximum nominal moment, Mn , and the design strength, φM n .
Solution
First, the steel ratio must be checked against the limits, ρmin and ρmax :
ρ = As/bd = 2.00 / ( 10 × 28 ) = 0.00714
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
ρmax = 0.75 ρb =
Then, the nominal moment and design strength are computed:

As fy
a = = (4-11)
0.85f' c b
Mn = As fy (d – a/ 2) = (4-12a)
design strength = φ Mn = 0.9 Mn =
Summary of Examples 3.1 to 3.4.
Example neutral axis moment stresses (ksi)

(inches) (kip-inch) concrete (fc) steel (fs)
3.1 No steel h /2 = 15.0 713 0.3

3.2 Uncracked y = 15.6 817 0.5 3.3
3.3 Cracked, elastic kd = 8.0 1,520 1.5 30.0
3.4 Inelastic a = 3.5 3,150 3.4 60.0
Design 2,830
Basic design steps

There are two sets of well-defined steps which can be used in design. The objective
is to satisfy the strength equation,
(4-16)
M u ≤ φ M n = φ R b d2
The design is based on the strengths of the concrete and steel, as defined by f'c and fy,
and the factored load, Mu.
DESIGN WITH SPECIFIC CONCRETE DIMENSIONS

1. Choose the beam width, b, and effective depth, d, using the following rules:
a. The total depth, h, and width, b, are in even inches.
b. The difference between d and h is usually:
h – d = 2.5 in. for a single layer of steel bars;
h – d = 4.0 in. for a double layer of steel bars.
c. The effective depth, d, is usually 2 to 3 times the width, b.
Find the required value for R corresponding to b and d:
R = Mu / φ b d2
2a. Substitute the preceding value for the equation for R on page 22. The result is a
quadratic equation with unknown, ρ. The smallest of the two solutions for the
steel ratio, ρ, is the correct solution.
2b. Check the steel ratio with the minimum and maximum values:
ρ min ≤ ρ ≤ ρ max
Use the equations on the bottom of page 22.
3. Calculate the required area of steel, As = ρbd. Use Table A-8 (pg. 874) to find
suitable rebars. Preference is for fewer and same-sized bars. The rebars should
be symmetrically placed (in both size and location). For close cases, redo step 2b.
4. Use Table A-6 (pg. 870) to check for placement and concrete cover.
DESIGN WITH AN INITIAL STEEL RATIO

1'. Find the balanced steel ratio, ρb, using equation (4-25). Then choose an initial
value for the steel ratio ρ. An economical and practical choice is ρ = 0.5ρb.
2'. Find the corresponding value for R using the equation on page 22.
3'. Solve the strength equation in terms of bd2:
b d2 ≥ Mu / φ R
Find b and d which satisfies the above. Then follow the preceding steps for
"design with specific concrete dimensions".
Example 3.5. Design of a tension-reinforced beam.

A rectangular, tension-reinforced beam is to be designed for dead load of 1400 lb/ft
plus self weight and service live load of 800 lb/ft, with a 20 ft simple span. Material
strengths will be fy = 60 ksi and f'c = 5 ksi for steel and concrete respectively. The
total beam depth (h) must not exceed 20 in. Calculate the required beam width and
tensile steel requirement, using a steel ratio of 0.5 ρb. The effective depth (d) may be
assumed at 2.5 in. less than the total depth (h).
For the first iteration, assume the self weight is 100 lb/ft.
Solution
Before proceeding with the design steps, it is necessary to find the load.
wd = 1400 + 100 = 1500 lb/ft,

w l = 800 lb/ft
w u = 1.4 wd + 1.7 wl = 1.4 (1500) + 1.7 (800) = 3460 lb/ft = 3.46 k/ft
M u = wu L2 / 8 = 3.46 (20)2 / 8 = 173 k-ft
Also, it is useful to find the parameter using equation (4-8):
β1 = 0.85 – 0.05 (f'c – 4000)/1000 =
The design then proceeds as follows:

1'. Find the balanced steel ratio, ρb, using equation (4-25).
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c =
fy 87,000 + fy
Then choose an initial value for the steel ratio ρ.
ρ = 0.5 ρb =
2'. Find the corresponding value for R using the equation on page 22.
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59 =
f'c
3'. Solve the strength equation in terms of bd2:

b d2 ≥ Mu / φ R =
Find b and d which satisfies the above. Since h ≤ 20" and h = d + 2.5", we know
that d ≤ 17.5". Use d = 17.5" and solve for b:
Then check the weight and repeat any necessary calculations.
weight per foot = area (ft2) × 145 pcf = bh (ft2) × 145 pcf =
wd =
w u = 1.4 wd + 1.7 wl =
M u = wu L2 / 8 =
b d2 ≥ Mu / φ R =
Next follow the steps for "design with specific concrete dimensions".
1. Find the required value for R corresponding to b and d:

R = Mu / φ b d2 =
2a. Substitute the preceding value for R into the equation on page 22. The result is
a quadratic equation with unknown, ρ. The smallest of the two solutions for
the steel ratio, ρ, is the correct solution.
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59 =
f'c
2b. Check the steel ratio with the maximum and minimum values:
ρmax = 0.75 ρb = 0.75 × 0.0335 = 0.0251

ρ min = 3 f' c / fy = 3 × 5000 / 60,000 = 0.00354 (4-31)
3. Calculate the required area of steel, As = ρbd. Use Table A-8 to find suitable
rebars. Preference is to fewer and same-sized bars. In any case, the rebars should
be symmetrically placed (in both size and location). For close cases, redo step 2b.
As = ρbd =
4. Use Table A-6 to check for placement and concrete cover. A well-drawn
diagram is essential, particularly in professional practice.
5. Design Aids
There are many tables which can be used to simplify some of the calculations.
However, some of the tables require interpolation, which requires as much work as
solving the original analytical expressions. The following tables can be used:
TABLE A-8 Areas of groups of standard bars, in2

This table is used to select the number and sizes of steel rebars which will fulfill
the required steel area, As. To explain the columns A, B, C, the second row of
entries for the areas is examined. Under columns A, 0.40 is for two No. 4, 1.40 is
for two+five No. 4, 0.51 is for two No. 4 + one No. 3, 0.62 is for two No. 4 + two
No. 3. Column C is similar to Column B.
TABLE A-6 Maximum number of bars as a single layer in beam stems

This table gives an estimate of how many steel rebars will fit in a single layer in a
beam with width bw . For most cases (unless stated otherwise) the maximum
aggregate size will be 3/4 in.. Columns A, B, C are interpreted as in Table A-8.
6. Practical Considerations in the Design of Beams

a. Concrete protection for reinforcement
The outermost steel must be protected against fire and corrosion. Fortunately,
concrete provides excellent insulation for fire, and is reasonably good in keeping out
water and oxygen to prevent corrosion.
The minimum distances between the outermost steel and the surface of the concrete
are as follows:
CAST IN PLACE
3/4 in. slabs & walls
1-1/2 in. beams & columns
CAST IN PLACE,
EXPOSED TO WEATHER OR GROUND
1-1/2 in. No. 5 & smaller
2 in. No. 6 & larger
CAST IN GROUND WITOUT FORMS

3 in. All cases
Some commonly used dimensions are given below for slabs and beams:
SLABS
No. 3 ~ 4 bars
Depth is:
. . . 4.5", 5", 5.5", 6", 7", 8", . . .
Required cover is 3/4 in.
BEAM WITH STIRRUPS

No. 3 stirrups
No. 4 ~ 10 bars
b & h are in even inches
Required cover is 1-1/2 in.
b. Concrete proportions
The usual effective depth, d, of a beam is about 2 to 3 times the width b (or bw for T-
beams). However, architectural or construction considerations may place limits on
either d or b or both.
c. Selections of bars and bar spacing

The steel rebars should always be symmetric with respect to the vertical centerline of
a beam or column. Different sizes of bars can be used in a single layer, but the
difference between the size numbers should be 2 or less. For example, No. 10 and
No. 8 bars can be used in a single layer, but No. 10 and No. 7 bars cannot.
The two large sized rebars, No. 15 and No. 18, are used mainly in columns.
The minimum distances between the rebars are:
BEAMS COLUMNS
1 in.
bar diameter, 1.5 bar diameters,

or 1 in. or 1.5 in.
These distance requirements limits the number of rebars that can be fit into a single
layer. Table A-6 can be used as a rough estimate of the maximum number of rebars.
7. Rectangular Beams with Tension & Compression

Reinforcement
For added strength, steel can also be added to the compression side of a beam. In this
section, it is shown how this compression reinforcement will affect the moment
capacity of the beam.
Detail derivations for the beam strength formulas are given in the textbook. The
notes will emphasize physical behavior rather than mathematical analysis.
First, some definitions are needed:
A' s = area of reinforcing steel (under compression)

d' = distance from the top to the centeroid of the compression steel
ε's = strain in the compression steel
f' s = stress in the compression steel
ρ' = A's / bd = ratio between compression steel and concrete areas
As in Section 4, the the equivalent stress distribution is used in the analysis:
0.85 f'c εu = 0.003

d' a
c
d
f s= f y
εs ≥ ε y
assume tension
b steel is yielding
0.85 f'c
C = 0.85 f'c ab
a d'
d d – d' d – a/2
A sf y
It is clear from the preceding diagram that the total moment of the beam is:
Mn = 0.85 f'c ab ( d – a/2 ) + A's f's ( d – d' ) (5-18)
There are two unknowns in the above: the compression steel stress, f's, and the
depth of the equivalent stress, a. These parameters are given by:
CASE I: Compression steel is yielding, ρ ≥ ρ̄cy

f's = fy
( As – A' s )fy ( ρ – ρ' ) fy d

a = = (5-11a)
0.85f 'c b 0.85 f 'c
CASE II: Compression steel is not yielding, ρ < ρ̄cy
f's = εu Es ( c – d' ) / c
a = β1 c
The distance to the neutral axis, c, is determined by the quadratic equation:
0.85 β1 f'c b c2 – As fy c + A's εu Es ( c – d' ) = 0 (5-17)
STEEL RATIOS
For both cases, the critical compression steel ratio, ρ̄cy, is given by
f' 87,000
ρcy = 0.85 β1 c d' + ρ' (alternative to 5-4)
fy d 87,000 – fy
Furthermore, it is assumed that the tension steel is always yielding. This is true
only if the compression steel ratio, ρ, is less than the balanced steel ratio, ρ̄b
ρ̄ b = ρb + ( f's / fy ) ρ' (5-15b)
The ACI Code restriction for the compression steel ratio is
ρmin ≤ ρ ≤ ρmax = 0.75 ρb + ( f's / fy ) ρ'
In the above, ρmin and ρb are as in Section 4:
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
DERIVATIONS
CASE I: Assume the compression steel is yielding.
If f's = fy, then the only unknown is the parameter a. It is found from equilibrium
of the forces for the moment Mn2 :
C = 0.85 f'c a b = Asfy – A'sf's =
CASE II: Assume the compression steel is not yielding.

Here, there are two unknowns, and it is necessary to examine the strains. From
similar triangles, the ratio of concrete and compression steel strains is:
ε's
=
εu
Since the compression steel is not yielding, the following linear relation holds:
f's = ε's Es =
This expression for f's is substituted into the equilibrium equation:
C = 0.85 f'c a b = Asfy – A'sf's =
Finally, the preceding equation is multiplied by c and the relation a = β1c is used:
0.85 f'c β1 c2 b =
EFFECT OF TENSION STEEL RATIO

It is important to understand how the tension steel affects the strains and stresses in
the concrete and steel. To satisfy the equilibrium of forces, an increase in the
tension steel ratio, ρ, will cause an increase in the compression steel strain, ε's. At a
sufficiently high steel ratio, ρ ≥ ρ̄cy, the compression steel will yield, ε's ≥ εy.
STEPS FOR REVIEW OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
1. Find the balanced moment, ρb, using equation (4-25).
2. Check if it is necessary to include the effect of the compression steel area, A's.
If ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb: Ignore A's and use equations on page 22.
If ρ > 0.75 ρb: Continue with the steps below.
3. Find the critical ratio, ρ̄cy, using equation (5-4).
4. Find the compression steel stress, f's, and the depth of the stress distribution, a.
If ρ ≥ ρ̄cy: This is Case I, with f's = fy.
Find a using equation (5-11a).
If ρ < ρ̄cy: This is Case II, with f's < fy.
First solve for c using equation (5-17).
Use a = β1 c.
Then find f's using the on page 33.
5. Check if ρmin ≤ ρ ≤ ρmax = 0.75 ρb + ( f's / fy ) ρ'.
6. Find the nominal moment, Mn , using equation (5-18).

As usual, the design strength is φM n = 0.9Mn.
Example 3.6. Review of a doubly reinforced beam.

A rectangular concrete beam measures 14" wide
and has an effective depth of 20". Compression d'
steel consisting of three No. 9 bars is located 2.5"
from the compression face. If f'c = 3000 psi and
d
fy = 60,000 psi, what is the design moment capacity
of the beam, according to the ACI Code, for
tension steel consisting of six No. 9 bars?
Solution
b
The basic parameters of the beam are:
As = 6 in2, ρ = As / bd =
A's = 3 in2, ρ' = A's / bd =
1. Find the balanced moment:

f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c = 0.85 × 0.85 × 3 87 = 0.0214 (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy 60 87 + 60
2. Check if it is necessary to include the effect of the compression steel area, A's:
0.75ρb =
3. Find the critical steel ratio:

f' 87,000
ρcy = 0.85 β1 c d' + ρ' =
fy d 87,000 – fy
4. Since ρ < ρ̄ cy, this is Case II, with f's < fy.
The distance to the neutral axis, c, is determined by the quadratic equation:
0.85 β1 f'c b c2 – As fy c + A's εu Es ( c – d' ) = 0 (5-17)
The stress on the compression steel is:

f's = εu Es ( c – d' ) / c =
The depth of the equivalent stress is:

a = β1 c =
5. Check if ρmin ≤ ρ ≤ ρmax :
ρmin = 200 / fy = 200 / 60,000 = 0.0033

ρmax = 0.75 ρb + ( f's / fy ) ρ' =
6. Finally, the nominal moment is:

M n = 0.85 f'c ab ( d – a/2 ) + A's f's ( d – d' )
As usual, the design strength is φM n = 0.9Mn =

Recall that the design strength without compression steel is: φM n = 4840 k-in.
See Example 5-6 in the text (pp. 168-170) for Case II: ρ ≥ ρ̄cy.
8. T Beams
Most reinforced concrete floors, roofs, and decks are cast in one step. In particular,
beams are integrated into floor slabs as shown below. The basic dimensions are:
hf = floor slab thickness

bw = beam web width
b = effective flange width
L = beam span length
a. Effective flange width

According to the ACI Code, the effective flange width, b, is given by:
b = minimum of: L/4

16 hf + bw
center-to-center distance between beam webs
b. Strength analysis
If the depth of the equivalent stress block is less than the thickness of the slab, a ≤ hf,
then the T-beam can be replaced by a rectangular beam with width b, as shown
below. For such cases, the analysis of the preceding sections would be unchanged.
f s= f y
If a > hf, then it is necessary to express the nominal moment as a sum of two
moments, as shown in the diagrams below. The following definitions are used:
As = total area of tension steel (in the web)
Asf = area of tension steel which balances the flange compression force
ρw = As / bwd = steel ratio for the steel in the web
ρf = Asf / bwd = steel ratio for the steel area, Asf
ρ = As / bd = steel ratio for the equivalent rectangular beam
0.85 f'c εu = 0.003
a
c
d
f s= f y
0.85 f'c
f s= f y
0.85 f'c
f s= f y
It is clear from the preceding diagram that the total moment of the beam is:
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2 = Asf fy ( d – hf/2 ) + 0.85 f'c bw a ( d – a/2 ) (5-5)
There are two unknowns in the above: the steel area, Asf, and the depth of the
equivalent stress block, a. These parameters are given by:
f'
Asf = 0.85 c ( b – bw ) hf (5-1b)
fy
( As – Asf ) fy
a = (5-3)
0.85f 'c bw
The ACI Code restriction for the compression steel ratio is
ρmin ≤ ρw ≤ ρmax = 0.75 ( ρb + ρf )
In the above, ρmin and ρb are as in Section 4:
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
c. Proportions of cross sections

The slab thickness, hw , is usually determined by the loads on the slab. The web
dimensions are determined by the following three criteria:
1. To keep the steel ratio, ρw , within the ACI Code limits.
2. To keep the shear stresses small (to be examined in Chapter IV).
3. For resisting negative moments at the supports.
d. Examples of review and design of T beams

The basic steps for review and design are given next. An review example is in
Example 3.13 in the text. A design example is given in the following.
STEPS FOR REVIEW OF T BEAMS

1. Find the effective flange width, b, using the ACI Code equations.
2. Assume that a ≤ hf and do the analysis of rectangular beams in Section 4.
3. If the assumption, a ≤ hf, is valid, then stop.
If a > hf, then use the preceding T beam equations.
STEPS FOR DESIGN OF T BEAMS

2. Assume that a ≤ hf and do the design of rectangular beams in Section 4 (page 26).

If a > hf, then continue the design.
4. Find the area Asf using equations (5-16).
5. Set the design strength equal to the factored moment, φM n = Mu, using
equation (5-5). This is a quadratic equation which must be solved to find the
unknown parameter, a.
6. Use equation (5-3) to find the required tension steel area, As.
7. Check if ρmin ≤ ρw ≤ ρmax = 0.75 ( ρb + ρf ).
8. Use Table A-8 to find suitable rebars.
9. Use Table A-6 to check for placement and concrete cover.
Example 3.7. Design of a T beam.

A T beam is to be designed for a moment of 6400 k-in. Material strengths will be fy =
60 ksi and f'c = 3 ksi for steel and concrete respectively. The beam span length is L =
24 ft, the webs are spaced 47 in apart, and the floor slab thickness is hf = 3 in. The
beam web dimensions are bw = 11 in and d = 20 in.
Calculate the required tensile steel requirement.
Solution
b = minimum of: L/4 =

16 hf + bw =
center-to-center distance between beam webs =
2. Assume that a ≤ hf and do the design of rectangular beams in Section 4:
Find the required value for R corresponding to b and d:
R = Mu / φ b d2 =
Substitute the preceding value for R into the equation on page 22. The result
is a quadratic equation with unknown, ρ. The smallest of the two solutions
for the steel ratio, ρ, is the correct solution.
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59 =
f'c
Solve for the equivalent stress block depth, a:
ρ fy d
a = =
0.85f' c

If a > hf, then continue the design.
4. Find the area Asf using equations (5-16).
f'
Asf = 0.85 c ( b – bw ) hf =
fy
Asf
ρf = =
bw d
5. Set the design strength equal to the factored moment, Mu = φM n, using

equation (5-5). This is a quadratic equation which must be solved to find the
unknown parameter, a.
Mu / φ = Mn = Asf fy ( d – hf/2 ) + 0.85 f'c bw a ( d – a/2 ) (5-5)
6. Use equation (5-3) to find the required tension steel area, As.
( As – Asf ) fy
a = =
0.85f 'c bw
7. Check if ρmin ≤ ρw ≤ ρmax:

ρmin = 200 / fy = 200 / 60,000 = 0.00333
ρb = 0.0214 (balanced steel ratio, calculated from equation 4-25)
ρmax = 0.75 ( ρb + ρf ) =
8. Use Table A-8 to find suitable rebars.
9. Use Table A-6 to check for placement and concrete cover.

Moment of Inertia of Cracked Section

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560.325 Lecture Notes © T.

III. FLEXURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS

2. Bending of Homogeneous Beams

maximum compression strength = .85 f'c =

maximum (nominal) moment = Mn =

3. Reinforced Concrete Beam Behavior

Stages of stress-strain behavior

no tension stress (fct = 0) because of cracks

Review of section properties

The centeroid is given by:

The moment of inertia is given by:

A rectangular stress distribution can be replaced by a single force as follows:

A triangular stress distribution can be replaced by a single force as follows:

a. Stresses elastic and section uncracked

As = area of reinforcing steel (under tension)

fc = compression stress in the concrete

To prove that the transformed concrete section is equivalent section, it is

stress at steel rebars = fs = Es εs =

total tension force

total tension force

One important relation from the preceeding proof is:

fs = n fct (at the location of the steel, As)

No. 9 bar has dia. = 9/8 in.

The neutral axis and uncracked moment of inertia are:

Next, the stresses are computed using the usual formula, f = M y / I :

fs = n fct (at As) = n M y / Iut =

b. Stresses elastic and section cracked

kd = distance from the top of the beam to the neutral axis

C = equivalent compression force in the concrete

ρ = As / bd = ratio between steel and concrete areas

The properties of the two areas, A1 and A2 are:

The equations for the forces and moments are:

C = area × average stress =

kd ( bkd + nρbd ) = bkd ( kd/2 ) + nρbd ( d )

fs = n fct (at As) = n M y / Icr =

4. Design of Tension-Reinforced Rectangular Beams

ACTUAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION

EQUIVALENT STRESS DISTRIBUTION

0.85, if f'c ≤ 4000 psi;

β1 = 0.85 – 0.05(f'c – 4000)/1000, if 4000 psi ≤ f'c ≤ 8000 psi; (4-8)

0.65, if 8000 psi ≤ f'c

With the preceding information, it is now possible to derive the following:

Location of the neutral axis

Maximum nominal moment

design strength = φ Mn = 0.9 Mn

Minimum and maximum values for the steel ratio, ρ

To determine the location of the neutral axis, it is necessary only to enforce

C = compression stress × area =

The maximum nominal moment is obtained from statics:

M n = force × moment arm =

b. Balanced steel ratio

e. Examples of rectangular beam review and design

In the following are examples of review and design problems.

Example 3.4. Review of a tension-reinforced beam.

ρ = As/bd = 2.00 / ( 10 × 28 ) = 0.00714

Then, the nominal moment and design strength are computed:

design strength = φ Mn = 0.9 Mn =

Summary of Examples 3.1 to 3.4.

Example neutral axis moment stresses (ksi)

3.1 No steel h /2 = 15.0 713 0.3

Basic design steps

DESIGN WITH SPECIFIC CONCRETE DIMENSIONS

DESIGN WITH AN INITIAL STEEL RATIO