Gas Processing and NGL Extraction

Gas Processing and NGL Extraction:
Gas Conditioning
04/05S8
March 2006
44 South Broadway, White Plains, New York 10601, USA

Tel: +1 914 609 0300 Fax: +1 914 609 0399
This report was prepared by Nexant, Inc (Nexant) and is part of the Process Evaluation Research Planning Program (PERP). Except where
specifically stated otherwise in this Report, the information contained herein is prepared on the basis of information that is publicly available,
and contains no confidential third party technical information to the best knowledge of Nexant. Aforesaid information has not been
independently verified or otherwise examined to determine its accuracy, completeness or financial feasibility.
Neither NEXANT, Subscriber nor any person acting on behalf of either assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of or for damages
resulting from the use of any information contained in this Report. Nexant does not represent or warrant that any assumed conditions will come
to pass.
The report is submitted on the understanding that the Subscriber will maintain the contents confidential except for the Subscribers internal use.
The Report should not be reproduced, distributed or used without first obtaining prior written consent by Nexant. Each Subscriber agrees to use
reasonable effort to protect the confidential nature of the Report.
Contents
Section
1
Page
Executive Summary .................................................................................................

1.1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................
1.1.1 The Gas Chain....................................................................................
1.1.2 Natural Gas Properties .......................................................................
1.1.3 Gas Specification ...............................................................................
1.2
GAS CONDITIONING AND TECHNOLOGIES ........................................
1.2.1 Processing Requirements of Natural Gas ..........................................
1.3
GAS ECONOMICS .......................................................................................
1.4
COMMERCIAL ANALYSIS........................................................................
1.4.1 Commercial Applications of Natural Gas..........................................
1.4.2 Global Natural Gas Market................................................................
Introduction..............................................................................................................
2.1
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES .........................................................
2.2
NATURAL GAS TERMINOLOGY .............................................................
2.3
THE GAS CHAIN .........................................................................................
2.4
NATURAL GAS WELL PROPERTIES ...................................................
2.4.1 Well Gas Composition.......................................................................
2.4.2 Well Gas Properties ...........................................................................
2.5
GAS SPECIFICATION .................................................................................
2.5.1 Sales Gas............................................................................................
2.5.2 CNG Specification .............................................................................
2.5.3 LNG Specification .............................................................................
2.6
DEGREE OF GAS TREATMENT ...............................................................
2.6.1 Minimum Condensate Content of Sales Gas .....................................
2.6.2 Condensate and NGL Recovery, Blending and Inert Gas Injection and
Removal .............................................................................................
2.7
PROCESSING REQUIREMENTS OF NATURAL GAS ............................
Gas Reception and Processing ................................................................................
3.1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................
3.2
DEHYDRATION ..........................................................................................
3.3
GAS RECEPTION FACILITIES ..................................................................
3.3.1 Gas Separators and Slug Catchers .....................................................
3.4
DEW POINT CONTROL..............................................................................
3.4.1 Low Temperature Separation.............................................................
3.4.2 Desiccant Absorption.........................................................................
3.5
IMPURITY REMOVAL ...............................................................................
Gas Processing and NGL Extraction
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
1
1
1
2
3
5
5
8
9
9
10
12
12
13
14
16
16
17
18
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
24
24
25
27
27
31
31
39
46
i
Contents
3.5.1 Acid Gas Removal .............................................................................

3.5.2 Mercury Removal ..............................................................................
3.5.3 Nitrogen Removal..............................................................................
3.5.4 Helium Removal ................................................................................
3.6
CONDENSATE STABILISATION..............................................................
Current Process Technologies ................................................................................
4.1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................
4.1.1 Engineering Companies With Track Record in Onshore Gas
Processing ..........................................................................................
4.2
GAS RECEPTION TECHNOLOGIES .........................................................
4.3
DEW POINT CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES ..............................................
4.3.1 Water Dew Point Control...................................................................
4.3.2 Water and Hydrocarbon Dew Point Control......................................
4.4
IMPURITY REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES ................................................
4.4.1 Acid Gas Removal .............................................................................
4.4.2 Mercury Removal ..............................................................................
4.4.3 Nitrogen and Helium Removal ..........................................................
Emerging Technologies ...........................................................................................
5.1
DEHYDRATION ..........................................................................................
5.1.1 Kinetic Inhibitors ...............................................................................
5.2
WATER DEW POINT CONTROL...............................................................
5.2.1 Regenerative Desiccants ....................................................................
5.3
ACID GAS REMOVAL ................................................................................
5.3.1 Membrane Systems............................................................................
5.3.2 Solvent Based Systems ......................................................................
5.3.3 Biological Systems.............................................................................
Economics .................................................................................................................
6.1
OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................
6.2
BASIS OF DESIGN ......................................................................................
6.3
COST OF PRODUCTION BASIS ................................................................
6.3.1 Battery Limits ....................................................................................
6.3.2 Utilities and Services .........................................................................
6.3.3 By-Product credit ...............................................................................
6.3.4 Pricing Basis ......................................................................................
6.3.5 Gas Shrinkage ....................................................................................
6.4
COST OF PRODUCTION ............................................................................
6.4.1 Wellhead Extraction...........................................................................
6.4.2 Capital Costs ......................................................................................

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
46
52
52
52
54
56
56
56
58
59
59
62
67
67
69
71
75
75
75
77
77
78
78
80
82
83
83
84
86
86
87
87
88
88
91
91
91
ii
Contents
6.4.3 Cost of Production .............................................................................

Commercial Assessment..........................................................................................
7.1
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................
7.2
COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS ...............................................................
7.2.1 Natural Gas ........................................................................................
7.2.2 Gas Condensate..................................................................................
7.3
NATURAL GAS MARKET - GLOBAL OVERVIEW................................
7.3.1 Supply ................................................................................................
7.3.2 Demand ..............................................................................................
7.3.3 Demand Growth Projections..............................................................
7.3.4 Trade ..................................................................................................
7.4
REGIONAL NATURAL GAS MARKET OVERVIEW..............................
7.4.1 North America ...................................................................................
7.4.2 South and Central America................................................................
7.4.3 Europe and Eurasia, including FSU...................................................
7.4.4 Middle East ........................................................................................
7.4.5 Africa .................................................................................................
7.4.6 Asia Pacific ........................................................................................
7.5
WORLDWIDE GAS PROCESSING CAPACITY .......................................
Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................................
Appendix
92
95
95
95
95
97
98
98
100
100
102
104
104
104
105
106
107
108
110
111
Page
Nexants ChemSystems Capital Cost Estimates ...................................................
A-1
PERP Program Title Index .....................................................................................
B-1

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
iii
Contents
Figure
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.2
7.1
7.2
7.3
Page
Gas Transportation Routes.........................................................................................

Natural Gas Drivers ...................................................................................................
Regional Natural Gas Reserves..................................................................................
Regional Natural Gas Marketed Production ..............................................................
Terminology and Constituents of Natural Gas ..........................................................
Gas Transportation Routes.........................................................................................
Phase Diagram of a Fixed Composition Well Fluid ..................................................
Gas Processing Schematic with NGL Extraction ......................................................
Hydrate Equilibrium Curve........................................................................................
Horizontal Separator Vessel.......................................................................................
Vertical Separator Vessel...........................................................................................
Typical Pipe Type Slug Catcher Technology.........................................................
Joule Thomson Effect Shown on a Phase Diagram ...................................................
Joule Thomson Plant Flow Scheme with Glycol Injection (Lean Gas).....................
Joule Thompson Plant Without Glycol Injection.......................................................
Hydrate Separator ......................................................................................................
Mechanical Refrigeration Plant (Lean Gas) Simplified Flow Scheme......................
Inability of Mechanical Refrigeration to Enter Two Phase Region for Dew Point
Control For High Pressure Feed Gas .........................................................................
Glycol Contacting Dehydrogenation Flow Scheme...................................................
Solid Adsorption Schematic.......................................................................................
Loading of Molecular Sieve 5 ................................................................................
Split-Stream Amine Process ......................................................................................
Claus Sulfur Recovery Process ..................................................................................
UOP Mercury Removal and Recovery System..........................................................
Gas Stabilization (Courtesy of OGCI Publishing).....................................................
Taylor Forge Harp Type Separator/Slug Catcher ......................................................
ECOTEG BTEX Rich Gas Dehydration.................................................................
Drizo Gas Dehydration ..............................................................................................
Sordeco Process Flow Scheme ..................................................................................
IFPEXOL Process for Dehydration and NGL Removal............................................
Benfield Process Flow Scheme..................................................................................
Selexol Solvent Process Flow Scheme ......................................................................
Costain Double Column Process for Nitrogen Rejection ..........................................
MEHRA Process NRU...............................................................................................
Engelhard-Molecular Gate Process Schematic .......................................................
Morphysorb................................................................................................................
Natural Gas Drivers ...................................................................................................
Regional Natural Gas Reserves..................................................................................
Regional Natural Gas Marketed Production ..............................................................
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
2
9
10
11
13
14
21
23
26
28
29
30
32
34
35
36
38
39
41
43
44
49
51
53
55
58
61
63
64
66
68
70
72
74
79
81
95
98
99
iv
Contents
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
Gas Reserves to Production ratio ...............................................................................

Regional Natural Gas Consumption ..........................................................................
Historical and Forecast Natural Gas Demand............................................................
Global Gas Market in 2004........................................................................................
Global Gas Market in 2010........................................................................................
Gas Consumption by Sector in the Asia Pacific Region.........................................
Table
100
101
101
103
103
109
Page
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Typical Sales Gas Specifications ...............................................................................

Typical LNG Product Specifications .........................................................................
Licensed Technologies and Products.........................................................................
Utility and Product Costs ...........................................................................................
Typical Well Gas Compositions ................................................................................
Properties of Well Gas Components..........................................................................
Typical Sales Gas Specifications ...............................................................................
Typical LNG Product Specifications .........................................................................
Advantages and Disadvantages of the JT-expansion.................................................
Acid Gas Removal Methods ......................................................................................
Physical Solvents versus Chemical Solvents .............................................................
Amine Performance ...................................................................................................
Raw and Sales Gas Composition ...............................................................................
Assumptions Used for Estimating Certain Elements of the Cost of Production .......
Utility Consumption...................................................................................................
Summary of Raw Material, Utility, Product and Labor Costs...................................
Calculation of Shrinkage............................................................................................
Calculation of Shrinkage............................................................................................
Gas Processing Plant Capital Costs ...........................................................................
Cost of Gas Treatment For Sales Gas (Pipeline) Production Base Case ................
Cost of Gas Treatment For Sales Gas (Pipeline) Production Including
NGL/Condensate Co-Product Credit .........................................................................
7.1 Gas/Gas Liquids Processing Capacity and Production ..............................................
7.2 Change in Gas Processing Capacity and Throughput Between 1994 and 2004 ........

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
3
4
7
8
16
17
19
19
36
47
48
50
84
86
87
88
89
90
92
93
94
110
110
Section 1
1.1
Executive Summary
INTRODUCTION
Natural gas is a commonly occurring gaseous hydrocarbon mixture that is either produced in
conjunction with crude oil (Associated Gas) or in the exclusion of crude oil (Non-Associated
Gas). Natural gas is a gaseous hydrocarbon mixture which is primarily composed of methane
with lesser amounts of paraffin hydrocarbons including ethane, propane and butanes.
Since its discovery, natural gas has become an indispensable fuel resource throughout most of
the industrialized world. The value of natural gas lies in the combustion properties of methane, a
colorless, odorless gas that burns readily with a pale, slightly luminous flame. Natural gas is the
cleanest burning fossil fuel, producing a by-product water vapor and carbon dioxide on
combustion. Methane is also a key raw material for making solvents and other organic
chemicals. It is an important fuel for the generation of electric power, running residential and
industrial equipment. Value is also derived from the hydrocarbon liquids that can be extracted
from the gas.
The scope of this report will be limited to Gas Conditioning processes and will not cover
Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs) extraction for its use in downstream product derivatives. The
report therefore aims to provide an overview of various gas conditioning processes available and
identify the technologies and licensed processes available on the market today. As gas treatment
is highly dependent on well fluids (natural gas from the field) received at a gas processing
terminal and on the treated gas specification, a certain set of assumptions will be made on both
well gas and sale gas specification for the purpose of the economic analysis. A commercial
assessment for natural gas will also be touched upon.
1.1.1
The Gas Chain
There are two main ways of transporting natural gas, by gas pipelines and via low temperature
tankers in the form of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). The two transportation routes are shown in
Figure 1.1.
In pipelines, gas is moved under pressure differentials. For onshore pipelines 70100 bars is a
standard inlet pressure, whereas, for offshore pipelines the pressure at the entry of the pipeline
typically ranges from 100150 bars depending to the distance from the onshore facilities to the
gas user. During transportation, pressure drops will occur over long distances and therefore
compression stations are sometimes required.
In the form of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas), natural gas is transported at a temperature close to
its boiling point at atmospheric pressure, which is approximately 160C, as the boiling point of
methane is 161.49C. The gas is liquefied in a liquefaction plant. Before being liquefied, the
gas must be treated. The treatment specifications are more severe than in the case of pipeline
transport, as it is necessary to avoid any risk of solid-phase formation during the liquefaction
process. LNG is transported in a liquid state to overseas receiving terminals. At the reception
terminal, LNG is re-gasified and sent to the distribution grid at the specified pressure and caloric
value.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
Executive Summary
Figure 1.1
Gas Transportation Routes
Gas Pipeline
Compression
Well Gas
Extraction
Gas Pipeline
Recompression
Processing
Reception/
Storage
(a) Sales Gas Pipeline Transfer Route
Liquefaction
Well Gas
Extraction
Processing
Storage/
Loading
LNG Carrier
Reception/
Storage
Regasification
PP:4119.0005/Sec 1
(b) LNG Tanker Transfer Route

PP: 4119.0005/Sec 1
1.1.2
Natural Gas Properties
Natural gas composition at the field source (well gas) depends on whether it originates from
associated or non-associated fields. Comprising mainly of methane, well gas also contain
ethane, propane, butane and minor quantities of heavier hydrocarbons. Gaseous nonhydrocarbons such as nitrogen, sulfur compounds, carbon dioxide, helium, trace metals
(mercury) and water vapor can also be found in well gas streams.
The single most useful combustion property of natural gas is the Wobbe index or Wobbe number
as it is a measure of how a gas will burn. As Wobbe number increases, the rate of energy
delivered to a burner increases until a point where there is insufficient time and oxygen for
complete combustion to occur. Gas must be treated to ensure that the Wobbe index is maintained
within an optimal range for combustion.
Because carbon dioxide and nitrogen do not burn, they reduce the heat value of the gas and
therefore are often removed as by-products. When heavy hydrocarbons are removed, they
reduce the heat value of gas. These heavy hydrocarbons can in turn be sold as condensate, a
co-product of natural gas. Helium is valuable in electronics manufacturing. Hydrogen sulfide is
very poisonous and extremely corrosive, which means in the presence of water, it can damage
gas equipment and piping, so it must also be removed before the natural gas can be delivered to
the pipeline. The water component in well gases can form hydrates (an ice-like structure)
which under certain conditions can lead to pipeline blockages. Therefore it is necessary to
remove water prior to gas transmission.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
1.1.3
Executive Summary
Gas Specification
The degree to which natural gas will be treated will depend on its ultimate use. Various gas
specifications for pipeline gas, compressed gas and LNG exist and treatment will therefore
ensure that the natural gas delivers satisfactory combustion performance for the application.
Additional treatment is often required for long distance gas transportation purposes, whether it is
by pipeline to convey sales gas or liquefied natural gas (LNG).
Gas conditioned for transmission and distribution via pipelines is regarded as sales gas
specification. The characteristics of sales gas can vary dependent on requirements of the gas
purchaser and/or contractual obligations imposed to protect the pipeline itself.
Table 1.1 shows typical specifications for gas transmission and distribution systems in France,
Italy, UK, Canada, California U.S.A. and Japan.
Table 1.1
Country
Specification
Limitation
France
Hydrogen Sulphide
Total Sulphur
Sulphur from Mercaptan
Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen
Water Dew Point
Hydrocarbon Dew Point
Gross Calorific Value
maximum
7*
maximum
75
maximum
16.9
maximum
3
maximum
n/a
maximum
n/a
maximum
n/a
minimum 990 - 1,160
minimum
39-46
Typical Sales Gas Specifications

Italy
6.6
150
15.5
3
0.6
- 5 at 70 bar
0 at 1 to 70 bar
885 - 1145
35 - 45
UK
Canada
(GTN System)
USA
(California)
Japan
5
6
6
1 to 5
50
240
18
8 to 30
n/a
n/a
7.3
n/a
2
2
3
n/a
n/a
0.4
n/a
n/a
+
+
4 lbs/MMscf
-10 at any pressure 4 lbs/MMscf
-10 at 80 bar
-2 at 1 to 70 bar -10 up to 55 Bar - 10 at op. Pressure -1 at 1 to 80 bar

1 065
995
1 065
1 090
42
39
42
43
Units
SI
mg/Nm3
mg/Nm3
mg/Nm3
volume %
volume %
deg C
deg C
BTU/scf
MJ/m3
* Average over 8 days

+
Water content
Alliance USA Pipeline
n/a Non Available

Nm3 = normal cubic metres at 0 deg C and 101.325 kPa
The general purpose pipeline gas quality standards do not necessarily serve the needs of engines
and vehicles, which operate within much wider ranges of pressure and temperature than
conventional gas burning appliances. To accommodate the requirements of NGV engine and
vehicle application, a number of international standards have been established, i.e. SAE J1616
and ISO 15403. These will not be discussed within the scope of this study.
LNG specification tends to be more stringent than sales gas specification as it is set for plant
operation reasons, particularly for the liquefaction plant. CO2, water and aromatics can freeze on
exchanger surfaces (riming), reducing efficiency and possibly causing blockages in the heat
exchanger. Mercury, a common trace contaminant of gas, attacks aluminum, the favored
construction material for low temperature exchangers. Table 1.2 lists the typical specifications
on levels of impurities contained in the gas feeding a liquefaction plant.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
Executive Summary
Table 1.2
Typical LNG Product Specifications
Component
Maximum Limit
Hydrogen Sulfide
3-3.5 ppmv
Total Sulfur
30 milligrams per standard cubic meter
Carbon Dioxide
50 ppmv
Mercury
0.01 milligrams per standard cubic meter
Water Vapor
1 ppmv
Benzene
1 ppmv
Pentanes and heavier
0.1 mole percent

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
Executive Summary
1.2
GAS CONDITIONING AND TECHNOLOGIES
1.2.1
Processing Requirements of Natural Gas
The objective of Gas Conditioning is to separate well streams into saleable gas and liquid
hydrocarbon products. This involves recovery of the maximum amounts of each component at
the lowest overall cost; however the extent of gas conditioning required is dictated by the well
stream quality, the end uses of the sales gas and extent of liquid hydrocarbon recovery.
Stated simply, Gas Conditioning usually means the remove undesirable components from well
streams to reach pre-established specifications prior to processing, pipeline transportation, or
liquefaction. This stage typically includes the extraction of impurities and contaminants but can
also include the separation of gas from heavier liquid hydrocarbon components using a process
known as Dew Point Control.
To achieve sales gas quality gas conditioning will include these four basic processes:
Dehydrating the gas to remove condensable water vapor, which under certain conditions
might cause hydrate formation
Separation of gas from free liquids such as crude oil, condensate, water and entrained
solids
Processing the gas to remove condensable and recoverable hydrocarbon vapors

(Dew Point Control)
Treating the gas to remove other undesirable components, such as hydrogen sulfide or
carbon dioxide.
Some of these processes can be accomplished in the field, but in most cases, the gas undergoes
further processing at a gas treatment facility and/or liquid extraction plant.
It should be noted that the Gas Conditioning process is sometimes referred to as Open Art
design. This pertains to sizing and design of gas conditioning equipment. Typically contractors
use API equipment standards, process simulations and with equipment vendor consultations are
able to design gas processing facilities which predicates the need to used licensed technologies.
Licensed technologies however do exist for gas operations and are mainly for specific unit
processes where design has been optimized or proprietary materials (adsorbents, membranes) are
used. The specific areas in which process optimization has occurred are listed below:
Gas reception facilities (condensate recovery in a slug catcher)
Gas dehydration and water dew point control
Hydrocarbon dew point control
Acid gas removal (hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide)
Nitrogen rejection and
Mercury removal.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
Executive Summary
The technologies and licenses for gas operations which are covered in this study can be found in
Table 1.3.
Work on process optimization has included increasing control over the gas specification,
reduction in energy consumption and waste generation and reduction of capital costs through
improved technologies and design. Technology advancements have been seen in the areas of
hydrate prevention and dehydration, with the development of kinetic inhibitors such as Gas
TreatTM HI and Hydrablock; but also in the area of acid gas removal with the development of
proprietary solvent technologies such as the Morphysorb process and membrane technology
such as the Engelhard Molecular Gate which uses Pressure Swing Adsorption technology for
the removal of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Such technologies and technology advancement are
detailed in Section 5 of this report.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Licensed by Prosernat IFP Group

Technologies and OPC Drizo Inc.
Licensed by Shell Global solution
International B.V. in co-operation
with Engelhard
Developed by the Institut
Francais du Petrole (IFP) and
licensed by Prosernat IFP Group
Technologies
Licensed by UOP
Licensed by UOP
- Drizo
- SORDECO
- SELEXOL
-Cryogenic Processes
Nitrogen & Helium Removal
-MEHRA (Solvent) Processes
- HgSIV
- Benfield
Feed gas cooled to - 30 C prior to nitrogen extraction.Gas is contacted

with the solvents in 1st column. With feed gas pressure typically above 30
bar. A pressure drop across the system is typically 1-2 bar. Inexpensive
metallugy as low temperatures are limited by propane refrigerant used.
Process used for the removal of acid gas using a Union Carbide Selexol Typical feed conditions range between 300 psia (20 bar) and 2000 psia
solvent.
(130 bar) with acid gas composition (H2S + CO2) from 5% to more than
60% by volume
Process is based on a solid adsorbent processes using molecular sieves. The UOP HgSIVTM adsorbent treats mercury from 25 -50 g/Nm3 down
3
Proprietary solids such as Axens CMG 275 adsorbent, a sulphur on
to 0.01 g/Nm . Typical gas feed pressure would range between 10-120
alumina pellets or bead, and UOP HgSIVTM adsorbent, a silver coated
o
bar, whereas, feed gas temperature would be in the order of 20 C.
molecular sieve sold as pellet or bead.
o
Regeneration would occur at feed pressure and at 100 to 250 C.
Use of cryogenic technology for nitrogen removal and helium removal. Natural gas stream with between 8% and 80% nitrogen can be treated in
Costain Oil, Gas & Processes Ltd Double-column process for nitrogen the Costain process and gases with pressure above 27 bar typically do
rejection and UOPs PolybedTM PSA Technology
not need recompression
Process Conditions
Capacity Range: 3-4,000 MMSCFD
o
Typical operation is below 50 C and regeneration temperature is between
o
200-300 C. Molecular sieves have a lifetime of 3-5 years and a cycle
time dependent on application.
Non typical operation conditions exist (dependent on feed conditions).
o
Regeneration temperature is approximately 200 C. Silica gel has a
lifetime of 3-5 years but under certain applications have been known to
last 10-15 years. Cycle times on application.
Mainly used for the removal of water in feed gas with high BTEX
Operating conditions include glycol circulation rates of between 2.5-5 US
concentration and is based on conventional glycol regeneration unit.
gallons per pound of water removed from the feed gas, regenerator
stripping gas flow rate between 3-5 SCF per US gallon of glycol
o
recirculated and reboiler temperatures are typically set at 200 C.
Contact between wet feed gas and a glycol solution (DEG, TEG or
This process is typically used for water dew point depression of up to 180
tetraethylene glycol) in an absorption column. Process is used to remove oF (80 oC) and is said to be competitive at water dew point below -30oC.
water and aromatics from natural gas streams.
Glycol purity as high as 99.99 wt% can be achieved.
Solid bed absorption process (using silica gel based sorbeeds) which
Low pressure feed gas stream (< 100 bar) applications or when limited
selectively removes water and heavy hydrocarbons, typically C5+.
pressure drops over the treating unit is feasible. Engelhard's Sorbead
adsorbent is used in over 200 natural gas processing units worldwide.
This process uses methanol to remove water from natural gas streams. Commercial operation with capacities of up to 350 MMSFCD. This
JT expansion, turbo expander technology or mechanical refridgeration is process can achieve water dew point of around -30 oC and hydrocarbon
o
used for means of dewpoint control (condensate extraction or NGL
dew point down to - 100 C at standard pressure.
recovery).
Solvent extraction method using a solvent based on 30% potassium
Typical feed conditions range between 150 psia (10 bar) and 1800 psia
carbonate (K2CO3) in water plus an activator and corrosion inhibitor for (120 bar) with acid gas compositions (H2S + CO2) from 5% to more than
CO2 and H2S removal.
35% by volume.
Products
Harp Type Separator
eg: Grace products include SYLOSIV, SYLOBEAD and
PHONOSORB molecular sieves, whereas, UOP offers MOLSIV,
HgSIV, COSMIN and TRISIV for various applications.
Main suppliers providers of product design system and adsorbtive
material. Silica gel dehydration can also be sold as part of a package for
example by NATCO, Bechtel, Petreco KCC Gas Processing Solutions.
Licensed Technologies and Products
Costain Oil, Gas & Processes Ltd

and UOP hold technology
licenses for nitrogen and helium
removal
Advanced Extraction
A non-cryogenic absorption process to separate methane and heavier
Technologies, Inc
hydrocarbons from nitrogen containing natural gases. If desired, propane
plus NGL product can be produced.The absorbed methane and heavier
hydrocarbons are flashed off from the solvent by reducing the pressure of
the absorbed bottoms stream in multiple steps to minimize gas
compression.
UOP, Axens or JGC Corporation

provide design, support and the
material required for mercury
removal
Developed and patented by

SIIRTEC NIGI
- ECOTEG
- IFPEXOL
UOP, CEDA, ZeoChem, Grace

and Engel Hard
Lincensors/ Vendors
Talyor Forge
UOP, CEDA, ZeoChem, Grace
- Silica Gel
- Slug catcher
- Molecular Sieves
Mercury Removal
Acid Gas Removal
Process techologies
Gas Reception Equipment
Dew Point Control
Table 1.3
Section 1
Executive Summary
Section 1
1.3
Executive Summary
GAS ECONOMICS
This study aims to determine the cost of conditioning well gas to sales gas specification. A feed
gas composition, pressure and temperature were chosen based on Nexants industry knowledge
and a basic process was chosen to meet hydrocarbon dew point specification of -5oC,
High Heating Value higher than 950 Btu/scf with 99.9 percent acid gas removal.
This basic process comprises gas reception facilities (which includes slug catcher, bulk
condensate separation and filtration of particles and fines); stabilisation of condensate using LP
separation; an amine (MDEA) unit for selective acid gas removal; a sulphur recovery unit with
tail gas treatment for disposal of the resulting sour gas; gas cooling; water removal by TEG
contacting; and finally hydrocarbon dew point control by mechanical refrigeration to meet dew
point specifications.
Process simulation allowed the evaluation project capital costs and utility consumption for a
650 MMCFD plant capacity. 650 MMSCFD was chosen as the base case for this analysis since
this represents a world scale single train gas processing facility, such as the one currently being
built in the Middle East.
Average wellhead extraction, utility and condensate product costs for early 2008; planned start
date of the project; were used to evaluate the cost of production of sales gas, as shown in
Table 1.4.
Table 1.4
Utility and Product Costs

(Middle East, 2008)
Middle East
Product Prices
Condensate
$/ton
Utilities
Power
$/MWh
LP Steam (50 psi) $/Ton
MP Steam (200 psi) $/Ton
Labor
Laborers
Foremen
Supervisors
$/Year
$/Year
$/Year
30
40.5
4.3
4.6
7 200
30 700
75 300
The cost of producing sales gas was estimated at US$0.54 per million Btu based on a project
Return on Investment (ROI) of ten percent. This cost reduced to US$0.43 per million Btu with
the addition of revenues from the produced liquid hydrocarbon stream.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
Executive Summary
1.4
COMMERCIAL ANALYSIS
1.4.1
Commercial Applications of Natural Gas
Natural gas can be utilized as an energy source (for power generation, liquid fuel generation as
GTLs and/or space heating) or as a petrochemical feedstock particularly for methanol and
ammonia production. This is demonstrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2
Natural Gas Drivers
Natural
Gas
Energy
EnergyUses
Uses
Exports (LNG/Pipeline)
Liquid Fuels (GTL/MTBE/DME/Others)
Processing
Processing
Facility
Facility
Local Fuel
Value/Power
Methane
Chemical
ChemicalUses
Uses
Ammonia (Fertilizers/Others)
Methanol (Formaldehyde/Acetyls/Others)
Methanol (MTO/MTP)
NGLs for
Petrochemicals
PP: 4119.0005/Sec_1
Natural gas is transported to consumers by pipeline, or in the case of more distant users, in liquid
form as liquefied natural gas, LNG. The gas is cooled to 160oC at which temperature it
becomes a liquid and is transported in insulated tankers to distant markets. Compared to crude oil
and petroleum products, natural gas is relatively expensive to transport by pipeline or liquefied
and transported in dedicated LNG carriers.
Associated with natural gas conditioning, condensate is produced as a co-product consisting of
pentanes and heavier components. By virtue of it being a liquid, condensates are easier to
transport as compared to natural gas. Condensates typically have very low sulfur levels in
comparison with most crude oils and typically have API gravity of greater than 50. Condensates
generally have four possible disposal options, which are summarized individually below:
Sale to a Steam Cracker as Ethylene Feedstock

Sale to a Refiner
On-Site Splitting and Sale of Straight Run Cuts
Third Party Splitting and Sale of Straight Run Cuts

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Section 1
1.4.2
Executive Summary
Global Natural Gas Market
Global natural gas reserves have almost doubled over the last 20 years. The evolution of proved
gas reserves has been dynamic in several regions, where significant increases have been
recorded: in the Former Soviet Union (FSU) gas reserves increased by more than 50 percent,
those in Africa registered an increase of 125 percent and the reserves in the Middle East
increased by more than 160 percent. The breakdown of natural gas reserves by region for 2004 is
shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
Regional Natural Gas Reserves
(tcf, at the end of 2004)
3000
Trillion cubic feet
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
North
America
X L: 4 119 .0 0 0 5 Sec_ 1
South &
Central
America
Europe &
Eurasia
(Excluding
FSU)
Former
Soviet
Union
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
The greatest concentration of natural gas reserves are in the Middle East and the Former
Soviet Union, which together account for more than 72 percent of the global world reserves.
Global gas reserves, however, are not matched to global gas production, for example,
North America, which has one of the lowest overall reserves currently, actually has the highest
marketed production for any region (refer Figure 1.4).

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
10
Section 1
Executive Summary
Figure 1.4
Regional Natural Gas Marketed Production

30
Trillion cubic feet
25
20
15
10
5
0
North
America
South &
Central
America
Europe &
Eurasia
(Excluding
FSU)
Former
Soviet
Union
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
X L: 4 119 .0 0 0 5 Sec_ 1
Out of a total marketed production of almost 95 tcf (2,700 BCM) in 2004, North America
represents 28 percent, South and Central Americas represent 5 percent, Europe 12 percent, FSU
28 percent, Middle East 10 percent, Africa 5 percent and Asia 12 percent. Production of natural
gas is therefore greatest in North America, where demand is highest, followed by the FSU then
Europe and Asia.
In general terms, the mismatch between reserves and production rates is in part a reflection of the
high cost of transporting gas. This means that gas reserves relatively close to markets are most
economic to develop and are preferentially produced. Thus, with the exception of FSU, the
regions of highest consumption, North America and Europe, have the lowest reserves to
production ratio.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
11
Section 2
2.1
Introduction
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES
Natural gas is a commonly occurring gaseous hydrocarbon mixture that is either produced in
conjunction with crude oil (Associated Gas) or in the exclusion of crude oil (Non-Associated
Gas). Natural gas is a gaseous hydrocarbon mixture which is primarily composed of methane
with lesser amounts of paraffin hydrocarbon family, including ethane, propane and butanes.
Natural gas also contains a degree of impurity that may need to be removed.
Since its discovery, natural gas has become an indispensable fuel resource throughout most of
the industrialized world. The value of natural gas lies in the combustion properties of methane, a
colorless, odorless gas that burns readily with a pale, slightly luminous flame. Natural gas is the
cleanest burning fossil fuel, producing as a by-product water vapor and carbon dioxide on
combustion. Methane is also a key raw material for making solvents and other organic
chemicals and an important fuel for the generation of electric power and running residential and
industrial equipment. Value is also derived from the hydrocarbon liquids that can be extracted
from the gas.
This scope of this report will be limited to Gas Conditioning processes and will not cover
Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs) extraction for its use in downstream product derivatives. The
report therefore aims to provide an overview of various gas conditioning processes available and
identify the technologies and licensed processes available on the market today. As gas treatment
is highly dependent on well fluids (natural gas from the field) received at a gas processing
terminal and on the treated gas specification, a certain set of assumptions will be made on both
well gas and sale gas specification for the purpose of the economic analysis.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
12
Section 2
2.2
Introduction
NATURAL GAS TERMINOLOGY
Natural gas is produced as a mixture of hydrocarbons and impurities from underground

reservoirs through wells that have been drilled for that purpose. This mixture is then treated to
remove the impurities (expanded upon in Section 3 of this study) and render the residual gas to
processing or pipeline specification. Gas can be further processed to extract specific
hydrocarbon fractions and this is referred to as Natural Gas Liquids recovery.
The term Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) as applied in this report refers to the hydrocarbon
components heavier than methane contained in natural gas. They include ethane, propane,
butanes, pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
Terminology and Constituents of Natural Gas

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butanes
Natural
Gas
ex well
LPG
Pentanes and heavier fractions

also referred to as:
C5+
Pentanes plus
Natural gasoline
Condensate
NGL
Non Hydrocarbons
e.g. water, carbon dioxide etc.
LPG=
Liquefied
Petroleum
LNG =Liquefied
NaturalGas
Gas
NGL=NGL
Natural
Gas Liquids
= Natural
Gas Liquids
PP:4119.0005/Sec 2
Propane and butane can be extracted from natural gas and sold separately. Liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), which is a mixture of propane and butane, is a common substitute for natural gas in
rural areas not served by gas pipelines.
Natural gas with high content of heavy hydrocarbon can be categorized as rich or wet gases,
whilst those having low heavy hydrocarbon content are referred to as lean or dry gas.
Natural gas containing a high content of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide is termed sour
gas and gases with low hydrogen sulfide are termed sweet.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
13
Section 2
2.3
Introduction
THE GAS CHAIN
Natural gas is a dilute form of energy when compared to oil. At standard conditions (15C,
101.325 kPa), 1 ton of gas occupies a volume around 1,350 m3 whereas 1 ton of oil occupies a
volume slightly higher than 1 m3 according to its specific gravity. On an energy equivalency
basis, 1 barrel of oil is approximately equivalent to 6000 cubic feet of gas (or about 170 m3 at
standard conditions).
It means that for the same energy, natural gas is more difficult and costly to transport than oil,
especially for overseas routes. There are two main ways of transporting natural gas, by gas
pipelines and via low temperature tankers in the form of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). The two
transportation routes are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2
Gas Transportation Routes
Gas Pipeline
Compression
Well Gas
Extraction
Gas Pipeline
Recompression
Processing
Reception/
Storage
(a) Sales Gas Pipeline Transfer Route
Liquefaction
Well Gas
Extraction
Processing
Storage/
Loading
LNG Carrier
Reception/
Storage
Regasification
(b) LNG Tanker Transfer Route

PP:4119.0005/Sec 2
In pipelines, gas is moved under pressure differentials. For onshore pipelines 70100 bars is a
standard inlet pressure, whereas, for offshore pipelines the pressure at the entry of the pipeline
typically ranges from 100150 bars depending to the distance from the onshore facilities. During
transportation, pressure drops will occur over long distances and therefore compression stations
are sometimes required.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
14
Section 2
Introduction
In the form of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas), natural gas is transported at a temperature close to
its boiling point at atmospheric pressure, which is approximately 160C, as the boiling point of
methane is 161.49C. The gas is liquefied in a liquefaction plant. Before being liquefied, the
gas must be treated. The treatment specifications are more severe than in the case of pipeline
transport, as it is necessary to avoid any risk of solid-phase formation during the liquefaction
process. LNG is transported in a liquid state to overseas receiving terminals. At the reception
terminal, LNG is re-gasified and sent to the distribution grid at the specified pressure and caloric
value.
In both cases, gas transportation involves heavy and expensive infrastructure, which results in
rather rigid ties between the producer and the consumer. This is the reason why the different
steps involved form what is called a natural gas value chain.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
15
Section 2
Introduction
2.4
NATURAL GAS WELL PROPERTIES
2.4.1
Well Gas Composition
The composition of natural gas at the field source (well gas) depends on the type of reservoir
from which it originates. Well gas is mainly composed of methane, ethane, propane, and butane.
In addition, it usually contains minor quantities of heavier hydrocarbons and varying amounts of
gaseous non-hydrocarbons such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Typical
compositions are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Typical Well Gas Compositions
Gas Source
Example number
Non Associated Gas
Associated Gas
(compositions in mole percent)

Hydrogen Sulphide
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Iso - Butane
normal Butane
Iso - Pentane
normal Pentane
Hexane plus
Total
0.6
0.2
0.6
92.0
3.5
1.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.7
100.0
0.1
1.0
1.0
79.0
7.0
5.0
0.6
1.3
1.0
0.8
3.2
100.0
Calorific Value (Btu/scf)

Wobbe Index (Btu/scf)
1101
1395
1334
1500
The Wobbe index or Wobbe number is the most useful single measure of how a gas will burn.
The Wobbe index is a calculated number the calorific value of the gas divided by the square
root of relative density i.e. CV/RD where CV is the calorific value and RD is the density of a
gas relative to air. The relative density of a gas will affect how quickly a gas will flow through a
burner. As Wobbe number increases, the rate of energy delivered to a burner increases until a
point where there is insufficient time and oxygen for complete combustion to occur. Gas must be
treated to ensure that the Wobbe index is maintained within an optimal range for combustion.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
16
Section 2
Introduction
Often natural gas also contains non hydrocarbon impurities such as nitrogen, sulfur compounds
(hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans), carbon dioxide, helium, trace metals (mercury) and water
vapor. Because carbon dioxide and nitrogen do not burn, they reduce the heat value of the gas
and therefore are often removed. Helium is valuable in electronics manufacturing and can also
be removed. Hydrogen sulfide is very poisonous and can be lethal in very low concentrations.
Further as hydrogen sulfide is also extremely corrosive, it can damage the tubing, fittings and
valves in the gas wells and surface facilities, so it must be removed before the natural gas can be
delivered to the pipeline.
Quantities of NGL contained in the natural gas will be dependent on the type of reservoir from
which it originates. The highest concentration of NGLs is found in rich associated gas streams.
2.4.2
Well Gas Properties
Chemical and physical properties for natural gas components are shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
Component
Properties of Well Gas Components
Molecular
Weight
(g/mole)
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen
Hydrogen Sulphide
Methane
Ethane
Propane
iso-Butane
normal-Butane
iso-Pentane
normal-Pentane
normal-Hexane
44.0
28.0
34.1
16.0
30.1
44.1
58.1
58.1
72.2
72.2
86.2

(Btu/scf) (MJ/scm)
nil
nil
637.1
1010.0
1769.7
2516.1
3251.9
3262.3
3999.9
4008.9
4755.9
nil
nil
23.7
37.6
65.9
93.8
121.2
121.6
149.0
149.4
177.2

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Boiling
(oF)
Point
(oC)
-109.3
-320.6
-76.4
-258.9
-127.7
-43.8
10.9
31.1
82.2
97.0
155.7
-78.5
-195.9
-60.2
-161.6
-88.7
-42.1
-11.7
-0.5
27.9
36.1
68.7
Specific
Gravity
(Air = 1)
1.52
0.97
1.18
0.55
1.04
1.52
2.01
2.01
2.49
2.49
2.98
17
Section 2
2.5
Introduction
GAS SPECIFICATION
The natural gas will be treated and processed to deliver satisfactory combustion performance
dependent on its ultimate use and sales gas specification, which may in fact vary upon location.
Additional treatment is often required for long distance gas transportation purposes, whether it is
by pipeline to convey sales gas or liquefied natural gas (LNG). Various gas specifications for
pipeline gas, compressed gas and LNG will be described below.
2.5.1
Sales Gas
Gas conditioned for transmission and distribution via pipelines to gas purchaser is sometimes
referred to as sales gas specification. The conditioning and treatment of natural gas may be
necessary so that the gas has the necessary characteristics and can be efficiently utilized by end
users. Additionally, certain gas specification may be imposed contractually or legally to protect
the pipework itself.
The sales gas specification can be divided into three categories:
Combustion Properties: The combustion properties can be described by the Wobbe

Index and other parameters like SI (Soot index), ICF (Incomplete Combustion Factor)
and Hydrogen content of the gas. Such parameters are safety related.
Gross Calorific Value (GCV): The billing process of gas is based on its gross calorific
value, i.e. gas priced in $/MMBTU. The limitation on the Gross Calorific value of gas
that can be distributed in certain areas can arise from billing practice and legal
framework. These practices have been developed to safeguard consumer interests. Billing
problems may arise mainly when two or more sources of gas managed possibly by two or
more different suppliers are feeding the same distribution network. An additional
consideration in setting the GCV range is that a high GCV reduces the gas transportation
capacity and may result in additional investment being required.
Level of Gas Treatments: Concentration hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, COS,

mercaptans, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and other impurities are limited.
Hydrocarbon dew point and water dew point also need to be controlled in order to meet
sales gas specification. The contractual and legal component ranges differ in the various
countries mainly for historical reasons but might, given the evolution of technology, be
aligned more closely without compromising on safety.
The required sales gas quality often dictates the processing requirements of a given raw gas
stream. Sales gas specifications differ according to the requirements of the gas purchaser.
Table 2.3 shows typical specifications for gas transmission and distribution systems in France,
Italy, UK, Canada, U.S.A. (California) and Japan.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
18
Section 2
Introduction
Table 2.3
Country
Specification
Limitation
Hydrogen Sulphide
Typical Sales Gas Specifications
France
Italy
UK
Canada
(GTN System)
USA
(California)
Japan
Units
SI
maximum
7*
6.6
1 to 5
mg/Nm3
Total Sulphur
maximum
75
150
50
240
18
8 to 30
mg/Nm3
Sulphur from Mercaptan

Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen
Water Dew Point
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
16.9
3
n/a
n/a
15.5
3
0.6
- 5 at 70 bar
n/a
2
n/a
-10 at any pressure
n/a
2
0.4
7.3
3
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
-10 at 80 bar
mg/Nm3

maximum
minimum
n/a
990 - 1,160
0 at 1 to 70 bar
885 - 1145
-2 at 1 to 70 bar
1 065
-10 up to 55 Bar
995
- 10 at op. Pressure
minimum
39-46
35 - 45
42
39
42
4 lbs/MMscf
4 lbs/MMscf
1 065
volume %
volume %
deg C
-1 at 1 to 80 bar deg C
1 090
BTU/scf
MJ/m3
43
* Average over 8 days

+
Water content
Alliance USA Pipeline
n/a Non Available

Nm3 = normal cubic metres at 0 deg C and 101.325 kPa
2.5.2
CNG Specification
The general purpose pipeline gas quality standards do not necessarily serve the needs of engines
and vehicles, which operate within much wider ranges of pressure and temperature than
conventional gas burning appliances. To accommodate the requirements of NGV engine and
vehicle application, a number of international standards have been established, i.e. SAE J1616
and ISO 15403. These will not be discussed within the scope of this study.
2.5.3
LNG Specification
LNG specification tends to be more stringent than sales gas specification as it is set for plant
operation reasons, particularly for the liquefaction plant. CO2, water and aromatics can freeze on
exchanger surfaces (riming), reducing efficiency and possibly causing blockages in the heat
exchanger. Mercury, a common trace contaminant of gas, attacks aluminum, the favored
construction material for low temperature exchangers. Table 2.4 lists the typical specifications
on levels of impurities contained in the gas feeding a liquefaction plant.
Table 2.4
Typical LNG Product Specifications
Component
Maximum Limit
Hydrogen Sulfide
3-3.5 ppmv
Total Sulfur
30 milligrams per standard cubic meter
Carbon Dioxide
50 ppmv
Mercury
0.01 milligrams per standard cubic meter
Water Vapor
1 ppmv
Benzene
1 ppmv
Pentanes and heavier
0.1 mole percent

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
19
Section 2
2.6
Introduction
DEGREE OF GAS TREATMENT
This section (as will the remainder of the report) will be limited to conditioning of natural gas to
achieve sales gas specification. The level of gas treatment is dependent on one or more of the
sales gas specifications on:
Wobbe Index
Hydrocarbon Dew Point.
Gross calorific value refers to the energy released when the gas is burnt under a given set of
standard conditions. Wobbe Index (WI) is an important parameter describing the burning
characteristics of the gas. The calorific values for individual hydrocarbon components are listed
in Table 2.2. Typically the gross calorific value increases with molecular weight. Consequently,
the greater the amount of liquid hydrocarbons (or condensate) that remain in the sales gas, the
higher its heating value. Further as sales gas can sometimes be priced based on its calorific valve
there is clearly a benefit in leaving heavier hydrocarbons within the sales gas.
However leaving the heavier hydrocarbons in the gas has their disadvantages. Frequently, the
temperature of gas in a pipeline can fall significantly below the entry temperature therefore
causing the gas stream to condense. This liquid drop-out must be avoided as it reduces the
reliability of gas quality and causing possible damage pipeline distribution network and end-user
assets. Hence, a limit is usually imposed on the hydrocarbon dew point, i.e. the point at which
liquid begins to condense from the gas.
Heavier hydrocarbons (C5+) condense at higher temperatures, at a given pressure, and a
maximum limit on hydrocarbon dew point temperature restricts the quantities of condensates that
can be left in the gas. The condensation behavior of heavier hydrocarbons is illustrated in Figure
2.3 showing the phase envelopes of a raw natural gas stream and a processed sales gas stream.
The effect of removing condensate from the raw gas stream is to collapse the phase envelope
such that the resultant sales gas stream satisfies the hydrocarbon dew point limit, in this case 0oC.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
20
Section 2
Introduction
Figure 2.3
Phase Diagram of a Fixed Composition Well Fluid

Pressure
Feed Gas Phase Envelope
Sales Gas Phase

Envelope
0oC
Note: Sales gas cricondentherm < hydrocarbon dew point limit
Temperature
PP:4119.0005/Sec 2
Any of the three specifications, i.e. heating value, Wobbe Index, and hydrocarbon dew point, can
limit the maximum quantity of NGLs in the sales gas depending on the specification limits and
the composition of the gas.
2.6.1
Minimum Condensate Content of Sales Gas
The quantity of condensate that can be extracted from the raw gas for economic reasons can be
limited by minimum limits placed on the sales gas heating value and/or Wobbe Index. This can
be particularly restrictive if non-combustible inerts such as nitrogen and or carbon dioxide are
present in significant quantities. These components dilute the hydrocarbon content and therefore
lower the heating value of the gas mixture.
2.6.2
Condensate and NGL Recovery, Blending and Inert Gas Injection and Removal
A raw gas that is rich in condensate and NGL can be made to achieve the sales gas heating
value specification by removing the appropriate quantity of heavy hydrocarbons. Alternatively, it
can be blended with another lean gas stream, which has a lower heating value, such that the
heating value of the aggregate stream falls within the allowed limits. Blending sales gas is often
subject to contractual arrangements. If a lean gas stream is unavailable, nitrogen can be injected
to dilute the rich gas although establishing a nitrogen supply for this purpose can be expensive.
While blending and nitrogen injection may achieve the heating value specification, the presence
of heavy NGL components (e.g., pentanes plus) may still infringe the hydrocarbon dew point
limit such that these components must still be removed.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
21
Section 2
2.7
Introduction
PROCESSING REQUIREMENTS OF NATURAL GAS
The objective of Gas Conditioning is to separate well streams into saleable gas and liquid
hydrocarbon products. This involves recovery of the maximum amounts of each component at
the lowest overall cost; however the extent of gas conditioning required is dictated by the well
stream quality, the end uses of the sales gas and extent of liquid hydrocarbon recovery.
Stated simply, Gas Conditioning usually means the removal of undesirable components from
well streams to reach pre-established specifications prior to processing, pipeline transportation,
or liquefaction. This stage typically includes the extraction of impurities and contaminants but
can also include the separation of gas from heavier liquid hydrocarbon components using a
process known as Dew Point Control.
To achieve sales gas quality gas conditioning will include these four basic processes:
Separation of gas from free liquids such as crude oil, condensate, water and entrained
solids
Dehydrating the gas to remove condensable water vapor, which under certain conditions
might cause hydrate or ice formation
Processing the gas to remove condensable and recoverable hydrocarbon vapors (Dew
Point Control)
Treating the gas to remove other undesirable components, such as hydrogen sulfide or
carbon dioxide.
Some of these processes can be accomplished in the field, but in most cases, the gas undergoes
further processing at a gas treatment facility and/or liquid extraction plant. The typical steps
involved in raw gas conditioning are presented in a general flow schematic shown in Figure 2.4.
It should be noted that the Gas Conditioning process is sometimes referred to as Open Art
design. This pertains to sizing and design of gas conditioning equipment. Typically contractors
use API equipment standards, process simulations and with equipment vendor consultations are
able to design gas processing facilities which predicates the need to used licensed technologies.
Licensed technologies however do exist for gas operations and (as indicated in Figure 2.4), are
mainly for specific unit processes where design has been optimized or proprietary materials
(adsorbents, membranes) are used.
Gas conditioning techniques to meet sales gas specification will be discussed in detail in
Section 3, whereas the licensed technologies which exist for the treatment of natural gas to sales
gas specifications will be discussed in detail in Section 4 of this report.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
22
Section 2
Introduction
Figure 2.4
Gas Processing Schematic with NGL Extraction

Gas to
Reservoir
Re-injection
Compression
Recompression
Gas to Pipeline
CO2
Compression
Station
Pipeline
Gas Reception
Facilities
LNG
LNG
Residue
Gas
Dew Point
Control
Gas
Sweetening
NGL
Extraction
He
Nitrogen
Rejection
N2
Gas
Inlet Well Fluid
Production
Facilities
&
Gas Dehydration
(Hydrate Inhibition)
Hydrocarbons
H2S
Condensate
Stabilizer
H2 O
Sulfur
Recovery
NGL
Oil
Condensate
Sulfur
C2
C3
Storage
Fractionation
C4
Product
Treating
Product
Storage
Gasoline
Patented or Proprietary Technology and Know -how
Export
Open Art Design or Contractor Experience

PP:4119.0005/Sec 2
Sales Gas Option to Pipeline

Additional Processing Options

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
23
Section 3
3.1
Gas Reception and Processing
INTRODUCTION
The degree of natural gas conditioning to meet sales gas specification will be dependent on the
well stream quality and the end uses of the sales gas. These variations in feed gas composition
and product gas quality makes gas handling facilities difficult to define as a single scheme.
However, gas handling facilities have common process units and as such these will be described
in this section.
Typically at gas processing facilities there are two separate processes that occur before gas is
sold or sent for further processing i.e. for NGL extraction or LNG liquefaction plants. The initial
step in gas conditioning is gas liquid separation, where liquid hydrocarbons (known as
condensates) and any water contained in the gas stream (known as produced water) are separated
from the gas. The second step in gas conditioning is gas treating where impurities such as sulfur,
carbon dioxide and other components are removed dependent on the sales gas quality required.
Additional processing may include transforming the gas to a value added product such as LPG
via NGL extraction processes and / or production of LNG via gas liquefaction. These additional
processes are considered in the Natural Gas Liquid Extraction PERP study1 and in Advances
in LNG Technology PERP study2 and therefore will not be further considered in this report.
Gas conditioning to generate gas to a sales gas specification will be the subject of this section
and therefore described in some detail below.
1
2
Reference: Natural Gas Liquid Extraction ChemSystems Process Evaluation Research Planning, Report number: 94/95 S4, May 96.
Reference: Advances in LNG Technologies ChemSystems Process Evaluation Research Planning, Report number: 03/04 S10, Sept 2004.
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
24
Section 3
3.2
DEHYDRATION
Prior to gas arriving at gas processing facility, some treatment at the well or platform may be
necessary to prevent hydrate formation in the gathering system and along the pipeline to shore.
Gas hydrates (clathrates) are crystalline compounds consisting of an ice like water lattice
structure formed by a physical combination of water and other trapped small molecules.
Hydrates form only when liquid water is present with the gas as water molecules form hydrogen
bonds.
Hydrate formation may be influenced by temperature, pressure, trapped molecule size and
concentration of the gas component. Generally, hydrates form at high pressure and low
temperature, but they can occur at temperatures as high as 30 C and below 0.7 MPa. Hydrate
formation could therefore occur in the pipeline transporting the gas from the well to the gas
processing plant. Their formation results in restrictions and interruptions in well gas flow by
causing plugs in pipelines, equipment, and instrumentation. Their formation must therefore be
prevented.
Hydrate formation can be predicted from empirical vapor solid equilibrium ratios, empirical
correlations, and laboratory measurements. To avoid the formation of gas hydrates in pipelines,
the water vapor content of natural gas is commonly reduced by dehydration before transport.
Lowering the water dew point to 5 to 8 C in relation to the maximum transmission pressure is
a common stipulation in gas specifications.
A number of methods can be used for dehydration to manage and prevent hydrate formation.
These include:
Thermal Treatment: by keeping the fluids warm using insulation, hot oil, and electrical
trace heating
Mechanical Treatment: by removing the water using Glycol dehydration tower,

pigging the pipeline and displacement with non-hydrate forming fluids
Operational Treatment: by operating at a lower pressure by lowering pipeline pressure

and/or regular blow-down
Chemical Treatment: by injecting traditional hydrate inhibitors using methanol or

glycol.
The most common way of preventing hydrate formation is by contacting or injecting the well
stream with hydrate inhibitors. Hydrate inhibitors work by changing the freezing point or
hydrate formation temperature of the fluids. Hydrate equilibrium curves are shown in
Figure 3.1. These curves show the conditions at which hydrates are thermodynamically stable.
Operating a system in the stable hydrate region implies that the system is at risk for hydrate
formation. As a measure of the potential for hydrate formation, the term subcooling is often
used. Subcooling is the difference between the operating temperature and the hydrate
equilibrium temperature at the system pressure. Increasing risk of subcooling increases the
potential for hydrate occurrence.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
25
Section 3
Figure 3.1
Hydrate Equilibrium Curve
7000
Stable Hydrate Region
6000
Pressure (psia)
5000
Shut-in Conditions
at Wellhead
4000
30F Subcooling
3000
2000
Hydrate Free
Region
1000
0
30
40
50
60
Temperature (F)
70
80
90
PP:4119.0005/Sec 3
Water soluble chemicals such as methanol, ethylene glycols (EG), di-ethylene glycol (DEG) and
tri-ethylene glycol (TEG) are typically used for hydrate inhibition. The most popular is ethylene
glycol because of its lower cost, lower viscosity, and lower solubility in liquid hydrocarbon. The
disadvantage of using glycol comes in its regeneration where it generates a salty sludge which
can lead to environmental disposal problems. The salty sludge produced is a consequence of sea
water being present in the well gas stream.
Methanol is also popular as a hydrate prevention agent due to its low cost and availability. Some
methanol can be lost in the sales gas stream; this will add to the calorific value of the sales gas.
Methanol losses can be as high as 40 percent and therefore will need to be replaced intermittently
as make-up.
The hydrate inhibitor is typically injected and placed in direct contact with the gas stream in a
chemical distribution system. The hydrate inhibitor can be recovered at the onshore facilities
with the aqueous phase, regenerated and re-injected.
The quantity of hydrate inhibitor (i.e. methanol or glycol) to inject in the gas stream depends on
its composition (e.g. water content), temperature and pressure. Hydrate formation temperature
and pressure, as well as, the quantity of inhibitor required can be computed based on the
wellhead gas composition and pressure. The rate of injection typically ranges between
0.2-0.4 gallon of glycol per million Scf/hr of gas treated.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
26
Section 3
3.3
GAS RECEPTION FACILITIES
3.3.1
Gas Separators and Slug Catchers
Separators are the primary equipment that separate gas from free liquids present in the well gas
stream. Slug catchers are typically used downstream of the production facilities to capture any
liquid (slugs) that may not have been removed by the separators, (which is generally placed at
the production facility and only if large volumes of hydrocarbon liquids are expected). Slug
catchers are typically used before the well gas enters a gas conditioning facility. Filters are
typically placed downstream of the slug catcher to prevent entrained solids build-up (i.e. sand,
scale, etc) in the gas processing pipe work.
Liquid in the gas stream may form slugs at high fluid velocities. Slugs will travel at the same
velocity as the gas through the pipe and can cause significant damage to the equipment and
pipelines. Liquid slugs can exist at superficial liquid velocities of 1 to 4 m/s and a superficial gas
velocity of 4 to 20 m/s.
Separator and slug catcher design is dependent on the composition of the well stream which
determines the quantity of liquid present in the stream. The quantity of liquid present is directly
related to the pressure; temperature and composition of wellhead stream which are fixed by the
characteristics of the reservoir (e.g. field properties and depletion levels) and transport of the
fluid from the well to the onshore facilities. For example, the liquid recovered from gas
condensate streams could be as high as 100 barrels per MMSCF of gas treated.
Current Slug Catcher designs are based on reducing fluid velocities to promote a stratified
flow regime and subsequent gravity separation. Two gas separator types are widely used in
industry for gas-liquid separation; these are the single vessel type (either horizontal or vertical
separators) or the finger type. Each system provides liquid separation and hold-up; has its own
unique characteristics, and their installation must be examined on a case by case basis. Some
characteristics of each separator system are briefly discussed below.
3.3.1.1
Horizontal Separator
The horizontal separator may be more economical as compared to the vertical separator type of
equal capacity as it has a much greater gas-liquid interface area. Several horizontal separators
can be stacked easily into stage separation assemblies minimizing space requirements. Some
separators have closely spaced horizontal baffle plates that extend lengthwise down the vessel
upon which the baffle plates are evenly paced at a 45o angle to the horizontal. The gas flow in
the baffle surfaces and forms a liquid film that is drained away to the liquid section of the
separator.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
27
Section 3
The advantages of using a horizontal separator are as follows:
Useful where small particle separation (10 microns) is required and where there is more
liquid and lower gas flow.
Good separation expected even with slug sizes ranging between 5 700 barrels.
A limitation of this separator type is that it becomes heavy and expensive when large sizes are
required.
Figure 3.2
Horizontal Separator Vessel

Gas Out
Impinglement Baffle
Gas In
Liquid Out
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
3.3.1.2
Vertical Separator
A vertical separator occupies less floor space than horizontal separators; this is an important
consideration in the design of offshore processing facilities. However because the natural
upward flow of gas in a vertical vessel opposes the falling droplets of liquid, a vertical separator
for the same capacity may be larger and more expensive than a horizontal arrangement.
The advantages of using a vertical separator are as follows:
Useful where small particle separation (10 microns) is required and gas flow is large in
relation to liquid slug size
Good separation expected with slug sizes ranging between 5700 barrels.
Can be fitted with a false cone bottom to handle sand production.
A limitation of this slug catcher type is that it becomes heavy and expensive when large sizes are
required.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
28
Section 3
Figure 3.3
3.3.1.3
Vertical Separator Vessel
Pipe and Finger Type Slug Catcher
Pipe Type Slug Catchers are based on reducing fluid velocities to promote a "stratified" flow
regime and subsequent gravity separation. To attain this, the slug catcher must control and
dissipate the energy of the incoming gas stream as it enters the slug catcher. This is to minimize
turbulence and ensure that the gas and liquid flow rates are low enough so that gravity
segregation can occur. Velocity reduction is achieved by enlarging the pipe diameter. A rule of
thumb is that the gas velocity cannot exceed 1.5 m/s (5 f/s) for liquid removal to occur.
Pipe type slug catcher is a very economical way to remove small slugs of up to 150-200 bbls. It
is a large diameter pipe structure in which gas/liquid mixture is injected at low velocity. An
impingement plate at the inlet encourages liquid drop out by gravity and liquids are
separated/collected at the bottom of the pipe. For economic reasons, these slug catchers are
usually designed as pipe and fittings, rather than as pressure vessels. A typical Pipe Type slug
catcher is shown in Figure 3.4.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
29
Section 3
Figure 3.4
Typical Pipe Type Slug Catcher Technology
The current slug catcher design must not only promote stratification, but must also be capable of
handling the largest slug volume without permitting slug formation in the slug catcher. Thus,
selecting slug catcher length is an important part of the slug catcher design. To conserve on land
area, it is common to use "Finger Type" slug catcher which is essentially a manifolded system of
several Pipe Type slug catchers allowing increased gas/liquid mixture throughput.
Finger type slug catchers were developed for large scale applications and advantages of using a
Finger Type slug catcher include:
Predictable particle separation of up to 50 micron
Good separation expected with slug sizes in excess of 1000 barrels (of oil)
Ease of shipment in pieces for field assembly with line pipes
Cheaper than the equivalent vessel design (i.e. economical way to catch large slugs)

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
30
Section 3
3.4
DEW POINT CONTROL
When gas is transported in pipelines, consideration must be given to the control of the formation
of hydrocarbon liquids in the pipeline system in order to prevent damage to the equipment and to
avoid decreasing gas transmission capacity. It is therefore important to reduce the hydrocarbon
dew point of the mixture (i.e. pressure and temperature at which hydrocarbons begin to condense
from a gas stream). The control of water dew point (i.e. pressure and temperature at which water
vapor contained in the gas stream begins to condense) is also necessary to prevent the formation
of hydrates and reduce the potential for corrosion in sales gas pipelines. Both hydrocarbon and
water dew point conditions will need to be low enough to prevent condensation in the pipeline,
i.e. dew point of the sales gas needs to be below the pipeline operating condition.
Equations of state are used to predict vapor-liquid behavior and hence mixture dew points. These
equations of state show that heavier hydrocarbons have higher dew points. Consequently, since
pipeline operating conditions are usually fixed by design, user specifications, and environmental
considerations, single-phase flow can only be assured by removal of the heavier hydrocarbons
from the gas.
There are several ways in which water and hydrocarbon dew-point control can be achieved and
include:
Low Temperature Separation (LTX): which can be achieved using Joule-Thompson

(JT) auto-refrigeration or mechanical refrigeration
Desiccant Absorption: achieved by using a short cycle desiccant (silica gel) plant.
These are further described below.
Turbo expander and lean oil absorption technologies can also be used for dew point control, but
are often associated with NGL recovery and can also be used for deep NGL recovery. Lean oil
absorption processes often require large processing equipment with excessive energy
requirements and are less thermodynamically efficient than turbo-expander plants such that it is
seldom selected today for NGL extraction. Neither of these processes are discussed further in
this study.
3.4.1 Low Temperature Separation
The most effective means of handling high pressure gas and condensate separation to meet dew
point conditions is low temperature separation (LTX). The technique performs the following
functions:
Separation of water and hydrocarbon liquids from the inlet well stream
Recovery of more liquids from the gas than can be recovered with normal temperature
separators, and
Dehydration of gas, usually to pipeline specifications.
Within LTX systems, the inlet gas is cooled by expansion due to pressure reduction, causing
water and liquid to condense. In some cases a means must be provided to prevent formation of
hydrates in the low temperature separators. This is achieved by either piping hot well stream
through the separator or by injecting hydrate inhibitor upstream of separator.
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
31
Section 3
3.4.1.1
Joule Thomson Expansion
Low temperature expansion can be achieved using a Joule Thomson (JT) effect to increase the
recovery of condensate and at the same time lower the water content of the gas. The cooling is
achieved through a sudden adiabatic pressure drop of the feed gas which will reduce the gas
temperature and hence condense the heavier hydrocarbons and other condensables such as, for
example, water. The effect produced by a sudden adiabatic pressure drop in which no work is
done is termed a free expansion or Joule-Thomson expansion, as illustrated in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5
Joule Thomson Effect Shown on a Phase Diagram
Pressure
Feed Gas Phase Envelope
Sales Gas Phase

Envelope
(1)
(2)
Key:
Temperature
(1) Upstream conditions of Joule Thomson Valve
(2) Downstream conditions of Joule Thomson Valve
PP:4119.0005/Sec 3
The performance of Joule-Thomson plants are very much dependent on the condition of the
incoming raw gas stream as they use excess pressure energy of the raw gas stream to
auto-refrigerate the gas. Therefore, if sufficient pressure is available, i.e. feed gas pressure is
high enough; the liquid removal can be accomplished and hydrocarbon dew point achieved by
expansion refrigeration in an LTX unit. The actual temperature drop will be affected by the
composition of gas, flow rates, liquid rates, feed pressure, bath temperature and ambient
temperature. This temperature reduction results in not only hydrocarbon liquid condensation but
also water condensation. The process can therefore accomplish dew point control of both water
and hydrocarbon to sales gas specification in a single unit.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
32
Section 3
The change in state of the fluid stream caused by the sudden reduction in pressure at the valve
together with the amount and composition of the product streams can be computed and therefore
predicted when inlet stream composition, pressure, temperature are known and used in
combination with gas laws, equilibrium data and/or enthalpy-entropy charts.
The hydrocarbon and water dew point achievable with this process are limited by the pressure
differential available as well as the composition of the feed gas. The LTX system can only be
used where sufficient pressure is available to perform the desired processing and separation. It is
an attractive process step if sufficient liquid removal can be achieved at the available operating
conditions. A further modification to this process is to add glycol injection to the high pressure
gas to allow achievement of lower water dew point when available pressure is limited. The use
of glycol eliminates the need to heat the LTX liquid phase and helps to ensure that no hydrate
formed will block the process equipment downstream of the LTX separator. A typical flow
scheme is shown in Figure 3.6.
In this scheme, condensates are removed in the liquid knockout drum. The incoming gas is
cooled against cold sales gas prior to pressure reduction and cooling across a valve. Condensed
liquids are then separated in a downstream vessel. Because the gas enters the hydrate region on
cooling, glycol (or methanol) is injected upstream of the valve. Liquids removed from the
separator vessel are heated to enable effective separation of the condensed hydrocarbon and
glycol phases. The glycol, which is laden with water, is regenerated for re-use, whereas the
recovered condensates are stabilized and then sent to storage for export or further treatment.
A variation on the above scheme is shown in Figure 3.7 where there is no glycol injection.
This scheme encourages hydrates formation in the low temperature separation vessel. The
formed hydrates float to the top of the liquid surface where they are melted by a heating coil
(refer to Figure 3.8). The gas is then separated from the liquids and the solids through
gravitational difference leaving the vessel from the low temperature (or hydrate) separator. Heat
control is critical in this scheme. Insufficient heat results in excess hydrates while too much heat
vaporizes some of the condensed NGLs, such that the sales gas specifications are infringed.
Usually the desired water content specification for pipeline gas is 2.5- 3.5 kg of water per
MMScf of gas at standard conditions (15oC and 1.013 bar). With sufficient well pressure the
operating conditions can be adjusted to fulfill this requirement. The low temperature dehydration
process is continuous and limited only by the pressure drop available for the process. The
necessary pressure drop in the process is approximately 50 to 100 bar and a wide range of
temperatures can be handled by suitable modification of the equipment with the necessary heatexchange requirements. Advantages and disadvantages of applying this form of dehydration
method can be found in Table 3.1.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
33

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.6
Joule Thomson Plant Flow
Scheme with Glycol Injection (Lean Gas)
Section 3
34
Raw
Gas
LIQUID
KNOCKOUT
GAS/GAS
EXCHANGER
FLASH
SEPARATOR
EXPANSION
VALVE
Condensate +
Water

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Water
Natural
Gasoline
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.7
Joule Thompson Plant
Without Glycol Injection
LOW
TEMPARATURE
SEPARATOR
Heat
Sales
Gas
Section 3
35
Section 3
Figure 3.8
Hydrate Separator
(Records and Seely, 5-66. Courtesy AIME)
Table 3.1
Advantages and Disadvantages of the JT-expansion
Advantages
Usually least expensive system where a
pressure drop is necessary in a process
Disadvantages
Restricted to those applications where a
large pressure drop is available
Increased revenue from most natural gas

systems with increased condensate
recovery
Effectiveness lost as pressure declines. In

this case, it must be supplemented by other
equipment (i.e. refrigeration system,
recompression or desiccants adsorption)
Low dew points when sufficient pressure

drop is available
Danger of low-carbon-steel embrittlement

and equipment failure is operated below 28oC
Simple automatic operation

minimum attendance
Close control often necessary to prevent

formation of hydrates prior to the low
temperature separator.
requiring
Low temperature separation cannot usually

be justified when used solely for gas
dehydration.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
36
Section 3
Due to the dependence of JT plants on utilizing pressure differential to achieve separation, they
are most suitable for gas streams that have a high wellhead pressure or where no compression is
required to meet the sales gas delivery pressure. Declining wellhead pressure can sometimes be
overcome by the installation of compressors and/or retrofitting mechanical refrigeration
upstream of the Joule-Thomson valve.
3.4.1.2
Mechanical Refrigeration
Often excess pressure is not available to operate a low temperature separation system. An
alternative to the expansion refrigeration system is to utilize a mechanical refrigeration system to
remove heavy hydrocarbons and reduce gas to dew point. The schematic for a refrigeration dew
point control unit is shown in Figure 3.9.
The gas pressure is generally maintained through the process allowing for equipment pressure
drops. The gas is heat exchanged and then cooled by the refrigeration chiller to specified
temperature. Liquid is separated in the cold separator. The temperature is set to provide the
desired dew point margin for sales gas operations. This temperature specification must take into
account the gas which is recombined from the liquid stabilization step as well as potential
variations in the feed gas pressure.
Provision must be made in this process for hydrate prevention. This can be accomplished by
either dehydration upstream of the unit or by integrating the dehydration with the refrigeration
unit. The use of glycol injection is usually the most cost effective means of controlling water
dew points. The only drawback is that the refrigeration must be in operation to accomplish the
dehydration. If it is desired to operate the dehydration at times independent of the refrigeration
then separate unit are used.
Mechanical refrigeration plants have more process equipment items than Joule-Thomson plants
and may be unfeasible for high pressure gas streams where a pressure reduction is required to
enter the two phase region and condense-out the heavy hydrocarbons. This is illustrated in
Figure 3.10.
Refrigeration process can be flexibly used for simple dew point control to deep ethane recovery
depending on refrigeration cycle used. Typically, multi stage propane chilling will be used for
propane recoveries (C3), and ethane recovery, which requires lower refrigeration temperatures,
will use mixed refrigerant or cascade cycle processes.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
37
Raw Gas
Sales Gas

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
PROPANE
COMPRESSOR
LIQUID
KNOCKOUT
PROPANE
CONDENSER
Glycol Injection
GAS/GAS
EXCHANGER
SURGE TANK
PROPANE
EXPANSION
VALVE
FLASH
SEPARATOR
PROPANE
CHILLER
Water
C3+ Product
GLYCOL
REGENERATOR
Water Vapour
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.9
Plant (Lean Gas) Simplified Flow Scheme
GLYCOL
CONDENSATE
SEPARATOR
LOW
TEMPERATURE
SEPARATOR
Section 3
38
Section 3
Figure 3.10
Inability of Mechanical Refrigeration to Enter Two Phase Region

for Dew Point Control For High Pressure Feed Gas
Pressure
Raw Gas Conditions
Joule Thomson
Two Phase Gas Liquid Region
Temperature
PP:4119.0005/Sec 3
3.4.2
Desiccant Absorption
An alternative to low temperature separation or mechanical refrigeration for gas dehydration

includes desiccant absorption.
There are a number of desiccant absorption options available and include: liquid desiccant
absorption (e.g. glycol contacting), solid desiccant adsorption (e.g. silica gel, molecular sieve)
and dehydration using calcium chloride. These adsorption processes can be used for hydrocarbon
dew point and water dew point control in a single process step or can be used for selective
removal of water only. Details of desiccant absorption processes are further described in the
section below.
3.4.2.1
Liquid Desiccants Absorption
Liquid desiccant used in gas dehydration are mainly methanol, Ethylene Glycols (EG),
diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG) and tetraethylene glycol (TREG). Triethylene
glycol (TEG) is the most commonly used for natural gas dehydration (removing water) and it is
usually used for application where the dew point depression in the order of 15oC to 50oC is
required.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
39
Section 3
These desiccants attract water and will change its freezing point such as they will also act as
hydrate formation inhibitors. Actual outlet water concentration (represented by its dew point)
depends on the desiccant circulation rate, the desiccant concentration (concentration of up to
99.99 percent may be required for efficient absorption) and number of equilibrium stage of the
contacting tower. The quantity of desiccant to circulate in the system also depends on the gas
composition (i.e. water content) and it can be computed based on the gas stream composition,
pressure and temperature. As a rule of thumb, TEG system would require, for an economical
design, 20 to 40 liters of TEG circulating for each kilogram of water to be absorbed.
A basic glycol contacting scheme is shown in Figure 3.11. The natural gas stream is contacted
with a glycol solution to which water is attracted. It is important to note that aromatic
compounds, such as BTEX, and other hydrocarbon vapors are soluble in glycol and will also be
absorbed in the circulating solution. The contacting usually takes place at an elevated pressure,
e.g., first stage separator pressure or gas export pressure, and can take place at very low
temperature (e.g. dehydration by refrigeration in presence of freeze protection). After contacting,
the water/glycol solution is sent to a regeneration unit where the water will be separated from the
glycol solution.
The regeneration unit typically includes a flash tank, where methane and other light gases are
flashed off, a reboiler and a regeneration still column. The water laden glycol is heated in the
regeneration column to drive off absorbed water. Dry glycol is then recovered for reuse in the
absorber; TEG concentration of 99.9 wt% is typically achieved after heating. Unfortunately, this
heating also vaporizes hydrocarbons that have been absorbed into the glycol, and these are sent,
along with the water vapor, in vent stream from the still column. These organic emissions are
now classified as Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs), and are subject to emissions regulations both
in the United States and internationally. Alternative technologies have been developed to reduce
BTEX emissions from solvent stripping (namely the ECOTEG process) which is described in
more details in Section 4.
Liquid desiccant dehydration equipment is simple to operate and maintain. It can easily be
automated for unattended operation.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
40

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.11
Glycol Contacting
Dehydrogenation Flow Scheme
Section 3
41
Section 3
3.4.2.2
Dry/Solid Desiccant Adsorption
Solid desiccant uses physical adsorption of molecules onto the surface of those adsorbent.
Several solid desiccants are used in water adsorption and hydrocarbon adsorption applications.
These are typically sold as pellets or beads (either spherical or cylindrical shaped) of various
sizes and porosity. Standard sizes are pellets of 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) or 1/8 inch (3.2 mm)
diameter and beads of 8x12 mesh (1.6-2.5mm) and 4x8 mesh (2.5-5mm). Desiccants in common
commercial use fall into one of those three categories:
Gels: water and hydrocarbon removal can be achieved with silica gel. Silica gels are
manufactured from sulfuric acid and sodium silicate, essentially pure silicon dioxide
(SiO2). Silica gels can also adsorb polar compound such as methanol or mercaptans and
can deliver a water dew point of 0oC and hydrocarbon dew point 5oC at approximately
70 barg.
Alumina: typically a hydrated form of alumina oxide (Al2O3); can achieve water dew
points in the order of -70oC and standard pressure (1.013 bar).
Molecular Sieves: manufactured or naturally occurring alkali metal aluminisilicates

which give outlet water dew point of approximately -90oC at standard pressure and are
capable of dehydration to less than 1 ppm water content. Additional applications include
gas sweetening (i.e. hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans removal for feed gas containing
low sulfur concentrations, in the order of a few hundred ppm as general rule for
economical design).
Solid desiccants are generally used in dehydration systems consisting of two or more adsorption
towers and associated regeneration equipment (i.e. fired heaters, regeneration gas cooler and
auxiliary/supporting equipment). A process schematic is shown in Figure 3.12. This shows a
three bed system where one bed is used for water removal, another is being heated (first step of
regeneration), and the third is cooling (second step of regeneration), which is typically used in
Silica Gel adsorption.
The system operates on a cyclical basis where the operating modes of the beds are switched over
once the bed in service is fully loaded with water (just before breakthrough occurs).
Regeneration is carried out by passing a heated gas, e.g. a slip stream of the treated gas across
the bed at a sufficiently high temperature such that the adsorbed water in the bed is desorbed.
The gas slip stream is then cooled to condense out most of the bulk water vapor. Gas flow during
adsorption is usually downflow, allowing higher gas velocities which avoid bed fluidization. The
adsorption process can be in open or closed loop, depending on whether the regeneration gas is
recycled to the inlet of the unit or not.
Solid desiccant units generally cost more to buy and operate than glycol units but this depends on
the gas water content and the environment of the unit. Solid desiccant units can be more
economically viable at low water concentration and remote units where utilities and access are
limited. Their use is therefore typically limited to low H2O content gases feed, very low water
dew point requirements and/or in cryogenic processes to prevent hydrate and ice formation.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
42

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.12
Solid Adsorption
Schematic
Section 3
43
Section 3
Molecular Sieves
Typically these are crystalline metal aluminosilicates having a three dimensional interconnecting
network of silica and alumina tetrahedra. Natural water of hydration is removed from this
network by heating to produce uniform cavities (or pores) which selectively adsorb molecules
of a specific size.
The 3, 4, 5 and 13X (where 1 or angstrom = 1 x 10-10m) pore size sieves can be designed
for size-selective separations. For example:
3 Molecular Sieves: are formed by substituting potassium cation for the inherent
sodium ions of the 4 structure reducing the effective pore size to ~ 3 . Primary
application of 3 molecular sieves are commercial dehydration of unsaturated
hydrocarbon streams and selective removal of water from natural gas streams.
4 Molecular Sieves: the standard type for an A type zeolite, the sodium form, with
effective pore openings of ~ 4 can adsorb species such as H2O, SO2, CO2, H2S, N2,
C2H4, C2H6, C3H6 and methanol. Generally considered a universal drying agent in polar
(non aqueous) and non-polar media.
5 Molecular Sieves: are divalent calcium ions in place of sodium cations give
apertures of ~5 which exclude molecules of effective diameter >5, e.g., all 4-carbon
rings, and iso-compounds. Primary application therefore removal of H2S, CO2 and linear
mercaptans from natural gas. Other applications include adsorption of nC4H10, nC4H9OH
and dichlorodifluoro-methane (Freon 12).
13 X Molecular Sieves: The sodium form represents the basic structure of the type X
family, with an effective pore opening in the 9-10 range. Primary liquid
hydrocarbon/natural gas application of 13 X molecular sieves are that can be used in
liquid hydrocarbon/natural gas sweetening (i.e. removal of H2S and mercaptans).
Typical equilibrium loading curves are shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13
Loading of Molecular Sieve 5
(Courtesy of: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)

H2S
CO2
x, mol per 100g of molecular sieve
0.4
CH3SH
CH4
COS
N2
0.2
0
0.001
PP:4119.0005/Sec 3
0.005 0.01
0.05 0.1
0.5
10
50 100
p, bar

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
44
Section 3
Molecular sieve adsorption typically occurs in a 2+1 solid bed arrangement, where two beds are
used for adsorption and one bed is being regenerated. Adsorption generally occurs at around
20-50oC and regeneration takes place at around 200oC-300oC. Higher regeneration temperature
or higher regeneration gas flow rate are required for high pressure regeneration. The process
produces a gas with less than 1 ppm water content suitable for further downstream processing
such as NGL recovery and LNG.
Molecular sieves are typically more versatile as they can be used to simultaneously sweeten and
dry gases, and are typically less expensive than silica gels. However, molecular sieves have
higher heat of desorption, and are usually more expensive to build and operate than other
methods.
In most cases, molecular sieves will be the preferred choice of adsorbent for:
Drying fluids at a temperature above 50oC
Drying fluids when heavy hydrocarbon and/or aromatics are present, which can reduce
the capacity of absorption of alumina and gels
Co-adsorption of water and sulfur compounds
Acid gas feed with pH of the absorbed water less than 5
Dew point required is less than -70oC at standard pressure (1.013 bar).
3.4.2.3 Membrane Processes
Gas separation with membranes has developed into an economically viable process in the last
decade. Membranes can be used for almost all aspects of natural gas treating. The following are
of particular interest:
Separation of carbon dioxide and methane
Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
Dehydration
Recovery of heavier hydrocarbons,

Poreless, dense polymer films are used for the separation of gas mixtures. Individual components
of the gas dissolve in the polymer and move through it by diffusion. Material transport can be
described by the following steps: absorption from the gas phase into the membrane matrix,
diffusion through the membrane, and desorption out of the membrane into the gas phase. The
general rule is that a larger available membrane surface area, thinner effective membrane
separating layer, greater difference in partial pressures, higher membrane-specific flow rate of
the components to be separated (permeation coefficient), and better selectivity for individual
gases result in more complete separation of a mixture.
A multitude of polymer membranes are connected in a module to reach as high a packing density
as possible. Hollow fiber, spiral-wound, and envelope-type modules have become generally
accepted. However as the pressure drop across the process is quite high; this makes membrane
use economical if production of low pressure natural gas is acceptable or for plants that receive
high pressure feed gas resulting from high well pressure streams. Feed gas pre-treatment by
compression is possible, however, it leads to an increase in the capital cost of investment and
also increases operating costs.
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
45
Section 3
3.5
IMPURITY REMOVAL
In addition to water and hydrocarbon dew point control, contaminants such as acid gases may
have to be removed from the gas stream to meet pipeline and sales gas specification. Additional
treatment may also be required to meet gas specification for LNG production. Such treatments
are listed below and include:
Acid Gases & Organic Sulfur Compounds: removal of carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and other sulfur compounds including mercaptans (RSH) and
carbonyl sulfides (COS).
Mercury: mainly for LNG and cryogenic applications, it is removed to prevent risk of
metal embrittlement of materials of construction
Nitrogen: removal of inerts for LNG processing and to improve sales gas heating value
Helium: removal of inerts for LNG processing and to improve sales gas heating value.
The overall gas processing plant may therefore incorporate units to remove these components, as
well as dew point control unit. Processes used for the removal of those contaminants are
described in this section.
3.5.1
Acid Gas Removal
Acid gases generally refer to carbon dioxide, CO2, and hydrogen sulfide, H2S, because they form
an acidic solution when absorbed in water. The process of removing those acid gases from a
natural gas stream is called Gas Sweetening. Gas sweetening is performed for a number of
reasons:
To prevent corrosion in the presence of free water,
To meet limits on the H2S and CO2 content of sales gas and
To avoid reduction in heating value due to excess CO2.
Sales gas specification for transmission and distribution, as seen in Table 2.3, specify a
maximum H2S content of about 5 to 7 milligrams per standard cubic meter. Other sulfur
components may be present in the feed gas such as mercaptans and carbonyl sulfide and these
may also have to be removed to meet sales gas specifications. It has to be noted that more
stringent standards may be set, particularly for the liquefaction of natural gas into liquefied
natural gas, LNG, where CO2 can freeze on exchanger surfaces (riming), thus reducing
efficiency of the process and blocking heat exchangers.
Processes available to remove acid gases and other sulfur containing compounds are summarized
in Table 3.2.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
46
Section 3
Table 3.2
Acid Gas Removal Methods
Process Type
Process
Mechanism
Chemical Process (Solvent)
Amine contacting (MEA, DEA, MDEA, DGA.)

Potassium carbonate
Caustic wash (non regenerative)
Chelated iron
Iron Sponge
Zinc oxide (non regenerative)
Glycol
Methanol
Patented solvents
Molecular sieves
Activated charcoal
Cryogenic condensation and distillation
Membrane Separation
Absorption and reaction of acid gas with a

chemical solution
Chemical Process (Dry)

Physical Process (Solvent)
Physical Process (Dry)
Fixed Bed Sweetening (Batch Process)

Absorption
Adsorption
Fixed Bed Sweetening
Gas liquid separation
The choice of process to be used depends on the composition of the feed gas stream and the sales
gas specifications.
Natural gas streams with low content H2S can be sweetened in a chemical reactive process using
iron sponge as an absorbent. However, this is a batch process requiring replacement of iron
sponge upon saturation with H2S, as this process consumes the active chemical in the sponge.
This process will therefore not be suitable for large volume of gases with high acid gas content.
The same applies for Zinc Oxide processes.
Physical adsorption units using molecular sieve (mole sieve) are designed for adsorption of H2S
and CO2 down to very low levels, i.e. 4ppm H2S in the treated gas. Molecular sieves adsorption
will typically be done on a 4 molecular sieve after deep dehydration of the gas. The use of
molecular sieve will be dependent on the sales gas specification to be achieved and the inlet gas
compositions. It has to be noted that the treatment of large amount of gas with relatively large
acid gas concentration would require large adsorption and regeneration equipment, which may
prove uneconomical.
The most commonly used processes for acid gas removal are solvent processes, both chemical
and physical solvent processes are described in more details below.
3.5.1.1
Solvent Processes
Solvent processes are based on physical and/or chemical absorption of acid gases. A comparison
between physical solvent processes and chemical solvent processes, which are most commonly
used for acid gas treatment, is shown in Table 3.3.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
47
Section 3
Table 3.3
Physical Solvents versus Chemical Solvents

(source: Q.B. Johnson Manufacturing Inc.)
Physical Solvents
Need high acid gas partial pressure (above 3 bar)
Need low heavy hydrocarbon concentration in the feed gas
Used for bulk removal
Low regeneration heat required
Large contactors may be required many trays
May use of proprietary solvents
Chemical Solvents
Operates for all acid gas partial pressure in the feed gas
Lower overhead specification achieved
Low solvent losses
Low hydrocarbon solubilities
Solvent such as glycols (physical processes) are mainly used for bulk removal of acid gas from
high acid gas concentration gases where stringent acid gas concentration of the treated gas is not
required. Alkanolamines (amine chemical process) are widely used for the removal of
hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from natural gas streams for a wide range of acid gas inlet
concentration and very low acid gas concentration requirements of the treated natural gas. In
addition, proprietary solvent such as Sulfolane (Shell), ACT-1TM (UOP) and Morphysorb
(BASF) are typically used for bulk CO2 removal or for trace H2S removal when used in
conjunction with an amine. This is described in more details in Section 4 and Section 5.
3.5.1.2
The Amine Process
The removal of acid gases from a raw gas stream is done by a chemical reaction which occurs
between the alkanolamine (amine) and the acid gases (H2S and CO2); this typically occurs in an
absorption column where the gas contacts the amine solution. Amine processes typically operate
with pressures between 1 bar and 180 bar, however this will depend on the inlet gas conditions.
A basic process flow diagram for a typical gas sweetening by adsorption is presented in
Figure 3.14.
Amines are clear, colorless liquids that can be categorized on a chemical basis as being primary
(MonoEthanolAmine - MEA), secondary (DiEthanolAmine DEA and DiIsoPropanolAmine DIPA), and tertiary (MethylDiEthanolAmine - MDEA). Their classification depends on the
number of substitutions onto a central nitrogen element.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
48

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.14
Split-Stream Amine
Process
Section 3
49
Section 3
The chemical structure of amine influences its properties as a treating solvent and therefore,
leads to different applications. Table 3.4 shows typical treated gas purities and required anime
loading for the three types of amine.
Table 3.4
Loading (moles/moles)
Solution Concentration
Treated Gas Purity - H2S
Treated Gas Purity - CO2
Amine Performance
MEA
DEA/DIPA
MDEA
0.3 to 0.4
15 - 20 wt%
< 3 ppm
< 50 ppm
0.3 to 0.7
25 - 30 wt%
< 3 ppm
< 200 ppm
0.2 to 0.6
25 - 50 wt%
< 3 ppm
< 1000 ppm
The acid gas produced from the amine stripper may then be sent to a Claus unit for sulfur
recovery provided that the volumes of sulfur that can be recovered are sufficiently large to justify
the investment. When the volumes of sulfur are low the off gases are often just flared or
incinerated, though stringent environmental regulations may require further treatment.
Consideration can also be given to acid gas re-injection to maintain pressure of a gas reservoir,
for example for enhanced oil recovery. However, this has the disadvantage of making the field
gas increasingly more sour and is therefore not commonly used in gas field except as a disposal
method.
3.5.1.3
Sulfur Recovery Unit - The Claus Process
A schematic flow diagram of the Claus sulfur recovery process is illustrated in Figure 3.15.
Sulfur is recovered from the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the acid gas in two steps.
Thermal Step: The H2S is partially oxidized with air. This is carried out in a reaction
furnace at high temperatures (1,000-1,400C). Sulfur is formed, but some H2S remains
unreacted, and some SO2 is made.
Catalytic Step: The remaining H2S is reacted with the SO2 at lower temperatures (about
200-350C) over a catalyst to make more sulfur. A catalyst is needed in the second step
to help the components react with reasonable speed. Unfortunately the reaction does not
go to completion even with the best catalyst. To maximize conversion to sulfur, two or
three catalytic reaction stages are used, with sulfur being removed between the stages.
Factors like concentration, contact time and reaction temperature all influence the
reaction, and are optimized to give the best conversions.
The reaction in the converters is 2H2S + SO2 = 3S + 2H2O.

Inevitably a small amount of H2S remains in the tail gas. This residual quantity, together with
other trace sulfur compounds, is usually dealt within a tail gas unit, which removes and recycles
the hydrogen sulfide to the Claus Unit. The Claus unit together with the tail gas unit can give
overall sulfur recoveries of about 99.8 percent.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
50

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.15
Claus Sulfur Recovery

Process
Section 3
51
Section 3
3.5.2
Mercury Removal
Mercury, which is a common natural contaminant of gas, attacks piping and equipment made
from aluminum and aluminum compounds. Aluminum is a favored material of construction for
low temperature exchangers used for example in a cryogenic NGL extraction process or in LNG
plants. Mercury must therefore be removed prior to the feed gas entering the cryogenic sections
of the plant, i.e. deep ethane recovery or LNG plant. Another reason for removing mercury is to
produce mercury-free product streams if, for example, ethane is used as feed for an ethylene
plant, the mercury needs to be removed to prevent heat exchanger and catalyst deactivation
problems in the ethylene plant. Typical mercury specifications are for less than 0.01 micrograms
per standard cubic meter, which corresponds to about 1 ppt by volume.
Activated carbon absorption has been successfully used for mercury removal since the 1970s.
The activated carbon is typically impregnating with a compound that will chemically react with
the mercury, e.g. sulfur, which will enhance the capacity of absorbing Mercury. The carbon is
then disposed of by landfill or, where there are environmental concerns, it is regenerated, as
shown in Figure 3.16.
In the process option presented in Figure 3.16, mercury is removed from the feed stream,
condensed in the regeneration knockout, and leaves the process as a separate liquid stream.
The mercury removal facility is typically placed after the dehydration unit before entering the
dew point control system. However, technology suppliers such as UOP, as part of their work to
develop molecular sieve use to remove mercury, propose to combine the dehydration unit with
the mercury removal unit. This will be done by replacing a portion of the dehydration grade
molecular sieve with HgSIV regenerative mercury removal adsorbent, more details on this
particular technology can be found in Section 4.4.2.
3.5.3
Nitrogen Removal
Removal of nitrogen may be required if it is present in large enough concentration to give an

unacceptably low gas calorific value of the sales gas. Cryogenic processes or solvent processes
can be employed for nitrogen removal. In the case where cryogenic technology is employed, the
nitrogen rejection unit is typically a component of an NGL recovery units.
Solvent absorption can also be used for nitrogen rejection. This may be a preferred process as it
does not require deep dehydration and CO2 removal as it is required for the cryogenic process in
order to prevent freezing in the cryogenic equipment. Molecular sieves can also be used for
nitrogen rejection; this will usually be limited to small volume application to limit the size of the
equipments. Further details are available in Section 5.3.1).
3.5.4
Helium Removal
Helium, like nitrogen, is an inert but is rarely present in large concentrations in natural gas.
However, in a few cases, it is present in sufficiently large quantity to justify its extraction as a
valuable by-product. As with nitrogen removal, cryogenic processes are usually employed for
helium removal.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
52

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.16
UOP Mercury Removal
and Recovery System
Section 3
53
Section 3
3.6
CONDENSATE STABILISATION
Stabilization is a means of removing lighter hydrocarbons from the liquid present in the bottom
of the slug catcher with a minimum loss of heavier hydrocarbons. Stabilisation results in a larger
volume of stock tank liquids available for sale.
The stabilization system consists of a vertical vessel, which may be packed with ceramic rings or
fitted with trays spaced from 12 to 24 in. apart inside the vessel. The liquid in the lower section
of the tower is heated by an indirect heater or steam coils. The condensate from the bottom of
the slug catcher flows directly to the top of the stabilizer. The liquid hydrocarbons flow through
the packing or down the trays, adsorbing some of the heavier gaseous hydrocarbons which have
been vaporized at the bottom of the vessel. At the bottom of the vessel, the heat added from the
heater or reboiler vaporizes most of the lighter hydrocarbons. After being cooled, the stabilized
liquid flows to storage and the lighter ends flow upwards to be reabsorbed or to leave the top of
the vessel (refer to Figure 3. 17). The produced gas stream, mainly light hydrocarbons, is routed
to become fuel, sales gas or routed in a vent line.
The amount of condensate that can be recovered by stabilization unit is dependent on the
pressure and temperature at which the slug catcher is operated and the composition of the gas
being processed.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
54

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_3
Figure 3.17
Gas Stabilization
(Courtesy of OGCI Publishing)
Section 3
55
Section 4
4.1
Current Process Technologies
INTRODUCTION
Gas conditioning process is sometimes referred to as Open Art design. This pertains to sizing
and design of gas conditioning equipment. As previously mentioned in Section 2, contractors use
internationally recognized equipment standards, process simulations and equipment vendor
consultations to design gas processing facilities that, under certain circumstances can predicate
the need to used licensed technologies. Some Project developers prefer the reliability and
security that comes with using licensed technologies, and as so bias towards using them.
However such technologies exist only for specific unit operations where design has been
optimized or proprietary materials (adsorbents, membranes etc.) are used.
The licensed processes and proprietary technologies will be covered in this section and exist for
the following units, including:
Gas reception facilities (condensate recovery in a slug catcher)
Gas dehydration and water dew point control

Hydrocarbon dew point control
Acid gas removal (hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide)
Nitrogen rejection and
Mercury removal.
Natural gas production and natural gas treatment at the gas reservoir well-head are not
considered in this study.
4.1.1
Engineering Companies With Track Record in Onshore Gas Processing
A number of engineering companies have formidable track records in gas processing technology,
and in selecting a company to undertake front-end design responsibility for a major project, it
would normally be considered unnecessarily risky to choose a company with lesser experience.
The technology of natural gas processing originated primarily in the U.S., with roots going back
to the 1920s and 1930s. As a consequence, a large proportion of the companies in the field are
American-origin, although often with offices in Europe and elsewhere. Some of the most well
known companies are listed below:
ABB Lummus has a specialist gas processing subsidiary, Randall. ABB projects and
services in gas processing covers field development, gas conditioning and treating, sulfur
removal, deep ethane extraction and LPG recovery. To date, ABB technology has been
used in more than 220 plants around the world with more than 16 BSCF processed daily.
BASF and Lurgi are major technology providers for acid gas (carbon dioxide and
sulfuric acid) removal and sulfur recovery with their joint Omnisulf process. BASF also
developed various acid gas removal processes based on solvent extraction such as the
aMDEA, ADEG, PuraTreatTM R und F, Morphysorb and sMDEATM processes.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
56
Section 4
UOP LLC has been delivering gas technology to the gas processing industry for over
90 years. UOP has licensed several gas processing processes in various applications such
as gas dehydration and NGL recovery. NGL recovery turbo-expander-based technologies
and sulfur recovery processes are supplied through UOPs alliance with
Ortloff Engineers Ltd. UOP also patented processes for acid gas removal, sulfur
recovery, gas dehydration and nitrogen rejection.
For more than 50 years, Fluor Enterprise Inc. has provided gas processing technology
to more than 200 gas treating plants with individual train capacities of up to 600 million
standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD). Fluor has developed patented carbon dioxide
recovery process technologies, such as the EconamineSM, the Improved EconamineSM,
the Econamine FG PlusSM, and the Fluor SolventSM process.
Bechtel Ltd. has provided gas processing services for more than 30 years. Its
achievements include 110 gas processing plants, 50 major oil and gas field developments,
and about a third of the worlds gas liquefaction capacity. IPSI LLC, formerly
International Process Services, Inc., is an affiliate of Bechtel Corporation and is a
provider of conceptual/front-end design of gas processing facilities. IPSIs has patented
and patent pending processes in cryogenic facilities for NGL extraction and deep ethane
recovery, as well as, cryogenic nitrogen and helium separation from natural gas.
Axens a Process licensor, supplier of catalysts and adsorbents and associated services for
refining and petrochemicals was created in 2001 from the merger of Procatalyze and
IFPs Industrial Division (which supplies IFPs gas processing patented technology
worldwide).
Prosernat, formed in 1998 from the merger of Proser (Framatome) and Nat (IFP),
supplies patented technology such as Progly and Drizo, as well as, the IFP Ifpexol
technology for gas solvent dehydration.
Merichem (specialized in hydrogen sulfide removal) supplies The EliminatorTM;

LO-CAT; Sulfur-Rite, ARI-100 and ARI-100EXL for the bulk and trace removal
of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and removal of other sulfur compounds such as mercaptans.
Other major companies in the gas processing industry include: Air Products and
Chemicals; M. W. Kellogg Limited; Technip USA Corporation; Parsons Energy &
Chemicals Group Inc.; Costain Oil; Gas & Process Limited; Linde BOC Process Plants
LLC (LBPP co-operation between Linde HG and BOC); JGC Corporation; JF Pritchard
& Company (now the process division of Black & Veatch); Snam Progetti (an E.N.I. Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi company); ConocoPhillips; Shell; and Statoil all license gas
processing technology

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
57
Section 4
4.2
GAS RECEPTION TECHNOLOGIES
Slug catchers are typically used to separate free liquids (condensates, mercaptans and water)
from the natural gas stream before it is fed to the gas processing plant. There are basically two
options employed: a single vessel type or finger type. Both types provide liquid separation
and hold-up.
Slug Catcher design is an open art technology. Taylor Forge, Hanover Maloney, Sices, Cimtas,
Bassi Luigi, Oilfield Production Equipment Ltd. and Rolle S.p.A are all slug catcher fabricators,
some provide basic design others just fabricate other companies designs. Taylor Forge, one of
the most renown in the industry, offers proprietary design for slug catchers and developed its
finger Harp type slug catchers suitable for larger installations.
Taylor Forges Harp Type Slug catcher, shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
Taylor Forge Harp Type Separator/Slug Catcher
Finger Type slug catcher, as seen in Figure 4.1 is a row of large diameter pipelines in which
the gas/liquid mixture is injected at low velocity into a distribution manifold. The stream then
splits at the distribution manifold into several smaller streams to allow uniform flow into the
separation chambers. In the separation chambers, the majority of the gas liquid separation is
accomplished. The required length, size and number of these chambers are a combined function
of gas flow, gas chemistry and other known conditions. The primary function of the dry gas
risers is to deliver dry gas back into the system. As some secondary separation occurs here, their
sizing is important. The storage Harps hold the liquids at line pressure and the number and length
of these Harps is determined by the storage requirements, i.e. slug size, if the system is
two-phase, three-phase and the residence time desired. The liquid and slug manifolds provide
separation of water, oil and debris. The oil and water are then removed from the storage end for
further processing. The debris is cleaned out on an as needed basis.
This Harp Type slug catcher technology has been used in more than 50 plants around the world
for gas processing capacities ranging from 3 MMSCFD to more than 4,000 MMSCFD.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
58
Section 4
4.3
DEW POINT CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
4.3.1
Water Dew Point Control
Several methods exist for the removal of water from a natural gas stream. This is to control the
gases water dew point temperature to meet sales gas or LNG specification. Most commonly
used processes for water dew point control include: dry/solid desiccant adsorption process (silica
gel beds or molecular sieves beds) and liquid desiccant absorption process (solvent processes);
some licensed processes used for gas dehydration are described below.
4.3.1.1
Molecular Sieves
Molecular sieves are used to reduce water concentration to less than 1ppm which is necessary for
further downstream processing such as deep NGL recovery and LNG. Technology vendors such
as UOP, CECA (Arkema Group), Zeochem and Grace are main suppliers in the gas industry and
will provide full product design and the material. UOP and CECA, the two main players, offer
products for all molecular sieve applications in the oil and gas industry. For example, UOP
offers MOLSIV, HgSIV, COSMIN and TRISIV for various applications, CECA
(Arkema group) offers SILIPORITE molecular sieves and Grace produces and distributes
SYLOSIV, SYLOBEAD and PHONOSORB molecular sieves.
There is no typical process operating pressure as these are directly related to the feed gas
conditions. Molecular sieves operate best below 50oC and regeneration temperature is often in
the order of 200oC to 300oC. Molecular sieves for water removal are typically sold with a
three year lifetime guaranty for a cycle time of 24 to 30 hours (i.e. cycle time includes
absorption, heating and cooling of the beds) and a 5 year lifetime guaranty for a cycle time of
60 to 80 hours. The tendency for natural gas water dew pointing is to go to five years life time
for a cycle time of 24 to 30 hours which can be achieved through good unit design, by using
guard bed layers of activated alumina and an optimized regeneration procedure. This enhances
the need for adsorbent producers to provide technical services, know-how and experience, for
example CECA has developed a simulation program SIMATEP for regeneration optimization.
4.3.1.2
Silica Gel
Silica gel dehydration is not a licensed process. Designs can be obtained from the manufacturers
and these are typically the same as for molecular sieves described above, i.e. UOP, CECA,
Zeochem, Grace and Engelhard. Silica gel dehydration system can also be sold as part of a
package for example by NATCO and Petreco KCC Gas Processing Solutions. There is no
typical process operating temperature and pressure as these are directly related to the feed gas
conditions. Silica Gel regeneration temperature and pressure also depend on feed gas
composition, pressure and temperature, however, regeneration temperature is often in the order
of 200oC.
Silica gel adsorption technology can also be used for hydrocarbon dew point control as shown in
Section 4.3.2.1. - SORDECO.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
59
Section 4
4.3.1.3
ECOTEG
The ECOTEG process was developed and patented by SIIRTEC NIGI. The ECOTEG process
is mainly used for the removal of water in feed gas with high BTEX concentration and is based
on conventional glycol regeneration unit (i.e. stripping) in which the stripped gas is recycled into
the process. The advantages of the ECOTEG process are that it releases no BTEX into the
environment, consumes no stripping gas, needs no storage of gasoline and does not require
incineration or water treatment of the recovered water stream. This process treats gas flow rates
of up to 500 MSCFD with feed gas temperature of up to 60oC and feed gas pressure of up to
150 bar.
ECOTEG has three different process arrangements, depending on the desired dew point
depression. ECOTEG -1 process, used for moderate dew point depression, is shown in
Figure 4.2. In this process, a flash drum is placed at the exit of the absorption column in order to
separate light hydrocarbons absorbed in the TEG solution. A large proportion of the gas stream
produced from the flash drum is used as fuel for the stripper/reboiler firebox while the
TEG/water solution is fed to the top of the stripper. The main characteristic of the ECOTEG
process is the fact that the stripping gas is recycled and not sent to a flare, which may be done in
other processes. The vapors exiting the top of the stripper, which contain the stripping gas with
evaporated water and BTEX, are cooled in the overhead cooler and separated in a three phase
separator. The residual vapor from the separator is recycled as stripping gas. The water stream
is then sent to an air stripper to reduce its BTEX concentration from 1,000 ppm to about 1 ppm,
which is acceptable for direct disposal. The BTEX stream is recycled to the middle of the
absorption column. This is done in order to saturate the TEG solution in the absorption tower,
which would otherwise prevent further BTEX absorption into the solution and leave BTEX in
the dry gas stream. The Lean TEG solution from the bottom of the stripper is recycled to the top
of the absorption tower.
The other two ECOTEG processes further treat the lean TEG solution exiting the bottom of the
stripper. Further treatments involve the increase of TEG solution purity, i.e. by further
dehydrating the stripping gas. This is done either with the addition of a small atmospheric
absorber irrigated by the rich TEG to be regenerated and the stripping gas (ECOTEG -2) or the
addition of a second packed section to the additional ECOTEG-2 tower, which is fed by lean
TEG solution. This process is the ECOTEG -3 and can achieve TEG concentration of
99.985 percent.
Operating conditions for ECOTEG processes include:
Glycol circulation rates between 2.5-5 US gallons per pound of water to be removed
Regenerator stripping gas flow rate typically 3-5 SCF per US gallon of glycol
recirculated and
Reboiler temperatures typically set at 200oC.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
60

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Dry Gas
Wet Gas
BTEX
Fuel Gas
Lean TEG
Rich TEG
STRIPPER
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.2
ECOTEG BTEX Rich
Gas Dehydration
Stripping Gas
Water
Air
THREE
PHASE
SEPARATION
Section 4
61
Section 4
4.3.1.4
Drizo
DRIZO is a glycol process licensed by Prosernat IFP Group Technologies and OPC Drizo, Inc.
This process involves the contact between the wet feed gas and a glycol solution (DEG, TEG
or tetraethylene glycol) in an absorption column or absorber, as shown in Figure 4.3. This
process can be used to remove water and heavy hydrocarbons such as aromatics (BTEX) from
natural gas streams.
Water, heavy hydrocarbons and aromatic components are absorbed in the glycol solution to
create a wet glycol stream. The wet glycol stream is then heated and flashed to remove the
lighter absorbed. As shown in Figure 4.3, the liquid stream from the flash drum, containing
water, glycol and hydrocarbons, is thermally regenerated in a reboiler. The regenerated glycol
stream exiting the bottom of the reboiler is recycled as solvent at the top of the absorber. The
gas stream exiting the top of the reboiler is cooled and is then fed to a still column in which the
gas, water and condensed hydrocarbon streams are separated. The water is used as reflux to the
reboiler.
To date, more than 45 units have been put into commercial operation around the world. This
process is typically used for water dew point depression of up to 180oF (80oC) and is said to be
competitive at water dew point below -30oC. Glycol purity as high as 99.99 wt% can be
achieved, thus enabling residual water content in the treated gas down to below 1 ppm. In
addition, no external stripping gas is required and all BTEX compounds are recovered from the
vapor before release to the atmosphere.
4.3.2
Water and Hydrocarbon Dew Point Control
Processes have been developed which achieve simultaneous water and hydrocarbon dew point
control through removal of both heavy hydrocarbons and water. The main processes used for
both water and hydrocarbon dew point control include solid bed adsorption process such as the
Sordeco Process or the ADAPT (Advantica Ltd.) process. Other processes such as J-T valves
and/or refrigeration processes, used in conjunction with solvent (glycol or methanol solution)
dehydration and recovery, such as the IFPEXOL process, could also be considered as a one step
water and hydrocarbon dew point control to meet sales gas specification.
4.3.2.1
SORDECO
SORDECO, licensed by Shell Global solution International B.V. in co-operation with

Engelhard, is a solid bed absorption process which selectively removes water and heavy
hydrocarbons, typically C5+, from a natural gas stream. This process typically extracts 40 percent
of C5 and 85 percent C6+ from the natural gas feed and would be considered economical for lean
feed gases (i.e. typically 0.4 mol percent C6+) and where water dewpoint specification are not
too stringent (i.e. <20pppmv). The SORDECO process uses Sorbead adsorbent which is a
special grade of silica gel manufactured by Engelhard. The gas is fed at the top of an absorption
column in which the adsorbent selectively removes water and hydrocarbons from the natural gas
feed. When the adsorbent is saturated, it is generated by stripping with hot regeneration gas,
i.e. treated gas exiting the furnace. The hot gas stream exiting the adsorption column is then
cooled, and heavy hydrocarbons and water condense and are then separated. In a typical natural
gas plant, up to four adsorbers are used to allow for on-line regeneration.
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
62

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.3
Drizo Gas Dehydration
Section 4
63

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.4
Sordeco Process
Flow Scheme
Section 4
64
Section 4
SORDECO is typically used for low pressure feed gas stream (< 100 bar) or when limited
pressure drops over the treating unit is allowed. Engelhards Sorbead adsorbent is used in over
200 natural gas processing units worldwide. This process is known to be used for plant capacity
of up to 200 MMSCFD and is usually the preferred process option for the treatment of lean
gases.
4.3.2.2
IFPEXOL
IFPEXOL is a methanol-based solvent, developed by the Institut Francais du Petrole (IFP) and
licensed by Prosernat IFP Group Technologies. This process can be used to remove water and
hydrocarbons from natural gas streams. Figure 4.5 shows a process for the removal of water and
condensate. A slip stream of raw gas is contacted against a mixture of solvent and water entering
the top of a contactor. The ambient heat of the incoming raw gas is sufficient to completely strip
the solvent from the water such that high purity water is obtained as a bottom liquid product. A
solvent rich gas slip stream leaves the top of the contactor and is recombined with the main feed
gas flow. This stream contains sufficient solvent to act as a hydrate inhibitor as the gas is cooled
in the gas chilling process by any appropriate means - Joule-Thomson expansion (as shown
here), turbo expander or external refrigeration. Depending on process and feed conditions, NGLs
could also be recovered in this process. A three phase separator is then used to separate sales gas,
condensate and the solvent/water mixture which is returned to the contactor.
The IFPEXOL process does not require a heated reboiler for solvent regeneration, unlike
conventional glycol absorption or injection dehydration schemes, thus saving on capital and
operating costs. The process also avoids emissions of solvent, however, water vapor leaving the
top of a glycol regeneration may still contain some glycol which itself may contain aromatics.
This stream may therefore require further treatment in order to remove aromatics present.
To date, 15 IFPEXOL units have been put into commercial operation with capacities of up to
350 MMSFCD. Depending on process and feed conditions, this process can achieve water dew
point of around -30oC and hydrocarbon dew point down to - 100oC, at standard pressure.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
65
Inlet Gas
Main Gas Streams
Water
CONTACTOR
Water condensed from gas

and IFPEXOL solvent
J-T Valve
Sales Gas
Q106_00101.0005.4119

PERP 04/05S8
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.5
IFPEXOL Process for
Dehydration and NGL Removal
Condensate
Section 4
66
Section 4
4.4
IMPURITY REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES
4.4.1
Acid Gas Removal
Acid gas removal technology is well established from numerous applications in natural gas
treating units installed worldwide. In their basic form, the units employ open art designs.
However proprietary processes have been developed around amines and other solvents where
additives can be added to improve such properties as selectivity for H2S, energy consumption,
and corrosion resistance.
Conventional amine processes, the most widely used method to remove acid gases from natural
gas, are typically used for bulk and trace removal of both hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.
Selective hydrogen sulfide removal is usually achieved by absorption on tertiary amines such as
in the aMDEA process (BASF), the Omnisulf process (Lurgi GmbH), and the sMDEATM
process (BASF). The process flow diagram for a typical amine process can be found in
Section 3, Figure 3.14.
A combination of amine with other chemicals can be used, for example, for gases with higher
acid gas content. This is achieved, for example, in the BenfieldTM process (UOP) using
potassium carbonate (K2CO3) solution mixed with amine. The Benfield process is described in
Section 4.4.1.1. The Sulfinol Process (Shell International Petroleum Co., Ltd) also uses a
mixture of amine, water and a proprietary solvent, Sulfolane (tetrahydrothiophene dioxide),
which combines the chemical absorption properties of amines and the physical absorption
properties of Sulfolane.
Hybrid chemical/physical solvents were also developed, such as the UCARSOLTM, a family of
solvent developed by the Dow Chemical Company. Their products include LE 701, LE 702 and
LE 703 that are used in the Amine Guard FS (UOP) process. The Vetrocoke process, developed
by Giammarco-Vetrocoke, an Italian company, uses a hybrid physical-chemical absorbent
process from the N-formylmorpholine family (US Patent 4080424). In addition, the Selexol
Process (UOP) uses union Carbides Selexol solvent, a physical solvent made of dimethyl ether
of polyethylene glycol and the Morphysorb process developed by BASF uses
N-acetylmorpholine solvent. These solvents can be used for deep H2S removal, bulk CO2
removal and trace sulfur (e.g., mercaptans and carbonyl sulfide) removal.
4.4.1.1
Benfield
The Benfield process, licensed by UOP, uses a chemical absorbing solvent to remove CO2, H2S
and other acid gas components. The solvent is based on 30 percent potassium carbonate
(K2CO3) in water plus an activator and corrosion inhibitor. The activator, which is added to the
solvent to enhance the absorption rate of CO2, is an amine such as DEA (diethanolamine) or
UOP proprietary chemical ACT-1, which is claimed to be more stable and more resistant to
degradation than DEA. This process is also used for bulk CO2 removal for example in ammonia
plants. To date, 700 units are in operation worldwide with 65 treating natural gas. A process flow
diagram is shown in Figure 4.6.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
67
Feed Gas
BENIFIELD
ABSORBER
HYDRAULIC
TURBINE
(options)
Treated Gas
LEAN
SOLUTION
PUMP
LEAN
SOLUTION
FILTER
Condensate
ACID GAS
KNOCK-OUT
DRUM
Acid Gas
REFLUX PUMP
LEAN
SOLUTION
FLASH
ACID GAS
CONDENSER

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
CONDENSATE
REBOILER
Figure 4.6
Benfield Process
Flow Scheme
CARBONATE
REBOILER
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
BENIFIELD
REGENERATOR
CONDENSATE
PUMP
Section 4
68
Section 4
The gas to be treated is fed into an absorption column in which the acid gas reacts with the
solvent. The rich solvent is then fed to the top of the regenerator/stripper column in which the
concentrated acid gas exits the top of the column and then partly condensed in a flash drum to
allow for reflux. The lean solution exiting the bottom of the regeneration column is fed back into
the top of the Benfield Absorber. This process is particularly suitable for high concentration of
acid gas in the feed. Typical feed conditions range between 150 psia (10 bar) and 1,800 psia
(120 bar) with acid gas compositions (H2S + CO2) from five percent to more than 35 percent by
volume. Residual CO2 and H2S concentration in the treated gas can be in the order of a few ppm
to a few percent, depending on the rich/feed gas conditions and composition. The acid gases
by-products can then re-injected in the gas reservoir, exported to a Claus process or to an
incinerator for further purification and sulfur recovery.
4.4.1.2
SELEXOL
The SELEXOL process was introduce over 30 years ago and over 50 units have been put into
commercial service. The process, licensed by UOP, is a solvent absorption process ideally suited
for the selective removal or for the bulk removal of CO2 SELEXOL also removes COS and
mercaptans, which are difficult to remove with amines. The SELEXOL process uses
Union Carbide Selexol solvent, a physical solvent made of dimethyl ether of polyethylene
glycol, which is inert and not subject to degradation. Typical feed conditions range between
300 psia (20 bar) and 2,000 psia (130 bar) with acid gas composition (H2S + CO2) from
five percent to more than 60 percent by volume. A flow scheme is shown in Figure 4.7.
Feed gas enters the bottom of the absorber column where it is contacted against descending
solvent. The components to be removed are physically absorbed into the solvent, which passes
out of the bottom of the column while treated gas leaves at the top. Regeneration of the solvent
is achieved by thermal regeneration in a stripper. The regenerated solvent is cooled and returned
to the main absorber.
The application of this process is dependent on the conditions and composition of the incoming
gas stream. Being a physical absorption process, the proportion of a component absorbed is, in
part, proportional to the component partial pressure in the feed gas. The component must be
present in sufficient quantity to provide an adequate concentration, which is the driving force for
effective absorption.
4.4.2
Mercury Removal
As seen in Section 3, the need for mercury removal is required before cryogenic processes such
as the one used for deep ethane extraction or LNG production. Processes for mercury removal
are similar to solid bed dehydration and are also open art design although companies such as
UOP, Axens or JGC Corporation provide design, support and the material required for mercury
removal.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
69

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.7
Selexol Solvent Process

Flow Scheme
Section 4
70
Section 4
Typical process flow diagram for mercury removal is very similar to other solid adsorbent
processes such as the one used for gas dehydration using molecular sieves, as shown in
Section 3, Figure 3.12. This is due to the fact that mercury can be adsorbed onto a solid to
produce a gas stream with less than 1 ppt mercury concentration. Materials used for mercury
removal are proprietary solids such as, for example, the Axens CMG 275 adsorbent, a sulfur on
alumina pellets or bead, and UOP HgSIVTM adsorbent, a silver coated molecular sieve sold as
pellet or bead.
UOP, as part of their work to develop molecular sieve used to remove mercury, proposes to
combine the dehydration unit with the mercury removal unit. UOP has installed HgSIVTM
adsorbent in over 25 gas dryers around the world which treated feed gas mercury content from
25 to 50 g/Nm3 (2.5 to 5.0 ppb) down to 0.01 g/Nm3 (1 ppt). The pressure and temperature of
the adsorption column depends on feed gas temperature and pressure. Typical gas feed pressure
would range between 150 psia (10 bar) and 1,800 psia (120 bar), whereas, feed gas temperature
would be in the order of 70oF (20oC). Regeneration would occur at feed pressure and similar
temperature used in the gas dehydration process, i.e. 200 F (100oC) to 500oF (250oC).
4.4.3
Nitrogen and Helium Removal
Removal of nitrogen may be required if it is present in large enough concentration to give an

unacceptably low gas calorific value and are most commonly removed in LNG plants or other
plants operating at cryogenic temperature (e.g. deep ethane recovery). Helium, like nitrogen, is
an inert gas but is rarely present in large concentrations in natural gas. However, in a few cases,
it is present in sufficiently large quantity to justify its extraction as a valuable by product.
Cryogenic or solvent processes are usually employed for nitrogen and helium removal.
4.4.3.1
Cryogenic Processes
Suppliers of cryogenic nitrogen and helium rejection units are, for example, Costain, Oil, Gas &
Processes Ltd with their double-column process for nitrogen rejection and UOPs PolybedTM
PSA Technology. Both of these processes use cryogenic technology for nitrogen removal, and it
is suggested that overall economics can be improved by integrating the recovery of natural gas
liquids (NGLs) with the nitrogen rejection unit.
Natural gas stream with between eight percent and 80 percent nitrogen can be treated in the
Costain process and gases with pressure above 27 bar typically do not need recompression.
A simplified process flow diagram is provided in Figure 4.8; the feed gas to this process is
treated gas, i.e. dehydrated and free of carbon dioxide, that may freezes in the cryogenic section
of the process.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
71

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.8
Costain Double Column
Process for Nitrogen Rejection
Section 4
72
Section 4
4.4.3.2
Solvent Processes
Another method for Nitrogen rejection, which does not involve cryogenic processes, involves the
absorption of hydrocarbon, including methane, on paraffinic solvents having molecular weights
ranging from 75 to 140 or naphthenic solvents having molecular weights ranging from 75 to 130,
as it is the case in the Mehra Process from Advanced Extraction Technologies, Inc.
(patent US4883515). This process treats the gas in two columns at different pressures. The first
column, the extractor, in which the gas contacts the solvents is at the feed gas pressure and
temperature, which is typically above 500 psia (30 bar). The second column, the stripper
column, which recovers the solvent and produces the sales gas stream operates at no more than
500 psia (30 bar). The gas exiting the stripper can be compressed to meet sales gas
specifications.
The process for nitrogen rejection is similar to the one used for lean oil absorption used in NGL
recovery. In the Mehra process, as shown in Figure 4.9, the feed gas is cooled to -25oF (- 30oC)
in a propane refrigerant heat exchanger and the liquid NGL are separated from the gas before is
enters the absorber. All hydrocarbons present in the feed gas to the absorber will be absorbed in
the solvent, with a nitrogen stream leaving the top of the absorber. The liquid stream leaving the
bottom of the absorber is then flashed at lower pressure in order to strip the solvent of lighter
hydrocarbon. This light hydrocarbon stream is then sold as sales gas. This stream may need
recompression to meet sales gas specifications.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
73

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
V: 4119.0005/Sec_4
Figure 4.9
MEHRA Process NRU
Section 4
74
Section 5
Emerging Technologies
A number of patents pertaining to developments in unit processes within the field of gas
processing have been awarded in recent years. The fundamental technology advancements have
occurred in the areas of hydrate prevention, dehydration, acid gas removal and desulfurization.
Optimization objectives have included increasing control over the gas specification, reduction in
energy, inhibitor inventory and waste generation, improved catalysts, and reduction of capital
costs through improved technologies and design.
5.1
DEHYDRATION
5.1.1
Kinetic Inhibitors
Thermodynamic hydrate inhibitors, such as methanol or glycols, have traditionally been used to
prevent hydrate formations. However, in order to be effective, thermodynamic hydrate inhibitors
may be used at very high concentrations leading to high hydrate inhibitor circulation rate. This
high volume complicates spacing requirements, logistics, and inventory management. As a
result, low dosage hydrate inhibitors (LDHI) have been developed, which allow for control of
hydrate formation at dosage rates much lower than those for thermodynamic hydrate inhibitors.
The most common of the LDHI are kinetic inhibitors or kinetic hydrate inhibitors (KHI). Unlike
thermodynamic hydrate inhibitors, KHI do not alter the fundamental hydrate formation
properties of the fluid. Instead, they interfere with the growth of hydrate crystals. KHI generally
includes organic moieties with size and shape similar to the dimensions of an active growing site
in the hydrates water lattice.
The KHI occupies the active site, preventing further addition of water molecules to the lattice
and hence stopping its growth. Over a long period of time, a KHI in a static system will be
completely consumed, such that additional hydrate nucleation sites will grow without inhibition.
Hence, KHI do not actually prevent hydrate crystal growth, they postpone it. Once the inhibited
hydrate nuclei pass into a production zone whose temperature or pressure lie outside the hydrate
region, they dissolve harmlessly.
Examples
of
kinetic
hydrate
inhibitors
include
poly(N-methylacrylamide),
poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide),
poly(N-ethylacrylamide),
poly(N,N-diethylacrylamide),
poly(N-methyl-N-vinylacetamide), poly(2-ethyloxazoline), poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone), and
poly(N-vinylcaprolactam).
5.1.1.1 Champion Gas TreatTM HI
Champions line of Gas TreatTM HI kinetic hydrate inhibitors includes products formulated for
high and low pressure situations, with or without water ice inhibition properties. Gas TreatTM HI
products can free a customers asset from the logistical and hazard issues, which accompany the
use of methanol as a thermodynamic hydrate inhibitor. Unit costs decrease while production
remains steady, and all without the space constraints or hazard management required with
thermodynamic inhibitors like methanol.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
75
Section 5
5.1.1.2 Baker Petrolite HI M PACTI

Baker Petrolites LDHI product line is designed to provide control of hydrates in hydrocarbon
production and transmission systems operating specifically under mild to moderate sub cooling.
Baker Petrolite HI M PACT kinetic hydrate inhibitors represent the third generation of KHI,
applied by continuous low dosage injection into the systems, typically at one to five percent of
water volume.
HI M PACT KHI can also be used in conjunction with methanol or ethylene glycol, allowing a
significant reduction in the dosage rate of these inhibitors.
For a recent hydrate problem in a gas pipeline in the US northeast, Baker Petrolite formulated
H M PACT 5441 KHI. The formulation corresponded to a rate of one to two quarts per day,
which was 0.9 percent of the water volume for application. With a pour point of - 40F, the
product is easily employed in cold winter weather. Through the use of the product, the operator
was able to protect the pipeline from hydrate blockages, reduce pigging frequency, maintain
pipeline up-time, and potentially eliminate the need for a dehydrator unit.
5.1.1.3 M-I SWACO HYDRABLOCK*
Deepwater is an ideal breeding ground for the growth of gas hydrates, and when these ice-like
crystals form in the circulating system, attempts to manage them can be costly and dangerous.
M-I SWACO has developed techniques and products to control the formation of hydrate crystals
and impede the operation of critical offshore drilling and circulation equipment.
Besides targeting full primary and secondary thermodynamic inhibition, M-I SWACO models
and hydrate testing apparatus allow temperature and pressure conditions at the mud line to be
simulated in the laboratory. There, drilling fluid rate formulated in combination with various
inhibitors to develop hydrate-inhibitive drilling fluid systems that are customized for particular
offshore drilling projects. This extensive research into gas hydrates has led to the development
of HYDRABLOK* inhibitor. This advanced deepwater product represents one of the latest
efforts to provide protection against gas hydrate formation in the deepwater and ultra-deepwater
where thermodynamic inhibition often is not possible.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
76
Section 5
5.2
WATER DEW POINT CONTROL
5.2.1
Regenerative Desiccants
5.2.1.1 MATCO DESI_DRICSYSTEM

NATCOs desiccants are various blends of alkali-earth halide salts that have varying degrees of
hydro-scopicity. Depending on the specific application, either a single DESI-DRI desiccant or a
series of increasingly hygroscopic desiccants can provide exactly the gas dryness needed. The
DESI-DRI System is a complete line of proprietary desiccants and eutectics gives operators a
cost effective solution for many dehydration applications.
With the NATCO DESI-DRI Dehydration system wet gas flows upward through one or a series
of vessels that contain deliquescing beds with any one of five DESI-DRI desiccants. As wet gas
contacts the DESI-DRI tablets, moisture is removed from the gas and accumulates on the surface
of the tablets. Eventually, enough water accumulates to cause a droplet of brine to form. In time,
the brine makes its way down to a brine sump in the bottom of a vessel, collecting even more
moisture in the process. Periodically, the brine is purged to an environmentally safe location.
There is no need for regeneration. New DESI-DRI tablets are used to replenish the beds at a rate
consistent with operational requirements.
New salt formulations enable deliquescing desiccants to dry to pipeline specifications in many
while using these grades in series to minimize operating costs. The new approach offers an
integrated system, where piping, gas flows, dryer design and desiccant performance are all
considered. New technology enables dry gas at nearly two feet per second, compared with
traditional velocities of 0.5 - 0.75 ft/s, while at the same time greatly increasing the amount of
water removed per pound of desiccant (referred as dilution rate). Flowing through a low
grade, low cost desiccant first removes most of the water vapor. Then gas is further dried using
higher-grade (more hygroscopic) desiccants. New dry tableting technology also produces a hard,
non-porous, low permeability tablet. Hydration can only occur on the outside of the tablet,
which helps to maintain its general shape as it is consumed. Flow efficiency remains relatively
constant as the tablet bed is consumed.
Since deliquescing desiccant systems are closed, there are no volatile organic compounds (VOC)
or aromatic hydrocarbon (BTEX) emissions. With new EPA Clean Air Act regulations now in
place this advantage alone often makes deliquescing desiccants a better choice over triethylene
glycol (TEG).

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
77
Section 5
5.3
ACID GAS REMOVAL
5.3.1
Membrane Systems
5.3.1.1
Engelhard Gate
The Engelhard Gate adsorption system is a new and unique technology developed and
patented, which was installed in Southern Illinois to remove N2 and CO2 from coal mine gas.
Unlike other technologies, Engelhard Molecular Gate adsorption system removes N2 and CO2
in a single, step and provides high on-stream factors with minimal operator attention. It is
gaining further market acceptance with eight units either in operation or fabrication with flows
up to 10 MM SCFD.
Engelhard Gate uses molecular sieves technology with pore size precisely manufactured
within an accuracy of 0.1 angstrom. Nitrogen will be adsorbed in a 3.7 angstroms () opening,
whereas carbon dioxide will be adsorbed in a 3.3 opening. Engelhard Gate is an adsorption
process which uses pressure swing adsorption (i.e. decrease in pressure or so called PSA) for
molecular gate adsorbent regeneration, as apposed to temperature swing adsorption (heat
regeneration or so called TSA) which is typically used in solid desiccant natural gas dehydration.
This process is illustrated in Figure 5.1.
The system is offered as a prefabricated, modular system based on patented adsorbent materials.
Molecular Gate is generating significant interest in the natural gas industry. It is easy start-up,
unattended operation, and located at the natural gas wellhead, the Southern Illinois unit is
powered on-site using tail gas generated by the process. No pre-treatment other than dehydration
is required and the system can remove CO2 along with nitrogen in a single step. The system
recovers 90-95 percent of the methane as sales gas and the rejected nitrogen containing tail gas
is normally used as fuel to gas engines or other local uses. In CO2 removal, water and CO2 is
removed in a single step, again with product methane delivered at high pressure. Cost is
generally 20 percent lower than amine processing. Due to the impurity being removed from the
methane, the system can always achieve pipeline specifications regardless of the feed
composition.
At the facility in Southern Illinois, the system is designed to reduce nitrogen levels in the natural
gas from up to ten percent to the local pipeline specification of four percent. It also removes
water and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the gas and can treat up to one million standard cubic feet
per day (1 MM SCFD). The purified natural gas is then sold to an interstate transmission
pipeline. Other treatment methods have proved too costly for developing the coalmine for natural
gas recovery.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
78
Feed
8 55 bar
N2
C1
C2
C3
C4+
CO2
H2O
Enriched CH4
1.3 3.0 bar
PSA

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
1.3 bar a
Tail Gas
N2, C4+
CO2, H2O
Lost HCs
V: 4119.0005/Sec_5
Figure 5.1
Engelhard-Molecular
Gate Process Schematic
C1, C2, C3
1 bar Pressure Drop
Product
Section 5
79
Section 5
5.3.2
5.3.2.1
Solvent Based Systems

BASF Amine process Morphysorb
The UHDE Morphysorb process is an acid gas removal technology based on the use of a
physical solvent supplied by BASF. The key advantage of Morphysorb technology is a high
acid gas capacity coupled with low solubility of methane to propane hydrocarbons, resulting in a
higher product shield. Morphysorb is capable of removing organic sulfur compounds
(mercanptans, CS2 and COS) from the feed gas at the same time. Due to high selectivity of the
solvent, the Morphysorb process is capable of generating an acid gas stream that is suitable for
a Claus plant.
Duke Energy Gas Transmission Corp. (DEGT) started up the first commercial application of the
morphysorb process at its 300 MMSFD Kwoen gas plant in August 2002. The solvent showed a
higher relative absorption of acid-gas compounds compared to competitive solvent, which
lowered circulation rates.
Morphysorb is part of the morpholine chemical family, used since 1968 as N-formylmorpholine
(NFM) to recover high purity aromatics and separate butane and propane, as used in the
Morphylane, Morphylex and Butenex processes. Morphysorb technology uses mixture of NFM
and N-acetylmorpholine as solvent to remove carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The solvent
has lower relative absorption of higher hydrocarbon, which results in fewer losses and more
heating value in the sales gas.
Because of its hydrophilic characteristics, the solvent can also dehydrate simultaneously.
Conversely, no additional dehydration step is required downstream from a Morphysorb unit if
the feed gas is already dehydrated. Morphysorb process owned by Uhde, the solvent is
manufactured by BASF AG.
5.3.2.2
Dow Chemical GAS/SPEC CS-2000
Dow Chemical Company is introducing GAS/SPEC CS-2000 formulated amine for removing
large amounts of carbon dioxide from natural gas streams. When present, carbon dioxide
reduces the BTU value of natural gas. It is also corrosive and freezes at a relatively high
temperature, forming blocks of "dry" ice that can clog equipment lines and damage pumps. Its
removal is an important step in the successful treatment of natural gas.
GAS/SPEC CS-2000 Solvent is designed to efficiently remove carbon dioxide levels from
several percentage points down to parts per million, more efficiently than other commercially
available solvents.
The best known amines for gas treating applications are MEA
(monoethanolamine) and DEA (diethanolamine). Many are still used for bulk carbon dioxide
removal. Without the use of heavy metal corrosion inhibitors, the concentration and loading of
these products must be limited to minimize equipment corrosion. For example, MEA is
generally limited to less than 20 percent weight in solution and operated with a maximum carbon
dioxide loading of 0.30 to 0.4 mole carbon dioxide/mole amine and DEA is usually maintained
at less than 30 weight percent and 0.40 to 0.7 mole/mole loading.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
80
Sour Gas
Feed
Lean Solvent
ABSORBER

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
SOLVENT PUMP
RECYCLE FLASH DRUMS
Figure 5.2
V: 4119.0005/Sec_5
ACID FLASH DRUMS
To Sulphur Recovery or
Injection Well
Morphysorb
Acid Gas
Product Gas
Section 5
81
Section 5
In contrast, GAS/SPEC CS-2000 Solvent can be used in concentrations up to 55% in solution

and 0.45 mole/mole loading. This additional capacity allows an existing plant to expand its
carbon dioxide removal capacity with less potential for equipment wear caused by corrosion.
GAS/SPEC CS-2000 represents the latest in several decades of research and development in the
field of gas treating by Dow Chemical.
5.3.2.3 FLUOR Solvent TM
This technology is a physical solvent based gas treating configurations for removing acid gas
from high pressure natural gas streams. The processes are targeted for offshore applications
where the feed gas CO2 partial pressure is above 60 psia. These new configurations are based on
the physical solvent propylene carbonate (FLUOR Solvent TM).
The advantages of these new configurations include no fired duty for solvent regeneration, high
CO2 solubility (SCF CO2/gallon solution), no process makeup water requirements, minimal
hydrocarbon losses, operational simplicity, and a dry treated gas.
Another advantage of the FLUOR Solvent process is minimal winterization requirements.
Propylene carbonate freezes at 57F in comparison to about 20-30F for many amine processes.
Other advantages are plant simplicity and ease of operation, all carbon steel construction with no
stress relieving, no fired heat duty required for solvent regeneration, minimal solvent foaming
tendency, no corrosion, and minimal environmental impacts due to the use of a biodegradable
solvent.
5.3.3 Biological Systems
5.3.3.1 CCR Technologies Desulphurization Biotechnology
The technology utilizes naturally occurring Thiobacillus organisms to purify natural gas to sales
gas specifications by converting hydrogen sulfide to solid, fertilizer grade sulfur. The process to
sweeten sour gas eliminates the need for continuous flaring and virtually eliminates hydrogen
sulfide emissions from sour gas facility vents.
This biological gas desulfurization process is licensed by New Paradigm Gas Processing Ltd., a
wholly owned subsidiary of CCR.
Scientists first became aware of the significance of naturally occurring sulfur-converting micro
organisms through the discovery of deep-sea hydrothermal vents, several kilometers below the
ocean's surface. These types of organisms, found virtually everywhere on earth, have since been
identified as one of the primary reasons the earth is able to sustain biological life.
Although in 1992, Shell Global Solutions International B.V., together with Paques Bio Systems
in Holland commercialized a breakthrough gas treatment technology utilizing sulfur-converting
micro organisms, the process is still considered an emerging technology because of its rather
limited application worldwide.
CCR Technologies is a technology solutions company focused on the purification of process
chemicals and sweetening of sour gas through the innovative use of proprietary patented
technologies. New Paradigm Gas Processing Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of CCR
Technologies, is the authorized licensor of the Biological Gas Desulfurization Technology for
natural gas applications within Canada.
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
82
Section 6
6.1
Economics
OVERVIEW
The economic evaluation of gas processing can be a complex matter and a number of
possibilities exist for comparing and contrasting the costs associated with natural gas processing
to meet sales gas (pipeline) specification. This is due to the variety of process technology
available and the number of applications to which each technology may be applied (i.e. various
degree of treatment possible). The feed gas or wellhead gas composition, pressure and
temperature as well as the level of treatment required will greatly influence the choice of
technology to be used and typically more than one method may be technically appropriate for a
given feed gas composition and sales gas specification.
A gas composition was chosen based on Nexants industry knowledge and feed gas temperature
and pressure were also determined based on Nexants industry knowledge. As this study does
not cover the cost of producing gas at the well which is very much dependent on the location of
the reserves and the reservoir properties, an average wellhead production cost for the
Middle East will be used. Although the study team has considered several processes which
would achieve a defined sales gas specification based on the chosen feed gas composition,
temperature and pressure, only the capital and operating costs for the reference or basic case will
be analyzed in depth here.
This basic process comprises gas reception facilities (which includes slug catcher, bulk
condensate separation and filtration of particles and fines); stabilization of condensate using LP
separation; an amine (MDEA) unit for selective acid gas removal; a sulfur recovery unit with tail
gas treatment for disposal of the resulting sour gas; gas cooling; water removal by TEG
contacting; and finally hydrocarbon dew point control by mechanical refrigeration to meet dew
point specifications. However, there are many alternatives that might also be considered
depending upon circumstances, which are describe in Sections 3 and 4 of this report and will not
be discussed further here.
A plant of design capacity of 650 MMCFD was chosen as the base case for this analysis since
this represents a world scale single train gas processing facility, such as the one currently being
built in the Middle East. This study focuses on the Middle East as it is the most dynamic region
for the development of gas processing capacity (refer to Section 7).

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
83
Section 6
6.2
Economics
BASIS OF DESIGN
The economic analysis is based on a raw gas composition as shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Raw and Sales Gas Composition
(compositions in mole percent)

Raw Gas
Mole Percent
Sales Gas
Base Case
Water
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen
0.02
2.00
0.60
0.00
1.1
4.20
H2S
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Iso - Butane
normal Butane
Iso - Pentane
normal Pentane
n-Hexane
n-Heptane
n-Octane
n-Nonane
n-Decane plus
Total
4.00
81.98
5.00
2.00
0.50
0.70
0.20
0.20
0.40
0.40
0.50
0.30
1.20
100.0
0.001
86.0
5.2
2.1
0.45
0.57
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.03
0.01
0.001
0.0003
100.0
Mercaptans (ppmv)
Heating Value (HHV Btu/scf)
Wobbe Index
Dew Point @ 40 Bar (oC)
Molecular Weight (kg/kmol)
Specific Gravity (air = 1)
Pressure (Bar)
50
1159
1356
57
21.11
0.73
80
<50
1062
1317
-5
18.82
0.65
70

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
84
Section 6
Economics
Feed gas will be processed to meet a typical sales gas specification for transmission and
distribution, such as the ones presented in Table 6.1. 99.9 percent of the Hydrogen sulfide in the
feed gas is removed in the acid gas removal unit to meet pipeline specifications. The treated gas
dew point is specified at less than -5oC for a HHV of more than 950 BTU/scf. The Nexant study
team has selected the process which would achieve sales gas specification based on the chosen
feed gas composition, temperature and pressure as follows:
Gas reception facilities comprising a finger type slug catcher, followed by gas filtration,
gas cooling and stabilization of the separated natural gas liquids (NGL). A two stage
compressor is needed to return the stabilizer overhead gas to the process;
Absorption of the acid gas in a contactor column using a circulating lean amine (MDEA).
After regeneration of the rich amine the offgas is sent to a Claus unit with two catalytic
reaction stages and tail gas treating by selective oxidation to achieve 99.9 percent sulfur
recovery;
Cooling and dehydration of the sweetened gas from the amine contactor. The gas is
refrigerated to 25oC to reduce the water content of the gas before dehydration; the gas
then enters the TEG contactor for further dehydration. TEG is recovered and recycled to
the TEG contactor.
A hydrocarbon dew point control unit using propane refrigeration. Separated NGL is
recycled to the stabilizer;
Gas metering for export.
Storage and pumping of the recovered hydrocarbon condensate (oil/NGL) stream.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
85
Section 6
Economics
6.3
COST OF PRODUCTION BASIS
6.3.1
Battery Limits
Plant capital normally consists of two key cost elements, i.e. the capital for inside battery limits
(ISBL) facilities and capital for outside battery limits (OSBL) facilities. For this study
investment costs assume a two year construction period in the Middle East starting in the First
Quarter of 2006. Nexant ChemSystems, has developed its own methodology for assessment of
working capital and other project costs for a particular facility based on monthly operations. All
these costs contribute to the total capital investment for the plant.
Production costs basically include four different cost components: variable costs, direct fixed
costs, allocated fixed costs, and financing costs. Variable costs are costs for raw materials,
by-product credit, and utilities. Direct fixed costs constitute direct operating costs from labor
cost, maintenance, and associated overhead charges. Allocated fixed costs include general plant
overhead, insurance and property taxes set as a proportion of total plant capital. The sum of
variable, direct, and allocated fixed costs becomes the total cash cost of production. To estimate
the full cost of production, cost of financing is then added to the total cash cost. Two
components contribute to the financing costs: depreciation and return on investment.
For consistency and simplicity, the uniform percentages, shown in Table 6.2, are employed in
calculating certain elements of the cost of production estimates for all processes in this study
regardless of the individual nature of the processes.
Table 6.2
Assumptions Used for Estimating Certain Elements of the Cost of Production
Cost Element
Basis
Middle East
Other Project Costs

Working Capital
% of Total Plant Capital

% of Total Capital Investment
25
10
Maintenance (Materials and Labour)

Direct Overhead
Interest on Working Capital
General Plant Overhead
Insurance, Property Tax, etc
% of ISBL
% of Labor & Supervision
% of Working Capital
% of Direct Fixed Costs
% of Total Plant Capital
3
85
10
45
1.5
Depreciation
% of ISBL & Other Project Costs

% of OSBL
10
5
Environmental levy is not considered in this study and Outside Battery Limit (OSBL) was taken
constant at 100 percent of ISBL. This OSBL cost covers, for example, utilities, condensate
storage, condensate stabilization, offsites such as drains and flares; and infrastructure such as
roads and administration buildings.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
86
Section 6
6.3.2
Economics
Utilities and Services
Utilities required for onshore gas processing include, for example, electric power for motors,
tracing and compressors, steam for boilers, instrument and plant air, nitrogen for purging,
potable water, and fire water. These utility requirement, vary greatly depending on process
condition, feed gas condition and sales gas specification. Consequently, only the largest utility
costs, including for example steam for MDEA regeneration or power for propane refrigerant
compressor, will be included in this analysis. Utility requirements for the chosen base case
process are shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3
Utility Consumption
LP Steam MP Steam
(ton/hr)
(ton/hr)
Power
(MW)
Gas Reception Facilities

Slug Catcher
Acid Gas Removal Unit

MDEA Regeneration
Amine Pump
75.0
-
1.0
Gas Dehydration
TEG Reboiler
0.5
Sulphur Recovery
SRU & TGU
(8.0)
(5.0)
1.0
Dew Point Control Unit

Propane Refrigerant Compressor
6.0
NGL Stabilization
Stabilizer
Stabiliser Offgas Compression
NGL Pumps
Coolers and Pumps
20.0
-
1.5
0.5
1.5
The costs of chemicals used in the process such as amine and glycol are not included in this
study and the plant operates for 8,000 hours per year.
6.3.3
By-Product credit
A condensate stream, composed mainly of C5+ components entering the gas processing facility,
is recovered from the gas reception facility (slug catcher) and from the hydrocarbon dew point
control step of the process. These streams are mixed and stored after stabilization. This stream
could feed an NGL fractionation unit (not included in this study) and will therefore be sold as a
separate single stream at a transfer cost. This revenue will be added as by-product credit into the
cost of production analysis.
PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
87
Section 6
Economics
6.3.4 Pricing Basis

Nexants product prices, labor and utility costs forecasts for 2008 in the Middle East used in the
Cost of Production analyses, are given in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4
Summary of Raw Material, Utility, Product and Labor Costs

(2008, Middle East Prices)
Middle East
6.3.5
Product Prices
Condensate
$/ton
Utilities
Power
LP Steam (50 psi)
MP Steam (200 psi)
$/MWh
$/Ton
$/Ton
40.5
4.3
4.6
Labor
Laborers
Foremen
Supervisors
$/Year
$/Year
$/Year
7 200
30 700
75 300
30
Gas Shrinkage
The reduction in volume of raw natural gas due to the extraction of some of its constituents, such
as hydrocarbon products (condensates and NGL, where applicable), hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, helium, and water vapor is known as gas shrinkage. Gas shrinkage in a plant
where a large quantity of hydrocarbon is removed from the sales gas represents a loss in revenue
for the sales gas which must be considered in the economics of a gas processing plant.
Gas shrinkage is calculated based on feed gas composition used and sales/treated gas
composition derived from process simulations, as shown in Table 6.5.
The thermal value of shrinkage represents the opportunity cost of the extracted condensates in
terms of the value they would have if they had been left in the sales gas. To illustrate this,
shrinkage value calculation, for a sales gas value of 0.75 $/MMBTU, is shown in Table 6.6.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
88
28
16
30.1
44.1
58.1
58.1
72.2
72.2
86.2
H2S
Nitrogen
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Iso - Butane
normal Butane
Iso - Pentane
normal Pentane
Hexane plus
Total
Q106_00101.0005.4119
1 010
1 770
2 516
3 252
3 262
4 000
4 009
4 756
637
44
34.1
Carbon Dioxide
Btu/scf
Water
kg/kmole
Molecular
Weight
0.97
0.55
1.04
1.52
2.01
2.01
2.49
2.49
2.98
1.18
1.52
Air = 1
Component
Gross
Specific
Calorific
Gravity
Value
4.00
81.98
5.00
2.00
0.50
0.70
0.20
0.20
2.80
100
0.60
2.00
0.02
Mole %
828
88
50
16
23
8
8
133
1 159
Btu/scf
Gross
Composition Calorific
Value
Kmole per
hour
1 295
26 545
1 619
647
162
227
65
65
906
32 379
194
0%
0%
0%
2%
15%
22%
43%
51%
96%
99.9%
47%
100%
Molar Flow
7
647
Fraction
Removed
from Sales
Gas
Sales Gas
4.20
86.01
5.25
2.06
0.45
0.57
0.12
0.10
0.09
100
0.00
1.11
0.00
Mole %
869
93
52
14
19
5
4
6
1 062
1 295
26 535
1 618
636
138
177
37
32
41
30 850
0.2
0.0
341
Kmole per
hour
Mole
Molar
Calorific
Composition
Flow in
Value
of Sales Gas
Sales Gas
Calculation of Shrinkage(1)
Raw Gas/Feed Gas
Table 6.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.4
24.4
49.5
27.7
32.7
865.7
1 011
0.0
0.0
0.0
Kmole per
hour
0.3
9.9
0.5
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
13
0.7
2.0
0.5
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
498
193.3
304.7
6.3
Kmole per Kmole per

hour
hour
NGL
Flash Gas
Stream
SRU Feed
Produced
Produced
Section 6
Economics

PERP 04/05S8
89
Section 6
Economics
The selected process produces 620 MMSCFD of treated natural gas, which is equivalent to a gas
shrinkage of 30MMSCFD. This would reduce the gas value, based on a fuel gas price of
$0.75 per MMBTU, by $26 million per year equivalent to a loss of more than 12 percent of
annual revenues.
Table 6.6
Flow
Gross Heating Value
Thermal Flow
Thermal Value
Calculation of Shrinkage(2)
kmol/hr
MMSCFD
Btu/scf
MMBTU/d
$ million/ year
Raw Gas
32 379
650
1 159
753 259
206

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
Sales Gas
30 850
620
1 062
658 389
180
Shrinkage
1 529
30
94 870
26
90
Section 6
6.4
Economics
COST OF PRODUCTION
The total built-up production cost from wellhead to sales gas specification for both processes
considered is based on gas shrinkage value, cash costs and capital charges estimates. Average
costs are calculated on the basis of the volume of gas treated (per unit MMSCFD), then
converted per unit of energy of the gas (MMBTU).
6.4.1
Wellhead Extraction
Cost of producing gas very much depends on the location of the reserves and will vary greatly
depending on field location (offshore or onshore), depth below surface, reservoir pressure,
reservoir temperature, impurity content and the distance to the gas processing plant. Various
technology developments have occurred over the past few years that have lowered gas
production costs. These include:
Use of 3D seismic
Deviate and horizontal drilling techniques for wells, minimizing the total number of wells
that need to be drilled for a dispersed reservoir system
Subsea wellheads
Offshore unmanned platforms and floating production systems
Multiphase pipeline for transport of well fluids to processing plants.
Gas Development costs (Investment Costs + Operating Costs) for natural gas
production/extraction in the Middle East can be in the order of US$0.25 per million Btu for
offshore production. This value will be used in this study.
6.4.2
Capital Costs
Nexant has analyzed the cost of production of a 650 MMSCFD gas processing facility to meet
sales gas specification. The plant is based in the Middle East and come on stream in Q1 2008.
Capital costs presented below include free liquid separator (i.e. slug catcher), acid gas removal
(H2S and CO2) unit, sulfur recovery unit and water and hydrocarbon dew point control units for
the base case option. Capital costs estimates for the base case option are presented in Table 6.7.
Inside Battery Limits typically accounts for about 40 to 50 percent of total plant costs, with
offsites, storage and export facilities (ISBL) make up the remainder. In this analysis, ISBL
equals to 50 percent of total plant capital or 100 percent of ISBL.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
91
Section 6
Economics
Table 6.7
Gas Processing Plant Capital Costs

Base Case
plant cost
percent
(millions)
Inside Battery Limits (ISBL)

Gas Reception facilities
Acid Gas Removal Unit
Gas Dehydration
Sulfur Recovery
Dew Point Control Unit
Battery Limits
3%
14%
8%
17%
8%
50%
$10
$25
$5
$20
$30
$90
Outside Battery Limits (OSBL)

Utilities
Condensate stabilization and storage
Offsites (flares, drains etc.)
Infrastructure (roads etc.)
Total Offsites
15%
25%
5%
5%
50%
$14
$23
$5
$5
$90
Total Cost
100%
$180
(1)
6.4.3
In 2006 US dollars
Cost of Production
Nexant has analyze the cost of production for a modern 650 MMSCFD gas processing plant, as
shown in Table 6.8. It has been assumed that the plant is based in the Middle East and comes on
stream in Q1 2008. For this evaluation depreciation and return on investment (ROI) levels have
been set to give project cash flow return (CFR) of 5, 10 and 15 percent for comparison. Standard
depreciation rates have been used, at ten percent for inside battery limits (ISBL) costs and five
percent for offsites (OSBL).
The feed gas entering the plant has been valued at the marginal cost of gas production, in this
case assumed at US$0.25 per million Btu for the Middle East. This assumes gas produced from
shallow-water offshore production.
The cost of processing gas to meet sales gas specification is estimated at US$0.54 per million
Btu based on a project Return on Investment (ROI) of 10 percent, as shown in Table 6.8.
The presence of oil or heavy condensates, which are usually separated from the gas at the field,
can provide an additional stream of valuable income to offset field development costs and
revenue losses due to shrinkage. This is included in this study and affects cost of production as
shown in Table 6.9. The cost of processing gas to meet sales gas specification, including
revenues from condensate, is estimated at US$0.43 per million Btu based on a project ROI of
ten percent.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
92
Section 6
Economics
Table 6.8
Plant start-up
Analysis date
Location
Capacity
Gas Produced
Operating rate
Production
Cost of Gas Treatment For Sales Gas (Pipeline) Production Base Case
Q1 2006
Q1 2008
Middle East
650
620
100
206667
CAPITAL COST
ISBL
OSBL
Total Plant Capital
Other Project Costs
Total Capital Investment
Working Capital
Total capital Employed
MMscf/d of feed gas

MMscf/d of feed gas
percent
Million Cubic feet per year
Units
per Million
Cubic Feet
PRODUCTION COST SUMMARY

RAW MATERIALS
Produced Gas, MMBTU

TOTAL RAW MATERIALS
Price
US$
per Unit
$Million U.S.
90.0
90.0
180.0
45.0
225.0
22.5
247.5
US$
per MMSCF
Annual
Cost
million US$
US$ per
MMBtu
0.250
265.5
265.5
54.87
54.87
0.250
0.250
Condensate, Ton/MMSCF
4.3
TOTAL BY-PRODUCT CREDITS
NET RAW MATERIALS
0.0
0
0
265
0.000
0.000
54.866
0.000
0.250
11.2
2.7
18.81
32.6
298.1
2.30
0.55
3.89
6.7
61.6
0.03
0.28
0.0034
0.0014
0.0018
0.0042
0.0056
0.0035
0.020
2.20
0.92
1.17
2.70
3.65
2.25
12.89
0.06
0.0048
0.0052
0.010
3.15
3.38
6.52
0.030
298.1
81.02
0.37
FULL COST OF PRODUCTION
0.014
0.010
298.2
9.00
6.75
96.8
0.008
0.006
0.091
AVERAGE NATURAL GAS PRICE FOR 5 PERCENT ROI

0.166
0.183
0.201
108.0
119.3
130.5
0.492
0.543
0.595
BY-PRODUCT CREDITS
UTILITIES
LP Steam, ton/ MMSCFD

MP Steam, ton/ MMSCFD
Electricity, MWh/ MMSCF
TOTAL UTILITIES
3
0.6
0.5
4.3
4.6
40.5
VARIABLE COST
DIRECT FIXED COSTS
Labor
100 Men
22.0
Foremen
20 Men
46.0
Supervisor
15 Men
78.0
Maintenance
3.0%
Direct Overheads
85%
10%
TOTAL DIRECT FIXED COSTS
Thousand $ U.S.
Thousand $ U.S.
Thousand $ U.S.
of ISBL
of Labor Costs
of Working Capital
ALLOCATED FIXED COSTS

45% Labor & Maintenance
Insurance & Taxation
1.5% of Total Plant Capital
TOTAL ALLOCATED FIXED COSTS
TOTAL CASH COST
Depreciation
10% of ISBL Investment

5% of OSBL + OPC Investment

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
93
Section 6
Economics
Table 6.9
Plant start-up
Analysis date
Location
Capacity
Gas Produced
Operating rate
Production
Q1 2006
Q1 2008
Middle East
650.00
620
100
206667
Cost of Gas Treatment For Sales Gas (Pipeline) Production

Including NGL/Condensate Co-Product Credit
MMscf/d of feed gas

MMscf/d of feed gas
percent
Million Cubic feet per year
Units
per Million
Cubic Feet
PRODUCTION COST SUMMARY

RAW MATERIALS
CAPITAL COST
ISBL
OSBL
Total Plant Capital
Other Project Costs
Total Capital Investment
Working Capital
Total capital Employed
Produced Gas, MMBTU

TOTAL RAW MATERIALS
Price
US$
per Unit
$Million U.S.
90.0
90.0
180.0
45.0
225.0
22.5
247.5
US$
per MMSCF
Annual
Cost
million US$
US$ per
MMBtu
0.250
265.5
265.5
54.87
54.87
0.250
0.250
Condensate, Ton/MMSCF
4.3
TOTAL BY-PRODUCT CREDITS
NET RAW MATERIALS
30.0
-128
(128)
137.2
-26.5
-26.5
28.4
(0.121)
0.129
12.5
2.7
18.813
33.968
171.186
2.58
0.55
3.89
7.02
35.38
0.032
0.161
0.0034
0.0014
0.0018
0.0042
0.0056
0.0035
0.020
2.20
0.92
1.17
2.70
3.65
2.25
12.89
0.059
0.0048
0.0052
0.010
3.15
3.38
6.52
0.030
171.2
54.79
0.250
FULL COST OF PRODUCTION
0.014
0.010
171.2
9.00
6.75
70.5
0.008
0.006
0.066

0.126
0.143
0.160
81.8
93.0
104.3
0.373
0.424
0.475
BY-PRODUCT CREDITS
UTILITIES
LP Steam, ton/ MMSCFD

MP Steam, ton/ MMSCFD
Electricity, MWh/ MMSCF
TOTAL UTILITIES
3
0.6
0.5
4.3
4.6
40.5
VARIABLE COST
DIRECT FIXED COSTS
Labor
100 Men
22.0
Foremen
20 Men
46.0
Supervisor
15 Men
78.0
Maintenance
3.0%
Direct Overheads
85%
10%
TOTAL DIRECT FIXED COSTS
Thousand $ U.S.
Thousand $ U.S.
Thousand $ U.S.
of ISBL
of Labor Costs
of Working Capital
ALLOCATED FIXED COSTS

45% Labor & Maintenance
Insurance & Taxation
1.5% of Total Plant Capital
TOTAL ALLOCATED FIXED COSTS
TOTAL CASH COST
Depreciation
10% of ISBL Investment

5% of OSBL + OPC Investment

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
94
Section 7
7.1
Commercial Assessment
INTRODUCTION
This section provides global and regional reviews of the markets for natural gas. The reviews
are preceded by a presentation of the general market characteristics of natural gas and followed
by a brief statement on worldwide and regional natural gas processing capacity.
7.2
COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
7.2.1
Natural Gas
Natural gas can be utilized as an energy source (for power generation, liquid fuel generation such
as gas to liquids, or GTLs and/or space heating). Additionally natural gas can be used as
petrochemical feedstock particularly for methanol and ammonia (in fertilizer) production. These
are demonstrated in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1
Natural Gas Drivers
Natural
Gas
Energy
EnergyUses
Uses
Exports (LNG/Pipeline)
Liquid Fuels (GTL/MTBE/DME/Others)
Processing
Processing
Facility
Facility
Local Fuel
Value/Power
Methane
Chemical
ChemicalUses
Uses
Ammonia (Fertilizers/Others)
Methanol (Formaldehyde/Acetyls/Others)
Methanol (MTO/MTP)
NGLs for
Petrochemicals
PP: 4119.0005/Sec 7
Gas utilization in power generation currently accounts for the largest proportion of demand
growth in the global markets and is therefore the major natural gas market driver. This is
principally due to the advent in the 1990s of combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) technology.
CCGT has an overwhelming economic advantage compared to other types of thermal plants on
account of its lower capital costs and higher thermal efficiency.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
95
Section 7
Gas can also be converted to other forms of hydrocarbon liquid, which in turn would be used as
an energy source. Gas to Liquids (GTL) technology, which converts the gas to naphtha and
diesel through a syngas process has now reached commercial operation. The conversion of
natural gas to liquid (GTL) products (termed, GTL naphtha and GTL diesel) is a relatively recent
adaptation of Fischer-Tropsch technology, which was first used at large scale in Germany during
the Second World War. At Q4 2004, the only two large-scale operational facilities that employ
this technology are:
Shell at its Bintulu facility in Malaysia, using its in-house technology
PetroSA in its Mossgas facility, using technology licensed from Sasol.
However, a number of GTL facilities are presently in planning and development stages in the
Middle East and Africa (Nigeria and Algeria).
Demand in the residential/commercial sectors is highly seasonal, e.g., increasing in winter for
heating purposes in cold climates and for cooling during summer in warm regions. Many large
industrial, power and commercial users have the flexibility to switch fuels, such that natural gas
frequently competes with alternative fuels, e.g., fuel oil. However, in the residential sector,
where volumes purchased per consumer are small, fuel flexibility is constrained by the cost of
switching to other fuels. As a result of this, gas demand is relatively inelastic for such a captive
category of gas consumers.
Gas consumption for methanol production has continued to grow steadily over recent years. Part
of the growth has come from traditional end-uses such as formaldehyde (which is used in
producing glues for use in plywood and chipboard/particle board production), whilst newer
end-uses such as acetic acid and MTBE have also contributed to the growth. The dynamics of
the development of methanol capacities reflects the continuous growth in the global consumption
of methanol, favorable natural gas prices and the location of the markets with growing demand.
The impending loss of a significant quantity of demand in the US through the phase-out of
MTBE has not deterred investment in Trinidad however, and the two largest methanol plants in
the world are set to enter production there over 2006.
The use of natural gas as a petrochemical feed stock for ammonia is principally used in fertilizer
applications. Around 90 percent of the current global production of ammonia is based on natural
gas feedstock, with remainder coming from older technology bases of coal, fuel oil, naphtha etc.
Gas based producers have enjoyed the most favorable production economics for some time, and
all new ammonia capacity under consideration is based on gas. Access to low priced gas
feedstock has therefore lead to the concentration of new plants in Latin America, the FSU, the
Middle East, and some parts of Asia. Despite the recent instability in US gas prices, there is no
evidence of any resurgence in interest in ammonia production from heavier feedstocks.
Natural gas is transported to consumers by pipeline, or in the case of more distant users, in liquid
form as liquefied natural gas, LNG. The gas is cooled to 160oC at which temperature it
becomes a liquid and is transported in insulated tankers to distant markets. Compared to crude
oil and petroleum products, natural gas is relatively expensive to transport by pipeline or
liquefied and transported in dedicated liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
96
Section 7
7.2.2
Gas Condensate
By virtue of it being a liquid, condensates consisting of pentanes and heavier components, are
easier to transport as compared to natural gas. Condensates, a co-product of natural gas
conditioning, typically have very low sulfur levels in comparison with most crude oils and
typically have API gravity of greater than 50. Condensates are stabilized to prevent problems
related to vapor pressure; it can be easily blended into crude oil streams either for transport by
ship or pipeline.
Condensates generally have four possible disposal options, which are summarized individually
below:
Sale to a Steam Cracker as Ethylene Feedstock: Many steam crackers are designed to
accept a range of different feedstocks, typically including naphtha and LPG, but also
occasionally heavier distillates. However, the cracker design usually requires the
feedstock to be pre-cut into different boiling ranges before being processed. Cracker
operators therefore typically buy pre-cut feedstocks, or (in a few cases) have access to
splitting facilities to cut the feedstock themselves. There are a very limited number of
ethylene plants that are able to take gas oil feedstock.
Sale to a Refiner: This is the prime focus for the sale of condensates, containing a
significant proportion of heavier distillates. The greatest interest in purchasing
condensate is likely to come from refineries that have a direct market for steam cracker
feedstock from a neighboring plant (since other refineries will typically place a lower
value on naphtha production).
On-Site Splitting and Sale of Straight Run Cuts: This option would typically only be
attractive if the sale of the whole stream directly to a refiner or a steam cracker is
considered unattractive compared to sale of the individual cuts.
Third Party Splitting and Sale of Straight Run Cuts: As per on-site splitting, with
additional costs associated with the delivery of condensate to third party splitting facility.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
97
Section 7
7.3
NATURAL GAS MARKET - GLOBAL OVERVIEW
7.3.1
Supply
Global natural gas reserves have almost doubled over the last twenty years. The evolution of
proved gas reserves has been dynamic in several regions, where significant increases have been
recorded: in the Former Soviet Union (FSU) gas reserves increased by more than 50 percent,
those in Africa registered an increase of 125 percent and the reserves in the Middle East
increased by more than 160 percent. The breakdown of natural gas reserves by region for 2004
is shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2
Regional Natural Gas Reserves

(Tcf, at the end of 2004)
3000
Trillion cubic feet
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
North
America
South &
Central
America
Europe &
Eurasia
(Excluding
FSU)
Former
Soviet
Union
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
X L: 4 119 .0 0 0 5/ Sec_ 7
The greatest concentration of natural gas reserves are in the Middle East and the
Former Soviet Union, which together account for more than 72 percent of the global world
reserves.
Global gas reserves, however, are not matched to global gas production, for example,
North America, which has one of the lowest overall reserves currently, actually has the highest
marketed production for any region (refer Figure 7.3).

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
98
Section 7
Figure 7.3
Regional Natural Gas Marketed Production

30
Trillion cubic feet
25
20
15
10
5
0
North
America
South &
Central
America
Europe &
Eurasia
(Excluding
FSU)
Former
Soviet
Union
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
X L: 4 119 .0 0 0 5/ Sec_ 7
Out of a total marketed production of almost 95 tcf in 2004, North America produces 28 percent,
South and Central Americas represent five percent, Europe 12 percent, FSU 28 percent,
Middle East ten percent, Africa five percent and Asia 12 percent. Production of natural gas is
therefore greatest in North America, where demand is highest, followed by the FSU then Europe
and Asia.
North America, which has the highest demand, has some of the smallest reserves to production
ratio at about ten years. Europe faces a similar situation of high demand and low indigenous
reserves. Conversely, production in the Middle East, which accounts for ten percent of total
world production, has the highest reserves to production ratio at 260 years at constant rate of
production. Similarly, Africa has low demand and comparatively high reserves. The high
reserves of the FSU, mean that despite its high consumption it still has a relatively high reserves
to production ratio compared to Europe or North America. Reserves to production ratio in
different regions are shown in Figure 7.4.
In general terms, the mismatch between reserves and production rates is in part a reflection of the
high cost of transporting gas. This means that gas reserves relatively close to markets are most
economic to develop and are preferentially produced. Thus, with the exception of FSU, the
regions of highest consumption, North America and Europe, have the lowest reserves to
production ratio.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
99
Section 7
Figure 7.4
Gas Reserves to Production ratio

(years, at the end of 2004)
300
250
Years
200
150
100
50
0
North
America
South &
Central
America
X L: 4 119 .0 0 0 5/ Sec_ 7
7.3.2
Europe &
Eurasia
(Excluding
FSU)
Former
Soviet
Union
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
Demand
In 2004, global gas consumption stood at 95 tcf (260 bcf per day), representing 24 percent of the
global consumption for primary energy. The major natural gas consuming regions are
North America, FSU and Europe & Eurasia, which represent 29 percent, 22 percent and
19 percent of total world consumption respectively. South and Central America, the
Middle East, Africa and the Asian regions together accounted for the remaining 30 percent of
world consumption in 2004 (refer to Figure 7.5).
In 2004, 24 percent of the natural gas global consumption was in the electric power sector, with a
consumption of 22 tcf. It is expected that this will increase to more than 30 percent of total 2025
demand as a result of both the construction of new gas-fired generating plants and higher
capacity utilization at existing plants.
7.3.3
Demand Growth Projections
Natural gas is the fastest growing primary energy source. Between 2003 and 2004, world natural
gas consumption increased by 3.3 percent to 95 tcf. Global gas markets are forecast to continue
growing at between 2 and 3 percent for the foreseeable future, with gas demand/consumption set
to double by 2025.
The share of gas in primary energy use is set to increase from 24 percent in 2004 to 28 percent
in 2025, as shown in Figure7.6.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
100
Section 7
Figure 7.5
Regional Natural Gas Consumption

(Global Demand in 2004 = 95 tcf)
30
Trillion cubic feet
25
20
15
10
5
0
North
America
South &
Central
America
Europe &
Eurasia
(Excluding
FSU)
Former
Soviet
Union
Middle
East
Africa
Asia
Pacific
X L: 4 119 .00 05/ Sec_7
Figure 7.6
Historical and Forecast Natural Gas Demand

(In tcf)
180
30%
Actual
160
Forecast
25%
Trillion cubic feet
140
120
20%
100
15%
80
10%
60
40
5%
20
0%
0
1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025
Natural Gas Demand
Share natural gas
X L: 4119.000 5/ Sec_7

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
101
Section 7
Regionally, growth in North America and Europe will be driven by environmental pressures
which favor gas use over coal and oil in power generation. In the Far East, demand growth will
be driven by the rapid pace of economic development. Major centers of gas demand growth over
the next decade are expected to be China and India.
Sectorally, growth in global demand is expected to be strongest in the power generating sector
with increasing use of natural gas-fired combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGTs), which are more
efficient and less polluting than conventional oil and coal fires generating plants. Natural gas
consumption in the industrial, residential, commercial, transportation sectors will also increase in
the next 20 years. Natural gas use is projected to increase in the residential sector by 0.7 percent
per year and in the commercial sector 1.2 percent per year on average from 2005 to 2025.
7.3.4
Trade
The international cross border gas trade represented 25 percent of the total gas marketed
production in 2004. The international trade of gas reached a volume of more than 18 tcf via
pipelines and 6.4 tcf as LNG in 2004. The major LNG importing countries in 2004 were:
Japan 43 percent, South Korea 17 percent, Spain 10 percent, U.S. 10 percent, France 4 percent
and Italy 3 percent. Whereas, in 2004, the major LNG exporting countries were: Indonesia,
Malaysia, Algeria, Qatar, and Australia which together account for almost 70 percent of the
global LNG trade.
The major pipeline gas importers in 2004 were: USA 20 percent, Germany 18 percent,
Italy 12 percent and France 7 percent and the major exporters were: Russian federation
30 percent, Canada 20 percent, Norway 15 percent, Netherlands 10 percent and
Algeria 7 percent. International pipeline and LNG trades are represented for 2004 in Figure 7.7.
Global inter-regional gas trade is expected to rise significantly and may double to 46 tcf by 2030,
as a result of the mismatch between resource location and demand.
All regions that are currently net importers of gas will see their import rise. Most of this increase
will be met by the Russia Federation and the Middle East. Several LNG liquefaction terminals
and import terminals are being expanded or are currently under construction, which will
significantly increase LNG trade capacity over the next decade. Cross border pipelines are also
being planned, which would also significantly increase pipeline cross-border trade capacity.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
102
Section 7
Figure 7.7
Global Gas Market in 2004
2004
From
Alaska
Pipelines
LNG
Supply
Demand
Source: BP
PP: 4119.0005/Sec 7
Figure 7.8
Global Gas Market in 2010
2010
From
Alaska
Pipelines
LNG
Supply
Demand
PP: 4119.0005/Sec 7

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
103
Section 7
7.4
REGIONAL NATURAL GAS MARKET OVERVIEW
7.4.1
North America
7.4.1.1
Supply
The North American continent is presently almost completely sufficient in natural gas and
produces 97 percent of what it consumes. Within the North American continent, which consists
of the U.S., Canada and Mexico, the U.S. is the largest consumer. Most cross border trade
within and into the region consists of pipeline export from Canada (3.6tcf in 2004). LNG import
to the U.S. (from Trinidad and Tobago, Algeria, Malaysia, Australia, Nigeria, Qatar and Oman)
which reached 0.65 tcf in 2004. It is expected that incremental demand for natural gas in the
U.S. will be mainly filled by LNG import as the prospects for increasing gas production in the
region are very uncertain. At current rate of production, the North American continent reserves
to production ratio is only of ten years.
In addition, as declining domestic sources of natural gas have forced US gas prices up over
recent years, LNG imports have again become competitive and underutilized plants are now
operating at full capacity (Everett, Massachusetts and Lake Charles, Louisiana), plants that had
previously been mothballed have been reopened (Elba Island, Georgia and Cove Point,
Maryland), and a large number of future projects have been proposed.
7.4.1.2
Demand
The North American market for natural gas is served by one of the most extensive networks of
pipelines and storage. The degree of penetration of gas as a percentage of primary consumption
is one of the highest in the world.
Gas demand in North America is projected to grow by 1.3 percent per year over the next
20 years. The power sector will absorb almost two-third of the increase in demand, as the
majority of new power stations will be gas-fired CCGTs.
7.4.2
7.4.2.1
South and Central America

Supply
The gas market in South America is characterized by large reserves (four percent of global
reserves), a relatively under-developed infrastructure, and a potentially large future demand.
Venezuela, Trinidad & Tobago, Brazil and Argentina have the most reserves and the largest
production.
The international cross border trade in the region reached 1 tcf in 2004. 0.53 tcf were pipeline
export from Argentina and Bolivia to Brazil and Chile. Trinidad & Tobago exported 0.46 tcf of
LNG to the U.S., 25 bcf to Puerto Rico and less than 7 bcf to Dominican Republic. Supply is
expected to grow more rapidly than demand as new LNG export projects are expected to be
developed in several countries, including Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Peru and possibly
Bolivia and Brazil. It is noted that no countries in South America are currently importers of
LNG, although both Brazil and Chile have tentative plans in place for import projects, from
Nigeria and Indonesia respectively.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
104
Section 7
7.4.2.2
Demand
The gas infrastructure of the region is under development and even inadequate in some regions.
This was demonstrated during the 2004 energy crisis in Argentina regarding the inadequacy of
its domestic natural gas transmission network to meet increasing demand.
Principal natural gas consumption in this region is in the industrial and power sectors with
relatively little domestic/residential use. Governmental policies are in place in, for example,
Brazil and Chile for the development of the use of natural gas as a primary fuel. Gas demand in
Latin America is projected to grow by at least four percent each year over the next two decades,
to reach 9.6 tcf in 2025 compared with 4.3 tcf in 2004. Currently, major consuming countries are
Argentina (1.4 tcf in 2004), Venezuela (1 tcf) and Brazil (0.7 tcf), which together represent
72 percent of the regional natural gas consumption. As production rate increase is higher than the
one of demand, it is expected that incremental demand will be filled by indigenous production.
7.4.3
7.4.3.1
Europe and Eurasia, including FSU

Supply
Natural gas reserves in this region are estimated at more than 2,200 trillion cubic feet (tcf) in
2004, which represents 35 percent of the global world reserves. Russia holds the worlds largest
natural gas reserves, with 1,700 tcf; nearly twice the reserves in the next largest reserves in Iran.
Other major natural gas reserves in the region are in Kazakhstan (105 tcf), Turkmenistan
(100 tcf), Norway (85 tcf), Uzbekistan (65 tcf) and the Netherlands (52 tcf).
Out of a regional consumption of 39 tcf in 2004, Europe imported 1.4 tcf via pipelines from
Algeria, Libya and Iran to Italy, Spain, Turkey, Portugal and Slovenia; and 2.8 tcf was imported
into the region as LNG mainly from Algeria and Nigeria. The remaining 35 tcf was met by
indigenous production. The largest producer, by far, is the Russian federation (21 tcf in 2004),
followed by the UK (3.4 tcf), Norway (2.8 tcf) and the Netherlands (2.5 tcf). In 2004, the
Russian Federation was the worlds largest natural gas producer, as well as the worlds largest
exporter.
Natural gas production in the UK and in the Netherlands are mainly from offshore fields in the
North Sea; a mature producing region with a reserve to production ratio of 20 for the
Netherlands. There is therefore limited potential for increasing gas production in this region as
resources are small. Production in Western Europe could even reduce significantly over the next
two decade. In addition, natural gas production in Russia was relatively constant over the last
decade and there is little hope for this trend to change due to ageing fields, state regulation,
Gazproms monopolistic control over the industry, and insufficient export pipelines. Incremental
demand will therefore be met through the development of LNG imports from, for example,
Egypt, Qatar and Nigeria and new cross-border pipelines.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
105
Section 7
7.4.3.2
Demand
Demand for natural gas in Europe is growing mainly due to the environmental advantages it
offers over oil and coal and reached 39 tcf in 2004. This is being encouraged by European
Union legislation which is steadily reducing permissible emission limits. Demand growth in this
region is expected to be higher than production growth. Imports are expected to rise to meet the
incremental demand, especially to meet the demand in a growing power sector.
The degree of gas penetration as a percentage of primary energy consumption varies widely
between countries within Europe, generally being highest in Western countries, e.g. U.K. and the
Netherlands.
Increased pipeline import capacity from Algeria together with the expansion of the gas grids in
Spain, Portugal and Southern Italy led to increased use in these countries, particularly in the
industrial and power sectors. Strong growth is expected in the power generating sectors when
countries switch from coal firing to gas utilization; and new gas fired power plants are built.
Natural gas demand in the region is projected to grow by an average of 2 percent over the next
decade, to reach 50tcf in 2015.
7.4.4
7.4.4.1
Middle East
Supply
The Middle East has the largest proven reserves of natural gas (40 percent of global world
reserves), large production (10 tcf or 10 percent of global world production) but low demand
(8.5 tcf). Reserves are estimated at about 2600 trillion cubic feet, 38 percent of which are in Iran
and 35 percent in Qatar. Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates each have about 9 percent of
the regional reserves.
As regional production is expected to grow faster than demand, surplus natural gas reserves are
such that exports are viewed as the best way to realize their value. Most additional output will
therefore be exported, predominantly as LNG.
Pipeline exports from the region are small and consist of pipelines from Iran to Turkey (0.12 tcf)
opened in 2001 from Oman to United Arab Emirates (0.04 tcf or 40 bcf) and Egypt to Jordan.
At present, the only major export of natural gas from the region is as LNG which represents
90 percent of the region natural gas export (i.e. 1.4 tcf or 26.5 MTPA in 2004). The main LNG
exporting countries are Qatar, Oman and UAE with exports mainly to Asia (e.g. India, Japan and
south Korea) but also to Spain, France and the U.S.
LNG export projects are rapidly expanding in the Middle East, with Iran and Yemen vying to
join the ranks of Abu Dhabi, Oman and Qatar as regional LNG exporters. The current expansion
of the regions LNG capacity is dominated by Qatars development of the Qatargas and RasGas
liquefaction complexes but also by the development in Oman of the Qalhat complex and in Iran
as part of the development of the South Pars Field.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
106
Section 7
7.4.4.2
Demand
Middle East gas demand should reach 13 tcf by 2020, up 4tcf from 2004. Iran and Saudi Arabia,
which together accounted for more than 60 percent of the regions gas demand, will remain the
main markets. Gas demand growth will be led by the power sector but also in the industrial
sector as a petrochemical feedstock, i.e. Gas to Liquid (GTL) Plants. Power for desalination
plants will also be another important use.
A number of countries in the region have plans to increase gas production either to meet growing
domestic demand in the industrial, petrochemical, and power sectors (e.g., Iran, Saudi Arabia), to
increase existing LNG exports (Qatar, Oman), to develop new LNG exports (Yemen). For
example, the Qatari government believes that the country's economic future lies in developing its
vast natural gas potential and the expansion of Saudi Arabia Master Gas System (MGS) is
planned to meet an ever expanding domestic gas demand. The MGS feeds gas to the industrial
cities of Yanbu on the Red Sea and Jubail in Saudi Arabia eastern province, which combined
account for ten percent of the world's petrochemical production.
7.4.5
7.4.5.1
Africa
Supply
Africa has the fourth largest proven natural gas reserves (500 tcf), after the Middle East, Europe
and Asia. Algerian (160 tcf) and Nigerian (180 tcf) reserves together account for almost
70 percent of the continents global reserves. Algeria is, by far, the largest producer of natural
gas in Africa followed by Egypt and Nigeria. More than 55 percent of the African natural gas
production comes from Algeria, i.e. 2.9 tcf in 2004. Total African natural gas production reached
5.2 tcf in 2004 or 5 times less than the North American continent which has the equivalent of
half of Africas proven reserves.
Local demand is still quite low compared to production; Africa is therefore a net exporter of
natural gas. Export of natural gas outside Africa is currently in the order of 3 tcf, 50 percent of
which are made via pipelines and the rest as LNG mainly from Algeria to the European and
American Markets. Algeria, which has the largest proven reserves of any African country and
close proximity to the European market, has been a significant gas exporter over the last
40 years.
Algeria currently has an LNG export capacity of around 20 MTPA at its Arzew and Skikda
facilities. Pipelines from Algeria also deliver natural gas to Italy via the Trans Mediterranean
Gas pipeline and to Spain via the Gazoduc Maghreb Europe (GME) line. With the recent
improvement of its international relations, Libya exports gas by pipeline to Italy and is
considering developing its very limited LNG capacity, although any such developments are
unlikely much before the end of the decade.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
107
Section 7
Nigeria began exporting LNG in 1999 from its NLNG facility at Bonny Island. The plant
currently has a combined capacity of around 9 MTPA. A number of other LNG projects (Brass
River LNG, West Niger Delta LNG and a floating LNG project) have been proposed for Nigeria,
although no firm developments have yet been made. It is noted that most of Nigeria onshore
associated gas production is flared and governmental programs and policies are in place to stop
gas flaring by 2008 in 2003, 40 percent of Nigeria natural gas gross production was flared or
vented.
7.4.5.2
Demand
Gas demand in Africa is expected to grow, on average, by five percent over the next two decades
to reach 7 tcf in 2025 compared to 2.5 tcf in 2004. However, a lack of infrastructure and warm
climatic conditions are all factors limiting the potential increase in demand in certain regions.
The principal demand for natural gas in Algeria, Egypt and Libya is for power and industry with
very little demand in the domestic residential sector. In Nigeria, gas that is not flared is used for
power generation and some is used for petrochemical and fertilizer production at plants
constructed near Port Harcourt. The remaining gas is re-injected.
7.4.6
7.4.6.1
Asia Pacific
Supply
With 500 tcf of proven gas reserves, the Asia Pacific region accounts for eight percent of the
total world reserves. The largest reserves are located in Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia and
China which almost equally share 70 percent of the regions reserves. The countries with the
largest reserves are also the largest producers of the Asia Pacific region.
Overall, the gas supply situation in Asia is mixed. North East Asia countries such as Japan and
South Korea are heavy importers of natural gas, more than 50 percent of which comes from
South East Asia and Australia as LNG. China and India, which are currently gas producers but
also major consumers are set to join the list of heavy importers over the remainder of the decade
and beyond, as their demand growth should exceed production growth. Australia should remain a
net exporter of natural gas whereas countries such as Bangladesh and New Zealand are currently
and could remain self sufficient. All the other countries in the region, such as the Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand are net importers or natural gas.
Cross-border natural gas pipeline trade is currently not well developed in Asia- Pacific and
pipelines trade represents roughly 14 percent of the total international gas trade in the region and
four percent of the regions gas consumption. The cross-border pipeline imports/exports are
currently between the following:
Indonesia to Malaysia (Sumatra to West Natuna pipeline)
Indonesia to Malaysia (Duyong pipeline)
Malaysia to Singapore (PGU pipeline) and
Myanmar to Thailand (Yetagun/Yadana pipeline).

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
108
Section 7
These pipelines have a combined capacity of 0.5 tcf, 8 times less than the current LNG trade in
the region. The gas market of Far East Asia is therefore currently dominated by LNG trade.
Asia Pacific is currently the largest market for LNG, accounting for around 66 percent of the
178 MTPA global LNG trade in 2004. 2004 LNG trade was made up as follows:
Japan 43 percent, South Korea 17 percent, Taiwan 5 percent and India 1 percent. LNG trade in
Asia Pacific now includes the new markets of India and China. Both countries are major
emerging markets for LNG and are likely to see significant capacity expansion by 2010. Indias
first import terminal opened at Dahej, Gujarat in early 2004, with a capacity of 5 million tons per
annum and expected to be expanded to 10 MTPA. Chinas first LNG terminal is scheduled for
completion in Guangdong province by 2006.
7.4.6.2
Demand
The overriding demand for LNG in the Far East arises from power generation where the clean
burning characteristics of natural gas offer advantages over oil and coal in densely populated
cities. Residential and commercial consumption is generally limited (refer to Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.9
Gas Consumption by Sector in the Asia Pacific Region

(2004)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Singapore
Thailand
Malaysia
Power
Vietnam
Industry
Japan
Commercial
Taiwan
Indonesia
Residential
China
Other
X L: 4 119 .0 0 0 5/ Sec_ 7
The rapid economic growth in the area is increasing the demand for natural gas such that there
are plans to increase LNG supply and pipelines cross border trades. Different demand growth
rates are expected for different countries. For example, Japan natural gas demand should grow
by two percent over the next two decades, whereas demand growth could reach up to
four percent in developing economies such as China, Indonesia and India.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
109
Section 7
7.5
WORLDWIDE GAS PROCESSING CAPACITY
Global gas processing capacity exceeds 235,000 MMSCFD, with more than half of it built in
North America. The Middle East now holds the second largest gas processing capacity, followed
by the Asia Pacific region (Asia & Australia) and Western Europe.
Table 7.1
Gas/Gas Liquids Processing Capacity and Production
(Source: Oil & Gas Journal Gas Processing Survey 2004)

2004 Troughput
Capacity
(MMscf/d)
Gas
119 478
74 402
103 739
Central & S. America
18 198
13 394
27 391
Western Europe
24 375
9 904
9 931
2 796
1 427
10 142
Middle East
29 112
20 546
65 040
Africa
17 254
9 642
16 777
Asia & Australia
24 487
18 692
22 404
235 701
148 007
255 424
North America
FSU & East Europe
Total
Liquids
(1,000 gal/d)
Since 1994, worldwide gas processing capacity has increased from about 180,000 MMSCFD up
to 235,000 MMSCFD, this represents an increase of 30 percent over ten years. However, growth
in the gas processing industry varied in different regions of the world. For example, gas
processing capacity increased by almost 150 percent in the Middle East whereas it decreases by
30 percent in Eastern Europe.
Table 7.2
Change in Gas Processing Capacity and Throughput Between 1994 and 2004
(Source: Oil & Gas Journal 2005)
Troughput Change
Capacity
(MMscf/d)
Gas
Liquids
(1,000 gal/d)
North America
11%
-3%
-13%
Central & S. America
56%
37%
5%
Western Europe
10%
70%
107%
FSU & East Europe
-30%
-52%
-31%
Middle East
147%
290%
645%
Africa
86%
30%
48%
Asia & Australia
63%
97%
95%

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
110
Section 8
Glossary of Terms
Acid Gas
CO2 and H2S, possibly other compounds such as COS.
Associated Gas
Gas produced from reservoirs containing crude oil. The gas may
be dissolved in the oil (solution gas), or lie above the oil as a gas
cap.
CapEx
Capital Expenditure.
Cap Gas
Layer of gas separated from oil in an oil field.
CGR
Condensate/gas ratio (e.g. for condensate recovered at wellhead in

gas production from gas or gas/condensate fields, usually in bbl
condensate/million SCF gas).
Cold Box
Enclosed, insulated assembly of cryogenic equipment.
Condensate
C5 and heavier hydrocarbons recovered in gas production and

processing.
Core
A plate-fin exchanger unit.
CIF
Cost, Insurance, Freight.
CNG
Compressed Natural Gas used as fuel in the transport sector.
Cricondenbar
Highest pressure at which gas and liquid can co-exist as separate

phases.
Cricondentherm
Highest temperature at which gas and liquid can co-exist as

separate phases.
Critical Point
Temperature above which a pure compound can only be a single

fluid phase.
DEG
Diethylene Glycol
Dense Phase
Condition of fluid at high pressure, above the cricondenbar (in

dense phase fluids can be cooled to low temperature without going
through a two-phase zone).
Dense Phase
Gas/NGL stream held in single phase by high pressure.
Dry/Lean Gas
Natural gas with very low heavy hydrocarbon content.
EG
Ethylene Glycol
F-T
Fischer-Tropsch (GTL technology).
Gas/ Field Condensate
Field where substantial quantity of condensate separates from gas

when wellstream is reduced in pressure.
Gas Conditioning
Treatment of gas for the removal of liquids (water and heavy

hydrocarbons) to meet sales gas specification
Gas Sweetening
Removal of acid gas from a natural gas stream

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
111
Section 8
Glossary of Terms
GDP
Gross Domestic Product.
GOR
Gas/oil ratio (e.g. for production from oil field, usually in SCF
gas/bbl oil).
GOSP
Gas/oil separator plant.
GTL
Gas-to-Liquids.
GTP
Gas-to-Power.
HAP
Hazardous air Pollutants
HSFO
High Sulfur Fuel Oil.
HHV
Higher Heating value (alternative term is Gross Heating Value

GHV). This is the heat produced by complete combustion of gas
with the theoretical amount of required air when the water
produced is completely cooled and condensed to a defined
reference temperature.
Pressure and temperature at which hydrocarbons begin to condense

from a gas stream.
IPP
Independent Power Producer.
J-T valve
Valve used for pressure reduction, giving cooling due to

Joule-Thomson effect.
LHV
Lower Heating Value (Alternative Term: Net Calorific Value).

This is the heat produced by complete combustion of the gas with
the theoretical amount of required air when the water produced
from the combustion remains in the vapor state.
LNG
Liquefied Natural Gas.
LPG
Liquefied Petroleum Gas.
LSFO
Low Sulfur Fuel Oil.
LTX
Low Temperature Separation
MCR
Multi-Component Refrigerant (trademark of APCI).
Mercaptans
Sulfur containing organic compounds.
MEG
Mono-Ethylene Glycol
MR
Mixed Refrigerant.
Natural Gasoline
Light condensate recovered from gas processing and conditioning.
Non Associated Gas
Gas produced from reservoirs generally containing no oil or very

lean condensate

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
112
Section 8
Glossary of Terms
NGL
Natural Gas Liquids, general term for liquid hydrocarbons

separated from natural gas stream, can include components from
ethane to C5 plus.
NGV
Natural Gas Vehicle.
OpEx
Operating Expenditure.
Retrograde Condensation
Phenomenon of condensate being formed from gas stream as

pressure is reduced.
RFO
Residual Fuel Oil.
Rich/Wet Gas
Natural gas with high heavy hydrocarbon content.
SCF, SCFD
U.S. Standard cubic foot, SCF per day (measured at 14.696 psia
and 60 F).
Shrinkage
Reduction in volume of natural gas due to removal of NGL and/or

acid gas components.
Sour Gas
Natural gas with high acid gas content
Sweet Gas
Treated natural gas after the removal of acid gas
TEG
Triethylene Glycol
US$
U.S. Dollar
Wobbe Index
This is the gross heating value divided by the square root of the
relative density of the gas with respect to air. Wobbe Index
indicates the heat output from a burner.
Water Dew Point
Pressure and temperature at which water vapor contained in the gas

stream begins to condense.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
113
Section 8
Glossary of Terms
Natural Gas Components

C1
Methane
C2
Ethane
C3
Propane
i-C4
i-Butane
n-C4
n-Butane
C5+
Condensate
H2S
Hydrogen Sulfide
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
N2
Nitrogen
H2
Hydrogen
He
Helium
Hg
Mercury
BTEX
Aromatic compounds
COS, CS2
Mercaptans

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
114
Section 8
Glossary of Terms
Units of Measure
Barg
Bar Gauge (Pressure Measurement)
BBL
Barrels
BCF
Billion Cubic Feet
BCM
Billion Cubic Meters
B, G
Billion, Giga (10^9)
BOE
Barrels Oil Equivalent
CF, CFD
Cubic Feet, Cubic Feet per Day
GJ
Gigajoule
GW, GWh
Gigawatt, Gigawatt-hours
kCAL
Kilocalorie
kTPA
Thousand Tons per Annum
kW, kWh
Kilowatt, Kilowatt-hour
MCAL
Megacalorie
MMBOE
Million Barrels Oil Equivalent
MMBTU
Million British Thermal Units
MMCM
Million Cubic Meters
MM, M
Million, Mega (10^6)
MMSCFD
Million Standard Cubic Feet per Day
MW, MWh
Megawatt, Megawatt-hour
ppm
Parts per million (1 mg/m3)
psi
Pounds per Square Inch (Pressure Measurement)
TOE
Tons Oil Equivalent
TCF
Trillion Cubic Feet
TCM
Trillion Cubic Meters
T, k
Thousand Kilo (10^3)
TJ
Terajoule
TPA
Tons per Annum
T, T
Trillion, Tera (10^12)

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
115
Section 8
Glossary of Terms
Conversion and Equivalences

Volume
1 CM
35.315 CF
1 000 CF
28.32 CM
1 BBL
159 liters; 0.159 CM
1 CM
6.29 BBL
Energy Content (LHV)
kcal/kg
BTU/kg
Fuel Oil/Oil Equivalent
10 000
39 700
Heavy/Residual Fuel Oil
9 800
38 900
Gas Oil, Diesel Oil
10 100
40 100
Jet Fuel
10 470
41 520
Kerosene
10 390
41 230
LPG
10 810
42 900
Fuelwood
3 000
11 940
Charcoal
7 000
27 860
Energy Equivalences
1 kWh = 0.86 Mcal
= 3.6 MJ
1 MMBTU
= 252 Mcal = 293 kWh = 1 055 MJ
1 GWh
= 3412 MMBTU
1 000 cm natural gas
= 0.85 TOE
1 000 kWh electricity
= 0.11 TOE (final consumption)
1 ton wood
= 0.30 TOE
1 ton charcoal
= 0.70 TOE
Rules of Thumb
Natural Gas:
1 MCF ~ 0.95 MMBTU
Natural Gas:
1 MMSCFD ~ 10 MMCM/Y
Oil:
1 BPD ~ 50 TPA
Natural Gas:
US$1.0/MMBTU ~ US$0.95/1,000 CF

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
116
Appendix A
Nexants ChemSystems Capital Cost Estimates
Elements of Nexants ChemSystems Capital Cost Estimates

Process Evaluation/Research Planning, 2005
Costs typically included in Nexants ChemSystems capital cost estimates are defined as follows:
A.1
INSIDE BATTERY LIMITS INVESTMENT
The inside battery limits (ISBL) portion of a plant can be thought of as a boundary over which
are imported raw materials, catalysts and chemicals, and utility supply streams. In a like manner,
main products, by-products, and spent utility return streams are exported over this boundary.
ISBL investment includes the cost of the main processing blocks of the chemical plant necessary
to manufacture products. It represents an "instantaneous" investment (i.e., no escalation) for a
plant ordered from a contractor and built on a prepared site with normal load-bearing and
drainage characteristics of a developed country.
Battery limits investment includes the installed cost of the following major items:
Process equipment: vessels and internals, heat exchangers, pumps and compressors,
drivers, solids handling
Major spare equipment/parts (e.g., spare rotor for turbine or compressor)
Building housing process units
Process and utility pipes and supports within the major process areas
Instruments, including computer control systems
Electrical wires and hardware
Foundations and pads
Structures and platforms
Insulation
Paint/corrosion protection
Process sewers
Fire water pipes and monitors
Utility stations
The installed cost also includes construction overhead: fringe benefits, payroll burdens, field
supervision, equipment rentals, small tools (expendables), field office expenses, site support
services, temporary facilities, etc.

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
A-1
Appendix A
A.2
OUTSIDE BATTERY LIMITS INVESTMENT
Outside battery limits (OSBL) investment includes the plant investment items that are required in
addition to the main processing units within the battery limits. These auxiliary items are
necessary to the functioning of the production unit, but perform in a supporting role rather than
being directly involved in production. A distinguishing characteristic is the potential for sharing
offsite facilities among several production units in a large plant, in which case investment cost
would be allocated or prorated.
OSBL investment includes the installed cost of the following major items:
Storage for feeds, products, by-products, including tanks/silos, dikes, inerting, process
warehouse, and bagging/palletizing equipment
Steam generation units
Cooling water systems, including cooling towers and circulation pumps
Process water treatment systems and supply pumps
Boiler feed water treatment systems and supply pumps
Refrigeration systems, including chilled water/brine circulating pumps
Heat transfer medium systems, including organic vapor, hot oil, molten salts
Electrical supply, transformers, and switchgear
Loading and unloading arms, pumps, conveyors, lift trucks, including those to handle
barge, tank/hopper car, and tank/hopper/other truck traffic; weigh scales
Auxiliary buildings, including all services, furnishings, and equipment:
Central control room

Maintenance
Stores warehouse
Laboratory
Garages/fire station
Change house/cafeteria
Medical/safety
Administration
General utilities, including plant air, instrument air, inert gas, stand-by electrical
generator, fire water pumps
Site development, including roads and walkways, parking, railroad sidings, electrical
main substation, lighting, water supply, fuel supply, clearing and grading, drainage,
fencing, sanitary and storm sewers, and communications

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
A-2
Appendix A
Yard pipes, including lines for cooling water, process water, boiler feed water, fire water;
fuel; plant air, instrument air, inert gas; collection of organic wastes, aqueous wastes, and
flare/incinerator feeds; and process tie-ins to storage
A.3
CONTRACTOR CHARGES
These charges are typically 15 to 25 percent of installed ISBL and OSBL costs and are included
proportionately in the ISBL and the OSBL investments. Contractor charges include the
following major items:
Detailed design and engineering, including process and offsites design and general
engineering, equipment specifications, plant layout, drafting, cost engineering, scale
models
Administrative charges, including project management, engineering supervision,

procurement, expediting, inspection, travel and living, home office construction
expenses, general home office overhead
Contractor profit
A.4
PROJECT CONTINGENCY ALLOWANCE
A project contingency allowance is typically 15 to 25 percent of installed ISBL and OSBL costs
and is included proportionately in the ISBL and the OSBL investments.
A project contingency allowance is applied to the total of the above costs to take into account
unknown elements of the process being estimated. For well-defined processes where primary
input has come from engineering contractors, a contingency of 10 to 20 percent would be typical.
At the other end of the spectrum, a capital estimate for a speculative process developed from
patent and literature data alone might warrant a contingency of 20 to as much as 50 percent in
extreme cases.
A.5
OTHER PROJECT COSTS
These costs are very site/project specific; however, they typically range from 20 to 40 percent of
installed ISBL + OSBL costs. A norm value of 25 percent will be used in the absence of more
specific information.
For the purpose of our study, other project costs normally include startup/commissioning costs,
miscellaneous owners costs, etc. They are described below:
Startup/Commissioning Costs
Extra operating manpower
Owner's technical manpower
Startup services

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
A-3
Appendix A
Licensor representatives
Contractor personnel
Equipment supplier/other vendor representatives
Operating manuals and training programs
Modifications and maintenance during startup
Operating expenses to the extent that they do not result in saleable product
Miscellaneous Owner's Costs
Licensing/royalty/expertise fees: basic process and engineering design package
Jetties, marine terminals, docks, etc.
Long distance pipelines for raw material/products
Land, rights of way, permits, surveys, and fees
Piling, soil compaction/dewatering, unusual foundation requirements
Sales, use, and other taxes
Freight, insurance in transit, and import duties (equipment, pipe, steel, instruments, etc.)
Escalation/inflation of costs over time, assuming instantaneous construction
Interest on construction loan, assuming instantaneous construction
Overtime pay during construction
Construction workers' housing, canteen, other infrastructure for remote site
Field insurance
Project team, including preliminary planning studies, HAZOP studies, environmental

reviews, design, engineering, estimating, inspection, accounting, auditing, legal,
construction management, travel, and living
Initial charges of raw materials, catalysts, chemicals, and packaging materials
Initial stock of maintenance, laboratory, operating, and office supplies
Transport equipment, including barges, railcars, tank trucks, bulk shipping containers,
plant vehicles
Provisions for temporary shutdown expenses
Owner's scope contingency allowance

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
A-4
Appendix A
A.6
WORKING CAPITAL
Working capital typically includes the following items:
Accounts receivable (products and by-products shipped but not paid by customer),
typically one month's gross cost of production (COP)
Cash on hand (short-term operating funds), typically one week's gross COP minus
depreciation
Minor spare equipment and parts inventory, percentage of replacement BL capital
Credit for accounts payable (feedstocks, catalysts, chemicals, and packaging materials
received but not paid to supplier), typically one month's delivered cost
Value of product and by-product inventories, typically two weeks' gross COP
Value of raw material inventory, typically two weeks' delivered cost

PERP 04/05S8
Q106_00101.0005.4119
A-5
Appendix B
PERP Program Title Index

PERP Program Title Index (1994/1995 2004/2005)
This index is intended to be a handy and convenient tool for quickly identifying PERP reports of
interest. It should be noted, however, that this is a title index only. For a more complete search,
dating back to 1972, the full subject indices should be used. See your local technical information
service department for the PERP subject indices or contact Nexant. To browse all Nexant
ChemSystems reports, please visit: www.nexant.com/products/CSReports/index.asp
Title
Report
Date
Title
Report
Date
Acetic Acid
02/03-1
09/03
Aromatics from Light Olefins
97/98S1
04/99
Acetic Acid/Acetic Anhydride
97/98-1
01/99
Ascorbic Acid and Sorbitol
97/98S11
03/99
Acetic Acid Directly from Ethylene
94/95S9
12/96
Barrier Monomers for PET
02/03S12
12/03
Acetic Acid via Ethane Oxidation
99/00S5
01/01
Benzene/Toluene
02/03-5
04/03
Acetic Anhydride/Cellulose Acetate
03/04S1
06/04
Benzene/Toluene
98/99-6
05/99
Acetone/Phenol/Cumene
01/02-2
10/02
Biodegradable Polymers
94/95S13
02/97
Acetone/Phenol/Cumene
96/97-2
12/97
Biodesulfurization of Petroleum Fractions
98/99S7
01/00
Acrylamide
01/02S10
11/02
Biodiesel
02/03S2
12/03
Acrylic Acid
04/05-6
Acrylic Acid
00/01-7
05/01
Bioprocessing Technologies, Developments

in Alternative Routes to Specialty Chemicals
96/97S1
05/97
Acrylic Acid/Acrylates
96/97-8
11/97
Biotech Route to Lactic Acid/Polylactic Acid
00/01S3
05/02
Acrylonitrile
00/01-6
03/02
Biotransformation Routes to 1,3-Propanediol
97/98S4
09/98
Acrylonitrile
96/97-7
12/97
Bisphenol A
01/02-6
09/02
Adipic Acid
03/04-3
11/04
Bisphenol A
97/98-4
05/98
Adipic Acid
98/99-3
07/99
Butadiene/Butylenes
01/02-3
02/03
Advances in LNG Technologies
03/04S10
10/04
Butadiene/Butylenes
97/98-2
06/98
Aliphatic Diisocyanates
98/99S11
09/99
Butadiene, Chemicals from
99/00S13
01/01
Alkylbenzene, Linear (LAB)
01/02S8
05/03
Butadiene, Oxo Alcohols from
98/99S13
01/00
Alkyl Vinyl Ethers
97/98S6
07/98
Butadiene Rubber/Styrene Butadiene

Rubber (SBR/BR)
02/03S1
12/03
Alpha Olefins, Developments in

Production Technology
97/98S14
01/99
Butanediol, 1,4-/THF
02/03-7
01/04
Alpha Olefins
02/03-4
01/04
Butanediol/THF
98/99S1
09/99
Alpha Olefins
98/99-7
12/99
Butyl Acetate/Ethyl Acetate
97/98S5
08/98
Alternative Uses for MTBE Facilities
99/00-7
03/01
Butylenes/Butadiene
01/02-3
02/03
Ammonia
97/98-6
08/98
Butylenes/Butadiene
97/98-2
06/98
Amorphous High Temperature ETPs
03/04S12
01/05
Caprolactam
04/05-3
Aniline/Nitrobenzene
02/03-2
06/03
* To be published
* To be published
B-1
Title
Report
Date
Title
Report
Date
Caprolactam
99/00-4
03/01
Caprolactam
94/95-6
03/96
Developments in Propylene Oxide

Technology
00/01S12
11/01
Caprolactam from Adiponitrile
96/97S8
03/97
Developments in PTA Production

Technologies
00/01S7
02/02
Carbon Monoxide Production and

Purification Technologies
96/97S10
04/98
Developments in Superabsorbent
Polymer Technology
94/95S8
12/96
Catalytic Ethane Dehydrogenation,

Ethylene via
98/99S9
04/99
Developments in Syngas Technology
03/04S4
02/05
Catalytic Naphtha Cracking, Ethylene via
96/97S12
09/97
Developments in Thermoplastic Elastomers
98/99S12
11/99
Cellulose Acetate/Acetic Anhydride
03/04S1
06/04
Dicyclopentadiene and Derivatives
97/98S7
08/98
Chemicals from Butadiene
99/00S13
01/01
Dimethyl Carbonate Production

Technology: Developments in
99/00S6
05/00
Chlor Alkali
01/02S4
03/03
Dimethyl Ether (DME)
97/98S8
03/99
Chlorine Recovery via HCl Recycle

Technologies
96/97S6
04/98
Dimethylnaphthalene, (2,6-)
99/00S7
06/00
Coal Gasification Technologies
03/04S11
01/05
EDC/VCM
03/04-6
12/04
Compounding, Polypropylene
04/05S6
EDC/VCM
99/00-3
04/00
Copolyester and Copolyamide Elastomers,

Thermoplastic
EDC/VCM
94/95-5
08/96
02/03S9
10/03
EPDM Rubber
04/05S2
05/05
Copolymers, Cyclic Olefin
94/95S5
05/96
Epichlorohydrin
99/00S11
07/00
Cost/Performance of Fuel Oxygenates
99/00S3
09/00
Epoxy Resins
04/05S11
12/05
Crystalline High Temperature Polymers
04/05S3
Ethane and Benzene, Styrene from
04/05S10
Cumene/Phenol/Acetone
01/02-2
10/02
Cumene/Phenol/Acetone
96/97-2
12/97
Ethane Dehydrogenation, Ethylene

via Catalytic
98/99S9
04/99
Curtailing Coke Formation in Ethylene

Furnace Tubes
Ethane Oxidation, Acetic Acid via
99/00S5
01/01
02/03S10
06/03
Cyclic Olefin Copolymers
94/95S5
05/96
Ethane Partial Oxidation, Ethylene via

Catalytic
03/04S2
07/04
Dehydrogenation, Light Paraffin
94/95S2
04/96
Ethanol
04/05-8
Desulfurization Technologies, Novel
00/01S8
10/02
Ethanol
99/00-8
08/01
Detergent Alcohols
98/99S5
01/02
Ethanolamines
01/02S2
08/02
Developments in Alpha Olefin Production

Technology
Ethyl Acetate/Butyl Acetate
97/98S5
08/98
97/98S14
01/99
Ethylbenzene/Styrene
03/04-8
11/04
99/00-6
08/00
94/95-8
03/96
Ethylene Oxide/Ethylene Glycol
04/05-5
12/05
00/01-2
11/01
96/97-4
08/97
Ethylene
04/05-7
09/05
Ethylene, Propylene
00/01-4
06/01
Developments in Bioprocessing Technologies: Alternative Routes to Specialty

Chemicals
96/97S1
05/97
Developments in Dimethyl Carbonate

Production Technology
99/00S6
05/00
Developments in Methanol Production

Technology
96/97S14
08/98
Developments in Natural Gas to Liquid

Fuels Conversion Technologies
96/97S13
02/98
Developments in Non-Phosgene Polycarbonate Technology
02/03S8
10/03
Ethylene, Propylene
96/97-6
03/97
Developments in para-Xylene Technology
96/97S7
07/97
Ethylene Trimerization to Hexene-1
94/95S12
09/96
Developments in PET Recycling
99/00S4
07/00
Ethylene via Catalytic Ethane

Dehydrogenation
98/99S9
04/99
* To be published
* To be published
B-2
Title
Report
Date
Title
Report
Date
Ethylene via Catalytic Naphtha Cracking
96/97S12
09/97
LDPE
00/01-5
04/01
Ethylene via Catalytic Ethane Partial

Oxidation
03/04S2
07/04
LDPE/LLDPE
94/95-1
02/97
Extending the Methane Value Chain
99/00S9
10/00
LDPE Specialties
03/04S9
12/04
Fiber Spinning Technology, Nylon
04/05S5
Light Olefins, Aromatics from
97/98S1
04/99
Fiber Spinning Technology, PET
03/04S8
08/04
Light Olefins from Natural Gas
94/95S11
05/97
Fiber Spinning Technology, PET
97/98S13
02/00
Linearalkylbenzene (LAB)
01/02S8
05/03
Fischer-Tropsch Liquids as Steam

Cracker Feedstocks
Liquefied Natural Gas
96/97S2
11/97
01/02S9
12/02
Liquid Crystal Polymers
00/01S10
09/01
Fluidized Bed Vinyl Acetate Process
98/99S3
02/00
LLDPE
03/04-1
01/05
Formaldehyde
00/01-8
04/01
LLDPE
99/00-1
06/00
Formaldehyde
94/95-2
04/96
LLDPE/LDPE
94/95-1
02/97
Fuel Cells for Transportation
02/03S5
12/03
Maleic Anhydride
03/04-7
02/05
Fuel Oxygenates, Cost/Performance of
99/00S3
09/00
Maleic Anhydride
99/00-5
06/00
Fuel Switching with NGLs/Small Scale LNG
04/05S1
08/05
Maleic Anhydride
94/95-7
06/96
Gasification Technologies, Coal
03/04S11
01/05
04/05S8
03/06
Managing Technology Development in

the Chemical Industry
97/98S2
06/99
Glycerin
00/01S4
11/01
MDI/TDI
98/99S8
09/99
Glycol Ethers
01/02S6
08/02
Medium Quality Terephthalic Acid
03/04S6
10/04
HCl Recycle Technologies, Chlorine

Recovery via
meta-Xylene/Isophthalic Acid
94/95S14
02/97
96/97S6
04/98
Methacrylic Acid/Methacrylates
94/95-3
08/96
Heavy Oils, Unconventional
04/05S9
Methane Value Chain, Extending the
99/00S9
10/00
Hexene-1 via Ethylene Trimerization
94/95S12
09/96
Methanol
03/04-4
01/05
High Density Polyethylene
01/02-1
12/02
Methanol
98/99-4
05/00
High Density Polyethylene
96/97-3
04/98
High Performance Polyesters
94/95S6
10/96
Methanol Production Technology,

Developments in
96/97S14
08/98
High Temperature ETPs, Amorphous
03/04S12
12/04
Methanol to Olefins
00/01S9
01/02
High Temperature Polymers, Crystalline
04/05S3
Methyl Methacrylate
04/05-2
High Temperature Thermoplastic Nylons
01/02S3
06/02
Methyl Methacrylate
99/00-2
09/01
Hydrocarbon Resins
99/00S10
03/01
Methyl t-Butyl Ether (MTBE)
94/95-4
06/96
Hydrogen Peroxide
03/04-5
10/04
Modified Polyphenylene Oxide (MPPO)
02/03S3
03/03
Hydrogen Peroxide
98/99-8
09/99
MTBE Facilities, Alternative Uses of
99/00-7
03/01
Impact of Supply Chain IT Applications on

The Refining Industry
04/05S4
MTBE Phaseout on Chemical Markets,

Impact of
00/01S2
06/01
Iron and Cobalt Based Olefin Polymerization Catalysts
Nanocomposites, Thermoplastic
00/01S11
09/01
97/98S9
09/99
Naphthalene and Derivatives
96/97S9
03/98
Isophthalic Acid/meta-Xylene
94/95S14
02/97
Natural Gas, Light Olefins from
94/95S11
05/97
Isoprene
98/99S2
09/99
Natural Gas Liquids Extraction
94/95S4
05/96
Lactic Acid/Polylactic Acid, Biotech Route to
00/01S3
05/02
LDPE
04/05-1
06/05
Natural Gas to Liquid Fuels Conversion

Technologies, Developments in
96/97S13
02/98
NGL Extraction, Gas Processing and
04/05S8
* To be published
* To be published
B-3
Title
Report
Date
NGLs/Small Scale LNG, Fuel Switching with
04/05S1
Nickel and Palladium Olefin Polymerization Catalysts
96/97S11
09/98
Nitric Acid
97/98S12
10/98
Nitrobenzene/Aniline
02/03-2
06/03
Non-Phosgene Polycarbonate Technology,

Developments in
02/03S8
Novel Desulfurization Technologies
Title
Report
Date
Polycarbonates
97/98-8
10/98
Polyesters, High Performance
94/95S6
10/96
Polyesters, Unsaturated
94/95S7
10/96
Polyether Polyols
03/04S5
10/04
Polyethylene, High Density
96/97-3
04/98
10/03
Polyethylene, LDPE/LLDPE
94/95-1
02/97
00/01S8
10/02
Polyethylene Terephthalate
02/03-6
09/03
Nylon 6/Nylon 6,6
99/00S1
03/00
Polyethylene Terephthalate
98/99-5
01/00
Nylon Fiber Spinning Technology
04/05S5
Polylactic Acid/Lactic Acid, Biotech Route to
00/01S3
10/02
Nylons, High Temperature Thermoplastic
01/02S3
06/02
Polymers, Biodegradable
94/95S13
02/97
Olefin, Cyclic, Copolymers
94/95S5
05/96
Polymers, Super Absorbent (SAP)
03/04S3
04/04
Olefin Polymerization Catalysts, Iron and

Cobalt Based
97/98S9
09/99
Polymer Compounding
99/00S2
04/00
Olefins, Methanol to
00/01S9
01/02
Polyphenylene Oxide, Modified (MPPO)
02/03S3
03/03
Oleochemicals
99/00S12
05/01
Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)
02/03S4
04/03
On-Purpose N2O Production for Phenol

Manufacture
Polypropylene
02/03-3
08/03
98/99S14
09/99
Polypropylene
98/99-1
01/00
Options for Refinery C5's
98/99S4
09/99
Polypropylene Compounding
04/05S6
Oxo Alcohols
01/02-8
04/03
Polystyrene
04/05-4
Polytrimethylene Terephthalate (PTT)
01/02S7
10/02
Polystyrene
96/97-1
05/97
Oxo-Alcohols
96/97S3
02/98
Polystyrene/ABS
00/01-1
06/01
Oxo Alcohols from Butadiene
98/99S13
01/00
Polyurethanes, Thermoplastic (TPUs)
02/03S7
05/03
Paraffin, Light, Dehydrogenation
94/95S2
04/96
Polyvinyl Alcohol
01/02S5
11/02
para-Xylene Technology, Developments in
96/97S7
07/97
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
03/04-2
03/04
PET Fiber Spinning Technology
03/04S8
08/04
Polyvinyl Chloride
98/99-2
04/99
PET Fiber Spinning Technology
97/98S13
02/00
PET Manufacture, Reducing Costs in
04/05S7
06/05
Propanediol, (1,3-), Biotransformation

Routes to
97/98S4
09/98
PET Recycling, Developments in
99/00S4
07/00
Propionic Acid
98/99S10
06/99
Petroleum Coke Utilization Options
97/98S10
03/99
Propylene, Ethylene
00/01-4
06/01
Phenol/Acetone/Cumene
01/02-2
10/02
Propylene, Ethylene
96/97-6
03/97
Phenol/Acetone/Cumene
96/97-2
12/97
Propylene Oxide
02/03-8
11/03
Phenol Manufacture, On-Purpose N2O

Production for
Propylene Oxide
97/98-7
12/98
98/99S14
10/99
Plants as Plants
00/01S6
12/02
Propylene Oxide Technology, Developments in
00/01S12
11/01
Plastic Beer Bottles
00/01S1
04/02
Propylene Refineries
03/04S7
01/05
Polyacetal
01/02S12
10/02
Propylene, Routes to
97/98S3
02/00
Polyaspartic Acid
96/97S4
04/98
PTA Production Technologies, Developments in
00/01S7
02/02
Polybutylene Terephthalate
98/99S6
07/99
PTMEG/Spandex
01/02S11
12/02
Polycarbonates
01/02-5
07/02
Pulp Bleaching: A Life Cycle Case Study
94/95S10
09/96
* To be published
* To be published
B-4
Title
Report
Date
Pyromellitic Dianhydride/Trimellitic
Anhydride
99/00S8
07/00
Pyrrolidones, Routes to
94/95S1
02/97
Reducing Costs in PET Manufacture
04/05S7
07/05
Refineries, Propylene
03/04S7
01/05
Refinery of the Future as Shaped by

Environmental Issues
02/03S11
12/03
Routes to Propylene
97/98S3
02/00
Routes to Pyrrolidones
94/95S1
02/97
Silicones
00/01S5
05/02
Sorbitol and Ascorbic Acid
97/98S11
03/99
Spandex/PTMEG
01/02S11
12/02
Title
Report
Date
Thermoplastic Polyurethanes (TPUs)
02/03S7
05/03
Titanium Dioxide
99/00S14
08/00
Toluene/Benzene
02/03-5
04/03
Toluene/Benzene
98/99-6
05/99
Trimellitic Anhydride/Pyromellitic
Dianhydride
99/00S8
07/00
Unconventional Heavy Oils
04/05S9
11/05
Unsaturated Polyesters
94/95S7
10/96
Urea
96/97S5
09/97
Utilization Options, Petroleum Coke
97/98S10
03/99
UV/EB Curable Materials

Title
94/95S3
Report
05/97
Date
Vinyl Chloride/Ethylene Dichloride
03/04-6
01/05
Specialty Chemicals, Alternative Routes

to: Developments in Bioprocessing
Technologies
96/97S1
05/97
VCM/EDC
99/00-3
04/00
Stationary Fuel Cells
02/03S6
11/03
VCM/EDC
94/95-5
08/96
Steam Cracker Feedstocks, FischerTropsch Liquids as
01/02S9
12/02
Vinyl Acetate
00/01-3
02/02
Styrene Butadiene Rubber/Butadiene

Rubber (SBR/BR)
Vinyl Acetate
96/97-5
07/97
02/03S1
12/03
Vinyl Acetate Process, Fluidized Bed
98/99S3
02/00
Styrene/Ethylbenzene
03/04-8
11/04
Xylenes
01/02-7
05/02
99/00-6
08/00
Xylenes
97/98-3
07/98
94/95-8
03/96
Styrene from Ethane and Benzene
04/05S10
Sulfide, Polyphenylene (PPS)
02/03S4
04/03
Super Absorbent Polymers (SAP)
03/04S3
04/04
Superabsorbent Polymer Technology,

Developments in
94/95S8
12/96
Supply Chain IT Applications on the

Refining Industry, Impact of
04/05S4
Syngas Technologies, Developments in
03/04S4
02/05
TDI/MDI
98/99S8
09/99
Technology Management, Managing, in

the Chemical Industry
97/98S2
06/99
Terephthalic Acid
01/02-4
12/02
Terephthalic Acid
97/98-5
02/99
Terephthalic Acid, Medium Quality
03/04S6
10/04
Thermoplastic Copolyester and Copolyamide

Elastomers
02/03S9
10/03
Thermoplastic Elastomers, Developments in
98/99S12
11/99
Thermoplastic Nanocomposites
00/01S11
09/01
Thermoplastic Polyolefin (TPO) and

Vulcanizate (TPV) Elastomers
01/02S1
07/02
* To be published
* To be published
B-5

Gas Processing and NGL Extraction

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gas Processing and NGL Extraction

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gas Processing and NGL Extraction:

44 South Broadway, White Plains, New York 10601, USA

Executive Summary .................................................................................................

3.5.1 Acid Gas Removal .............................................................................