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In general,
Transfer characteristic
A typical voltage characteristic showing how the output Vo varies with
the input (V2 –V1)is shown in Figure 18.2. It is seen from Figure 18.2 that
only within the very small input range P0Q is the output directly
proportional to the input; it is in this range that the op amp behaves linearly
and there is minimum distortion of the amplifier output. Inputs outside the
linear range cause saturation and the output is then close to the maximum
value, i.e. +VS or -VS. The limited linear behaviour is due to the very high open-loop gain Ao, and the higher it is
the greater is the limitation.
Negative feedback
Operational amplifiers nearly always use negative feedback, obtained by feeding back some, or all, of the output
to the inverting (-) input. The feedback produces an output voltage that opposes the one from which it is taken.
This reduces the new output of the amplifier and the resulting closed-loop gain A is then less than the open-loop
gain Ao. However, as a result, a wider range of voltages can be applied to the input for amplification. As long as
Ao×A, negative feedback gives:
(i) a constant and predictable voltage gain A, (ii) reduced distortion of the output, (iii) better frequency response.
The advantages of using negative feedback outweigh the accompanying loss of gain which is easily increased by
using two or more op amp stages.
Bandwidth
The open-loop voltage gain of an op amp is not constant at all frequencies;
because of capacitive effects it falls at high frequencies. Figure 18.3 shows
the gain/bandwidth characteristic of a 741 op amp. At frequencies below 10
Hz the gain is constant, but at higher frequencies the gain falls at a constant
rate of 6 dB/octave (equivalent to a rate of 20 dB per decade) to 0 dB. The
gain-bandwidth product for any amplifier is the linear voltage gain multiplied
by the bandwidth at that gain. The value of frequency at which the open-loop
gain has fallen to unity is called the transition frequency fT.
Slew rate
The slew rate of an op amp is the maximum rate of change of output
voltage following a step input voltage. Figure 18.4 shows the effects of
slewing; it causes the output voltage to change at a slower rate that the
input, such that the output waveform is a distortion of the input
waveform. 0.5 V/ s is a typical value for the slew rate.
Amplifier gain
In an ideal op amp two assumptions are made, these being that:
(i) each input draws zero current from the signal source, i.e. their input impedance’s are infinite, and
(ii) the inputs are both at the same potential if the op amp is not saturated, i.e. VA = VB in Figure 18.5.
In Figure 18.5, VB = 0, hence VA = 0 and point X is called a virtual earth.
Thus
However, I1 D I2 from assumption (i) above.
Hence the negative sign showing that Vo is negative when Vi is positive, and vice versa.
Input impedance
Since point X is a virtual earth (i.e. at 0 V), Ri may be considered to be connected between the inverting (-) input
terminal and 0 V. The input impedance of the circuit is therefore Ri in parallel with the much greater input
impedance of the op amp, i.e. effectively Ri. The circuit input impedance can thus be controlled by simply
changing the value of Ri.
18.4 Op amp non-inverting amplifier
The basic circuit for a non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 18.7 where the input voltage Vi (a.c. or d.c.) is
applied to the non-inverting (+) terminal of the op amp. This produces an output Vo that is in phase with the input.
Negative feedback is obtained by feeding back to the inverting (-) terminal, the fraction of Vo developed across Ri
in the voltage divider formed by Rf and Ri across Vo
Amplifier gain
In Figure 18.7, let the feedback factor,
It may be shown that for an amplifier with open-loop gain Ao, the closedloop voltage gain A is given by:
For a typical op amp, Ao = 105, thus βAo is large compared with 1, and the above expression approximates to:
Hence
Again, the gain depends only on the values of Ri and Rf and is independent of the open-loop gain Ao
Input impedance
Since there is no virtual earth at the non-inverting (+) terminal, the input impedance is much higher (typically 50
MΩ) than that of the inverting amplifier. Also, it is unaffected if the gain is altered by changing Rf and/or Ri. This
non-inverting amplifier circuit gives good matching when the input is supplied by a high impedance source.
Hence
…………………(8)
The three input voltages are thus added and amplified if Rf is greater than each of the input resistors; ‘weighted’
summation is said to have occurred.
Alternatively, the input voltages are added and attenuated if Rf is less than each input resistor.
For example, if Rf / R1= 4, Rf / R2 = 3 and Rf / R3 = 1 and V1 = V2 = V3 = +1V, then
= - (4 + 3 + 1) = - 8V
If R1 = R2 = R3 = Ri, the input voltages are amplified or attenuated equally, and
Vo = Ao (V2 -V1)
When V2 > V1 then Vo is positive, its maximum value being the positive supply voltage +Vs, which it has when (V2
- V1) ≥ Vs/Ao. The op amp is then saturated. For example, if Vs = +9V and Ao = 105, then saturation occurs when
(V2 - V1) ≥ 9/105 i.e. when V2 exceeds V1 by 90 μV and Vo ≈ 9V.
When V1 > V2, then Vo is negative and saturation occurs if V1 exceeds V2 by Vs/Ao i.e. around 90 μV in the above
example; in this case, Vo ≈-Vs = -9V.
A small change in (V2 - V1) therefore causes Vo to switch between near +Vs and near to -Vs and enables the op amp
to indicate when V2 is greater or less than V1, i.e. to act as a differential amplifier and compare two voltages. It
does this in an electronic digital voltmeter.
18.8 Op amp integrator
The circuit for the op amp integrator shown in Figure 18.14 is the same as
for the op amp inverting amplifier shown in Figure 18.5, but feedback
occurs via a capacitor C, rather than via a resistor.
The output voltage is given by:
Since the inverting (-) input is used in Figure 18.15, Vo is negative if Vi is positive, and vice versa, hence the
negative sign in equation (9). Since X is a virtual earth in Figure 18.14, i.e. at 0V, the voltage across R is Vi and
that across C is Vo. Assuming again that none of the input current I enters the op amp inverting (-) input, then all of
current I flows through C and charges it up. If Vi is constant, I will be a constant value given by I = Vi/R.
Capacitor C therefore charges at a constant rate and the potential of the output side of C (=Vo, since its input side is
zero) charges so that the feedback path absorbs I. If Q is the charge on C at time t and the p.d. across it (i.e. the
output voltage) changes from 0 to Vo in that time then:
Q = -VoC = It
i.e. -VoC = (Vi/R)*t
i.e. Vo = -(1/CR)*Vi*t
This result is the same as would be obtained from Vo = -(1/CR)∫Vi dt if Vi is a constant value.
For example, if the input voltage Vi = -2V and, say, CR = 1 s, then
Vo = -(-2)t = 2t
A graph of Vo/t will be a ramp function as shown in Figure 18.15 (Vo = 2t
is of the straight line form y = mx + c; in this case y = V o and x = t,
gradient, m = 2 and vertical axis intercept c = 0). Vo rises steadily by +2V/s
in Figure 18.15, and if the power supply is, say, ±9V, then Vo reaches +9V
after 4.5 s when the op amp saturates.
(ii) By similar reasoning, if V2 is applied to terminal 2 and 0V to terminal 1, then the voltage appearing at the non-
inverting terminal will be (R3/(R2+R3))V2 volts. This voltage will also appear at the inverting (-) terminal and thus
the voltage across R1 is equal to -(R3/(R2+R3))V2 volts.
Now the output voltage,
and the voltage gain,
(iii) Finally, if the voltages applied to terminals 1 and 2 are V1 and V2 respectively, then the difference between the
two voltages will be amplified.
If V1 > V2, then:
With a four-bit input of 0001 (i.e. decimal 1), S4 connects 8R to Vref, i.e. V4=Vref, and S1, S2 and S3 connect R, 2R
and 4R to 0V, making V1=V2=V3=0. Let Vref=
-8V, then output voltage,
Problem 2. Determine the common-mode gain of an op amp that has a differential voltage gain of 150 x 103 and a
CMRR of 90 dB.
Problem 3. A differential amplifier has an open-loop voltage gain of 120 and a common input signal of 3.0 V to
both terminals. An output signal of 24 mV results. Calculate the common-mode gain and the CMRR.
Problem 4. In the inverting amplifier of Figure 18.5, Ri = 1 kΩ and Rf = 2 kΩ. Determine the output voltage
when the input voltage is: (a) +0.4 V (b) -1.2 V.
Problem 5. The op amp shown in Figure 18.6 has an input bias current of 100 nA at 20°C. Calculate (a) the
voltage gain, and (b) the output offset voltage due to the input bias current. (c) How can the effect of input bias
current be minimised?
Problem 6. Design an inverting amplifier to have a voltage gain of 40 dB, a closed-loop bandwidth of 5 kHz and
an input resistance of 10 kΩ.
Problem 7. For the op amp shown in Figure 18.8, R1 = 4.7 kΩ and R2 = 10 kΩ. If the input voltage is -0.4 V,
determine (a) the voltage gain (b) the output voltage.
Problem 8. For the summing op amp shown in Figure 18.11, determine the output voltage, Vo.
Problem 9. Devise a light-operated alarm circuit using an op amp, a LDR, a LED and a ±15V supply.
Problem 10. A steady voltage of -0.75V is applied to an op amp integrator having component values of R = 200
kΩ and C = 2.5 µF. Assuming that the initial capacitor charge is zero, determine the value of the output voltage
100 ms after application of the input.