Pagei

ReimaginingtheBible

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ByHowardSchwartz
POETRY
Vessels
GatheringtheSparks
SleepwalkingBeneaththeStars
FICTION
ABlessingOverAshes
Midrashim
TheCaptiveSouloftheMessiah
RoomsoftheSoul
Adam'sSoul
TheFourWhoEnteredParadise
EDITOR
ImperialMessages:OneHundredModernParables
VoicesWithintheArk:TheModernJewishPoets
GatestotheNewCity:ATreasuryofModernJewishTales
TheDreamAssembly:TalesofRabbiZalmanSchachterShalomi
Elijah'sViolin&OtherJewishFairyTales
Miriam'sTambourine:JewishTalesfromAroundtheWorld
Lilith'sCave:JewishTalesoftheSupernatural
Gabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales
FirstHarvest:JewishWritinginSt.Louis,19911996
ESSAYS
ReimaginingtheBible:TheStorytellingoftheRabbis
CHILDREN'SBOOKS
TheDiamondTree
TheSabbathLion
NextYearinJerusalem
TheWonderChild
ACoatfortheMoon

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ReimaginingtheBible
TheStorytellingoftheRabbis
HowardSchwartz
NewYorkOxfordOxfordUniversityPress1998

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OxfordUniversityPress
OxfordNewYorkAthensAucklandBangkokBogotaBombayBuenosAiresCalcuttaCapeTownDaresSalaamDelhiFlorenceHongKongIstanbulKarachi
KualaLumpurMadrasMadridMelbourneMexicoCityNairobiParisSingaporeTaipeiTokyoTorontoWarsawandassociatedcompaniesinBerlinIbadan
Copyright1998byHowardSchwartz
PublishedbyOxfordUniversityPress,Inc.198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NewYork10016
OxfordisaregisteredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPress
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,
photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofOxfordUniversityPress.
Theacknowledgmentsonp.xiconstituteanextensionofthecopyrightpage
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Schwartz,Howard,1945
ReimaginingtheBible:thestorytellingoftherabbis/HowardSchwartz.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN01951049940195115112(pbk.)
1.AggadaHistoryandcriticism.2.MidrashHistoryandcriticism.
3.JewsFolkloreHistoryandcriticism.4.MysticismJudaismHistory.
5.JewishliteratureHistoryandcriticism.
I.Title.
BM516.5.S391998
296.19dc209631594
ThecoverillustrationisadetailfromAbrahamandIsaacbyLosAngelesartistJohnAugustSwanson,whoisrepresentedbytheBergsmaGallery,GrandRapids,
MI(616)4581776.FullcolorreproductionsofSwanson'sworkareavailablefromtheNationalAssociationforHispanicElderly,3325WilshireBlvd.,Suite800,
LosAngeles,CA90010(213)4871922.Benefitsgotoitsprogramsofemploymentofseniorsandtohousinglowincomeseniors.
135798642
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaonacidfreepaper

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ForCynthiaRead
"Turnitandturnitoveragainandagain,foreverythingisinit,andcontemplateit,andwaxgrayandgrowoldoverit,andstirnotfromit,foryoucannothaveanybetterrulethan
this."
MishnahAvot5.22
"BenAzzaiwassittingandexpoundingTorah,andaflamewasburningaroundhim.Theysaidtohim:'AreyouperhapsengagedinthestudyoftheMysteriesoftheChariot?'He
replied:'No,IambutfindingintheTorahparallelstotheProphets,andintheProphetsparallelstotheAggadah.AndthewordsoftheToraharejoyfulevenastheywereonthe
daytheyweregivenatSinai,andtheywereoriginallygiveninfire,asitissaid,Andthemountainburnedwithfire.'"(Deut4:11).
LeviticusRabbah16:4
"Tobeinthebook...tobepartofit.Toberesponsibleforawordorasentence,astanzaorchapter."
EdmondJabes,TheBookofQuestions

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CONTENTS
Preface

ix

Acknowledgments

xiii

PartI
TheAncientModels
1
ReimaginingtheBible

2
TheAggadicTradition

12

3
ToolsofInterpretation

31

PartII
TheFolkTradition

4
OnJewishFairyTales

43

5
MermaidandSiren:ThePolarRolesofLilithandEve

56

6
JewishTalesoftheSupernatural

68

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PartIII
MythicEchoes

7
TheMythologyofJudaism
8
TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics

100

9
TheQuestfortheLostPrincess:TransitionandChangeinJewishLore

131

PartIV
ModernJewishLiteratureandtheAncientModels

85

10
RabbiNachmanofBratslav:ForerunnerofModernJewishLiterature

163

11
S.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer:ModernMastersoftheAggadah

176

12
ModernJewishLiteratureandtheAncientModels

188

Notes

203

Glossary

231

Bibliography

237

Index

273

Pageix

PREFACE
ThereisanunbrokenchainoftraditionlinkingallofJewishliteraturefromtheBibletothepresent.TheBibleservesasthefoundationstoneonwhichthisliterary
edificehasbeenbuilt.Yet,thougheverygenerationofJewishliteraturehearkensbacktothisfirst,primaryphase,eachalsohasadistinctivecharacterofitsown,
declaringitsloyaltyanditsindependenceinthesamebreath.Insteadofremainingfixed,oncetheywerewrittendown,thebiblicalmythsandlegendscontinuedto
evolve.Asaresult,thereisanongoingprocessofreimaginingtheBiblefoundinvirtuallyallpostbiblicalJewishtexts.
HerethehistoryofAdamandEveisrecountedaftertheywereexpelledfromtheGardenCain,withahorngrowingfromhisforehead,issaidtohavebeenkilledby
hisowndescendants,LamechandTubalCainNoahissaidtohavebroughtagiantwithhim,whosatontopofthearkAbrahamisreportedtohaveslainIsaacafter
allandMosestohaveascendedallthewayintoheaventoreceivetheTorah.Thuswerethesebiblicalstoriesembellished,takingonalifeoftheirown.
Withanaturaldesiretoknowmoreabouttheirheroes,andanoverwhelmingimpulsetoresolvealltheproblemsinthebiblicaltext,theancientrabbisdrewontheoral
traditiontheyhadreceivedandcultivatedit,givingbirth,intheprocess,toarichandvitallegendarytradition.Yetitmustneverbeforgottenthattheoriginalimpulse
outofwhichtheselegendswerecreatedwasexegetical.Greatimportancewasputonresolvingcontradictionsandfillinggapsinthenarrative.Inthiswaytherabbis
soughttodiscoverthenatureofthelightofthefirstday,whenGodsaid,Lettherebelight,sinceGoddidnotcreatethesunandmoonuntilthefourthday.

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SotoodidtheyseektolearnmoreaboutthechildhoodofAbrahamandthedeathofCain,aboutwhichnothingissaidintheBible.Tofindtheseanswers,therabbis
searchednotonlyintheblacklettersoftherevealedTorah,butinthewhitelettersofthehiddenTorahaswell.
Remarkably,thedesiretoexplicateeveryhiddentruthintheTorahgavebirthtoarichlegendarytradition,revealedinfragmentsscatteredthrougheveryperiodof
Jewishliterature.Ultimately,detailedaccountsofheavenandhellemerge,creatingafantasticgeography.HerethecaveofMachpelahissidebysidewiththeGarden
ofEden,whilethehornoftheramthatAbrahamsacrificedinplaceofIsaacwillbeblownbyElijahattheEndofDays.Whatemergesisalegendarychain,linking
togetherallofthegenerations.YethowisitpossiblethatthesamerabbiswhoreveredtheTorahastheliteralwordofGodgavethemselvestheastonishingfreedom
tochangetheverybiblicaltexttheyhallowed?
TheanswerliesintheuniquenatureofthedualtraditionsoftheWrittenTorahandtheOralTorah.TheformersetsdownthebindingcovenantbetweenGodand
Israel,aswellastheprimarymythsandlegends.ButitisaccompaniedbytheOralLaw,anoraltraditionasancientasthewrittenone,whichcommentson,interprets,
andoftenembellishestheoriginaltext,intheprocesstransformingit.Bothtraditionswereregardedasequallyvalid,bothstemmingfromGodatMountSinai.Asone
legendputsit,duringthedayGoddictatedtheTorahtoMoses,andatnightHeexplainedittohim.Thusthelegendarytraditionthatemergesinthepostbiblical
literaturefindsitsbasisinthisOralLaw,attributingeveryassertion"toMosesatMountSinai."Thisresultedinanexceptionallyrichliterarytradition,spanningboth
sacredandsecularliteratures,withcountlesslinksbetweeneveryphaseofthetradition.
Thismethodoftransformationcanbeidentifiedasthemidrashicmethod,inwhichtherabbisnotonlydrewuponexistingoraltraditions,butactivelysoughtoutnew
meaningsandinterpretationsofthesacredtext.TheserabbiniccommentariesandlegendswerefirstcollectedintheBabylonianandJerusalemTalmuds,andinthe
multitudeofmidrashiccollections.LaterthesesamelegendswerefurthertransformedinthekabbalisticeraandinmedievalJewishfolklore.Theyunderwentyet
anotherphaseintheirdevelopmentduringthehasidicperiod,andyetanotherduringtheeraofmodernJewishliterature.
ThusJewishliteratureisverymuchlikeanarcheologicaldig,witheverygenerationbuiltonthepreviousone.ThusHasidicliteratureisbuiltontheKabbalistic,andthe
KabbalisticisbuiltontherabbinicliteratureoftheTalmudandMidrash.AndatthebedrockofallJewishliteratureistheHebrewBible,especiallythefirstfivebooks
oftheTorah.Thishascreatedaremarkablyunifiedtradition,despitebeingdrawnfrombothsacredandsecularsources,andcomingfromfarflungrealms.
Itisboththatcontinuityanddiversitythattheseessaysseektodiscuss,aswellastoidentifytheprimarygenresofJewishliteratureandthenatureof

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theliterarydevelopmentthattookplace.Thefirstsectionofthisbook,''TheAncientModels,"presentstheprinciplesofthemidrashicmethod,outlinesthe
developmentofthelegendarytradition,anddiscussesthetoolsdevelopedforinterpretationofthesesacredtexts,textsthatpermittedmultipleinterpretations,oftenof
acontradictorynature,whichwereallregardedaslegitimate.
ThesecondsectionexaminesthefolktraditionandconsiderstwospecifictypesofJewishfolktales,thefairytaleandthetaleofthesupernatural.Sotooarethe
negativeimplicationsofthekeylegendofLilithdiscussed,incontrasttothepositiverolemodelofferedbyEve.
Thethirdsectionconsidersthemythicelementsdisplayedintheseworks.ThereisanattempttodefinethemythologyofJudaism,aswellasthelegendaryaspectof
theJewishmysticaltradition,andthepsychologicalimplicationsoftheprimarymotifofthequestthatsopervadestheJewishlegendarytradition.
ThefinalsectionconsiderstheinfluenceofRabbiNachmanofBratslavintheformationofamodernliterarytradition,discussestheroleoftheancientmodelsinthe
creationofamodernJewishliterature,andexaminesspecificJewishthemesandmotifsfoundinavarietyofmodernJewishtexts.
Throughout,thekeyprinciplesofthemidrashicmethodcanbeseentoserveeachnewliterarygeneration,althoughthefocusandintentoftheauthorsmaychange
considerably,especiallyaboutwhetherthetextscreatedareregardedassacredorsecular.TheseprinciplesmakeitpossibletorecognizehowJewishliteraturehas
followedapathestablishedveryearlyinthetradition,andhowithasremainedtruetothatpathevenasittransformedthatverytraditionwhile,atthesametime,
preservingit.
Iwouldliketonotethefollowingpersonalacknowledgments:Tomyeditor,CynthiaRead,forherconsistentencouragementandsupporttoMurielJorgensen,forher
valuableeditingofthemanuscripttomywife,Tsila,forherpatienceovertheyearstheseessayswerewrittenandtoDovNoyandEdnaHechaloftheIsraelFolktale
Archives,whohavedonemorethananyoneelsetokeepJewishfolklorealiveandtothefollowing,whoseassistancemadethecompletionofthisbookpossible:Dina
AbramovitchofYIVO,JenniferAccardo,RabbiTsviBlanchard,MaryBethBranigan,MarcBregman,DanielBreslauer,DeborahBrodie,thelateRabbiShlomo
Carelebach,ClaytonCarlson,MichaelCastro,EllenChodosh,RobertA.Cohn,SarahBlacherCohen,JosephDan,LayaFirestoneSeghi,EllenFrankel,Jeremy
Garber,PinhasGiller,ReuvenGoldfarb,RabbiJamesStoneGoodman,thelateRobertGordis,DavidGreen,JoelGrishaver,EdnaHechal,AronHirtManheimer,
RabbiTerrenceJones,RodgerKamenetz,theKhanemfamily,LeahKramer,ArthurKurzweil,RabbiYosefLanda,CharlesLarson,EllenLevineandDianaFinchof
theEllenLevineLiteraryAgency,thelateRabbiZviMagence,DanielMatt,DonnyMaseng,DavidMeltzer,RabbiAbrahamEzraMillgram,thelateEugeneMurrary,
GedalyaNigal,

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DovNoy,ArielleNorthOlson,ClarenceOlson,CynthiaOzick,thelateRaphaelPatai,BarbaraRaznick,StevenRowan,LindaRobbins,BarbaraRush,Marc
Saperstein,thelateGershomScholem,PeninnahSchram,HenrySchvey,CharlesSchwartz,MaurySchwartz,NathanB.Schwartz,RabbiZalmanSchachter
Shalomi,DanSharon,AlizaShenhar,ByronSherwin,thelateMortonSmith,Y.DavidShulman,TedSolotaroff,IdaStack,MaryAnnSteiner,SteveStern,Rabbi
JeffreyStiffman,MichaelStone,JohnSwanson,MichaelSwartz,RabbiSusanTalve,ShlomoVinner,RuthWaxman,RabbiGershonWinkler,JaneWilliamson,the
lateYehudaYaari,andEliYassif.IalsowishtoacknowledgetheUniversityofMissouriSt.Louis,whichprovidedresearchleavesthatassistedinthecompletionof
thisbook.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Someoftheseessays,inearlierversions,werepreviouslypublishedinthefollowingjournalsandanthologies,towhoseeditorsgratefulacknowledgmentismade:
"ReimaginingtheBible"inResponse.
"TheAggadicTradition"inJudaismandinOriginsofJudaism,VolumeI,Part3,editedbyJacobNeusner(NewYorkandLondon:GarlandPublishing,1990).
"ToolsofInterpretation"inAgada.
"OnJewishFairyTales"inTheMeltonJournal.
"MermaidandSiren:ThePolarRolesofLilithandEve"inTheSagarinReview.
"JewishTalesoftheSupernatural"inJudaism.
"TheMythologyofJudaism"inTheSeductivenessofJewishMyth:ChallengeorResponse,editedbyS.DanielBreslauer(Albany:SunyPress:1997).
PartI,"TheQuestfortheLostPrincess"inJudaismandinOpeningtheInnerGates:NewPathsinKabbalahandPsychology,editedbyEdwardHoffman
(Boston:Shambhala:1995),andinTheFiftyEighthCentury:AJewishRenewalSourcebook,editedbyShohamaHarrisWiener(Northvale,N.J.:JasonAronson,
1996).PartII,"TheQuestforJerusalem"inJudaism.
"RabbiNachmanofBratslav:ForerunnerofModernJewishLiterature"inJudaism.

Pagexiv

"S.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer:ModernMastersoftheAggadah"inJewishFrontier.
"ModernJewishLiteratureandtheAncientModels"inMidstream.
Sectionsof"TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics"appearedinTheForward("ATroveofJewishMysticalTales"),Parabola("SpiritPossessioninJewishLore"),and
Tikkun("TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics").ThecompleteessaywaspublishedasTheDanielK.KoslandMemorialLecture(SanFrancisco:TheCongregation
Emanu'el,1997).
SomeoftheseessaysarereprintedfromthefollowingbooksbyHowardSchwartz:
FromGatestotheNewCity:ATreasuryofModernJewishTales:
"ReimaginingtheBible,""TheAggadicTradition,""RabbiNachmanofBratslav:ForerunnerofModernJewishLiterature,""ModernJewishLiteratureandtheAncient
Models,""S.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer:ModernMastersoftheAggadah,''and"ToolsofInterpretation."ReprintedbypermissionofJasonAronson
Inc.
FromElijah'sViolin&OtherJewishFairyTales:
"OnJewishFairyTales."ReprintedbypermissionofOxfordUniversityPress.
FromLilith'sCave:JewishTalesoftheSupernatural:
"JewishTalesoftheSupernatural."ReprintedbypermissionofOxfordUniversityPress.
FromGabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales:
"TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics."ReprintedbypermissionofOxfordUniversityPress.
"TheStoryofLilithandEve"byJakovLindisreprintedfromTheStovebyJakovLindwiththepermissionofSheepMeadowPress.Copyright1983JakovLind.
"TheSacredGoat"isreprintedfromTalesoftheHasidimbyMartinBuberwiththepermissionofSchockenbooks.Copyright1947bySchockenBooksInc.

Page1

PARTI
THEANCIENTMODELS

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One
ReimaginingtheBible
Thereisagreatparadoxandmysteryatthecoreofrabbinicliterature.Ontheonehandtheancientrabbis,theauthorsoftheTalmudandMidrash,firmlybelievedthat
theTorahthefirstfivebooksoftheBiblehadbeendictatedbyGodtoMosesonMountSinai,thateverywordandletteroftheToraheventhecrownsofthe
lettersweremeaningful,andthattheTorahcontainedalltruth.Ontheotherhand,theydidnothesitatetoembellish,retell,reimagine,orevenradicallychangethe
storiesoftheTorah.Howisitpossiblethattherabbis,whohadthegreatestpossiblereverenceforthetextoftheTorah,permittedthemselvesthiskindofliterary
license?
Theanswerliesintheexistenceofdualsacredtraditions,bothofwhichweresaidtohavebeenreceivedbyMosesatMountSinai.ForMosesissaidtohave
receivedtwoTorahs:theWrittenTorahandtheOralTorah,eachinextricablylinkedtotheother.OnemidrashrecountsthatGoddictatedtheTorahtoMosesduring
theday,andatnightHeexplainedittohim.1
Indeed,therewassuchanoraltradition,whichwasnotwrittendownuntillongafterthedestructionoftheSecondTemple,whenitbecameapparentthatitwould
otherwisebelost.ThatishowthetwoTalmuds,theBabylonianTalmudandtheJerusalemTalmud,cametobewritten.Itiscertainlytruethatmanyofthelegends
foundintheTalmudareofancientorigin,2 butitisalsoapparentthattherabbisdidnotlimitthemselvestotheoraltraditiontheyhadreceivedtheycontinuedtoadd
toitextensively,andintheprocesslegendsemergedthatarearadicaldeparturefromthebiblicaltext.

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OnegoodexampleofthiskindofmidrashicrevisionofthetextisfoundinseverallatemidrashimabouttheAkedah,theBindingofIsaac.3 Inthebiblicalaccountin
Genesis22,AbrahamisabouttoslayIsaac,when,atthelastminute,theangeloftheLordtellshim,Laynotthyhanduponthelad,neitherdothouanythingunto
him(Gen.22:12).ItisclearfromthetextthatIsaacwasnotsacrificed.ButtheselatemidrashimturntotheendofGenesis22,whereAbrahamreturneduntohis
youngmen(Gen.22:19)wherethereisnomentionofIsaac,and,notingIsaac'sabsence,theyofferamidrashicrevisionoftheoriginaltale,inwhichAbrahamdoes
sacrificeIsaac,andIsaac'ssoulascendstoheaven.ThereheisshownallofParadise,and,insomeversions,studiesforthreeyearsintheheavenlyAcademyofShem
andEber,whereheistaughtallthemysteriesoftheTorah.Finally,afterthreeyearsinParadise,Isaac'ssoulreturnstothisworldandhecomesbacktolife,having
beenresurrected:4
"Whenthebladetouchedhisneck,thesoulofIsaacfledanddeparted,butwhenheheardGod'svoicefrombetweenthetwoangels,sayingtoAbraham'Laynotthinehandupon
thelad'(Gen.22:12),hissoulreturnedtohisbody,andAbrahamsethimfree,andIsaacstooduponhisfeet.AndIsaacknewthatinthiswaythedeadinthefuturewillbebrought
tolife.Hespokeandsaid:'Blessedartthou,OLord,whoquickensthedead.'"

ThisisaradicalandprobablyChristianinfluencedlegend.5 ThethreeyearsIsaac'ssoulissaidtohavespentinParadisestronglyechoestheresurrectionofJesuson
thethirdday.Thisandamultitudeofotherrabbiniclegendsdemonstratetheextrememidrashiclicensetherabbisfeltthattheywerepermittedtodrawuponinthe
nameoftheOralTradition.Theselegendsareknownasaggadot(singular:aggadah),aparticularformofJewishlegendthatappearsintheTalmudandlaterbiblical
elaborationsknownastheMidrash.6 BecausetherabbisthoughtthattheanswerstoallinquiriescouldbefoundintheBible,andespeciallyinthefirstfivebooks
knownastheTorah,7 thewholeethicalsystemoftheJewsdependedontheinterpretationoftheseparticulartexts.And,perhapsinevitably,constantmeditationof
thesesamelawsandlegendsledtherabbistoinventresolutionstotheincompletenarrativesandtodiscoverthemeaningoftheobscurepassagesthatarefound,in
particular,intheearlybooksoftheBible.Theysoughttoreduce,forexample,theguiltofEvethatresultedfromthesinoftheFall,ortoshedlightonthechildhoodof
Abraham,thepatriarchwhowasthefirsttohaveperceptionthattherewasonlyoneGod.Forclues,therabbissearchedinthedetailsofthegiventext,andsince
thereoftenwaslittletogoon,theconclusionsdrawninthesecasestendedtoreflecttheircreatorsasmuchastheyresolvedtheunfinishedtale.
AnotherexampleoftheaggadicmidrashicmethodconcernsEnoch,aboutwhomtheBiblesaysonlyAndEnochwalkedwithGod,andhewasnot,forGodtook
him(Gen.5:24).Thisstatement,inthemidstofagenea

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logicallist,distinguishesEnochfromtheothers,aboutwhomitissaid,"Andhedied."Butsinceeventheslightestvariationinbiblicalphrasingwastakentohave
profoundsignificance,extensiveconclusionsweredrawnfromtheunusualstatementabouthisdeath.Enochcametobedescribedasoneofthefewrighteousmenin
theevilgenerationprecedingtheFlood,whowastakenupintoParadiseatGod'scommandandtaughtthesecretsofheaven.Thenhewasreturnedtoearth,to
instructmen,andfinallyhewastakenbackintoheaven,wherehewastransformedintothefieryangelMetatron,whobecametheheavenlyscribe,theattendantofthe
ThroneofGlory,theprinceofthetreasuriesofheaven,therulerandjudgeofallthehostsofangels,andexecutoroftheDivinedecreesonearthquiteapromotion
forafigurewhoappearsinonlyabriefpassageintheBible.8
AstheexamplesofIsaacandEnochmakeapparent,thisimaginativeopeningoutofbiblicalexegesiswasutilizedwithremarkablefreedom,underthecircumstances.
Forinthesepostbiblicallegendswefindaliteraturethatfloweredundersomeofthemoststringentrestrictionseverdevisedbymen.Afterall,thepurposeofmany
midrashimwasnotprimarilyliterarytheywereanattempttosubstantiateapointoftheLaw,clarifyacontradictioninthebiblicaltext,orofferananalogy.LikeAdne
Sadehamidrashiccreaturewhowasbelievedtohavebeencreatedbeforeman,andwhowasboundtotheearthbyhislongnavelcordandthuscouldmoveno
fartherthanitreachedthelegendsoftheMidrashhadtoremainlinkedtothebiblicalversesthatservedasprooftexts.
IneachgenerationithasbeenthepracticeoftheJewishpeopletoreturntotheBibleforguidanceinbothethicalandspiritualmatters.Theradicalchangesinculture
andenvironmentthattheyexperiencedovertheagesmadeitnecessarytointerpretthebiblicallawssothattheywouldbeapplicabletotheirexistence.ThustheBible,
andspecificallytheTorah,isnotonlythecovenantbetweenthepeopleofIsraelandGod,9 butitisalsothesourceoftheprimarymythsofthecultureandthebedrock
forallcommentary,bothinthehalakhic,orlegal,realm,andintheaggadic,orlegendary,realm.Indeed,itisnotdifficulttounderstandwhyallsubsequentsacredtexts
existintheshadowoftheHolyScriptures.
ItisgenerallyacknowledgedthatsomeofthenarrativesinGenesispreservemythsthatcanbetracedbackatleastfourthousandyears,andprobablymore.The
compositionofthesemythswasbelievedtohavebeenbegunapproximatelythreethousandyearsago.OncetheScriptureswerecanonized,theBookwasregarded
asclosed.EvidencegatheredbybiblicalscholarsindicatesthatthetextsoftheoldestbookoftheBible,Genesis,arelikelyreworkingsofearliertexts,withsubsequent
interpolations.Thesescripturaltextshavebeenhandeddown,essentiallyunchanged,sincetherabbiniccouncilatYavneharound90C.E.,althoughunshaken
agreementaboutthescopeofthecanonofHebrewScriptureswasnotachieveduntilthemiddleofthe2ndcenturyC.E.

Page6

OncethecanonoftheBiblewasclosed,thecreativityofthePeopleoftheBookhadnowheretoturnbutbacktotheBible.Itwasfirmlybelievedthattheanswersto
allquestionscouldbefoundthere,ifoneonlyhadsufficientbreadthanddepthofknowledgetounderstand:"Turnitandturnitoveragainandagain,foreverythingisin
it,andcontemplateit,andwaxgrayandgrowoldoverit,andstirnotfromit,foryoucannothaveanybetterrulethanthis."10
However,theneedtoupdatethemeaningoftheBibleextendednotonlytothelawsitcontainedbutalsotothestoriesthemselves.Thesestoriesretainedtheir
immediacybecausesubsequentgenerationsgavethemselvestoprojectingthemselvesintothebiblicalarchetypesandrelivingthemythsinthemselves.Inthiswayit
waspossiblefortheAggadahtobecomeavehicleforthepersonalandmythicexpressionsofthepeoplethatcouldthenbeabsorbedintothetradition,aswellasa
meansofpermittingthereligiontoevolve,whichitdid.Thepremisehereisthatatraditionmustcontinuallyexpanditsboundariesinordertoincorporateall
generationsatthesametime.
Sinceanentiretheologicalandlegalsystemalsodependedontheinterpretationoftheseparticulartexts,determiningtheresolutionofcertainincompletebiblical
narrativestookonextraordinaryimportance.Thus,perhapsinevitably,constantmeditationonthesesamemythsandlegendsledtherabbistoinventordiscoverin
somefashionthesolutiontotheseincompletemysteries.These,inturn,oftentookupmotifsthathadfirstappearedinearlieraggadot.InthiswaytheJewish
legendarytraditionhasreflectedaremarkablecontinuityunderlyingthestylisticdifferencesofvariousstagesintheaggadictradition,"forming,"asMartinBubersaid,"a
secondBibleoflegends,scatteredininnumerablewritings,aroundthenucleusofScripture."11
Onfirstconsideration,itistrue,theBibleseemstothoroughlyovershadowallsubsequentJewishliterature.TheBible,andinparticulartheTorah,washeldinsuch
highesteemastheliteralWordofGodthatithasbeenthefocusforpostbiblicalJewishliterature,bothsacredandsecular,untilthiscentury,muchofwhichpresents
itselfsimplyascommentaryonit.Toaremarkableextentthiscommentaryitselfisregardedassacred,sincealloralcommentaryandmuchofthelaterwritten
commentaryclaimeditssourceintheOralTorah.ThiscompaniontraditionholdsthatatthesametimeMosesreceivedtheWrittenTorah,atMountSinai,healso
receivedtheOralTorah,whichinterpretedthewrittenone.SocentralwasthisoraltraditionconsideredtobethatRabbiNehemiahisquotedassaying,"TwoTorahs
weregiven,onewrittenandoneoral."12ThisspokencommentarywasnotcommitedtowritingbutwastransmittedbywordofmouthformanycenturiesuntilJudah
haNasi,knownasRabbi,compiledandeditedtheMishnah,thecoreoftheTalmud,about200C.E.13ForathousandyearstheOralTorahremainedoral,butonly
wellaftertheBabylonianexileandthedestructionoftheSecondTempledidtherabbisagreetosetdownthe

Page7

OralTorah.ThatishowtheTalmudcameintobeing.Consideringthereluctancewithwhichtheoraltraditionwascommittedtowriting,itisunderstandablethatthe
rabbishadtoseekoutaforminwhichtopreservethelawsandlegendsthatconstituteit.Thisstructurewasfromthefirstanefforttorecordthediscussionsofthe
rabbis,intheformofwhatappearstobebutinfactisreallynotverbatimtext.Here,andintheliteraturethatfollowed,thereareconstantremindersthatthewords
ofthespeakerareinadirectlinewiththosehandeddownfromSinai:"GoandtellthemIhaveatraditionfromRabbanYohananbenZakkai,whohearditfromhis
teacher,andhisteacherfromhisteacher,andhisteacherfromhisteacher,reachingfromMosesatMountSinai."Indeed,thisdirectlinetoMosesisstateddefinitively
atthebeginningofPirkeAvot:"MosesreceivedtheTorahonSinai,andhandeditdowntoJoshuaJoshuatotheElderstheElderstotheProphetsandtheProphets
handeditdowntothemenoftheGreatAssembly."14
SomuchimportancewasplacedontheOralLawthatitwassoonbelievedthattheprimarywork,theTorah,couldnotbeunderstoodwithoutit.Thisraisesthe
burningquestionofwhetherornottherabbiswereawarethattheyweretransformingthetradition.Onepossibleanswercanbefoundinanimportantlegendthat
mightbeconsideredasecretconfessionoftherabbis:15
WhenMosesascendedMountSinaitoreceivetheTorah,hedidnotstopatthetopofthemountain,butGodsentdownacloud,whichMosesentered,andthecloudcarriedhim
aloft,allthewayintoheaven.AshewasascendingintoParadise,theangelssawhimenteringtheirrealm,wherenoneofthelivingwerepermitted,andtheysoughttothrowhim
out.MosesbecameveryfrightenedandcalledouttoGod,forhewasafraidthattheangelswouldconsumehimwiththeirfierybreath.AndGodreacheddownandpulledMoses
allthewayuptothehighestheaven,totheThroneofGlory.ThereMosesfoundhimselffacetofacewithGod,andhesawthatGodwasaffixingcrownstothelettersofthe
Torah.AndMosessaidtoGod,"Whatareyoudoing?"AndGodreplied,"IamaddingthesecrownstothelettersoftheTorah,forinthefuturetherewillbeamanbornwhose
namewillbeAkibabenJoseph,andhewillinterpreteverycrownandletteroftheTorah."Mosessaid,"Iwouldliketoseehim."AndGod,forwhomnothingisimpossible,said,
"Turnaround."SoMosesturnedaround,andhefoundhimselfathousandyearsinthefuture,seatedatthebackofRabbiAkiba'sclassroom,andRabbiAkibawasexplaininga
pointoftheLaw.Moseslistenedcarefully,butthetruthisthathecouldn'tfollowthediscussion.Finally,astudentraisedhishandandsaid,''RabbiAkiba,wheredoweknowthis
form?"AndRabbiAkibasaid,"WeknowthisfromMosesatMountSinai."16

HereMosesissentbyGodtositintheclassroomofRabbiAkiba.ThefactthatAkibalivedoverathousandyearsafterMosespresentsnoproblems

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intheAggadah,wheretimeissubordinatetothewillofGod.MosesfindsAkiba'steachingsdifficulttofollowandisastonishedwhenAkibaquotesMosesasthe
sourceofhisteaching.Itseemspossibletoreadinthislegendtheimplicitbeliefthatthelatergenerationshadsucceededincontributingtoanunderstandingofthe
Torah,sothatMoses,thepredecessor,mustturntohissuccessor,RabbiAkiba,foracompleteunderstandingofthelawthathehimselftransmitted.
Indeed,thereisarelatedrabbinictraditionthatwhileMosesdidreceivealloftheorallawatMountSinai,includingallfutureinterpretationsoftheTorah,hedidnot
writeallofitdown,butleftsomeofittobediscoveredbythefuturegenerations.17Thisseemslikeaclearacknowledgmentthattheveryessenceoftherabbinic
commentaryontheTorahrequiredacreativeprocessofdiscovery.
Inmanyways,then,thepostbiblicalwrittentraditionmaybeseenasanextensionoftheoraltradition:insteadofregardingwhathadbeensetdowninwritingasfixed,
latercommentatorsregardedthetaleitselfasmalleable,asifasinglestorywerebeingretoldandembellishedovermanygenerations.Therecanbenodoubtthatthe
acceptanceofthepracticebywhichitwaspossibletoembellishthelegendsoftheAggadahandcompletethebiblicalepisodesderivedfromthenatureoftheoral
tradition.Suchatraditionmustcometorecognizethatnomatterhowpreciselyataleisretold,thereisaninevitableandnecessaryprocessofrevisionthattakesplace
eachtimeitisrepeated.Evenoncethetalehasbeenperfectedinsomeform,minordetailsofthenarrativewillcontinuetoevolve.Sinceaconsiderableperiodelapsed
beforethelegendsoftheoraltraditionwererecordedintheTalmudandtheMidrash,theeffectsofthisprocesscannotbeunderestimated.Butbeingamongthe
world'sgreatstorytellers,theJewsrecognizedthatamasterstorytellercannotbutrecastthestoryinhisownvisionandstyle.JustasmanwasmadeinGod'simage,
sotoodothetalesamantellsnecessarilybearhisimprint.
WiththeBibleandtheTalmud,then,Jewishliteratureissecurelyrootedintwothoroughlysacredtexts.18TheTalmudconsistsofboththecoreofrabbiniclaw,
knownastheHalakhah,andthelegendsoftherabbis,knownastheAggadah.TheHalakhah,ascodifiedintheTalmud,servedasthebasisofanelaborate
structureofcommentariesandcodespreparedbysuchmastersoftheMiddleAgesandtheRenaissanceasRashi,theTosafists,Maimonides,andJosephKaro,
formingacontinuouschainlinkedtoSinai.Legaldecisionsandinterpretationswerealsotransmittedbyresponsa,rabbinicrepliestoquestionsofthelawand
observance.TheresultingbodyoflawconstitutesthedefinitiveauthorityandisstillinforceamongtraditionalJews.ButintherealmoftheAggadah,additionsand
innovationscontinuedlongaftertheworkofTalmudwasbroughttoaclosearound500C.E.,atleastuntilthe12thor13thcentury.Theselatertraditionshavebeen
collectedinseveralmajoranthologies,themostimportantofwhichisthe

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multivolumedMidrashRabbah,whosemidrashimcametobewidelyregardedasapartofthelegacyoftheOralLaw.
TheaggadictraditionisuniqueintheinsightitpermitsintotheprocessoftheevolutionandembellishmentofthecentralJewishmythsandlegends.Invirtuallyevery
othermythictraditionthetransformationofthecentralnarrativestookplaceearlyintheculture'sdevelopment,andthistransformationwaslimitedexclusivelytothe
oralphaseoftheculturethatprecededthewrittenphase.Anysubsequentembellishmentinthewrittentraditionofthesecultureswaslimitedtotherealmofself
consciousworksofart,suchastheplaysofSophoclesandEuripides.Incontrast,theJewishlegendarytraditioncontinuedtoactivelydevelopitslegendslongafter
theoriginalversionshadalreadybeensetdowninwriting.ThisdistinctionconstitutesoneoftheprimaryunresolvedparadoxesoftheJewishreligionhow,onone
hand,therabbisdidnotignoreeventheslightestwordoftheTorah,noteventhecrownofaletter,asinthestoryofMosesandAkibayetatthesametimethese
sacredtextsweresubjecttotheoftenradicalrevisionoftheaggadictradition,whichtendedtoapproachthemasiftheywerestilloraltalesandhadneverbeenset
downinwritingatall.
Ultimately,theseseeminglypolartendencieswereresolvedinthecreationofaremarkablyreverentliterature,inwhicheverydetailhasbeencarefullyweighedwith
respecttoitsimplicationsfortheprimarytenetsofJudaism,andespeciallyastothenecessityofupholdingtheparamounttenetofmonotheism.Itisasifastoryhad
beentoldandtheonesresponsibleforretellingithadbeengiventhefreedomtoembellishitastheypleased,withinthelimitationsofverypreciseanddemandingrules.
Theserulesholdthatalladditionsmustbedemonstratedtobelinkedtotheoriginaltext(thustheneedforprooftexts)thatalladditionsmustclarifyandcomplete
missingelementsoftheoriginalthattheymustremaintruetothereverentspiritoftheoriginalandthatthetoneand,toacertainextent,thestyle,mustbeconsistent
withtheoriginal.
TheAggadahoftheTalmudandMidrashandthelegendsoftheKabbalahandofthehasidimareuniqueamongthesacredliteraturesoftheworld,sincevirtually
everyphaseintheirdevelopmentcanbetracedineachsubsequentgeneration.Andthisevolutioncontinuesintosecularliteratureintheformofthefolkloreofan
exiledandoppressedpeoplewhoalsofoundsolaceinreimaginingtheBibleandthesubsequenthistoryoftheirholymen,martyrs,andgreatrabbis.Althoughthestyle
ofpresentationofthesefolklegendstendstobelessdidacticandmorenarrativethanthatoftheAggadah,thelegendsthemselvesarecutfromthesamecloth.
Duringtheprocessofthisaggadicevolution,elementsoftheimagination,andultimatelyofliteraryconsciousness,workedtheirwayintothemidrashicandfolk
traditionswithremarkablefreedom.Itispossibletodetectanincreasinglyconsciousattitudetowardtheuseofliterarydevices,styles,andtechniques.Theearliest
writtenmidrashimwerecastinthestyle

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oftheHalakhahterseandjudicialinstyleandcontent.Littlebylittle,however,thelatermidrashimbegantobreakoutofthisepigrammaticstructureandrediscover
thenarrativeexpansivenessoftheBibleandtheoraltradition.
UnlikethefablesofAesop,inwhichthemoralisstatedattheendofthefable,themidrashicmethodbeginswiththebiblicalpassagethatisbeinginterpreted,usingit
asaspringboardfortheimagination.Atthesametime,withsuchintenseconcentrationonarelativelyshorttext,theimaginationsoftherabbiswereinspiredto
completetheoftenunfinishedtalesoftheTorah.Asgenerationfollowedgeneration,alargerpicturebecameapparentfromtheAggadah,avisioninwhichimagewas
linkedtoimage,themetotheme,metaphortometaphor,untilfinallylegendwaslinkedtolegendinawaythatsuggestedthepossibilityofanunbrokenbridgeof
legendsbuiltacrossthegapsinthebiblicalnarrativesandchronology.Whatultimatelywasbeingcreatedwasakindofmegamythofallcreationevenofthetime
priortoexistencethroughalloftimeuntiltheEndofDays.
LinkingtogetherthedisparatelegendsisthecentralsymboloftheJewishtradition,theTorahitself.Itisasymbolnotonlywhatitcontainstheessentialsumofall
Jewishlawandlorebutalsoasymbolpersonifiedinmanyways,whichisreceivedanewbyeverygeneration,likeaneternalflamehandeddownfromfathertoson.
TheTorahisalsodirectlyequatedwiththeTreeofLife,somuchsothatthepassagefromProverbsstatingthatItisaTreeofLifetothosewhoclingtoit(Prov.
3:18)becameinextricablyidentifiedwiththeTorah.
ThatbiblicalfiguresintheAggadahhadbecomeamodelforallofJewishhistory,intowhichtheJewishpeopleprojectedtheexperiencesoftheirvariedhistory,was
recognizedbyLouisGinzberginhissevenvolumemasterpiece,TheLegendsoftheJews.19Ginzberggatheredtogetheragreatmanyofthemidrashimandwove
themintoacontinuousnarrativeoftheirown,followingtheorderoftheTorah.Insodoingheaccomplishedforourgenerationwhatwastheunspokengoalofthe
aggadictraditionfromthefirst:towritetheBookoftheBook,adistortedmirrorimageoftheoriginalthatreflectsitsbiblicalsourceandyetisalsoaseparatecreation
initself.Indeed,therewereearlierattemptstocollecttheexistinglegendarytextsinanthologiesdatingfromlateantiquity,suchasTheBookofJubilees,Seferha
Yashar,PirkedeRabbiEliezer,andTheChroniclesofJerahmeel.ButGinzberg'sopusmustberecognizedasamidrashicepicofunparalleledmagnitude.
Theprimarypurposeoftheaggadictradition,then,wastotransmitandreinterpretthepastforeachsuccessivegeneration.Thispurposehasatitsrootaloveforthe
pastandadesiretocarryitintothefuture,tokeepitalive.Thebiblicaltale,oncetold,wasfoundtobetrueforallgenerationsitwasopentoreinterpretationaswell
asretellingineachgeneration.TheJewshavelongbeenawanderingpeople,collectingtalesthattransformtheirownexperiencesintoacommontradition.Thisis,by
definition,what

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traditionisreceivingandtransmittinganewwhathasbeenreceived.Inmanywaysthislegendaryliteraturenotonlyisapeculiarkindofscripturalcommentary,but
alsoconsidersthepastfromtheperspectiveofthefuture,searchingfororaclesthathavesincebeenfulfilledandforcluesthatwillhelpprovidesafepassageintothe
future.
Thusinretellingandrewritingthesetales,therabbisresponsibleforthemidrashimwerelikejewelerswhopolishedanimmenseandmanyfacetedjewel.Each
generationturneditsgazetoanewfacetofthejewel,whosefacetsareinfinite.Still,theywerealwayscertainthatitwasbutasinglejeweltheysaw,whoseessential
structurewaseternalandunchanging.

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Two
TheAggadicTradition
I
ThecontinuityofJewishliteratureextendsacrosstheentireperiodfromthebiblicaleratothepresent,unbroken.ThelegendsoftheBiblearethefoundationonwhich
thistraditionhasbeenbuilt,eachgenerationupontheprecedingone.ThebooksoftheApocryphaandPseudepigrapha1 aremodeledonthebooksoftheHebrew
Bible,fromwhichtheywereexcluded,andpurporttobecontemporaryaccountsofbiblicalaccountsofbiblicalevents,althoughtheywerewrittenafterward.The
legendsofrabbinicliterature,knownastheAggadah,assumeabiblicalcontextwithinwhichtheyelaborateonunfinishedaspectsofthebiblicalnarratives,suchasthe
evilintentionsofthebuildersoftheTowerofBabel,thechildhoodofAbraham,orhowKingDavidevadedtheAngelofDeath.Sincetheseepisodesarenotreported
intheBible,theaggadistssoughtoutthesesolutionsthemselves,workingontheassumptionthatthemissinginformationisimplicitinthebiblicalnarrative.Accordingto
tradition,theseelaborationsbelongtotheOral,orUnwritten,Torah,whichwastransmittedonMountSinaiatthesametimeastheWrittenTorahandisregardedas
beingpartofthelegacythatMosesreceivedduringfortydaysandnights.But,aswillbecomeapparent,theyare,primarily,thecreationsofthelongingand
imaginationofsucceedinggenerations,eachofwhichcontributedtotheseJewishmyths,sothattheysubsequentlycontinuedtoevolve.Theformandstyleofthe
legendsoftheearlyrabbinicliteratureserveasmodelsforthelegendsofthelaterabbinicliteratureandtheKabbalah,whichalsoemergeoutofacontextofbiblical
commentary.2 Asaresult,apatternwasestab

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lishedinwhichsubsequentgenresofposttalmudicliteraturetendtowardagenerallyexegeticalmodel.Thisremainedthecaseuntiltheappearanceoflatermidrashim,
suchasthosefoundinPirkedeRabbiEliezer(8thcentury)andSeferhaYashar(16thcentury),whichutilizeanarrativemodemorelikethatoftheBiblewhile
incorporatingmaterialderivedlargelyfrompriorrabbiniccollections,suchastheTalmudandamultitudeofmidrashictexts.
TheexegeticalformoftheMidrashdoessomewhatinhibitthenarrativefreedomoftheaggadictraditionitrelates,replacingthisfreedomwithauniquestructure
capableofassimilatingawiderangeofmaterial,frommattersofinterpretationtoimaginativereportsaboutimmensejewelsseenatsea.3 Thisformpermits,aswell,
thedistinctivevoicesofindividualrabbistoemerge.Yetwhatevernarrativeinhibitionsareinherentintheaggadicformat,theyareultimatelysetfreeinthefolklorethat
flourishedintheMiddleAgesandwasthefirstsecularJewishliterature.Heretheformofthefolktaleswasblendedwiththeperspective,butnotthestyle,ofthe
legendsoftheTalmudandMidrash,choosinginsteadaflowingstylelikethatofastoryteller.Thisfolklorestyleisalsofarfreerandlessselfconsciousand,ofcourse,
lesspolishedthanthebiblicalmodel,whichoftenreadsasifengravedinstone.
Thelegendsandstylesofallofthesepreviousperiodsthebiblical,aggadic,kabbalistic,folkloric,andhasidicareutilizedasmodelsbymodernJewishauthorssuch
asS.Y.Agnon,M.J.Berditchevsky,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer.Theseauthors,andmanyothermodernJewishwriters,havediscoverednewwaystoembellish
andutilizetheoldmyths,whichseemtoretaintheirprimalpowernomatterhowmanytimestheyareretold.Oftentheseauthorsdrawonamodernstylisticand
intellectualperspectivewhiledoingthis,whichinitselfbringsthelegendsintoanewdimension.Theresultisaliteraturethatisasmuchaproductoftheaggadic
traditionasarethelegendsoftheMidrashandthemythsoftheKabbalah.Forwhilethesemodernauthorsutilizethesetraditionalformsandgenresinmarkedly
individualways,theessentialvisionoftheAggadahremainsunchanged,andingeneraltheyretainatonethatisessentiallyreverent.
Withsomenotableexceptions,theprocessoftheevolutionofamythorlegendcontinueseachtimeitisretold.Thereisevenevidenceofthisevolutionaryprocess
takingplaceattheearlieststagesofJewishliterature,involvingmythsandlegendsofGenesis.
Inmostculturesthetransitionfromanoraltoawrittentraditionwasadramaticchangethattendedtoregardthewrittenmaterial,afteronlyafewgenerations,as
sacredandeternalinitswrittenform.Theinevitabilityoftheevolutionofmyth,whichispresumedinanoraltradition,wasreplacedwithabeliefinthepermanenceof
thewrittenform.SuchabeliefalsocharacterizedtheJewishattitudetowardthebooksoftheBible.Yet,paradoxically,theoralethicthatenabledmythic
transformationstotake

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placewasalsoretained.Thisapparentcontradictionwasresolvedbytherecognitionoftwoseparatebutrelatedtraditions:thewrittenandtheunwritten.Whilethe
textoftheWrittenTorahwasfixed,thatoftheOralTorahwasnot.Itwasthisconsciousretentionoftheoraldimension,then,thatdistinguishedtheJewishreligious
andliterarytraditionsfromothersandwasresponsibleforcreatingasituationinwhichitremainedpossibleforthecentralmythstocontinueevolvingevenafterthey
hadbeenwrittendown.
Eventually,someoftheoraltraditionswerepreservedinwriting,usuallywhentheywereindangerofotherwisebeinglost,ortopreventtheformationofcompeting
sects,eachclaimingthattheLawastheyhadreceiveditwastheauthenticversion.Asaresult,itispossibletofollowthismythicevolutionintexts,althoughmuch
scholarlydebatecontinuesastotheirprecisedating.4 Arepresentativeexampleofthekindofevolutionthattakesplacebetweenthebiblicalsourceanditsaggadic
retellingisthelegendoftheCityofLuz.TherearefourpassingreferencestoLuzintheBible,butitisthefirstonethatsuppliesitsattributesasaplaceuniqueinthe
worldoneoftheGatesofHeavensforitwastherethatJacobhadthedreamoftheladderthatreachedintoheavenwithangelsascendinganddescendingonit
(Gen.28:12).TheremainingbiblicalreferencestoLuzdonotshedadditionallightonthenatureofthecity.But,intheTalmud,Luzislinkedtoamythofacityof
immortals:
Ithasbeentaught:ThatistheLuzagainstwhichSennacheribmarchedwithoutdisturbingit,againstwhichNebuchadnezzarmarchedwithoutdestroyingit,andeventheAngelof
Deathhasnopermissiontopassthroughit.Butwhentheoldtherebecometiredoflife,theygooutsidethewalltodie.

TheTalmudalsoincludesalegendabouttwomenthatKingSolomonsenttothecityofLuztoescapetheAngelofDeath:
Onemorning,asKingSolomonawoke,heheardachirpingoutsidehiswindow.Hesatupinbedandlistenedcarefully,forheknewthelanguageofthebirds,andheoverheard
themsaythattheAngelofDeathhadbeensenttotakethelivesoftwoofhisclosestadvisers.KingSolomonwasstartledbythisunexpectednews,andhesummonedthetwo
doomedmen.Andwhentheystoodbeforehim,herevealedwhathehadlearnedoftheirfate.
Thetwowereterrified,andtheybeggedKingSolomontohelpthem.SolomontoldthemthattheironlyhopewastofindtheirwaytothecityofLuz.Foritwaswellknownthatthe
AngelofDeathwasforbiddentoenterthere.ThereforetheinhabitantsofLuzwereimmortalaslongastheyremainedwithinthewallsofthecharmedcity.Veryfewknewthe
secretofhowtoreachthatcity,butKingSolomonwasoneofthosewhodid.
SoitwasthatKingSolomonrevealedthesecrettothetwofrightenedmen,andtheydepartedatonce.Theywhippedtheircamelsacrossthehot

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desertallday,andatnightfalltheyfinallysawthewallsofthatfabledcity.Immortalitywasalmostwithinreachandtheyrodeasfastastheycouldtothecitygates.
Butwhentheyarrivedtheysaw,totheirhorror,theAngelofDeathwaitingforthem."Howdidyouknowtolookforushere?"theyasked.Theangelreplied:"ThisiswhereIwas
toldtomeetyou."5

NofurtherembellishmentofthislegendofacityinwhichtheinhabitantsremainimmortalisfoundintheTalmudfurtherdevelopmentappearsinGenesisRabbah.First
thebiblicalpassageaboutJacob'sdream(Gen.28:19)isquotedinthecontextofanexegeticaldiscussion,creatingalinkbetweentheLuzofJacobandthetalmudic
accountofthecitysparedtheAngelofDeath.Thenthelegendistakenonestepfurther:
RabbiAbbabarKahanasaid:"WhywasitcalledLuz?Becausewhoeverentereditblossomedforthintomeritoriousactsandgooddeedslikealuz(nuttree)."TheRabbissaid:
"Asthenuthasnomouth(opening),sonomancoulddiscovertheentrancetothetown."RabbiSimonsaid:"Anuttreestoodattheentrancetothecity.''RabbiLezarbenMerom
saidinthenameofRabbiPhinehasbenMama:"Anuttreestoodattheentranceofacavethistreewashollow,andthroughitoneenteredthecaveandthroughthecavethe
city."6

NotehowRabbiLezarembellishesadetailnewlyaddedtothetalebyRabbiSimon.Takingthenameofthetownasanuttree(analmondtree,theliteralmeaningof
luz),hepostulatesitasthesymbolofthecityandplacesitattheentrance.Whileitispossible,ofcourse,thatthisembellishmentwaspartofanearliertraditionthat
RabbiSimonwasmerelyrecalling,itappearsequallypossiblethatthedescriptionofthenuttreeatthegatesofthecityisanexampleofthekindofmythicelaboration
ofwhichwehavebeenspeaking.CertainlythefurtherdevelopmentpresentedbyRabbiLezar,quotingRabbiPhinehas,takesthismotifonestepfurther,embellishing
theroleofthenuttree:"Thistreewashollow,andthroughitoneenteredthecaveandthroughthecavethecity."
Regrettably,thisattractiveandenticingmotifofacityofimmortals,almostfairytaleinnature,wasnotdevelopedanyfurtheruntilthelatemedievalperiod,whereitis
thesubjectofseveralfolktalesaboutaquesttothecityofLuz.7 However,thenotionofaboundarythattheAngelofDeathcannotcrossdoesappearintheZohar
(II:151a),referringtotheLandofIsraelasawholeratherthantothecityofLuz:"ItistheDestroyingAngelwhobringsdeathtoallpeople,exceptthosewhodiein
theHolyLand,towhomdeathcomesbytheAngelofMercy,whoholdsswaythere."Thisgradualandmeanderingkindofdevelopmentischaracteristicofthe
aggadictradition,whoseevolutionisnot,inthisrespect,unlikethatoflivingcreatureswhathasbeentermed"organicthinking."Atthesametime,this

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makesreadingtheAggadahatreasurehuntinwhichthesekindsofgemsliescatteredeverywhereintherichmidrashicliterature.
II
DrawingontheOralLawthatMoseswassaidtohavereceivedatMountSinaialongwiththeTorah,theancientrabbisevolvedasystemofreadingbetweenthelines
oftheTorahtodiscovertheanswertoalloftheirunansweredquestions.Thesystemtheyevolvedenabledthemtofillinthegapsinthebiblicalnarrative,aswellasto
resolveapparentcontradictionsinthetext.
Forexample,onthefirstdayofCreation,Godsaid,Lettherebelight,andtherewaslight(Gen.1:3).ButitwasnotuntilthefourthdayofCreationthatGod
createdthesun,themoon,andthestars(Gen.1:16).Sowhatwasthelightofthefirstday?Therabbiswerequicktorecognizethisapparentcontradiction,andset
outtoresolveit.Inthiscase,theyconcludedthatthelightofthefirstdaywasadifferentlightthanthatofthefourthday.Theyidentifieditasaholylight,asacred
light,aprimordiallight,whichpervadedthewholeworld.ThemidrashtellsusthatinthislightitwaspossibleforAdamtoseenotonlytotheendsoftheearth,butto
theendsoftheuniverse.8
Whatwasthecluethatledtherabbistoconcludethatthelightofthefirstdaywasdifferentthanthatofthefourthday?ItcanbefoundinIsaiah30:26,whereIsaiah
appearstobespeakingaboutthetransformationsthatwilltakeplaceinthemessianicera:thelightofthemoonshallbeasthelightofthesun,andthelightofthe
sunshallbesevenfold,asthelightofthesevendays.HereIsaiahclearlydistinguishesbetweenthenormallightofthesunandthelightofthesevendaysof
creation,identifyingthelightofthelatteras"sevenfold"thatoftheformer.Thismightbeseenasakindofbiblicalmidrash,whichsetsthestagefortherabbisto
concludethatthelightofthefirstdaywasadifferentkindoflight,aprimordiallightmorepowerfulthanthesun.This,then,solvestheproblem.Ordoesit?Asinmany
suchcases,therabbinicsolutionsolvestheimmediateproblemathand,butintheprocessraisesmanynewquestions.What,forexample,wasthesourceofthelight?
Andwhathappenedtoit?Afterall,wecannolongerseetotheendsoftheuniverseevenwiththeaidofthemostpowerfulinstruments.
Again,rabbinicingenuitycomesintoplay.Asforthesourceoftheprimordiallight,somesaythatitwascastfromthelightofGod'sprayershawlwhenGodwrapped
himselfinatallitoflight.9 ThisislinkedtotheverseinPsalms,WhocoverestThyselfwithlightaswithagarment(Ps.104:2).Otherssaythatitwascastfromthe
robeoftheShekhinah.AllversionsseemtoagreethatthissacredlightoriginatedinParadise.

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Asfortheultimatefateoftheprimordiallight,thereisafriendlyrabbinicdebate,whichcontinuedfortwothousandyears.TherabbisoftheTalmudconcludedthat
afterAdamandEveatetheforbiddenfruit,GodwithdrewthelightandbroughtitbackintoParadisetosaveitfortherighteousintheworldtocome.10Thus,itsloss
wasoneoftheconsequencesofthesinofAdamandEve,alongwiththeotherpunishments,whichincludedbeingexpelledfromtheGardenofEdenandbecoming
mortal(Gen.3:1619).Butinthe18thcenturytheBaalShemTovsuggestedanotherfatefortheprimordiallight.HesaidthatGodhiditawayinthewordsofthe
Torah,whereitisknownasthehiddenlightoftheTorah.BuildingontheBaalShemTov'sidentificationofthislightwiththehiddenlightoftheTorah,RabbiNachman
ofBratslavspecificallylinksthestoriesoftheTorahwiththelegendoftheprimordiallight:
Everystoryhassomethingthatisconcealed.Whatisconcealedisthehiddenlight.TheBookofGenesissaysthatGodcreatedlightonthefirstday,thesunonthefourth.What
lightexistedbeforethesun?Thetraditionsaysthiswasspirituallight,andGodhiditforfutureuse.Wherewasithidden?InthestoriesoftheTorah.11

ThenRabbiNachmansuggeststhatwhenapersondelvesdeeplyenoughintothemeaningoftheTorah,hewillatlastreachaplacewherethehiddenlightshinesforth
inamomentofrevelation.
This,then,resolvestheproblemofthelightofthefirstday,anditmighthavebeentheendofthediscussion,butitwasnot.Rabbiniclegendgoesontotellusthat
beforeGodcompletelywithdrewtheprimordiallightfromtheworld,hesavedabitofitinsideajewel,andhegavethisjeweltoAdamandEvewhenheexpelled
themfromtheGardenofEden.Theytookthisjewelwiththem,andthelightthatshonefromwithinitremindedthemofallthattheyhadlost.
Thehistoryofthisjewel,knownastheTzohar,isasfantasticasthatoftheprimordiallightitself,andit,too,growsoutofaprobleminthetextoftheTorah.Inthis
case,theproblemtakestheformoftheword"Tzohar,"whichisfoundintheinstructionsGodgavetoNoahwhenhedirectedhimtobuildtheark.HereGodtells
NoahtoputtheTzoharintheark(Gen.6:16).BecausethewordTzoharonlyappearsintheBibleonce,ithasprovenverydifficulttodefine.Thisisquicklyapparent
ifoneexaminesavarietyofbiblicaltranslations.Tzoharissometimestranslatedasalight,sometimesasawindow,sometimesasadome:Alightshaltthoumaketo
theark,12Awindowshaltthoumaketotheark,13Makeaskylightfortheark.14Clearly,itwasintendedtorefertosomesourceoflight,and,indeed,itis
associatedwiththeword"Tzoharyim,"meaning"noon."MidrashTanhumareinterpretsthebiblicalversetomean,"Placejewelsandpreciousstonesintheark,that
theymaygiveyoulightasbrightasnoon."15Rashi

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notesthat"somesaythisTzoharwasawindowotherssayitwasapreciousstonethatgavelighttothem."Itisthislattermeaningthatgrewintothelonglegendthat
identifiedtheTzoharasajewelcontainingaremnantoftheprimordiallight,whichGodgavetoAdamandEve.Thus,weseethatthemidrashicexplanationofthe
originofthisdivinejeweldependsontheresolutionoftwoproblemsinthebiblicaltextthatconcerningthefateofthelightofthefirstdayandthatconcerningthe
meaningoftheterm"Tzohar."
OncetheglowingjeweloftheTzoharhadenteredJewishlegend,itbecamethebasisofwhatmightbecalleda"chainmidrash."Thisisamidrashthatusessomekind
ofsacredobjecttolinktogetherseveralbiblicalgenerations.OtherexamplesincludetheBookofRazielcontainingthehistoryoffuturegenerationswhichtheangel
RazielissaidtohavegiventoAdam,andthegarmentsofAdamandEve,whichweresaidtohavebeenpasseddowntoCain,Nimrod,andEsau.
InthecaseoftheTzohar,itissaidthattheglowingjewelwashandeddownbyAdamandEvetotheirsonSeth,andthatitsubsequentlyreachedEnoch,Methuselah,
Lamech,and,ofcourse,Noah.SowhenGodtoldNoah,PuttheTzoharintheark,NoahknewexactlywhatHemeant,andthusNoahhungtheTzoharfroma
beamintheark,whereitilluminatedtheark:"DuringthewholetwelvemonthsthatNoahwasinthearkhedidnotrequirethelightofthesunbydayorthelightofthe
moonatnight,buthehadapolishedgemwhichhehungup:whenitwasdimheknewthatitwasday,andwhenitshoneheknewthatitwasnight.16
Rabbiniclegendalsorecords,intypicallyscatteredfashion,howthesacredjewelreachedAbraham,Isaac,Jacob,andJoseph.TheTalmudtellsusthat"Abraham
woreaglowingstonearoundhisneck,whichheusedasanastrolabe,andwhosoeverwassickandpeeredintothatstonewashealed."17Thisaccountoffersone
versionoftheultimatefateoftheTzohar:"WhenAbrahampassedawayfromtheworld,theHolyOne,blessedbeHe,hungitonthewheelofthesun."Butother
versionsofthelegendinsistthatthepreciousjewelcontinuedtobehandeddown.AreferencetotheTzoharisperceivedwhenJoseph'sservantfindshiscupin
Benjamin'ssaddlebagsandsays,Isthisnotthecupinwhichmylorddrinketh,andwherebyindeedhedivineth?(Gen.44:5).TheexplanationisthatJoseph
discoveredthatifheputtheTzoharinthatcupandpeeredintoit,hecoulddivinethefutureaswellasinterpretdreams.Thatishowhewasabletointerpretthe
dreamsofthebutlerandthebaker,andthenthedreamsofPharaoh.Beforehisdeath,JosephhadtheTzoharplacedinhiscoffin,whichwaslaterfoundbyMoses,
withthehelpofSerahbatAsher.MosesrecoveredthejewelfromthecoffinandhungitinsidetheTabernacleoftheArk,whereitbecamethefirstNerTamid.18
Later,thejewelwassaidtohavebeenhungintheTemple,whereitremaineduntiltheTemplewasdestroyed.EventhentheTzohardoesnotdisappearfromJewish
folklore,butappearsagainandagaininthemostunexpectedplaces,asaregularmotif.

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Theprocessbywhichtherabbistransformedcontradictionsinthebiblicaltextintomythicnarrativesisafascinatingone.Certainly,themythicimpulsebehinditcannot
bedoubted.Thefollowingisaretellingofthemythofthelightofthefirstday.Itdrawsonavarietyofrabbinicsourcesandbringsthemtogetherintoasinglenarrative:
Onthefirstdayofcreation,GodwrappedHimselfinagarmentoflight,andtheradianceofHismajestyilluminatedtheworld.Thatwasthelightofthefirstday,aprimordiallight,
distinctfromthelightofthefourthday,whenGodcreatedthesun,themoon,andthestars.InthatlightAdamwasabletoseefromoneendoftheuniversetotheother.
ThatsacredlightpervadedtheworlduntiltheverymomentthatAdamandEvetastedtheforbiddenfruit.Thenthefirstthingtheylostwasthatpreciouslight,forthatwasoneof
thepunishmentsoftheFall.Withoutit,theworldgrewdarkaroundthem,forthesunshonelikeacandleincomparison.Neveragaindidtheyseetheworldinthesplendorofthat
light,andthatwasthemostpainfulpunishmentofall.
Asforthefateoftheprimordiallight,somesaythatGodbroughtitbackintoParadise,whereitawaitstherighteousintheworldtocome.OtherssaythatGodhidthatlightinthe
Torah,inthemysterieshiddenthere,waitingtobediscovered.Andwhenitis,thehiddenlightoftheTorahwillberevealed,inallitssplendor.SotooisitsaidthatGodhidasmall
bitofthatlightinsideaglowingstoneandgaveittoAdamandEvewhentheywereexpelledfromtheGarden,asareminderofallthattheyhadlost.
AttheEndofDays,whenthefootstepsoftheMessiahwillbeheardintheworld,thatsacredlightwillberestored.TheneveryonewillseeforhimselfthetruegloryofGod's
creation.19

III
Tofurtherillustratetheprocessbywhichmidrashimevolveanddevelop,accruingandincorporatingnewmaterialandvariants,thetraditionconcerningthedeathof
Cainservesasanexcellentexample.SincethebiblicalnarrativeofCainisunfinished,therabbiswerelefttoresolvethestoryinbothamoralandaliterarysense.
UsingthetraditionoftheOralLawastheirjustification,andsupportingtheirinterpretationswithbiblicalprooftexts,therabbisembellishedthetaleofCainandAbelin
manyrespects.Theyfilledinthesketchydetailsofthebirthsofthetwobrothers,20themysteryoftheoriginoftheirwives,21theconflictbetweenthetwo,22the
murderofAbelbyCain,23theburialofAbel,24andthepunishmentandultimatefateofCain.Itisthefinalaspectofthelegendthatistheparticularfocusofthis
discussion.
TheendofthebiblicalnarrativeaboutCaindescribeshispunishmentbyGodandconcludesbyattributingtoCainthefoundingofthefirstcity.25

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AfterCainhasbeencursedtobecomeaceaselesswandereronearth(Gen.4:12),heproteststheseverityofthesentenceandhasitmodified(Gen.4:1315).
OfparticularinteresttotherabbiswasthenatureofthesignbywhichGodhadmarkedCain,tosignifyandprotecthiminhiswanderings.Oneoftheearliest
midrashimspeculatingonthissignappearsinGenesisRabbah22:
AndtheLordputamarkonCain(Gen.4:15).RabbiJudahsaid:"Hecausedtheorbofthesuntoshineonhisaccount."SaidRabbiNehemiahtohim:"Hecausedtheorbofsun
toshine!Rather,Heafflictedhimwithleprosy."Rabsaid:"Hegavehimadog."AbbaJosesaid:"Hemadeahorngrowoutofhishead."RabbiLevisaidinthenameofRabbi
ShimonbenLakish:"HesuspendedhispunishmentinabeyanceuntiltheFloodcameandswepthimaway.''

Ofthesefivealternativeaccounts26ofthenatureofthemarkofCain,theversionthatbecamebestknownwasthatofthehorn,whichwassaidtobelocatedonhis
forehead.ThereasonforthisshouldbeapparentthehornsignifiedCain'sessentiallysavagenatureandthusidentifiedhimasawildbeastamongmen.Althoughit
wasnotapparentatfirst,thishornwastoplayanessentialroleinthemostwidelyacceptedaccountofthedeathofCain,whichfirstappearsinMidrashTanhuma,
asfollows:
LamechwasCain'sgrandsonoftheseventhgeneration,andblind.WhenLamechwenthuntinghissonwouldguidehim,holdinghishand,andtellhimwhenhesawabeast.
ThereuponLamechwoulddrawhisbowandkillit.Oncehesawahornbetweentwomountains."Iseeananimal'shorns!"heexclaimed,andLamechshotandkilledit.Butwhen
theywenttotakeit,thechildcriedout,"Itismygrandfather,Cain!"IngriefLamechbeathishandstogetheraccidentallyhedealthischildablowtotheheadthatkilledhim.27

ThisaccountsoonbecamethebestknownversionofhowCaindied,althoughvariantsofthelegendexisted.Therewas,forexample,theoneproposedoriginallyby
RabbiShimonbenLakish,whereinCainwasseentohavefoundhisdeathalongwiththeothervictimsoftheFlood.Butthispunishmentwasunsatisfyinginthatitdid
notsingleoutCain.Therabbisstronglyfeltthatadecisivepunishmentforhimwascalledfor,tosetaprecedentforfuturemurderers.
AnotherversionofCain'sdeathappearsintheapocryphalBookofJubilees(4:31).HereCainissaidtohavebeenkilledwhenhishousefellonhim.Justashehad
killedAbelwithastone,sowashekilledbythestonesofthehousethatcollapsedonhim.
MidrashTanhumaproposesthat,atthetimeofhispunishment,Cain'sfinaldestinywasinbeingtransformedintotheAngelofDeathandre

Page21

mainingsuchuntilhewaskilledatthehandsofLamech,atwhichtime"LamechbecametransformedintotheAngelofDeath,thusfulfillingtheprophecy,"IfCain
shallbeavengedsevenfold,trulyLamechshallbeavengedseventyandsevenfold(Gen.4:24).28Itseemslikelythatthisversioncombinestwoseparate
explanations.Inoneofthese,Cain'spunishmentmusthaveconsistedofhisbeingtransformedintotheAngelofDeathandassuchisapowerfuloriginlegendto
explainhowthisterribleangelcameintobeing.29ThesecondlegendconcernsCain'sfatalencounterwithhisdescendantLamechintheseventhgeneration.30
Thefirstprincipleofsupportingamidrashicinterpretationistolinkittoabiblicalsource.SincethereisnodescriptionofthedeathofCainintheBible,therabbis
turnedtotheenigmaticpassagethatisquotedinpartinthepreviousmidrash.Itreadsinfullasfollows:
AndLamechsaiduntohiswives:
AdahandTzila,hearmyvoice
YewivesofLamech,hearkenuntomyspeechForIhaveaslainamanforwoundingme,
AndayoungmanforbruisingmeIfCainshallbeavengedsevenfold,TrulyLamechseventyandsevenfold.
(Gen.4:2324)
InMidrashTanhumathispassageisseenbothasforetellingLamech'smetamorphosisintotheAngelofDeath,andCain'sdeathatthehandsofLamech.Butmost
othercommentariesfocusonthelatterexplanationlinkedtothecurseofCain(Gen.4:115).Inthisreading,"Ihaveslainamanforwoundingme"referstoCain,
whohaswoundedLamechbybeingtheancestorresponsibleforthecursethathangsoverhisdescendants,and"ayoungmanforbruisingme"referstoLamech's
son,TubalCain,whohasbruisedhisfatherbymakinghimresponsibleforthedeathofCain.Admittedly,thisreadingseemsforced,butthiskindofliterarylicenseis
characteristicoftheaggadictradition.Inaddition,themidrashicrulerequiringaprooftexttosupportaclaimmakesittheonlypossiblepassagetoprovidethe
necessarybiblicallink.
ThispopularexplanationofthedeathofCainingeniouslyutilizestwoexistingtraditionsassociatedwithCainthepassageconcerningLamechandthemidrash
assertingthatCain'ssignwasahorn.TheenigmaticbiblicalpassageaboutLamechprovidestheframeworkforthenarrativeofthedeathofCain,aswellasthe
conclusionofthetale.Thehornisthemotifaroundwhichthewholetaleturns.Togetherthetwofragmentsprovidethenecessarylinktotraditionthatgivesthemidrash
itsauthenticring.Inaddition,thisversionofCain'sdeathissatisfyinginanumberofotherrespects.
Firstofall,thismidrashbringsthetaleofCaintoaconclusion,whichwasofnosmallimportancetotherabbis,whohadastrongsensethateverytaleshouldhavea
beginning,amiddle,andanending.Initsbiblicalform

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thestoryofCainwassimplyincomplete.Atthesametime,byextendingthestorysevengenerations,theprinciplewasestablishedofcarryingthebiblicalstoryintothe
future,wherethebiblicalarchetypecanoccurinanewformthatstillpermitsrecognitionoftheold.Suchasystemmadepossibleidentificationwithabiblicalpatriarch
orking,and,atthesametime,offeredanopportunitytoincorporatepersonaldreamsandfantasiesintotheAggadah.
Next,thismidrashprovidesauniqueandappropriatedeathforCain,especiallyfittinginthathisslayerishisowndescendant.Thisisakindofpoetic(or,perhaps,
midrashic)justice,sinceCainslewhisownbrother.Note,however,thatneitherLamechnorhisson,TubalCain,canbeheldresponsibleforCain'sdeath,since
LamechwasblindandTubalCainonlyachildwhomistookhisancestorforananimalwhich,inessence,Cainwas.Itisacaseofperfectjustice:Cainreceiveshis
duefromhisownoffspring,buttheyareinnocentofanycrime,thoughtheyhaveinthiswayrepaidCainformakingthemaccursed,andinthiscoincidencecanbe
seen,ofcourse,thehandofGod.Also,notethepresenceofCain'snameinthatofthedescendantwhoassistsinkillinghim,hintingthatCain,inasense,killedhimself.
Finally,thismidrashaptlysetstheprecedentthatakillershouldbeslainforhiscrime,anditdoesnotsuccumbtothealternativeinterpretationthatCainrepentedand
hisrepentancewasaccepted,onthegroundsthattherehadbeennopreviousmurderforhimtorealizetheimportofhisaction.31Thisreadingalsosupportsthe
biblicalinjunctionthatthepunishmentformurderbedeath,32andavoidssettingtheprecedentthatexceptionstothisrulebepermitted.
Itisnotsurprising,then,thatthisversionofthedeathofCain,whichbecamethepredominantone,servedtheneedsoftherabbisandaccuratelyreflectedtheirviews
oftheneedfor,andthemannerof,justiceandretribution.Allsubsequentversionsofthismidrash,suchasthefollowingversionfromSeferhaYashar,merely
embellishaspectsofthismidrashandpresentthedetailsinanimprovednarrativeform,butdonotchangeitinanyessentialway:
AndLamechwasoldandadvancedinyears,andhiseyesweredimsothathecouldnotsee,andTubalCain,hisson,wasleadinghimonedaywhiletheywerewalkinginthe
field,whenCain,thesonofAdam,advancedtowardthem.ThenLamechwasveryoldandcouldnotseemuch,andTubalCainhissonwasveryyoung.AndTubalCaintoldhis
fathertodrawhisbow,andwiththearrowshesmoteCain,whowasyetfaroff,andheslewhim,forheappearedtothemtobeananimal.AndthearrowsenteredCain'sbody
althoughhewasdistantfromthem,andhefelltothegroundanddied.AndtheLordrequitedCain'sevilaccordingtohiswickedness,whichHehaddonetohisbrotherAbel,
accordingtothewordoftheLordwhichhehad

Page23
spoken.AnditcametopassthatwhenCainhaddied,LamechandTubalCainwenttoseetheanimaltheyhadslain,andtheysaw,andbeholdCaintheirgrandfatherwasfallen
deadupontheearth.AndLamechwasverymuchgrievedathavingdonethis,andinclappinghishandshestruckhissonandcausedhisdeath.33

ThusitcanbeseenthatthismidrashofCain'sdeathsolvestwoproblemsatthesametime:itexplicatesadifficultpassageaboutLamech,andatthesametimeit
solvesthenarrativeandmoralproblemoftheultimatefateofCain.Anddespiteitsintentionalusageofexistingsources,theMidrashstillmanagestobeanoriginal
creation.Itisinthisspiritthatthemidrashictraditioninspiredsubsequentsacredliteratures,especiallythoseofthekabbalisticandhasidic,andhasbeencarriedinto
thepresentinthewritingsofS.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.SingerandcontemporaryauthorssuchasCynthiaOzick,MoacyrScliar,SteveStern,andothers.
IV
UsingthismidrashicmethodtherabbiswerethusabletoprovideanappropriatedeathforCain,thefirstmurderer,aswellastodescribewhatthechildhoodof
AbrahamwaslikeinformationthatismissinginthetextoftheTorah.Andusingthismethodtheywereabletocreateafullidentityforafigurewhosenameappears
onlytwiceintheTorahintwolists.Nothingelseissaidabouther.Yettherabbiswereabletobringhertolifeandmakeherplayanessentialroleinmanykey
biblicalepisodes.Itwasshewho,knowingthesign,identifiedMosesastheRedeemershewhohelpedMosessearchforthecoffinofJosephshewhocrossedthe
RedSea,andlaterreportedonwhatthewallsoftheRedSealookedlike.Thisfigure,SerahbatAsher,aboutwhomnexttonothingissaidintheTorah,comestolife
intheTalmudandtheMidrashandbecomesoneofthefavoritefiguresoftherabbis,whomtheydrawintothenarrativeasoftenaspossible.Howtheydidthisisan
objectlessoninthemidrashicmethod.
ThestoryofSerahbatAsher,who,accordingtothemidrash,livedlongerthananyoneelse,evenMethuselah,beginswithanameinthelistinthepassagedescribing
Jacob'sjourneyintoEgypt:JacobandallhisoffspringwithhimcametoEgypt.HebroughtwithhimtoEgypthissonsandgrandsons,hisdaughtersand
granddaughtersallhisoffspring(Gen.46:67).AmongthesixtyninewhoaccompaniedJacobintoEgyptwere,asrecountedinGenesis46:17:Asher'ssons:
Imnah,Ishvi,andBeriah,andtheirsisterSerah.Serahmighthaveremainedmerelyanameinthislistifnotforacuriousparallel.Forinanotherlist,inNumbers
26:46,thatofthecensustakenbyMosesinthewilderness,thenameSerahbatAsherappearsagain:ThenameofAsher'sdaughterwasSerah.

Page24

Nowwhatarewetomakeofthefactthatthesamenameappearsintwolistsseparatedbyatleasttwohundredyears?Fromourperspective,itmightbediscounted
asacoincidence.Afterall,Asherwasarespectablename,anditiscertainlypossiblethatsomeonenamedAshermightnamehisdaughterSerah.Butfromthepointof
viewoftheancientrabbis,thefactthatthesetwolistshadthisonenameincommoncriedoutforexplanation.Sotheyarrivedatwhatwasforthemthelogical
conclusion:theywerethesameperson.
ThatresolvestheproblemoftheidentityofthetwoSerahs,butitdoesn'texplainhowshelivedsolong.However,rabbinicingenuityfoundasolutionforthisproblem
aswell.Usingthemidrashicmethod,therabbissearchedforthe"rightplace."Thisistheplaceinthetextthatgivesthenecessaryclue,whichmakesitpossibletoread
betweenthelines.Andinthiscasetheclueinvolvedanothermatterthatismissinginthebiblicalnarrative:howthesonsofJacobfinallyinformedhimthathisbeloved
son,Joseph,wasnotdeadafterall.
Itallgoesbacktothebrothers'discoverythatJosephwasstillalive.Indeed,hewasnoneotherthanthePrinceofEgypt.AndnowthatJosephhadrevealedhistrue
identity,hecommandedhisbrotherstobringtheirfatherandtherestofthefamilytoEgypt,fortherewasafamineintheland:Andyoushalltellmyfatherofallmy
gloryinEgypt,andofallthatyouhaveseen,andyoushallhastenandbringdownmyfatherhither(Gen.45:13).Thismusthavepresentedadilemmato
Joseph'sbrothers,sincetheyhadcasthimnakedintoapitandthensoldhimintoslaveryandthentoldtheirfatherthathehadbeenslainbyawildbeast.Nowthey
hadtogobacktotheirfather,Jacob,afrailoldman,andtellhimthatJosephwasaliveafterall.
Readingbetweenthelines,therabbisintuitedthatthebrotherswerefilledwithguiltandremorse,aswellaswithfearthatJacobmightdieoftheshockwhenheheard
thenews.SotheycameupwiththeideaoflettingSerahbreakthenewstohim.TheyaskedSerah,whoapparentlywasachild,toplaytheharpforJacobandsing
himalittlesong,withthewords"Josephisalive,Josephisalive."Serah,ofcourse,wasgladtosingasongforhergrandfather,andwhenJacobrealizedwhatshewas
saying,hejumpedupandasked,"Isittrue?"Andwhenshetoldhimitwastrue,well,heblessedherwithsuchagreatblessingthatshelivedaslongasshedid!34
InthiswaythemidrashbroughtSerahtolifeandexplainedhowshelivedforsolong.Thatmighthavebeenenough,ifallthattherabbiswantedtodowastoidentify
SerahandexplainhowJacoblearnedthatJosephwasalive.ButtherabbisfoundSerahveryhandytocalloninseveralothercasesaswell.Oneoftheseinvolvedthe
identityoftheRedeemer.TherewasasecretsigntoidentifytheRedeemerthatGodhadrevealedtoJacob,andthatJacobhadtransmittedtohissons,andthat
Asher,Jacob'sson,hadrevealedtohisdaughter,Serah.Thesignofthetrueredeemeristhatwhoeverwouldsay,inGod'sName,"Ihaveindeedremembered"(Ex.
3:16)is

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thetrueredeemer.ThuswhenMosessaidthesewords,SerahidentifiedhimastheRedeemer.35
ThenwearriveatwhatisperhapsSerah'smostimportantrole.ForitwasshewhoinformedMoseswherethecoffinofJosephcouldbefound.Thismidrashfillsina
majorgapinthebiblicalnarrativebetweenthevowthatJosephmadethesonsofIsraelswearonhisdeathbedthatyoushallcarrymybonesfromhere(Gen.50:25)
andthereportthatMosestookthebonesofJosephwithhim(Ex.14:19).
Hereagainwehaveaclassicexampleoftheworkingsoftherabbinicimagination.OnthedaybeforetheytooktheirleavefromEgypt,whiletheIsraeliswere
despoilingtheEgyptians,MosessearchedeverywhereforthecoffinofJoseph,buthecouldnotfindit,fornoonerememberedwhereJosephwasburied.Returning
emptyhanded,Mosesencounteredalittleoldlady,whoasked,"Whysodowncast,Moses?"AndwhenMosestoldherwhy,shesaid:"Icanleadyoutothecoffinof
Joseph.""Whoareyou,''Mosesasked,"andhowdoyouknowwhereJosephwasburied?""I'mSerahbatAsher,"shereplied,"andIknowbecauseIwaspresentat
thefuneralofJoseph,andhisironcoffinwassunkintotheNile!"
SerahthenleadsMosestotheveryspotwherethecoffinwassunk.NowMosesknowswhereitis,buthehasanewproblem:howtoraiseaheavycoffinfromthe
Nile.SoMosesleansovertheshoreandsays,"Joseph,Joseph,we'releaving.Ifyouwanttocomewithus,comenow.Ifnot,wedidourbest."Andatthatmomenta
miracletakesplace,andthecoffinofJosephfloatstothesurface,andMosesisabletopickitupandbringitwithhim.36
TherearemanyotherbriefappearancesthatSerahmakesinherlonglife.SheevenshowsupatthehouseofstudyofRabbiYohanan.RabbiYohananonceaskedhis
studentstodescribetheappearanceofthewallsoftheRedSeawhenthewaterspartedfortheChildrenofIsraeltocross.Whennonecoulddoso,RabbiYohanan
describedthemasresemblingalattice.Then,allatonce,theyheardavoicesay:"No,itwasn'tlikethatatall!"Andwhentheylookedup,theysawthefaceofavery
oldwomanpeeringinthewindowofthehouseofstudy."Whoareyou?"demandedRabbiYohanan."IamSerahbatAsher,"camethereply,"andIknowwhatthe
wallsoftheRedSealookedlike,becauseIcrossedtheRedSea,andtheyresembledshiningmirrors."Andwhenshefinishedspeaking,Serahtookherleaveand
disappearedonceagain.37
TherearetwolegendaryaccountsoftheultimatefateofSerah.OnereportsthatshemetherdeathinafireinasynagogueinIsfahan,Persia,inthe12thcentury.That
synagoguewasrebuiltandnamedafterher,anditisstilltheholiestJewishsiteinIran,towhichPersianJewsusedtomakepilgrimageswhentheywerestillpermitted
todoso.YetthereisanotherlegendthatSerahneverdiedthatshewasoneofninewhoweretakenintoheavenalive,whereshenowlivesinaheavenlypalaceof
herown,wheresheteachestheTorah.38

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AsthisrichlegendofSerahbatAshermakesabundantlyclear,itisthelatterlegendthatistherightone.Serahneverdied.Shewascreatedoutoftheimaginationof
therabbisandshelivesoninourownimaginations,asharptonguedfemaleElijahwanderingtheworld,settingthingsstraight.
V
Eachofthepostmidrashicliteraturesdemonstratesitsownpatternofreceivingthetraditionand,atthesametime,transformingitbytheirowndistinctvision.The
kabbalisticliteratureviewstheTorahthroughamysticallens,reimaginingeverypassageaccordingtoitsmysticalmeaning.ArichbodyoflegendsaboutRabbiShimon
barYohaiisfoundintheZohar,datingfromthe13thcentury,alongwithagreatmanymysticalallegories,suchasthoseaboutprincesseslockedintowers,andarich
mythologyabouttheMessiah,waitingforthesignaltobegiventhatthetimehascomeforthefootstepsoftheMessiahtobeheard.
Inthe16thcenturytherealsoappearedacycleoftalesaboutthecircleofRabbiIsaacLuriaofSafed,knownastheAri.ShivheihaAri,thefirstcollectionoftales
abouttheAri,includestalesaboutthemiraculousbirthoftheAri,histeachings,andhismiracles,includingthatoftransportingakingwhowasasleepinhispalacetoa
pitinafield,wherehewasforcedtoaffixhissealtoaproclamationprotectingtheJews.Thereare,inaddition,talesaboutdybbuks,demons,andlegendscurrentin
histime.Itisinthisperiodthatthesecularandsacredliteraturesflowclosesttogether.Andthesubsequenthasidicliterature,whichturnedtothetalesofthemastersof
Safedfortheirmodel,maintains,toaconsiderableextent,thepracticeofincorporatingsecularlegends,especiallywhenitispossibletoreinterprettheminareligious
dimension.
InadditiontotheemergenceoftheZoharandotherkabbalisticliteratureintheMiddleAges,therewasalsotheblossomingoffolklore.Stressingnarrative,andopen
totheinfluencesofthefolkloresofsurroundingcultures,thesefolktalesandfairytales,lackingthesacredsealofthepreviousliteratures,wereforcedtofendfor
themselves,asanewkindoforaltradition,andtowaitthefirstseriouscollectorsofJewishfolklore,suchasS.Ansky,Y.L.Cahan,andM.J.Berditchevsky.Toa
considerableextent,thesubjectsofthisfolkloreareidenticalwiththoseoftheearliersacredliteratures.Thereareamultitudeoflegendsaboutthetenlosttribes,the
miraclesoftheProphetElijah,andthebirths,deaths,andwondersofthegreatestrabbis,heroes,holymen,andscholars.Therearealsomanytalesofthe
supernatural,inwhichdemonsanddybbuksplayimportantroles.
Thismedievalfolklorediffersfromtheprecedingsacredliteratures,however,inthatitisnotrestrictedbytheethicalprerogativeofthetalmudic

Page27

andmidrashicliteratures,norisittiedtoprooftexts.Instead,itisattractedtothemiraculousandimaginative,aswellastotalesofquestsandothergreat
undertakings.Amoralelementisstillpresent,butitisthekindofclearcutmoralfound,forexampleinAesop'sFables.Aboveall,itisnotaselfconsciousliterature,
asisthatoftheAggadahoftheTalmudandMidrash,norisitgenerallyconcernedwiththemystical(incontrasttothesupernatural)dimension,asistheKabbalah.In
thisrespectitisnotunlikethekindsoffolklorethatemergenaturallyoutofeveryculture,muchofitborrowedfromothercultures,andrecastinaJewishcontext.
HerearetobefoundcompletecyclesoflegendsaboutKingDavidandKingSolomonandasubstantialbodyoftalesinwhichElijahappearsindisguisetoprovide
somekindofsalvation.Itisapparentthatthesefolktalesreflectasimpler,morefundamentalgraspofreligiouselements.Here,too,canbefoundthoseaggadicmotifs
thatappealedtothepopularimagination,fortheinclinationtoembellishandextendexistingmythsandlegendswasjustasintenseasitwasinthesacredliteratures.At
thesametime,itisapparentthatthepowerfulinfluenceoftheOralLaw,whichlendsitssacredauratothelegendsoftheTalmudandMidrash,isconsiderably
diminishedinmedievalfolklore.Andwhileoneconsequenceofthisabsenceofthesacredauraisadistancethatentersintothenarrationofthetaleanddoesnot
presumethatthetaleisnecessarilytrue,thereis,atthesametime,evengreaterliberationoftheimaginationthanintheearlierliteratures,nowthatitsforemost
commitmentisnolongerprimarilytotheaffirmationofthesacredtradition.
Unfortunately,whilewecanbecertainthattheprimarysacredtextshavebeencarefullypreserved,itisapparentthatagreatdealoffolklore,whichwasneverwritten
down,hasbeenlost.Infact,consideringitsexclusionfromthesacredtradition,itisremarkablethatsomuchofthisoraltraditionhassurvived.Amongthebest
collectionsofthisliteratureareM.J.Berditchevky'sMimekorYisrael(TheFountainofIsrael),whichisavailableinEnglish,andthestilluntranslatedcollectionSefer
Ma'asiyot(TheBookofTales),editedbyMordecaibenYehezkel.
ThelastmajorphaseofJewishliteratureproducedbeforethe20thcenturyisthatofhasidism.Themovement'sfounder,theBaalShemTov,gatheredaroundhim
disciples,knownashasidim,withwhomhesharedhisteachings,whichemphasizetheneedforkavanah,orspiritualconcentration,inprayerinparticularandinevery
otherkindofactivity.Asaresult,thehasidimactivelysoughtoutspiritualenlightenment,attemptingtoperceivethepresenceoftheCreatorortheShekhinah,the
DivinePresence,ineverysituation.InthisactiveapproachtoreligiousexperiencethehasidimarenotunliketheSufisor,especially,theZenBuddhists.39Hasidism
alsoemphasizesthemysticaldimension,asdotheseothersects,andinthisthehasidimshouldbeseenasthespiritualheirsofthekabbalists,andespeciallyofthe
teachingsoftheAri.Aboveall,hasidismwasaproductofmessianiclongingsandthesensethat,intheBaalShemTovandsomeof

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thelaterhasidicmasters,figuresasgreatasthesagesofthepasthadcomeagainintotheworld.Thisbeliefprovidedarenewedsenseofmeaningandenabledthe
hasidimtobringaboutanextraordinaryreanimationoftheprocessofspiritualgrowthinJudaism.Surelytheabundanceofteachingsandtalesthatwasproducedina
relativelyshortperiodisequaltothatofanyearlierperiod.Andthepossibilitiesofspiritualexpressionthattheydemonstratesetinmotionaprocessthathasalso
revivedandinspiredJudaisminthepresentcentury.
AboutfiftyyearsafterthedeathoftheBaalShemTov,ShivheihaBesht,avolumeofwondertalesaboutthefounderofhasidismwaspublished.40Manyofthese
tales,whichconcernthebirth,childhood,andlaterlifeoftheBaalShemTov,haveparallelstoearlierrabbinicliterature,notablytothelegendsoftheArithatare
reportedinShivheihaAri.ThemasterdisciplerelationshipoftheBaalShemTovandhishasidim,aboutwhomvolumesoftaleswereproducedaftertheirdeaths,
wasduplicatedinsubsequentgenerations.Theresultisarichliteratureofoverthreethousandtexts,muchofwhichhasnotyetbeentranslatedintoEnglish.Thesetexts
areaproductofthesacredliteraturesoftheBible,Talmud,Midrash,andKabbalah,butwhatislessapparentistheinfluentialroleofmedievalJewishfolklore.For
hasidictalesincorporateelementsofthenarrativesimilartothosefoundinfolktales,aswellasthemiracles,enchantments,witches,anddemonsthataresofamiliarin
folkloreandfairytales.Imposedonthisarchetypalsubstracturearefiguresofangelsandspirits,asupernaturalaspectofhasidicliteraturethatisfoundinagreatmany
tales.
IncombiningthesacredintentionsoftheAggadahwiththenarrativefreedomofthefolktale,hasidismproducedabodyofliteraturethatisthedirectresultofthe
previousgenres,sacredandsecular.Ifthereisanyonekeytounderstandingthehasidim,itisthisprofoundlinktotheancienttradition.Therewasaremarkablesense
ofdialoguewiththepast,asissuggestedinthesewordsofRabbiNachmanofBratslav,oneofthekeyrebbes,asthehasidicmasterswerecalled:
Twomenwholiveindifferentplaces,orevenindifferentgenerations,maystillconverse.Foronemayraiseaquestion,andtheotherwhoisfarawayintimeorinspacemaymake
acommentoraskaquestionthatanswersit.Sotheyconverse,butnooneknowsitsavetheLord,whohearsandrecordsandbringstogetherallthewordsofmen,asitiswritten:
TheywhoservetheLordspeaktooneanother,andtheLordhearsthemandrecordstheirwordsinHisbook(Mal.3:16).41

Andfromthepresentperspectiveitdoesappearthatsomeofthehasidicrebbes,includingtheBaalShemTov,RabbiLeviYitzhakofBerditchev,andRabbi
Nachman,wereamongthemostinspiredfiguresofJewishhistory.

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WhilelesswellknownthanthetalesoftheBaalShemTov,thesubsequenthasidicliteratureisoneoftherichestoftheaggadictradition.Itconsistsofmanycollections
oftales,aswellasavoluminousexegeticalliterature.AlthoughitisobviousthatthetalesoftheBaalShemTovservedastheprimarymodelforthesetalesofthe
subsequentmasters,theformatisflexibleenoughsothattheindividualperspectivesofthevariousrebbeseasilyemerge.Theeffectofgroupsoftalesaboutindividual
rebbesisthattheycreateakindoflegendaryhistorybasedonanecdotethatisattractiveinitself,aswellasbeingavaluableresourceforthemodernJewishwriter.
Muchofthecompellingqualityofboththesesourcesandthemodernretellingsderivesfromthefactthattherebbeisanidealsubjectforananecdote.Whatis
apparent,aboveall,isthattheloveoflegenddemonstratedbythehasidimhaseasilytransmitteditselfintothecreativeimaginationofourowntime,wherehasidiclore
hasbeenrecognizedasoneofthemostaccessibleandmovingofallJewishtraditions.
InthestoriesofthemodernJewishauthorswhohaveutilizedtheseaggadiclegends,thesourcelieslikeaseedinthecenterofthefruitofthemoderncreation,while
themodernelementhas,inasense,fusedwiththeancient.Muchofthepowerofthismodernliteraturederivesfromthereader'sexperienceofthisfusion.Whetherthe
startingpointisamyth,legend,ritual,orevenahalakhicruling,thereisinevitablyaprocessofbothpreservationandtransformationthattakesplace.
FortheauthorsofsuchworksthereisalsotheopportunitytoparticipateintheevolutionofthearchetypalmythsthatserveasthefoundationofWesterncultureand
are,aswell,atthecenterofJudaism.Foritisimportanttorecognize,aboveall,thattheprocessthatistakingplaceisessentiallymythicandthatitisthefundamental,
compellingqualityofmyththatexplainsthemomentumofthisevolutionoverthecenturies,eventothisday.Italsohelpsexplainthelastingattractionofthetradition,
eventothosewhodonotnecessarilyidentifywithitsreligiousgoals.
Theaggadictradition,then,ismorethanthepreservationofthepast,assymbolizedbythecoffinofJoseph,whichtheIsraelitescarriedbesidetheTabernacleinthe
wilderness.Itisalsomorethanthepresent,symbolizedbytheArkoftheCovenant,whichwascarriedsidebysideinthewildernesswiththecoffinofJoseph.Itisa
continuingprocessofthereintegrationofthepastintothepresent.Eachtimethistakesplace,thetraditionistransformedandmustbereimagined.Anditisthisvery
processthatkeepsthetraditionvitalandperpetuatesit.Fordespitetheinevitabilityofthismetamorphosis,theessentialaspectofthetraditionremainseternaland
unchanging.ThisishowtheJewishpeopleviewlifeinthisworld.Ononelevelitisablessingthathasbeengiven,andonanotheritistransitionalandillusory.Thisdual
awarenessexistsatalltimes,forneitherthisworldnortheworldtocomecanbeignored.IncontrasttotheHinduworldview,forexample,whichdismissesthisworld
andseekstoescapefromthecycle

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ofrebirths,orthatoftheskeptics,whoinsistthatnothingexistsbeyondthisworld,thisblendoftheworldlyandtheeternalistheessenceoftheJewishvision.In
aggadictermsthiscorrespondenceisthenaturalharmonyoftheearthlyJerusalemandtheheavenlyJerusalem,fortheonecannotexistwithouttheother.

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Three
ToolsofInterpretation
SurelythisinstructionwhichIenjoinuponyouthisdayisnottoobafflingforyou,norisitbeyondreach.Itisnotintheheavens,thatyoushouldsay,"Whoamonguscangoupto
theheavensandgetitforusandimpartittous,thatwemayobserveit?"Neitherisitbeyondthesea,thatyoushouldsay,"Whoamonguscancrosstotheothersideoftheseaand
getitforusandimpartittous,thatwemayobserveit?"No,thethingisveryclosetoyou,inyourmouthandinyourheart,toobserveit.
(Deut.30:1114)

TheBibleservesnotonlyastheprimarysacredScripturesfortheWest,butasthesourceofourcentralmyths.Thesemythshavebecomesoentwinedwithall
aspectsofourlivesthattheyhavetakenonthequalityofarchetypalsymbols.Itisintothesesymbolsthatthecultureasawholeprojectsitshopesanddreams,
permittingthemythicarchetypestoasserttheirpower.
Asinanysystemofsymbols,then,itisnecessarytoexplicatethesymbolicintent.Thisrequiresamasteryofthemeaningoftheprimarysymbolism.Fortunately,the
needforinterpretationhaslongbeenrecognizedintheJewishtraditionandtheactofexplicationheldinhighesteem.ManyeditionsoftheHebrewBibleareprinted
withthecommentariesofRashiandothers,andthesecommentarieshavetakenontheaura,overtime,ofthesacredtextstheyexplicate,eventhoughtheyoften
disagreeastothecorrectinterpretationofthebiblicaltext.However,theacceptanceofop

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posingviewshasbeenrecognizedsincethetalmudicperiodbecauseofthecordialrelationsbetweentheschoolsofHillelandShammai,whichisapparentfromthe
followingtalmudicpassage:
AboutHillelandShammai:Notwithstandingthefactthatoneschoolprohibitswhattheotherallows,thatonedeclaresunfitwhattheotherdeclaresfit,thedisciplesofthetwo
schoolshaveneverrefrainedfromintermarriage.Likewise,asregardsleviticalcleanlinessanduncleanliness,whereoneschooldeclaredcleanwhattheotherdeclaredunclean,
neverthelesstheyneverhesitatedtohelponeanotherintheworkthataccordingtotheotherfactionmightnotbeconsideredclean.1

Infact,itwastheactofexegesisthatwasheldinhighestesteemasthebestmeansofunderstandingthesacredtextathand.AndnotonlyforthesacredScriptures,
butalsofordreams:"Adreamleftuninterpretedislikealetterunread."2 BeforetheacceptedrulingontheHalakhah,theLaw,wasreachedbymajorityopinion,
polarandcontradictoryinterpretationswereoffered.Thefollowingmidrashamplydemonstrateshowconditionedtherabbisweretoopposingviewpoints:
TheschoolofShammaimaintainsthatheavenwascreatedfirst,whiletheschoolofHillelholdsthatearthwascreatedfirst.IntheviewoftheschoolofShammaithisislikethe
caseofthekingwhofirstmadehisthroneandthenmadehisfootstool.AccordingtotheschoolofHillel,thisistobecomparedtoakingwhobuildsapalaceafterlayingthe
foundationhebuildstheupperportion.Discussingthismatter,RabbiYonatansaid:"Asregardscreation,heavenwasfirstasregardscompletion,earthwasfirst."RabbiShimon
observed:"Iamamazedthatthefathersoftheworldengageincontroversyoverthismatter,forsurelybothwerecreatedatthesametime,likeapotanditslid."3

Onefurtherlegend,fromtheTalmud,relatestheremarkablecircumstancesinwhichthemajorityopinionoftherabbisoverruledbothRabbiEliezerbenHyrcanosand
GodHimself:
RabbiEliezerbenHyrcanoswasamongthesageswhoweredebatingapointoftheLaw.Allofthesages,exceptRabbiEliezer,ruledoneway,andRabbiEliezercontinuedtoinsist
thattheywerewrong.Heusedeverypossibleargumenttosupportit,buttheothersdidnotagree.Thenhesaid:"LetthiscarobtreeprovethattheLawisasIstateitis."The
carobtreethenuprooteditselfandmovedadistanceofonehundredells.Buttheothersagessaid:"Thecarobtreeprovesnothing."
ThenRabbiEliezersaid:"LetthewatersofthespringprovethatIamright."Thenthewatersbegantoflowbackward.Butagainthesagesinsistedthatthisprovednothing.

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ThenRabbiEliezerspokeagainandsaid:"LetthewallsofthehouseofstudyproveIamright."AndthewallswereabouttocollapsewhenRabbiYehoshuasaidtothem:"If
scholarsarediscussingapointoftheLaw,whyshouldyouinterfere?"Thustheydidnotfall,indeferencetoRabbiYehoshua,butneitherdidtheystraightenout,outofrespect
forRabbiEliezer,andtheyareinclinedtothisday.
RabbiEliezerthensaid:"IftheLawisasIsay,letheavenproveit."ThereuponaBatKol,aheavenlyvoice,cameforthandsaid:"WhydoyouquarrelwithRabbiEliezer,whose
opinionshouldprevaileverywhere?"
ThenRabbiYehoshuastoodupandsaid:"TheLawisnotinheaven"(Deut.30:12)."Whatdoesthismean?"askedRabbiYermiyahu."ItmeansthatsincetheTorahwasgivento
usonMountSinai,wenolongerrequireaheavenlyvoicetoreachadecision,sinceitiswrittenintheTorah:Followafterthemajority(Ex.23:2)."
LaterRabbiNathanencounteredElijahandaskedhimhowtherulingwasacceptedonhigh.AndElijahsaid:"AtthistheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,smiledandsaid,'Mychildren
haveoverruledme!'"4

FromthisexampleitisapparentthattherabbisregardedtheveryactofexplicationoftheTorahasaDivineinjunctionandtheirdecisionssoinviolatethatnoteven
Godcouldoverrulethem.Thenecessityforthisinterpretationgoesbacktotheoriginalexistenceofbothawrittenandanorallaw,theoralintendedtoexplicatethe
written.ThustheneedforcommentarywasregardedasanecessityfromtheverygivingoftheTorahonMountSinai,andwefinditsaidintheTalmudconcerning
commentary:"PriortothetimeofSolomon,theTorahwaslikeabasketwithouthandles,butwhenSolomoncameheaffixedthenecessaryhandles."5
Itisalsoofinteresttonotethatwhiletherulingonalawwasalwaysobservedandquotedinalldecisionsrelatedtoit,theopposingviewpointswerenotdeletedfrom
theTalmudandthusarenotdisregarded.Theexistenceoftheserabbinicdebatesassistedimmeasurablyinthecreationofanatmosphereinwhichavarietyof
interpretationsbecamepossible.6
TheoldestandmostelementarymethodofscripturalexegesisconsistedoflocatingonepassageintheBibletoexplicateanother.Fromthismethodevolvedmore
intricatetechniquesforaclosereadingofthetext,includingthesevenrules,ormiddot,ofHillel,whichwerelaterexpandedtothirteenmiddotbyRabbiIshmael.
TheseruleswereprimarilyformulatedtoreachanunderstandingoftheHalakhah,andwereintendedtoassistintheestablishmentofgeneralprinciplesthatcouldbe
deducedfromthetext.Theirprimaryfocusisonthepeshat,orliteralmeaning,butsomeofthemarecouchedingeneralenoughtermsthattheyareabletoserveas
justificationforlessliteralreadingsaswell.LaterRabbiEliezerbenJose,adiscipleofRabbiAkiba,formulatedthirtytworulesforaggadicexegesis.7
Inadditiontorulesofexegesistherewerealsoothertechniquesforextractingmeaningfromatext.Fourparticularlycommontechniques,which

Page34

gainedtheirwidestacceptanceduringthekabbalisticperiod(13th17thcenturiesC.E.),aregematria,notarikon,temurah,andtzeruf.Ingematriathenumerical
valueofthelettersisaddedup,andwordswithidenticaltotalsareassumedtoberelated.Bythistechnique,forexample,theladderJacobsawreachingintoheaven
couldberelatedtoMountSinai,sincethenumericaltotalofsullam(ladder)is130,thesameasthatofSinai.Afterall,boththeladderandtheTorah,receivedon
MountSinai,connectearthandheaven,eachinitsownway.Notarikontakesthelettersofawordastheinitiallettersofanacrostic.Bythismethodthefirstwordof
theTorah,Bereshit("inthebeginning"),forexample,canbesaidtorepresentinHebrewthephrase,"InthebeginningGodsawthatIsraelwouldaccepttheTorah."
Bythesametechniquethesamewordcanalludetothephrase,"Hecreatedthesky,theearth,theheavens,thesea,andtheabyss."Temurahsubstitutesoneletterfor
another,andtzerufrearrangesawordtomakeitintoanotherthus,ananagram.Thesemethodstendtoencourageakindoffreeassociationbutalsolend
themselvestomanipulationbythoseintentonconfirmingaparticularreadingofthetext.
OnevaluablemediumforthepreservationofearlybiblicalexegesiswasthetranslationsoftheBibleintoAramaicknownastheTargumim.Inthesetranslations,
interpretationswereincorporatedintothetexts,expandingandclarifyingthenarrative.InthiswaytheTargumim,particularlythoseeditedinPalestine,prefigurethe
latermidrashiccollections,suchasPirkedeRabbiEliezer,SeferhaYashar,andSeferhaZikhronot(TheChroniclesofJerahmeel),whichgatheraggadic
interpretationsfromvarioussourcesandweavethemintoacontinuousnarrative.Needlesstosay,manyoftheseinterpretationsalteredthemeaningoftheoriginaltext.
TheTargumonthestoryoftheTowerofBabel,forexample,makesovertthechallengetotheDivinitythatisonlyimplicitinthebiblicaltextthenonitalicizedwords
aretheadditionoftheTargum:
Andtheysaid,"Come,Letusbuildusacity,andatowerwhosetopcomesuptoheaven,andletusmakeusanidolonthetopofitandletusputaswordinitshand,anditwill
makeformationsforbattlebeforeHim,beforewearescatteredoverthefaceoftheearth."8

Fromaveryearlyperiod,interpretationsofanallegoricalnaturealsoemergedasanaccepted,albeitcontroversial,methodofexplication.Oneoftheearliest
allegoricalinterpretationsappearsinHosea12:5,withthesuggestionthatJacob'sstrugglewiththeangelmayhavebeenastruggleinprayerratherthanaphysical
contest.AfurtherillustrationistheinterpretationofJeremiah'sprophecy(29:10)thattheexilewouldendafterseventyyears,whichappearsintheBookofDaniel(9:2
and9:24).Heretheprophecyisinterpretedtomeanseventyweeksofyears,togivehopeforredemptionfromtheGreekruleofthatperiod.

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Additionalallegoricalreadingsappearintheapocryphaltext,TheWisdomofSolomon,9 whereJacob'sladderisviewedasasymbolofDivineProvidenceandinthe
writingsofJosephus,whointerpretstheTabernacleallegorically,equating,forexample,theHolyofHolieswiththeheavens.
Butamongearlyallegorists,themasterwasPhiloofAlexandria.Philoconstructedanentiresystemofbiblicalinterpretationbasedonallegory,inwhicheveryfinite
detailisseenasanallegoryofsomehighertruth.Ironically,Philo'swritingshadverylittledirectimpactonlaterJewishtradition,butfurnishedafoundationstoneto
ChristianityhisapproachtointerpretingtheOldTestamentwasusedasaprophecyfortheNewTestament.Philo'sfailuretoinfluencetheJewishtraditionisdueto
theimplicationsofhisapproach,whichappearstosacrificetheliteralmeaningforanallegoricalone,reducingthepatriarchstomereabstractions.Philointerprets,for
example,God'scommandtoAbrahamtoDepartthyland,andfromthykindred,andfromthyFather'shouse(Gen.12:1)tomean,''ByAbraham'scountrythe
body,andbyhiskindredtheoutwardsenses,andbyhisfather'shouseutteredspeech."10
ItmightappearthattherejectionofPhilo'sextremeapproachwouldhavebroughtaboutageneralrejectionoftheallegoricalmethod,butthiswasnotthecase.
Rather,itwasarejection,foratime,ofPhilo'shighlyabstract,allencompassingmetaphysicalinterpretationanditsapparentdenialoftheliteralmeaningofthetext
(althoughPhilohimselfdefendedtheliteralmeaning,whileremainingvagueonthesubjectofhowitrelatedtotheallegoricalone).Itwasnotuntilthekabbalisticperiod
thatsuchthoroughlyabstractallegoriescametoflourishandfoundacceptanceinthetradition.
Onwhatgrounds,then,wasallegoryretainedasatoolofinterpretationbythetalmudicsages?Itwasretainedprimarilyasameanstoexplainsomepassagesofthe
Scripturesthatweredifficulttointerpretinanyotherway.Allegoricalinterpretationswerenecessary,forexample,toexplainanthropomorphicexpressionssuchas
"thehandofGod,"soastosustaintheconceptionofGodasanincorporealBeing.Atthesametime,theirintensebeliefintheTorahastherepositoryofalltruthled
therabbistoassumethataliteralinterpretationofapassagefromtheTorahcouldnotfullyexhaustitsmeaning.Allegoricalinterpretationsmadeitpossibleforsome
passages,inparticular,toexpressmoreprofoundmeaningsthanthoseconveyedbytheliteralreading.
Sincethesages,andRabbiAkibainparticular,sawitastheirdutytoexplicateeachandeverywordoftheTorah,evenwhatmightseemtobeinsignificant,theywere
forcedtocometogripswithpassagesthatdidnotlendthemselvestoanyapparentinterpretation.WereadinGenesis,forexample,thatAbramandNabortookto
themselveswives,thenameofAbram'swifebeingSarahandthatofNabor'swifeMilcah,thedaughterofHaranthefatherofMilcahandIscah(Gen.
11:2729).Thereisnofurther

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mentionofIscah,andtherabbiswereatalossastohowtoidentifyher.ThisdilemmawassolvedinthetalmudicperiodbyRabbiIsaac,whoobserved:"Iscahwas
Sarah,andwhywasshecalledIscah?Becausesheforesawthefuturebydivineinspiration."11Withnootherevidencetogoon,RabbiIsaacturnstotherootof
"Iscah,"sakhah,whichmeans"tosee,gaze,orprognosticate.''(ThisinterpretationwaslaterquotedbyRashi,commentingonGen.11:29.)FromthisRabbiIsaac
drawshisclearlyallegoricalexplanation,inwhichIscahrepresentsthatpoleofSarah'spersonalitythatfunctionedasaseer.FortraditionhasitthatAbrahamwasa
greatsoothsayerbutthatSarahwasevengreater.NormallySarahwasthedevotedwifeofAbraham,butwhensheservedasavesseloftheDivineWordshe
touchedonanotheraspectofherpersonalityandthuscouldbeidentifiedbyanothername.InthiswaydoesRabbiIsaacsolvethemysteryofIscah'sidentitywhile
incorporatingthetraditionofSarah'spropheticabilities.Iscah,then,isanextensionofSarah'spersonalitybeyonditsnormalbounds,whichinamythologicalsystemis
inevitablyidentifiedasaseparateindividual.
Thattheroleofallegorywasrecognizedasanacceptedmethodinwhichtogarbteachingsisapparentfromthefollowingparable,whichdefinesthetiesbetweenbody
andsoul:
AntoninussaidtoRabbi(JudahhaNasi):"Thebodyandthesoulcanbothfreethemselvesfromjudgment.Thus,thebodycanplead,'Thesoulhassinned,theproofbeingthat
fromthedayitleftmeIhavelaylikeadumbstoneinthegrave,'whilethesoulcansay,'Thebodyhassinned,theproofbeingthatfromthedayIdepartedfromitIhaveflown
aboutintheairlikeabirdandhaveremainedsinless.'"Rabbireplied:"Iwilltellyouaparable.Towhatmaythisbecompared?Toahumankingwhoownedabeautifulorchard
thatcontainedsplendidfigs.Now,heappointedtwowatchmentherein,onelameandtheotherblind.Onedaythelameonesaidtotheblind,'Iseebeautifulfigsintheorchard.
Comeandtakemeuponyourshoulder,thatwemayobtainandeatthem.'Sotheblindonecarriedthelameone,andtheypickedthefigsandatethem.Sometimelatertheownerof
theorchardcameandinquiredofthem:'Wherearethosebeautifulfigs?'Thelameonereplied:'HaveIfeettowalkwith?'Andtheblindonereplied:'HaveIeyestoseewith?'What
didthekingdothen?Heplacedthelameupontheblindandjudgedthemtogether.SowilltheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,bringthesoulandthebodytogether,andjudgethemas
one,asitiswritten,Heshallcalltotheheavensfromabove,andtotheearth,thatHemayjudgeHispeople(Ps.50:4).Heshallcalltotheheavensfromabovethisreferstothe
soulandtotheearth,thatHemayjudgehispeopletothebody."12

TheprincipleofallegorizinganentirebookoftheBiblewasestablishedbyRabbiAkiba'sdefenseoftheinclusionoftheSongofSongsinthesacredcanon,foreven
aslateasthe2ndcenturyC.E.therewasadebateamongtherabbisaboutwhetherornottheSongofSongsshouldbeincludedin

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theBible.RabbiAkibadeclaresintheMishnahthat"AlltheScripturesareholy,buttheSongofSongsistheHolyofHolies."13TheHolyofHolieswasthemost
sacredpartoftheTemple,wheretheArkoftheCovenantwaskept.ThismetaphoraptlyconveysRabbiAkiba'saweforthisremarkabletext.Buttherewas
resistancetothispoemonthegroundsthatitsimageryishighlyeroticandthatitdoesnotconcernitselfatallwiththeDivinity.ItwasonlyafterAkiba'ssuggestionthat
theSongofSongscouldbereadasanallegoryofthelovebetweenGodandIsrael(ratherthanasthatbetweenamanandawoman)thatoppositiontoitsinclusion
wasfinallyquelled.14Thus,byinterpretingitinanallegoricalfashion,RabbiAkibaprovidedawholenewperspectiveforhowtoregardtheSongsofSongsand
succeededinfindingawaytoincludeitintheCanon.NorisRabbiAkiba'sreadingtheonlyJewishallegoricalinterpretation.ItisinterestingtonotethatinJewish
mysticism,datingfromthe13thcentury,thedivineweddingallegorizedintheSongofSongsisnotbetweenGodandIsrael,butbetweenGodandHisBride,the
ShekhinahthusbetweenthemasculineandfeminineaspectsofGod.AtthispointthetechniqueofallegoricalinterpretationofScripturewasfullyestablished,and
statementsinsupportofitbegantoappear:"Letnottheallegoricmethodappeartoyouasslight,forbymeansoftheallegoricalmethodonemaysometimesgettothe
truemeaningofthescripturalwords."15Nevertheless,therabbiscontinuedtoresistagreatmanyoftheinterpretationsoftheallegorists,fearingthatthemethodmight
beusedagainstJudaismbythefollowersofareligionsuchasChristianity.And,indeed,themethodsandinterpretationofPhilo,inparticular,wereextensivelydrawn
uponbyChristiancommentators.Therabbis'reservationsaboutallegoryremainedapointofcontentionthroughoutthetalmudicandmidrashicperiods,andallegory
didnotreceivefullsanctionasaprimaryapproachtotheinterpretationoftheTorahuntilthekabbalisticera.Atthattimeallegorywascodifiedasonelevelof
interpretationinthesystemidentifiedbytheacronymPaRDeS.16Thisexegeticalapproachwasofthegreatestvalueinperpetuatingtheexpectationthatanypassage
oftheTorahissubjecttomultiplelevelsofmeaning.
PaRDesisanacronymforfourlevelsofunderstanding:peshat,remez,drash,andsod.17Peshatistheliterallevel.Remezisthefirsthintofanotherlevelofmeaning
inliterarytermsitistheuseofmetaphor.Drashstandsformidrash,whentheinterpretationtakestheformofalegend,or,inliteraryterms,ofallegory,whichitselfis
simplyanextendedmetaphor.Aboveall,drashreferstoamethodofexegesispracticedbythetalmudicsagesandtheirdisciplesandsuccessors.Thismethod
involvesderivingtheessentialmeaningfromascripturalsourcebyexaminingbothitsexplicitandimplicitmeaning.Inmanycasesapassageisexplicatedbyalegend,
oramidrash.Theselegendsarefrequentlyintendedtobeunderstoodasallegories.Itisinthiswaythatallegorycanbeidentifiedasoneofthedimensionsofdrash.
Sodisthelevelofmystery,ofthemystical,ofKabbalah.Itsliterarymeaningmustremaininseparablefromitsreligiousmeaning:entryintotherealmof

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thetranscendent.Theexistenceofthelevelofsodisalsoareminderthatthemetaphorisakindofveilandthatultimatetruthtranscendsitandmustremainimageless
andunknown,liketheremotestaspectofGod,knowninKabbalahasEinSof.
ApplyingthetermsofPardesretrospectivelytotheSongofSongs,itisapparentthatwhenthepoemisviewedasdepictingthelovebetweenamanandawoman,it
isbeingviewedfromtheliterallevelofpeshat,whereaswhenitisseenasanexpressionoflovebetweenGodandIsrael,asinRabbiAkiba'sinterpretation,itisbeing
viewedfromthethirdlevel,drash,allegory.InthisandmanyothercasesthesecondlevelofPardes,remez,isactuallymoreofatransitionalphase,whereinthe
readerfirstrecognizestheuseofsimile,metaphor,orallusion.Itisnotunlikerecognizingtheconnotationofawordratherthanthedenotation.Whentheentire
metaphorhasbeenrevealed,asinAkiba'sinterpretation,itachievesthelevelofdrash.Thefourthlevel,sod,wasaddedduringthekabbalisticera.Thisfourthlevel
wassufficientreasonforMoshedeLeontoadoptthesystemofPardes,sinceitcodifiedthekabbalisticvisionoftheZoharasanintegralpartoftheJewishsystemof
explication.Suchasystemofinterpretationofferedassuranceforthecontinuedexistenceofcontraryinterpretationsofthesametext,whichcouldsimplybeseenas
signifyingdifferinglevelsofmeaning.Furthermore,asystemthatpositsfoursimultaneouslevelsofunderstanding,fromthemostconcretetothemostabstract,iswell
suitedtodeveloparichliterarytraditionwhoseworkscanbeapproached,nomatterhowobscuretheymayappear.
ThechoiceofthewordPardesastheacronymforthissystemderivesfromitsuseinthetalmudiclegendinHagigah14baboutthefoursageswhoenteredPardes.
ThisiswithoutadoubtoneofthekeylegendsinallofJewishliterature,andinthecontextofthislegendthetermPardesaddedtoitsliteralmeaningof"orchard"the
auraofmysticalcontemplationandevenoftheascentofthesoulintoParadise.18
WhilethesystemofPardeswasprimarilydesignedtoexplicatetheTorah,itisalsoapplicabletoallliterature,sacredaswellassecular,andcanserveasahighly
sophisticatedtoolofinterpretation.Itisatechniqueespeciallyuseful,bothinitsreligiousandliterarydimensions,forcomingtotermswiththekindsofJewishtales
foundthroughoutpostbiblicalJewishliterature.Some,ofcourse,areintendedtobeunderstoodquiteliterally.Butmosttouchonallfourlevelsatthesametimeand,as
such,arefarricherthanmaybeapparentonfirstreading.19
Consider,forexample,S.Y.Agnon's"FableoftheGoat."Thistale,whichexistsasafolktaleinseveralvariants,concernsagoatthatleadsitsownerthroughan
enchantedcavetotheHolyLand.Onthelevelofpeshatthestorycanbeseensimplyasanembellishmentofthefolktaleonwhichitisbased.Fromthisperspective,
theenchantmentofthecavecanbeseenasacommonmotifinfolkandfairytales.Butifthereadernotesintheseparationoffatherandsonahintofthepredicament
ofthosewhoemi

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gratedtoIsraelandthosewhostayedbehind,thenthedirectionoftheallegorycanbediscerned.Atthispointthereadinghaspassedbeyondthelevelofremezand
reachedthatofdrashanallegoryoftheseparationofthegenerations.Itshouldnotbedifficultforreaderstoachievethisunderstandingofthestory,butfewwill
succeedinreachingintotherealmofsod,wherethetalemustbeinternalized.Fromthisperspectivethecavecomestosymbolizethepathwithintheselfthatleadsone
toemergefromtheexileofselfalienationtodiscoverthePromisedLandwithin.Suchselfrealizationisthetruegoalofkabbalisticliterature,asitwasthetruegoalof
thealchemistswhomtheworldregardedasbeingconcernedwiththetransmutationofleadintogoldandwhosetruecalling,thatoftransmutingtheleadensoulintothe
goldenone,wasconcealed.
AnotherillustrationisprovidedbythetaleofI.L.Peretzentitled"TheHermitandtheBear."Hereakabbalistwhohasgoneofftothewildernesstowakethesoulof
theworld,attemptstotameabear,representingtheforcesofevil,usinghismysticalpowers.Thisisastorythatrefusestobereadonlyontheliterallevel.Itsuggests
thatthemethodsofthehermitinmovingtheriver,inseekingtowaketheworldsoul,andintamingthebeararetheesoterictechniquesofthekabbalist,whocan
concentrategreatpowerstoachieveanend.ThesearethepowerscalleduponbyRabbiJudahLoewinthelegendcycleoftheGolem,themanofclaywhocomesto
lifeinthefolklegendthatprefigurestheFrankensteinmythofourowntime.
TheseimplicationsinPeretz'staleareintendedtodirectthereaderbeyondthefirst,literallevelofPardes,tothesecond,remez,wherethestrugglecanbeviewedin
itsabstractformasaclassicconfrontationofgoodandevil.Thisreading,inturn,leadstothelogicalallegoricalmeaning,inwhichthestruggleofthehermitandthe
bearcanbeseenastheeternalconflictbetweenthefleshandthespiritineveryone.Thisreadingreachesthelevelofdrash.Buttoachieveanunderstandingatthe
levelofsodwouldrequireinsightintothequestofthehermittoawakenthesouloftheworld,whichissleeping.Suchinsightwouldrequirenotnecessarilytheabilityto
wakethissoul,butatleasttheabilitytorecognizetheexistenceofthesoulthatsleepsandofthepossibilityofeveryperson,workingindependentlyortogether,to
wakethatsleepingsoulwithinhimself.Peretzalsomakesitquiteclearthatdevotingone'senergysolelytotamingthebear,thatis,ourunbridleddesires,willnotserve
thequestoftryingtoawakentheworldsoul,for,ashewrites,"Thehermitwhonowsleepstogetherwiththebearwillnotwakethesouloftheworld."Andasleep,
howcanthehermitcontinuehisquest?
Thisstory,then,despiteitsfolktaleexterioranditsjauntymanner,hasatitscoreatruththatPeretzhasclothedinallegoryforthesamepurposethatthekabbalists
inventedsimilarallegories.Whetherthereaderliftstheveilshidingthattruthdependsonhisorherabilitytoreachthesehigherlevelsofcomprehension.Butforthose
capableofreachingthatfar,thistruthglowsatthecenterofPeretz'stale.

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Thusthisexegeticalmethodisconcernednotonlywithdemarkingparticularlevelsofinterpretation,butalsowiththenaturalprocessofarrivingatafullunderstanding
oftheseprofoundtales.Thisbegins,naturally,withtheirlinktotheliteralandfamiliar,andleadsus,stepbystep,tothetranscendental.LiketheascentintoParadise
thatwasthegoaloftheMerkavahmystics,thegoalofthereadershouldbeaspiritualascent.Thesetales,then,arenotmereentertainmentorembellishmentof
familiarthemes,butattemptstoconstructaroundakerneloftruthalabyrinthinwhichsomereaderswillwanderwithouteverpenetratingtothecoreandinwhich
otherswillquicklyfindtheirway.

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PARTII
THEFOLKTRADITION

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Four
OnJewishFairyTales
TalesofmagicandwondercanbefoundineveryphaseofJewishliterature,bothsacredandsecular.1 ThesacredtextsincludetheBible,aswellasrabbinic,
kabbalistic,andhasidicliterature.TheseculartextsincludethePseudepigrapha,thewritingsofthetextsofmedievalJewishfolklore,modernenthnologicaltales,as
wellasmodernJewishliterature.Amongthepostbiblicalaggadot(legends)ofrabbinicloreandthema'asiyot(tales)ofJewishfolklorearetobefoundanumberof
storiesthatcanreadilybeidentifiedastraditionalfairytales.Someofthesearetheuniversaltypeoffairytalesetinanenchantedlandandpopulatedwithavarietyof
humanandsupernaturalbeings,bothgoodandevil,andareJewishsolelybyvirtueoftheirsource.Butmanyothers,perhapshalfoftheexistingbodyofJewishfairy
tales,havefusedsomespecificaspectsofJewishlifeandtraditionwiththearchetypalfairytaleframework.Forthefairytaleversionoftheworldasastageonwhich
goodandevilstruggleisfullycompatiblewiththeJewishviewoftheessentialconditionofthisworld,wherefaithinGodcandefeattheevilimpulse,knownasthe
YetzerHara.
Thefairytaleisanancientgenre,filledwithmarvelsandenchantments,andtypicallyconcernedwithkingsandqueensreadytogiveuphalftheirkingdomsifthey
couldonlyhaveachildoftheirownwithprinceswhosetoutonqueststowakensleepingprincessesandwithwitcheswhoareprepared,attheslightestoffense,to
throwaflyintheointment.Aboveall,theheromustovercomeobstaclesinordertoprovehimselfandwinhisreward.Andwhenallissaidanddone,goodalways
triumphsoverevil,andtheprinceandprincesslivehappilyeverafter.
Yetdespitetheapparentsimplicityandevenchildlikequalitiesofthe

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fairytale,muchofitspowerderivesfromthetimelessfantasiesandhumanconcernsitembodies,whichweperceiveprimarilyonanunconsciouslevelwhenweread
it,andwhichexplainitsprimalandcompellingpower.Thissuggestswhythefairytaleisfoundinvirtuallyeveryculture,providingamediumofexpressionforthe
archetypesoftheunconscious,embodiedinsuchbeingsaswitches,sorcerers,andenchantedprincesses.Foriffairytalesservedmerelyasanoutletfortheneedto
imagineourselvesasroyalty,theirspellwouldsoonbebroken,butinsteadthesetalesretainaremarkablepowerallourlives,notonlywhenwearechildren.Forjust
astheoutergarmentsofJewishritualsignifysomethingmuchgreatertoobservantJewsthanmerecustom,sotoodoestheseeminglysafeandfamiliarformatofthe
fairytaleencompasssomeofthemostelementaldrivesandemotions.
ThepioneeringworkofAnttiAarneandStithThompsoninthisfield,especiallyinTheTypesoftheFolkTale,hasdemonstratedconvincinglytheparallelthemesand
patternsoffairyandotherkindsoffolktalesfoundthroughouttheworld.FairytalesfromawiderangeofJewishsourcesandperiodssubstantiatethethesisofAarne
andThompson.ThereareevenJewishvariantsofsuchwellknownfairytalesas"SnowWhite,""SleepingBeauty,""Cinderella,""Rapunzel,''and"TheGoldenBird,"
2 butatthesametimetheycontainmanyuniquequalitiesasaresultoftheirorigin.EspeciallythosefairytalesthatconcernJewishlegendaryfigureshavebroughtwith
themthecustomsandsettingsofthemilieufromwhichtheyhaveemergedandarevaluablebearersofthetradition.
ThatfairytaleelementscanbefoundattheearlieststagesofJewishliteratureisdemonstratedbythebiblicalBookofEsther,inwhichaqueen,Esther,struggleswith
Haman,anevilministerofKingAhasuerus,whoistryingtodestroyherpeople,theJews.Theminister'splotisfoiledbyawiseoldman,Mordecai,whoisEsther's
kinsman.Whateverthehistoricalbasisforthisaccount,ithasbeencastinthemoldofafairytale,forallofthecharacteristicsarepresentexceptfortheinterventionof
thesupernatural,andthereisevenahappyending.Infact,itispossibletorecognizeintheBookofEstherthedirectiontakenbylaterJewishfairytales,especially
thoseofthemedievalperiod,whichcombinetheuniversalfairytaleformatwithadistinctlyJewishcontext.
Indeed,otherbiblicalepisodeshavefairytaleovertones.Imagineafairytaleaboutagardeninwhichtwoenchantedtreesgrow,onelinkedtoLifeandonetoDeath.
Thereisalsoaspeakingsnakeinthegarden,whoseetheswithenvyoverthemanwholivestherewithabeautifulwoman.Soundfamiliar?Thebiblicalaccountofthe
GardenofEdenhasallofthesefolkelementsandmanyothers.Sotoocanvariouskindsoffolktaletypesandmotifsbefoundinotherbiblicalnarratives,aswhen
Mosesthrewdownhisstaff,whichbecameaserpent,orwhenhestrucktherockfromwhichwaterpouredforth.
FairytalequalitiescanbefoundaswellintheaccountofDavidandGoliaththeyoungshepherdboyDavidslayingthegiantGoliathagainst

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alltheodds.ThatthisepisodewasindeedregardedasafairytaleismadeapparentbythetaleofDavidandthegiantIshbibenob,brotherofGoliath,whichisfound
intheTalmud,themostsacredJewishtextaftertheBible.3 Inthistale,"KingDavidandtheGiant,"Ishbibenobbehavesexactlyasdobellicosegiantsinfairytales,
attemptingtocrushKingDavidbeneathhisolivepresswhilehisevilmother,Orpah,throwsherspindleatAbishai,KingDavid'sgeneral.Herethelatentfairytale
elementsinthestoryofDavidandGoliatharemadeovertwhereasinthebiblicaltaleitisDavid'sskillandcunningthatsavehim,hereitisthesupernaturalpowerof
theNameofGod(knownastheTetragrammaton)thatperformsthemagicofsuspendingDavidintheairsothathedoesnotlandonthegiant'sspear,makingthis
muchmoreofafairytalethanitsbiblicalforerunner.TheuseofDivineinterventionischaracteristicoftheJewishfairytaleingeneral,whereitreplacestheusual
devicesofenchantment.Thuswhatotherfairytalesattributetomagicalcauses,theJewishvisioninterpretsasademonstrationofthepowerandbeneficenceofGod.
KingSolomon'sprimarymagicaldevice,forexample,ishisring,onwhichisengravedtheNameofGod.Magicalringsofenchantedoriginareoftenfoundinfairy
tales,butthepowerofSolomon'sringderivesexplicitlyfromGod'sName:thusBenaiah,Solomon'sgeneral,needonlyholdupSolomon'sringandcryout,"The
NameofyourMasterisuponyou!"andAsmodeus,kingofthedemons,isrenderedpowerless.4
Theseareallauthenticfolkorfairytalethemes,alongwithothers,suchasthestoryofNoah'sark,thetalkingassinBaalam,thewhalethatswallowsJonah,and
Danielinthelion'sden.Still,suchfolkandfairytaleelementsdonotplayaprominentroleintheBible,anditisonlyintheTalmudthatthefirstclearcutJewishfairy
talesaretobefound.Thisislargelyduetothemoreprominentroleoffantasyinthetalmudiclegends,whichmakeliberaluseofpoeticlicense.Yetaswithvirtuallyall
oftheaggadot,thefairytalesthatarefoundintheTalmudandtheMidrashhaveastheirstartingpointanattempttoresolveaquestionraisedinthebiblicaltext.The
workingsofthisprocessareespeciallyapparentin"KingSolomonandAsmodeus."5 ThepremiseofthiswellknowntalmudictaleisanexplanationofhowKing
SolomonmanagedtoconstructthestonealtaroftheTemplewithneitherhammernoraxenoranytoolofironheardinthehousewhileitwasbeingbuilt(1
Kings6:7).Sincetherewasnoknownwaytoaccomplishthis,amagicalcreature,theShamir,wasinvented,asitwere,thatcouldcutthroughanything,andKing
SolomonsendshistrustedgeneralBenaiahonaquesttocaptureAsmodeus,kingofthedemons,whoknowswheretheShamircanbefound,andthentoobtainit
fromthehoopoebirdthathaspossessionofit.
AllinalltherearenomorethanadozenfairytalestobefoundintheTalmud,including"TheWitchesofAshkelon,"6 "KingDavidandtheGiant,"7 "KingSolomonand
Asmodeus,"8 and"TheBeggarKing.''9 Thefirstoftheseconcernshistoricalfigures,asdothetalesaboutKingDavidandKingSolomon.Itmaywellbethat"The
WitchesofAshkelon"is,infact,

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basedonahistoricalevent:thehangingofeightywitchesinthecityofAshkelon.Fabulousasthetaleitselfseems,inwhichthewitchesaredeceivedwhentheircaptors
disguisethemselvesaswouldbesuitorswishingtodancewiththem,theTalmudalsoreportsthefuryoftherelativesofthewitchesfollowingtheirexecution.10And
thusthistaleoffersaninstanceinwhichitispossibletofollowtheevolutionofahistoricaleventintoataleofthefantastic,whereasmostlegendshavelongsince
succeededindiscardingthehistoricalkernelthatbroughtthemintobeing.
Inatalesuchas"KingSolomonandAsmodeus"thedistinctionbetweenlegendandfairytalehasbecomesubstantiallyblurred.Legendsaretypicallybasedupon
historicalpersons,places,oreventsandusuallypossesssomedegreeofrealism,butwhileitseemscertainthatKingSolomonaswellashisgeneral,Benaiah,were
historicalfigures,thequestdescribedhereisclearlydrawnfromtherealmoffantasy.Suchanapproachistypicalofmostaggadiclegends,whicharefreeofmostof
theconstraintsofverisimilitude,includingtheportrayaloftime.Yetbecauseofthelegendaryintentionthatinspiredthem,thetalesoftheTalmudandtheMidrash
remainauniqueform,functioningaslegendarytalesandtalesofthefantasticatthesametime.Andonoccasiontheruleoffantasyfullydominatesthetale,briningit
intotherealmofthetaleofenchantment.Thatsuchfairytaleelementsarepresentin"KingSolomonandAsmodeus"isreadilyapparent,enablingittofunctionasa
drash(biblicalexegesis)explaininghowtheinjunctionthatthoushaltliftupnoirontooluponthealtaroftheLord(Deut.27:5)wasfulfilled,aswellasataleof
enchantmentconcernedwithaquest,thedefeatandcaptureofthekingofdemons,theuseofamagicalringtosubduehim,andthediscoveryofacreaturethatcan
cutthroughthehardeststone.Itisinthisverytale,then,thatthefusionoftheuniquelyJewishaggadictaleandtheuniversalfairytalecanbeseentotakeplace.Andit
isworthnotingthatsuchhybridcreationisunusualwhilemostmyths,legends,andfolktalesarecolored,toaconsiderableextent,withthecustomsandsettingofthe
culturefromwhichtheyemerge,thisusuallyisnotthecasewithfairytales,whichexistinatimelessandspatiallyelasticworld.
IntheTalmud"KingSolomonandAsmodeus"isfollowedbyacompaniontaleinwhichAsmodeusrevengeshimselfbyoutsmartingKingSolomon,thewisestofall
men.Inthistale,"TheBeggarKing,"11Solomon'sfallfromgloryissocompleteheisreducedtobeingawanderingbeggar,regardedasamadmanwhenheinsistshe
isaking.Thistaleexistsasabriefcodaattheendof"KingSolomonandAsmodeus,"butaconsiderablenumberofvariantsstemmingfromtheMiddleAgesaretobe
found,whichexpandonthewanderingsofSolomon.ThisprocessofembellishmentofanearliernarrativeischaracteristicofJewishfolkloreingeneraland
demonstratesthemannerinwhichtheearliertalewasreceivedasastoryworthyoffurtherdevelopmentratherthanasafixedworkthathadtoberetoldinexactlythe
sameway.Naturally,muchofthisnarrativefreedomderives

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fromthenatureoffolklore,whichbelongsprimarilytothepeopleandgenerallyremainsanoralratherthanawrittentradition.Althoughthisistrueofthefolkloreof
mostofthepeopleoftheworld,theexceptionalcontinuityoftheJewishtraditionmakesitpossibletotracetheevolutionofmanytalesfromtheirearliestwritten
versions,preservedinsacredtexts,throughvariousretellingsinlaterperiods.Andtheexistenceofsuchvariantsinevitablygivesbirthtoadditionaltales,asrelated
versionsdrawontheabundantpossibilitiesofcombinationandvariation.
WhereasthebiblicalKingSolomonisportrayedasagreatrulerandamanofsurpassingwisdom,thelegendarySolomonhasbeentransformedintoasorcerer
withoutpeer,versedinallaspectsofmagic,includingtheknowledgeofthelanguagesofthebirdsandotheranimals,andabletocalluponthedemonsandeventhe
windstoservehiswill.Atthesametime,theambivalenceaboutSolomonfoundintheBibleemergesinmanyofthefolktalesabouthim.Ontheonehandthereisstill
admirationforhisprowessandgrandeur,butthisisqualifiedbyarecognitionofhisexcessivepride.SuchaportrayalofSolomonalsoreflectsahesitantattitude
towardtherealmsofmagicandthesupernatural,forJewishlegendisfilledwithtalesofthoselesswiseandfortunatethanSolomonwhoweredestroyedbyengaging
intheoccult.
Thisthemeofchastisementisalsofoundinthemidrashictale"TheMysteriousPalace"12whenSolomonisridinghisflyingcarpet.Filledwithasenseofhisown
greatness,heissuddenlyremindedofhowfragileisthecovenantthatpermitshimtoglidethroughtheair,whichGodcanwithdrawasthoughitwerethewind.The
succeedingepisode,concerningthepalaceoftheeagles,teachesSolomonsomethingofthelessonsofeternity,notunlikethosetaughtOzymandiasinShelley'spoem
ofthesametitle.ThewholetalehasastrongechoofatalmudiclegendinwhichSolomontriestoenterthegatesoftheSanctuaryoftheTemple,onlytoberebuffed
whenthegatesrefusetoopen,forheisnotpermittedtoenteronhisownmerits,butonlyonthoseofhisfather,KingDavid.13
"ThePrincessintheTower,"amidrashicvariantof"Rapunzel,"demonstratesthatevenKingSolomon,thewisestofmortals,couldnotoutfoxfate.Solomonattempts
tocircumventtheprophecythathisdaughterwillmarryapoormanbyisolatingherinatoweronaremoteisland.Butagianteagleendsupcarryingherdestined
bridegroomtotheroofofthetower.Thistaleconfirmsthetalmudicdictumthat"FortydaysbeforetheformationofachildavoicegoesforthoutofHeavento
announcethatthisonewillmarrythatone."14AndnotevenKingSolomoncandepriveapersonofhisorherdestinedmatch.Asimilarmoralisfoundinalegend
abouttwomenSolomonattemptstoassistinescapingtheAngelofDeath.InoneversionSolomonpronouncestheDivineNameandsuspendsthemenintheair,
where,itturnsout,theAngelofDeathhasbeenorderedtoseizetheminanotherversionhesendsthemtothecityofLuz,whichtheAngelofDeathisforbiddento
enter,buttheAngelstillseizesthem,atthegateofthecity.15

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Astheseparallellegendsdemonstrate,thesamemotifsarefoundthroughouttheJewishlegendarytradition,inwhichsacredlegendsandsecularfolklore,including
fairytales,areinmanywayscutfromthesamecloth,andwelldefineddistinctionsbetweenthemareoftennotpossible.
ThislegendarycityofLuzreappearsinamedievaltaleofthesametitle,whichoffersanopportunitytoobservetheevolutionofalegendfromitsoriginintheBible
throughitsdevelopmentintheTalmudandMidrashuntilitscrowningexpressionasamedievalfolktale.TherearefourbriefreferencestothecityofLuzintheBible.
Thefirstofthese,thatofJacob'sdream,identifiesthecityasoneoftheGatesofHeaven:
AndJacobawakedoutofhissleep,andhesaid,"SurelytheLordisinthisplaceandIknewitnot."Andhewasafraid,andsaid,"Howfullofaweisthisplace!Thisisnoneother
thantheHouseofGod,andthisistheGateofHeaven."...AndhecalledthenameofthatplaceBethel,butthenameofthecitywasLuzatfirst.

(Gen.28:1617,19)
ButitistheTalmudthatidentifiesLuzforthefirsttimeasacityofimmortals:16
Ithasbeentaught:"ThatistheLuzagainstwhichSennacheribmarchedwithoutdisturbingit,andeventheAngelofDeathhasnopermissiontopassthroughit.Butwhentheold
therebecometiredoflifetheygooutsidethewallandthendie."

BytheMiddleAgesthiscityofimmortalshadgrownintoalegendaryplaceandthestorytellers'artlayprimarilyintellingofthequesttoreachit.17
ThemostprolificperiodofJewishfolklorecomesintheMiddleAges.ItisinthisperiodthatthefairytalefirstemergesasaprominentformofJewishfolklore.This
abundanceoffolklorewasbroughtaboutbytheindependentevolutionoftalmudicandmidrashicmotifsamongthepeople,whowereespeciallyattractedtotalesthat
demonstratedthegreatnessoftheJewishkingsandprophetsofthepast.Atatimewhenrabbinicformulationshadbecomemoreallegoricalandesoteric,especiallyas
manifestedinthekabbalisticliterature,thecommonfolkweredrawntotaleswithpronouncedelementsoffantasyandclearcutmorals.Thefairytalesthatarefound
inthismedievalfolkloredemonstrateaconsiderableevolutioninthegenre,creatingaformwhichinmanywaysisahybrid,weavingthefeaturesofthetypicalfolktale
intothefabricofthefairytale.Forexample,theherointhesetalesisoftenacommonJew,butthecharacteristiclinktoroyaltyisusuallyretainedbythepresenceofa
kingorqueen(orprinceorprincess)oftheoppositesex.In"ThePrincesswithGoldenHair,"18theJewYohanan

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issentoutonamissiontolocatetheprincesswhosestrandofgoldenhairhasbeendroppedbyabirdatthefeetoftheking,andthetaleendswiththefairytale
marriageofYohananandtheprincessandhisascensiontothethrone.Anotherexampleisfoundin"TheFlightoftheEagle,"19inwhichtheJewishyouthShlomo
becomesthebelovedandthenthehusbandofthedaughterofthekingofSpain.Andin"TheDemonPrincess,"aJewevenendsupweddedtothedaughterof
Asmodeus.
ThesemedievalfairytalesalsotypicallyretainthemoralbasisofJudaism.Avowmadetoone'sfatherissacred,andYohanan,in"ThePrincesswithGoldenHair,"
honorsituntilheisleftimpoverished.Whenhehasdemonstratedhisfaithfulness,heisrewardedbythegiantscorpionhehasraised,andeventuallyhenotonly
completesthequesttofindhisprincessbutevenbecomesking,aproperreward,thetaleimplies,forhonoringavow.Itisinterestingtonotethatinaversionofthis
talefoundinTheMaasehBook,whichdatesfromsixhundredyearslater,thescorpionhasbecomeafrogandtheprincipalfigurearabbi.Butforthemostpartthe
storyremainsthesame,anotherstrikingexampleofthecontinuityofJewishtradition.
AsYohanan'sfidelitymakeshimdeservingofhisgreatreward,sodoestheviolationofsuchavowunleashthepunishmentsthatoverwhelmthemanin"TheDemon
Princess."20Thistale,whichisalsoknownas"TheTaleofaJerusalemite,"hasbeenascribedtoAbraham,thesonofMosesMaimonides,wholivedatthebeginning
ofthe13thcenturyinEgypt.TheJewwhobreakshisvowtohisfatherisportrayedasdeceitfulandmanipulative,andhemakesothervowshehasnointentionof
keepingtothedaughterofAsmodeus.Themanprovokesthewrathofthekingofdemonsandhisdaughter,whichisnottemperedwithmercy.
Thisrareoccasionofafairytalethatdoesnothaveahappyendingindicatestheextenttowhichtheformhasevolved.Thenotionofthekissofdeath,withwhichthe
demonprincesstakesthelifeofthemanwhohasbetrayedher,isechoedinatalmudiclegendthatdescribesthedeathofMosesashavingcomefromtheKissofthe
Shekhinah,theDivinePresenceandBrideofGod.21Inthiscontextitsignifiesamysticalunionatthemomentofdeath,whereasthemankissedbythedemon
princesssimplyhashisbreathsnatchedaway.Forthosefamiliarwiththetalmudiclegend,ofcourse,itsechointhefairytaleisreadilyapparentandenrichesthe
resonanceofthetale.
Ofparticularinterestin"TheDemonPrincess"isthedescriptionofthereligiouslifeinthekingdomofthedemons,whichseemsparallel,ineveryrespect,tothatofa
devoutJewoftheMiddleAges.Thisisnotintendedasmockery,fortheYenneVelt,theworldinwhichdemonsandotherspiritslive,wasbelievedtobeamirror
image,somewhatdistorted,oftheworldinwhichwelive.
ItisworthnotingthatthecharacterizationofAsmodeusfoundinthistaleisconsistentwiththatin"KingSolomonandAsmodeus"and"The

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BeggarKing."AsmodeusisacharacteristicallyJewishdemonwho,likehisnemesis,KingSolomon,isoneofthemostpopularfiguresinJewishfolklore.Spending
partofhistimeinParadise,wherehestudiesintheHeavenlyAcademy,Asmodeusdoesnotfitthemoldofthetypicaldemonoffairytalesheperformsgooddeeds,
suchassettingablindmanontheproperpath,aswellasmischievousones.Furtheraspectsofhischaracterarefoundinthetales"PartnershipwithAsmodeus"and
"TheMagicFluteofAsmodeus."22Intheformer,Asmodeussavesamanfromsuicideagainperformingamitzvah,orgooddeedandproposesapartnership
thatbringsthemangreatbenefituntilheprovestobeaningrate.ThenAsmodeusturnsonhim,asdoesthedemonprincessonherdishonesthusband,andputshimin
gravedanger.Oragain,Asmodeusappearsasagratefulfatherwhorewardstheshepherdin"TheMagicFluteofAsmodeus"forsavinghissonandgiveshimevery
magicalgiftherequests.AnditshouldbenotedthatevenwhenAsmodeusisresponsibleforSolomon'sfallfromgloryin"TheBeggarKing,"itisforthepurposeof
teachingthekinganimportantlesson.OntheonehandAsmodeusisaworthyadversary,withsomeofthesubtletyofGoethe'sMephistopheles.Ontheotherhand
AsmodeusplaysapositiveroleinGod'sdesign,forHisagencyisseenultimatelyineveryevent,whethergoodorbad.
BythelateMiddleAges,theprimaryJewishsorcererisnotKingSolomon,butRabbiAdam,who,likeSolomon,ismasterofmanymysteries.RabbiAdamis
perhapsbestknownforhisroleasthetransmitterofthefabledBookofMysteriestotheBaalShemTovinhasidiclegend,buttherealsoexistseveralindependent
medievaltalesabouthim,including"TheKing'sDream,"23"TheMagicMirrorofRabbiAdam,"24and"TheEnchantedJourney."25In"TheKing'sDream"Rabbi
Adamcastsaspellthatcausesanevilkingtodreamthatheawakensatthebottomofapitinanotherkingdom,whereheisarrestedandputtothreetests,withhislife
atstake.EachtimeRabbiAdamcomestohisrescue,sothatthekingfindshimselfgreatlyinhisdebt,andwhenheawakensfromhisnightmareandfindshimselfback
inhispalace,heismorethanwillingtocanceltheevildecreethatpromptedRabbiAdamtotakeactioninthefirstplace.In"TheMagicMirrorofRabbiAdam''the
wonderworkingrabbiusesamagicmirrortosaveaJewfrombeingavictimofblackmagic.Andin"TheEnchantedJourney"RabbiAdamcastsaspellonakingthat
causeshimtobelievethathesailstothekingdomofhisenemy,whereheishiddenandprotectedbyJews,untilhehimselfbecomesaJew.Whenheemergesfromthe
spell,heisfarmoresympathetictotheplightoftheJews,andcancelsanevilspellagainstthem.
IneachcaseRabbiAdamcomestotheassistanceofhisfellowJewseitherbyintercedingwithanevilkingorbyaidingaJewindanger.Itisnotdifficulttorecognize
inthesetalesthedeepfrustrations,feelingsofimpotence,andsenseofisolationexperiencedbyJewsinthemedievalperiod,andtoseehowthefantasymechanismsof
thefairytaleoperate.For

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itisoutofthepeople'slongingtobeindependentandsecurethatsuchtalesemerged,andthisistrueofthetalesfromtheMiddleEastandthosefromEasternEurope,
thelivesofboththeSephardic(MiddleEastern)andAshkenazic(EasternEuropean)Jewsbeingequallydifficult.ThetalesaboutRabbiAdamalsoservedasmodels
forsomeofthelegendsofRabbiJudahLoewofPrague,thecreatoroftheGolem.InbothsetsoftalestheroleoftheJewishheroistakenoverbythetzaddik,the
righteousmanwhooweshispowerstohisknowledgeoftheTorahandhistrustinGod.
ThenextimportantsourceforJewishfairytales,aftertheMiddleAges,isinthehasidiceraofthe18thand19thcenturiesinEasternEurope.Whilethehasidic
masters,includingtheBaalShemTov,founderofHasidism,hadbeenthesubjectofarichbodyofmiracletales,therearerelativelyfewfairytales,perhapsbecause
thehasidimidentifiedtheirrabbiswiththepatriarchsandancientsagesratherthanwiththemorefancifulheroesoffairytales.However,thereisatreasuryofsuchfairy
talesattributedtoRabbiNachmanofBratslav,wholivedinthe19thcentury.InthelastfouryearsofhislifeRabbiNachman,whowasthegreatgrandsonoftheBaal
ShemTov,undertooktotelltalestohishasidimasamethodoftransmittinghisteachings.AmongthetalesofRabbiNachmanthatseem,onthesurface,tobe
conventionalfairytalesare"TheLostPrincess,"26"ThePrinceWhoWasMadeofPreciousGems,"27''TheWaterPalace,"28and"ThePiratePrincess."29Andwhile
theycertainlyareauthenticfairytales,theyare,atthesametime,complexallegoriesfrequentlylinkedtomythsconcerningtheShekhinahandtheMessiah.Inthetales
ofRabbiNachmanthema'aseh,thetraditionalJewishtale,andtheuniversalfairytalefullymergeandbecomeinseparable.
Astorysuchas"TheLostPrincess,"forexample,appearstobeatypicaltaleofthequestforanimprisonedprincess,but,accordingtoRabbiNachman'sscribe,
RabbiNathanofNemirov,itisactuallyanallegoryabouttheexileoftheShekhinah,theDivinePresence,whichbecomesidentifiedasamythicallyindependent
femininebeingduringthekabbalisticperiod.Accordingtokabbalisticmyth,theShekhinahwentintoexileatthetimeofthedestructionoftheTempleinJerusalem.
TheloyalministerwhosearchesforherinthistalemaybeseentorepresenttheMessiah,whohasbeensenttobringheroutofexile,sincetraditionholdsthatshewill
befreedonlywhentheMessiahhascome.Ortheministermaybeseenasatzaddik,arighteousone,asthemostelectamongthehasidicrabbiswerecalled,who
obeysthecommandoftheKing,theDivinity,tosearchforthelostShekhinahsoastomakeitpossibleforthemessianiceratobegin.Ortheministermightbeseen
asthepeopleofIsraelasawhole,whosharetheresponsibilityforbringingtheMessiah.Forthosefamiliarwiththesekabbalisticmyths,asNachman'shasidimwere,
thesymbolisminhisstoriesconveyedprofoundsecrets,including,itishinted,themeanstohastenthemessianicera.
Thisdoesnotmean,however,thatRabbiNachman'stalesmustbereadallegoricallytobeappreciated.Thetaleshavegreatpowerinthemselves,

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forNachman'sfigures,events,andimagesare,atonce,soprimaryandsosubtlethattheyevokethenuminousqualityoftheinnerworld.Furthermore,hisallegorical
intentionsbrilliantlyexploitthefairytaleformasapureandspontaneousexpressionofunconsciousstates.SotoodoesthekabbalisticconceptoftheShekhinah
naturallylinkupwiththeJungianconceptoftheanima,thefeminineaspectofthepsycheofeveryman.TheidentificationoftheShekhinahwiththeimprisoned
princessworksinverymuchthesamewaythefigureoftheevilstepmotherinfairytalesservesasamaskforourownmothers,permittingthechildanexpressionof
fearorangerthatmightotherwiseberepressed.RabbiNachmanwasthusespeciallyremarkablebecauseherecognizedthevitalsymbolisminfairytales,sawitslink
tothemysticalimageryintheKabbalah,anddiscoveredawaytofusethetwo.
FromtheperspectiveofthetraditionofJewishliterature,then,itispossibletoseehowRabbiNachman'sinnovationsrepresentacontinuationofthedevelopment
beginningwiththeaggadotoftheTalmudandMidrash.Forintheserabbiniclegendsthereisaremarkablycompleteidentificationwiththeprimarybiblicalfigures,
suchasAbraham,Jacob,andMoses,whichmadethelegendsmodesofpersonalexpressionaswellasofbiblicalexegesis.Therabbisnotonlyfreelyprovided
missingepisodesfromthebiblicalnarrative,suchasthatofAbraham'schildhood,butalsoattributedtothepatriarchsdreamsoftheirown,suchasanapocryphal
dreamAbrahamissaidtohavehadaboutacedarandapalmtree,whichwarnedhimofthecomingdangerinEgypt.30Suchprojectionshavealwaysbeenthebasis
offairytales,inwhichtheprimarycharactersareoftenleftunnamed,identifiedonlyasakingorqueen,aprinceorprincess,thusinvitingidentificationwiththelistener
orreaderofthetale.BeginningwiththekabbalisticperiodofJewishliterature,thekindsofprojectionsthatwerecommonforbiblicalfigurescametoincludemore
abstractconcepts,suchastheShekhinahandtheMessiah.SoforRabbiNachmanthelostprincess,orsoul,ineachofusmustbesoughtafter,foreachofusmust
seektoaccomplishthepersonalrestorationandredemptionthattheMessiahrepresentsonacosmicscale.Bylinkingtheseabstractionswiththemoreconcrete
charactersofthetraditionalfairytale,RabbiNachmanwasmakingthisprocessofspiritualprojectionamuchsimplermattertoenvision.
Virtuallyallofthesourcesdiscussedsofarhavecomedowntousinwrittenform.Nonetheless,allofthemfirstexistedasoraltales,which,exceptforthetalesof
RabbiNachman,werehandeddownforcenturiesbeforetheywerefinallyrecorded.However,becauseofthelowstatusofJewishfolkloreamongtherabbis,who
weretheprimarykeepersofthetradition,theseseculartaleswerenotscrupulouslypreserved,aswerethesacredtextsoftheTalmud,Midrash,andKabbalah.Asa
result,agreatmanytaleswerelostandwillalmostcertainlyneverberecovered.Atthesametime,manytalescontinuedtoberetold,andthushavebeenpreserved
orally,especiallyinisolatedareassuchasYemen,intothepresentcentury.

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AmongtheearlyJewishscholarswhosoughttopreservethisoraltraditionwereS.Ansky,theYiddishdramatistandauthorofTheDybbuk,andY.L.Cahan,who
collectedJewishfolksongsaswellasfolktales.AnskyandCahanwentoutintothecountrysideandwrotedownthetalesastheyweretoldtothem.Someofthese
taleshadalreadybeenpreservedinanearlierwrittenform,butthemajorityhadnot.Oftenthesetaleswerethepurestkindsoffairytales,leftunrecordedsimply
becausetheydidnotseemtobearareligiousmoral.ButtherewerealsoexamplesofthefusedJewishfolktaleanduniversalfairytalethatemergedinitsmost
completeformintheMiddleAges.AmongthetalescollectedbyY.L.CahanandrecordedinYiddishare"TheImprisonedPrincess"31and"TheExiledPrincess."32
"TheImprisonedPrincess''canreadilybeseenasavariantofthethemefoundinRabbiNachman's"TheLostPrincess,"while"TheExiledPrincess"isaJewishvariant
of"Cinderella."
Morerecently,themostimportantdevelopmentinJewishfolkloreistakingplaceinIsrael,asmightbeexpected,whereoraltalesarebeingcollectedfromJews
representingvirtuallyeveryJewishethniccommunity.ThisgoodworkisbeingaccomplishedbytheIsraelFolktaleArchives(IFA),whichwasfoundedfortyyearsago
byProfessorDovNoyoftheHebrewUniversity.TodatetheIFAhascollectedtwentythousandtalesfromoralsources.CollectorsoftheIFAworkunder
considerablepressurebecauseofthelikelyextinctionofmostoftheoraltraditionsthatstillsurvive,asaresultoftherapidtransitionfromlanguagessuchasYiddish
andArabictoHebrewamongtheJewishimmigrantstoIsrael.Thusthetalesthatareknownonlyintheoldlanguagesaredyingout.Facedwiththissituation,theIFA
hasrushedtocollectasmuchmaterialaspossiblebeforeitistoolate.Sofar,thecollectorshaveadmirablysucceededintheirtask,andamongthetalestheyhave
collectedaremanyfairytales,includingSephardictalesfromEgypt,Morocco,Greece,India,Yemen,Kurdistan,Persia(Iran),andLibya,aswellasAshkenazictales
fromEasternEurope.
Oneunusualformatforthepreservationoffolkmaterial,includingfairytales,istheballad.BalladswereespeciallypopularinSephardiccommunities,suchasthose
foundinGreece,Turkey,andMorocco,andtherearealsoYiddishfolksongsthathavepreservedsimilarmaterial.InmanycasestheJudeoSpanishballadscontain
theonlyexistingversionsofthetalesonwhichtheywerebased.Thefairytaleinaballadformatusuallyhasbeencondensedtoincludeonlytheprimaryepisodesof
thetale.Butsincefairytalesareinmanywayspredictable,itisnotdifficulttoimaginethedetailssuggestedbytheballad'snarrative.Anexampleofafairytale
reconstructedfromsuchasourceis"TheNightingaleandtheDove,"33whichcomesfromSalonika.Thisisafairytaleoftransformation,whereeachtimetheevil
queenkillsthelovers,theyarereborninanotherform,asfish,birds,andultimatelybushesthattwinetogether.
WhilemostofthefairytalesthathavebeenpreservedinthesacredliteratureoftheTalmudandMidrashandthelatermedievalfolkloreare

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eitherspecificallyJewishincontent,orelseparablesandteachingstoriesthathavebeentransmittedfortheirallegoricalintent,theuniversalfairytalewithoutovert
Jewishelementsalsoflourishedduringalloftheseperiods.Someofthetalesareveryoldindeed,butsincetheyexistedsolelyintheoraltradition,itisalmost
impossibletoestimatetheirdatesoforigin.AndwhiletheoutergarmentofthetalescannotbeidentifiedasJewish,therecanbenodoubtthatthethemesofmanyof
thesetalesareparalleltotheconcernsofthemoreovertlyJewishones.AswiththeidentifiablyJewishfairytales,theprimarythemesconcernquestsandimprisoned
princesses.
Whatisitaboutthesetwothemesthatmakethemsocompelling?Theparallelsofthethemeoftheimprisonedprincesstothekabbalisticmythoftheexileofthe
Shekhinahhavealreadybeenobserved.Thethemeofthequestisoftentakenupinthemidrashicliterature,depicting,forexample,thesearchforthelegendaryBook
ofRaziel,giventoAdambytheangelRaziel,aswellasthesearchfortheTemplevessels,preservedfromdestructionbyJeremiahwhentheRomansoverranthe
TempleinJerusalem.AndinhismythoftheShatteringoftheVesselsandtheGatheringoftheSparks,the16thcenturykabbalistRabbiIsaacLuria,theAri,develops
amethodofrestoration,ortikkun,whichworksverymuchlikeaquest.Accordingtothiskabbalisticmyth,Godsentoutvesselsfilledwithaprimordiallight(which
itselfisthesubjectofmanymidrashim),butthesevesselsunexpectedlyshattered,scatteringsparksoflightthroughouttheworld.TheroleoftheJew,accordingtothe
Ari,istoraisethesescatteredsparksfromwheretheyhavefallenandtoeventuallyrestoretheworldtoitspristinestate.SoitisthattheJewhasbeenbroughtintothis
world,intheLurianicview,tocompletesuchapersonalquest,andthereforehehasastakeintheultimatedestinyofthisworldandthenext.
Thatthestandardfairytalequestcantakeonreligioussignificanceisamplydemonstratedin"ThePrincessandtheSlave."35HeretheslaveSamuelseeksMosesin
anendlesswilderness,suggestingthewanderingoftheIsraelitesinthetimeoftheExodus.Asaresultofthesuccessfulcompletionofhisquest,Samueldiscoversthe
secretofeternalyouth,whichinsymbolictermscanbeseentorepresenteternallifeintheWorldtoCome.Likewise,thequestforElijah'sviolininthestoryofthe
sametitleisofareligiousnature.36Forthesuccessfulcompletionoftheking'squestenablestheviolin'simprisonedmelodies,emblematicoftheJewishspirit,tobeset
free.
Amongthecharacteristicsthesefairytalesandthemidrashicliteraturehaveincommonistheirtimelessness.ThatSamuelsucceedsinhisquesttofindMosesin"The
PrincessandtheSlave"indicatesthatthisfairytaleissetinatimelessworldindeed.InthemidrashictraditionMosesisoftenviewedasanimmortalfigure,largely
becausehisdeathisnotrecordedinthebiblicalnarrative.SotoodoestheappearanceofElijahinamultitudeofpostbiblicaltalesattesttothetraditionthatElijah
appearsineachgenerationtoassistthoseJewswiththegreatestneed.Thistraditionderivesfrom

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Elijah'smiraculousascensionintoheaveninachariotoffire.Yetwhilemostofthesestoriesconcernthemiraculous,veryfewarefairytalesinthetraditionalsense.
"Elijah'sViolin,"however,isanexception,andtheviolinitselfcanbeseenasasymbolforthepositiveattributesofthelegendaryElijahaswellasamagicaldevice
exactlylikethosefoundsoofteninfairytalesaJewishequivalentofAladdin'slamp.
ThecharacteristicJewishfairytale,then,canbestbeseenasafusionoftheJewishsacredlegendortheJewishsecularfolktalewiththeuniversalfairytale,
conditionedbythebiblicalandpostbiblicaltraditioninwhichDivineProvidencetakestheplaceofmagicaldevicesandresolutionsandthemoralelementis
preeminent.TheresultisapowerfulmediumforthereaffirmationofJewishfaithandlonging,sustainedoveronehundredgenerations.Thearchetypalandeternal
natureofthefairytalethusbecomesparticularlyappropriateasanexpressionofcontinuitywiththepast,inwhichalltheJewishgenerationsmergeandmysteriously
enterasingle,timelesspresent.

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Five
MermaidandSiren
ThePolarRolesofLilithandEve
WhenRabbiElimelechofLizenskwasstillayoungman,hespentalldayinthehouseofstudy,andatnighthewalkedhomethroughtheforest,alwaystakingthesame
path.Onenight,ashewaswalkinghome,hesawalightglowinginthedistance.Curioustoknowwhatitwas,heleftthepathandfollowedthelight.Beforelonghe
sawthatitwascomingfromacottage,onethathehadneverbeforeseenintheforest.Ashecamecloser,hepeeredintothewindow,andtherehesawawomanwith
long,darkhair,whowaswearingaverythinnightgown.
Assoonashesawher,RebElimelechknewthathedidnotbelongthere,andheturnedtogo.Justthenthedoortothecottageopened,andthewomancalledout:
"RebMelech,wait!Please,comein."SoRebElimelechwentin.Thenthewomanclosedthedoorandstoodbeforehimandsaid:"RebMelech,Ihaveseenyoupass
throughtheforestmanytimes,andIhaveoftenhopedyouwouldvisitme.Youknow,Ibathedinthespringtoday,andIamclean.Thesinwouldbeslight,butthe
pleasurewouldbeabundant."Andshedroppedhergown.
RebElimelechstaredatherandstruggledwithhimself,asdidJacobwiththeangel.Atlasthewrenchedouttheword"No!"Atthatinstantthewomanvanished,and
thecottagedisappeared,andRebElimelechfoundhimselfstandingaloneintheforest.Andtherewereglowwormsathisfeet.
Thewomaninthistale1 isnotidentified,buteveryoneamongthehasidimwhohearditknewexactlywhoshewasLilith,oroneofthedaughtersofLilith.Sovivid
wasthepresenceofLilithintheirlivesthatshebecametheprojectionoftheirsexualfantasiesandfears.

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Lilith,asinthistale,isusuallyportrayedashavingblackhair.InfactsheischaracterizedthiswayintheTalmud,inEruv100b.Sheisbrazenfromthefirst,callingReb
Elimelechnotbyhisfullname,Elimelech,butbyhisfamiliarname,Melech.ThisconvenientlyletsheravoidpronouncingEli,"myGod,"which,asademoness,sheis
forbiddentodo.Thefactthatherhairislongindicatesthatsheisunmarried,whilehavingbathedinthespringinformshimthatshehaspurifiedherselfinamikveh.
SheisappealingtohisknowledgeoftheLawwhenshetellshimthatthesinwillbeslightandthepleasureabundant.AccordingtoDeut.22:22,Ifamanbefound
lyingwithamarriedwoman,thentheyshallbothdie.However,theexpectedparallelaboutamarriedmanlyingwithanunmarriedwomanismissing,and,
accordingtorabbinicprinciplesofinterpretation,whatisnotstatedisnotalaw.Therefore,thesinisslight,sincethelawdoesnotidentifyitasadultery.Itisasin,but
notamortalone.2
ThusLilithcomesequippedwithmanyweapons.Shedoesnotonlyusethepoweroflust,whichishergreatestpower,butalsoappealstohisintelligence,inthe
knowledgethatifshecoulddefeatoneofthebestones,theotherswouldfalllikedominoes.RabbiElimelechescapes,butonlyafteraconsiderablestruggle.The
glowwormsattheendindicatethatLilithhaslostherpoweroverhimandLilithhasbeenrevealedinhertrueform,thatofaworm.Or,ifthisstoryisreadasahasidic
sexualfantasy,thatthefantasyhasreacheditsclimax.
ThefactthatthetaleisattributedtoRebElimelechofLizenskindicatesthatLilithwasbrazenenoughtoapproacheventheholiestofmen.Indeed,thiswasher
intention.Forifshecouldcorruptthebestones,theotherswouldbesuretofollow.RebElimelechresists,butbarely.ThepoweroftheYetzerHara,theEvil
Inclination,affectseveryoneonthisearth,evenrebbes.(Thereisalsoacompensatingforce,theYetzerTov,theGoodInclination.But,asmightbeexpected,thereis
muchmoreheardoftheYetzerHarainJewishlorethanthereisoftheYetzerTov.)
ThepoweroftheEvilImpulseisdemonstrated,forexample,inthestoryoftheangelsShemhazaiandAzazel,who,accordingtotheMidrash,weretheSonsofGod
whodescendedtoearthfromheaven,asrecountedinGenesis,chapter6.Observingtheevilwaysofmen,theyrebukedGodforcreatingmaninthefirstplace.The
HolyOnereplied:"Ifyoulivedonearth,youtoowouldbesubjecttotheYetzerHara.""Notus!"saidtheangels."Letusdemonstrateourrighteousness."SoGodlet
themdescendtoearth,andnosoonerdidtheyarrivethantheywereovercomewithlustforthedaughtersofmen,andindulgedthemselvesonanepicscale.3
Eventwoofthemostreveredsages,RabbiAkibaandRabbiMeir,arethesubjectofsexualparablesintheTalmud.InoneRabbiAkibasawanakedwomanina
treeandwassoinflamedbyherthathetoreoffhisclothesandstartedtoclimbupthetree.Whenhewashalfwaythere,thenakedwomanturnedintoSatan,who
said:"WereitnotsaidinHeaventorespectRabbiAkibaandhisteachings,yourlifewouldbeasnought!"4

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ImmediatelyfollowingintheTalmudisaparallellegendaboutRabbiMeir,aboutwhomtherearemorestorieswithasexualdimensionthananyothersage.Rabbi
Meirsawanakedwomanontheothersideofariver.Therewasnobridge,onlyaropethathadbeenstrungbetweenthetwoshores.Jumpinginthewater,Rabbi
Meirpulledhimselfalongontherope,untilhewashalfwaythere,whenthewomanturnedintoSatan,sayingthesamething.5 Themoralofthesetalesisclear:Ifeven
angels,sages,andrebbesweresubjecttothepoweroftheYetzerHara,aspersonifiedinparticularbythedemonessLilith,imaginehowmuchgreateritspowermust
beoverordinarymortals.Andthereforethesinoflustwasseenasdeservingtobeforgiven.
WhatistheoriginofthishauntinglegendofLilith?ItfindsitssourceintherabbiniccommentaryonthebiblicalpassageMaleandfemaleHecreatedthem(Gen.
1:27).ItappearedtotherabbisthatthispassagecontradictedthesequentialcreationofAdamandEve(Gen.2:2122).Thereforetheyexplaineditbysayingthat
MaleandfemaleHecreatedthemreferredtoAdam'sfirstwife,whomtheynamedLilith,whileEve,whowascreatedlater,wasAdam'ssecondwife.Theychose
thenameLilithfromIsaiah34:14,whereLilithismentioned(Yea,Lilithshallreposethere),inwhatisbelievedtobeareferencetoaBabyloniannightdemoness.
EventhoughLilithseemstoleapfullyformedoutofalineintheBible,ititjustaslikelythatthelegendwasalreadytoldamongthepeople,andthattherabbissought
outatexttoattachitto.Inanycase,themythologicalfigureofLilithalmostcertainlyfindsitsorigininotherculturesoftheAncientNearEast.Lilith'sroleasaseducer
ofmenislikelytohavebeenbasedontheBabyloniannightdemonLilitu,asuccubuswhoseducesmenintheirsleep,whileLilith'sroleasachildslayermaywell
derivefromtheBabyloniandemonLamashtu.ItisinterestingtonotethattherolesofLilituandLamashtubecameblurredtogether,justasLilithtakesontherolesof
bothseducerandchildslayer.Indeed,LilithseemstohavetakenovertheroleofanearlyJewishdemoness,Obyzouth,whowasalsoachilddestroyingwitchandis
describedintermsidenticaltoLilithinthe1stcenturytext,TheTestamentofSolomon.
HavingbroughtatantalizingfiguresuchasLilithintobeing,therabbisfeltcompelledtoconveyherentirehistory.Inthiscasethelegendbegantogrowquiteextensive.
ThefirstcompleteversionofitisfoundinTheAlphabetofBenSira,datingfromthe9thcenturyinNorthAfrica.HereAdamandLilitharedescribedashavingbeen
createdatthesametime,althoughAdam'sdustwastakenfromthefourcornersoftheearth,whileLilithwascreatedfromslime.ItissaidthatAdamandLilith
bickeredfromthefirstandhadafinalconfrontationoverthequestionofthemissionaryposition.AdaminsistedonitLilithrefused,preferringtheopposite.Atlast
LilithpronouncedthesecretNameofGod,theTetragrammaton,YHVH,whichhasremarkablesupernaturalpowers,andflewoutoftheGardenofEdenandlanded
ontheshoreoftheRedSea.6 ThereLilithtookupresidence

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inanearbycaveandtookforloversallthedemonswholivedthere,whileAdam,leftalone,complainedtoGodthathiswomanhadlefthim.Godsentthreeangels,
Senoy,Sansensoy,andSemangeloff,tocommandLilithtoreturntoherhusband.Sherefused,andtheythreatenedtokillonehundredofherdemonoffspringdaily.
Lilithstillrefusedtoreturnshewasneververymaternal.Thensheofferedacompromise,tellingtheangelsthatshewascreatedtostranglechildren,boysbeforethe
eighthdayandgirlsbeforethetwentieth.Butifawomanwouldcarryanamuletwiththewords"OutLilith!"onit,alongwiththenamesoftheangels,shewouldleave
thatwomanandherchildrenalone.
Itisherethatthelegendtakesastrangeturn.Whatisreallyoccurringisthatanotherlegendisbeingfusedtothefirst.Indeed,islikelythattheentireidentityofanother
demonesshadbeengatheredintothatofLilith.Inalllikelihood,wecanidentifythisdemonessasObyzouth,whoisinvokedbyKingSolomoninthe1stcenturytext
TheTestamentofSolomon.7 Thekingcommandshertodescribeherself,andObyzouthtellshowsheseekstostranglechildren.Furthermore,sherevealsthatshe
canbethwartedbytheangelRaphaelandbywomenwhogivebirthwhowritehernameonanamulet,forthenshewillfleefromthemtotheotherworld.Thislegend
ofObyzouthhasvirtuallyallofthekeyelementsoftheLilithlegend.WhatappearstobetakingplaceisthatthedemonessLilith,whouptothispointhadbeen
concernedwithissuesofindependenceandsexuality,heretakesonanewaspectfromObyzouth,thatofthechilddestroyingwitch,byaprocessthatwemightcall
mythicabsorption.Whydidthishappen?ProbablybecauseLilithbecamesuchadominantmythicfigurethatsheabsorbedtherolesofthelesserknowndemoness.
Thislikelyoccurredveryearly,betweenthe1stand3rdcenturies,andLilithhasplayedapowerfuldualroleeversinceinJewishfolkloreandsuperstition.
SoitisthatLilithisregardedbothasachilddestroyingwitchandastheincarnationoflust.Inherroleasawitch,Lilith'sactionsprovidedanexplanationforthe
terribleplagueofinfantmortality.UseofamuletsagainstLilithwaswidespreadandisstillconsiderednecessaryinsomeverytraditionalJewishcircles.Onlya
generationagograndmothersoftentiedredribbonsonachild'sbed.TheseribbonssymbolicallyrepresentedtheamuletagainstLilithandservedthesamepurpose.
Accordingtothebestknownbeliefs,Lilithoroneinleaguewithherwouldmurderaninfantoutrightorwouldsubstituteapuppyorkittenforthehumanchild.The
humanchildstolenbythedemonswasraisedtoserveasabrideorgroomtooneofthedemons.Therearealsosaidtobedemonicdoubles.Accordingtothisfolk
belief,whenahumanisabouttowed,thedemonswilltrytotrickthemintomarryingthedemonicdoubleofhisorherbetrothed.Andassoonastheweddingvows
arepronounced,thatpersonhasbeenlosttotheforcesofevil.
AtypicalfolktaleaboutLilithasachilddestroyingwitchconcernstheWatchNight.ThiswasthenightbeforetheBrit,orcircumcision,wasto

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takeplace.InonesuchtaleofEasternEuropeanorigin,aninnkeeperhadseensixinfantsons,allofwhomhadbeenbornhealthy,dieonthenightbeforetheBrit.At
lastthefamousmiracleworker,RabbiYoelBaalShem(nottheBaalShemTovwhoisthefounderofHasidismbutanotherMasteroftheNamewholivedinthe
16thcentury)agreedtohelptheman.Heremainedintheinnforamonthpriortothebirth,makingamuletsforthemotherandchild,drawingacharcoalcirclearound
thewall,andhangingothermagicalobjectsaroundthehouse.
OntheWatchNighttherabbihadtwentyJewsremainawakeallnight,studying.Hefilledtheroomwithhundredsofcandlesandhadthemalllit,andhebarredthe
doorandthechimneyaswell.Nevertheless,atmidnightablackcatmanagedtostealintothehouse.Shegrewlargerandlargerandtriedtobreakintotheroom
wherethemotherandchildlay.RabbiYoelstoodbeforethedoorandfoughtthecatwithametaltippedcane.Thecattriedtoattackhim,andsparksflewfromits
claws.Everyonewasterrified.
FinallyRabbiYoelknockedoutoneofthecat'seyesandthenchaseditoutofthehouse.ThenextdaytheBritwascelebrated,andeveryonecameexceptforthe
midwife.WhenRabbiYoelinquiredabouther,helearnedthatshehadbecomeblindinoneeye.Thatishowheconfirmedthatitwasthatverymidwifewhohadbeen
responsibleforthedeathoftheinfants.ShewasinleaguewithLilithandhadmurderedallthechildren.Soonafterwardthemidwifeconfessedanddied.Shewas
buriedoutsidethecemeteryfence,andforyearsafterwardherghostcouldbeseenhauntingthefieldsandforestsnearby.8
Strangelyenough,atthesametimethatLilithwasbeingblamedforthescourgeofinfantmortality,shewasalsoplayingamajorroleastheincarnationoflust.Hereshe
hauntsmenintheirdreamsandimaginations.Itwasbelievedthateverytimeamanhadasexualdreamorfantasy,hehadintercoursewithLilith,andtheproductof
thisintercourseweremutantdemons,halfhumanandhalfdemon,whowerespurnedbyhumansandbydemonsalike.Thereis,forexample,afamous17thcentury
folktalefromtheethicaltextKavhaYashar.9 Thisstory,"TheCellar,"tellsofagoldsmithfromthecityofPoseninGermanywhowaswedtothedemonessLilith,
wholivedinhiscellarwherehehadhisworkshop.
Hecontinuestovisithisdemonwifeeveryday,whilekeepingherexistencesecretfromhisfamily.Littlebylittleheyieldscontrolofhimself,lustingafterherdayand
night.OnceithappensthatheevengetsupinthemiddleoftheSeder,whenthewordsAndtheywentdownintoEgyptareread,andgoesdowntohisdemonwife.
Hisrealwifefollowsafterhim,afraidthatheisill.Shepeersthroughthekeyholewhenhereturnstotheworkshop,andisamazedtoseethattheworkshophasbeen
transformedintoapalatialchamber,whileheliesnakedinthearmsofhisdemonlover.Maintainingcontrolofherself,shethenreturnstotheSederandrevealsnothing
totherestofthefamily.Butthenextdayshecomestotherabbiandtellshimeverything.

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Therabbiconfrontsthemanwithhissinandheconfesses.ThentherabbigiveshimanamulettoprotecthimselfagainstLilith,andheusesittofreehimselfofher.But
beforeshewillreleasehim,Lilithdemandsthatthecellarbebequeathedtoherandtheirdemonoffspringforalltime,andthemanmakesavowtothiseffect.He
escapesherpowersalltherestofhislife,butasheliesonhisdeathbed,hisdemonchildrenswarmaroundhim,invisibletohishumanfamily,cryingouthisname.
Afterhisdeaththehousebecomesknownasbeinghaunted.Eventuallyitissold,andthenewownerhasaworkmanbreakopenthedoortothecellar,whichhad
beennailedshut.Theworkmanisfounddeadonthethreshold.RabbiYoelcomestoinvestigatethesameRabbiYoelBaalShemasinthetaleofthemidwifein
leaguewithLilithandwhenheconfirmsthatthecellarisinfestedwithdemons,heordersarabbiniccourt,aBeitDin,tobeconvenedtodetermineiftheyhavea
legitimaterighttothehouse.Thecourtrulesagainstthem,onthegroundsthatthedemonstransgressedtheboundariesofthecellar,andtheyareexpelledtothe
wilderness.
Becausethedemonsarelivinginthecellar,thisstoryseemstocryoutforapsychologicalinterpretation.ThepresenceofLilithinthecellarthereseemsasymbolic
confirmationthatthecellarrepresentstheunconscious.FromaJungianperspective,Lilithrepresentsthedarksideoftheunconscious,whatSiegmundHurwitzcalls
"thedarkfeminine."10ThepolaroppositeofthisfigureistheShekhinah,thebrideoflight.Or,inanotherreading,themanmightbeseenashavingavividfantasylife,
withafantasywife.HerehisfantasyisprojectedaroundtheLilithlegend,whichhadsomuchpowerforthepeople,aslustandinfantdeathswerecommonfactsin
theirlives,andbothofthemindicatedthepresenceofLilith.
Thisleadsustoconfirm,alongwithBrunoBettelheiminTheUsesofEnchantment,11thatfolktalescanwellberegardedasfantasies,especiallycertaintypesof
tales,whichseemmoremotivatedbythedesiretogiveformtoafantasythantoconveyamoralmessagealthoughthemoraldimensionoftheJewishtaleisalways
present.Thereforefairytalesandtalesofthesupernatural,inparticular,invoketheprimalimagination.SoitisthataJewishdemonessbecamethefocusforthe
fantasiesofJewishmenandhauntedthemostsecretcornersoftheirlives.Certainly,ofthetestimonythatpreviousgenerationshaveleftus,thereislittlethatspeaksso
eloquentlyforthemostbasichumanimpulsesofhope,lust,andfearthansuchmyths,legends,andfolktales.Fortheseareallinasensecollectivefantasies,andin
thesestoriesitispossibletopeerintotheunfetteredimaginationofourforefathersthroughoutthegenerations.Itisamuchmoreintimateglimpsethanwemighthave
expectedtofind.
UltimatelytherichbodyoftalesandsuperstitionsconcerningLilithgavebirthtoapowerfulmythicfigure,whointheMiddleAgescomestobeidentifiedastheQueen
ofDemons.Likeallmythicbeings,sherepresentsonlycertainpolesofexistence.Sheinvokestheaspectsoffearandlust.Her

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polaropposite,fromtherabbinicperspective,isAdam'ssecondwife,Eve,whowascreatedfromhisownrib.This,themythimplies,madehermorecompatiblewith
herhusband.Andeventhoughsheisheldresponsible,alongwiththeserpent,forconvincingAdamtotastetheforbiddenfruit,stillsheisforgivenbytherabbisand
admiredasthemotherofmankind.FortherabbishadapersonalrelationshipwiththeprimaryfiguresoftheBible,notonlywiththePatriarchsandtheirwives,but
alsowithAdamandEveastheirultimateforebears.
Indeed,intheMidrashtherabbisfindawayofexcusingEveforherfailingsintheGarden.ThisinterpretationturnsontheobservationthatGodtoldAdamnottopick
thefruitoftheTreeofKnowledge,whileEvereportedtotheserpentthatGodtoldAdamnottopickthefruitoftheTreeoreventotouchit(Gen.3:3),lesthedie.
TheMidrashreadsbetweenthelineshere,assumingthatAdamwasresponsibleforthisadditionalwarning,tellingEve,"Don'tpickthefruitofthetree.Don'teven
touchit!"Theserpent,seeinganopening,pushesEveagainstthetree.Whenshedoesn'tdie,shebeginstodoubttheinjunction.12Evenso,shehesitatesbeforeeating
theforbiddenfruit,andwhenshedoesshetastestheskinfirstandtheneatstherestofthefruit.AtthatmomentEvehasavisionoftheAngelofDeath,andsheruns
backtoAdamafraid,andhashimeatofthefruitsothattheywillsharethesamefate.13HeretherabbisattributejealousytoEveatthethoughtthatAdammightfind
anotherwife.
BoththeaffectionanddoubtaboutEvethattherabbisembracedarereflectedinthislegend.AnotherrabbiniclegendoffersthedarkestrabbinicviewofEvetobe
found.HereEveissaidtohaveconceivedCainafterhavinghadintercoursewiththeserpent,whileAbel'sfatherwasAdam.14Thisistherabbinicsourceforthe
legendaryevilseedofCain,whichwasbelievedtohavegivenbirthtoanevilrace,whomtheJewsinevitablyrecognizedastheirenemies.Butthisbetrayalisvery
muchanexception,anddespiteherflaws,Eveisstillgenerallyportrayedinapositivelight.Afterall,shewasalifelongcompanionforAdam.Shewasagoodwife,a
goodmother.Shewasloyaltoherhusband.Shestayedwithhimintimesoftrial.
Indeed,despitetheimportanceofthewivesofthePatriarchs,Eveservesastheprimarypositiverolemodelforwomen,whileLilithisthenegativeone.Itissomething
likethesealegendsaboutmermaidsandsirens.Mermaidsarethegoodfemalemythicfiguresofthesea,halfwoman,halffish.Theyleadsailorsthroughnarrowstraits
andsometimessavethemwhentheyfalloverboard.Sirens,ontheotherhand,whoarehalfwoman,halfbird,singahypnoticsongthatluressailorstotheirdeathson
therocks.
SoitisthatwhereEveisdependent,LilithisindependentwhereEveispassive,LilithissexuallydemandingwhereEveismaternal,LilithiscertainlynotwhereEveis
afaithfulandloyalwifeallthedaysofAdam'slife,Lilithabandonshim.Inthiswaytheyareportrayedaspolaropposites,asisthenatureofmythicfigures,eachof
whomtakesonspecificcharacteristics,whileactuallytheyarethepolesofasinglepersonality.Soitisthat

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everywomanhasaloyalsideandadisloyalside,amaternalsideandanonmaternalside,adependentsideandanindependentside,apassivesideandanassertive
side.Thesecharacteristicsarefoundtodifferingdegreesindifferentindividuals.Andsomeindividualsevenswingbackandforthbetweentheseextremepoles,
betweentheLilithandEvesidesofthemselves.
Ofcourse,thelegendsofLilithandEvearemalemythsinorigin.ThefactthatGenesisrecountsthatthefirstwomanwascreatedfromtheman'srib,whileinrealityit
isthefemaleofthespecieswhogivesbirth,canonlybeviewedasamalemyth.SotooisLilithaprojectionofmalefantasiesandfears.Butoncethemythbecameas
extensiveasitdid,theimaginationofthewomenalsoengagedthismythicdemonicfigure.Inherroleasachildstranglingwitch,Lilithwasequallyhatedbywomen
andmen.Butinherroleasaseducer,Liliththreatenedtostealaman'saffectionfromhiswife,aswellashisseed.Thus,theattitudeofwomentoLilithwas,ofcourse,
muchdifferentthanthatofmen:womenhatedhermenweremoreambivalent.
ProfessorDovNoyofTheHebrewUniversity,theworld'sleadingJewishfolklorist,suggeststhatincertaincasesitispossibletoidentifyafolktaleashaving
originatedfromacircleofmenorwomen.Thushespeaksof''men'stales"and"women'stales."15ThetaleofRebMelechandthewomanintheforestisaman'stale,
asisthetaleofthecellar.ComparethemaleattitudetowardLilith,whichmixesfearwithsexualfantasy,withthatofthewomanintheKurdishtalecalled"TheHairin
theMilk,"whichNoyidentifiesasawoman'stale.
HereLilith,flyingoverthehouseofawomanwhohasrecentlygivenbirth,smellsthemother'smilkandtransformsherselfintoalong,blackhairthatfallsintoaglassof
milk.Whenthemotherisabouttodrinkthemilk,shenoticestheblackhairandfaints.ThemidwiferecognizesthepresenceofLilithatonceandpourstheglassof
milk,hairandall,intoajug,andclosesittightly.Shakingthejug,themidwifehearsthepleasofLilithfromwithinandextractsavowfromhernotonlytosparethe
womanandherchild,butalsotoservethemforthreeyearsandprotectthemfromotherevilforces.ThisLilithdoes,foronceshetakesanoath,sheiscompelledto
carryitout.16
NotethattheportraitofLilithinthisstoryisquitedifferentfromthatfoundinthemalemyths.ForthetruthisthatLilithholdsfarmorepowerovermenthanshedoes
overwomen.PerhapsthisisbecausemenareambivalenttowardLilith,seeingherontheonehandassomethingforbiddenandtempting,whileontheotherhand
sharingtheterrorofherdestructiveability.ForwomenLilithisprimarilythechilddestroyingwitchtheyfearandloathemorethananythingelse.Andunlikethemen,
theyarewillingtostruggleagainsther,heredefeatingher.
WhatisthelinkbetweenthetwodisparaterolesofLilith?Whyhasonedemonesscometoplaythisdualroleasseducerandchilddestroyingwitch?Clearlythe
connectionbetweenthesexualactandpregnancyisattherootofthisunlikelypairingofmythiccharacteristics.Justasthesexualactis

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inevitablylinkedtothecreationofachildfromtherabbinicperspective,soLilithattemptstodiverttheholypurposeofintercourse,bothbyprovokingthespillingof
seed,and,ifthatfails,byattackingtheinfantdirectly.ThusLilith'sroleisadestructiveoneinbothinstances,althoughthisisnotasapparentinthefirstcaseasinthe
second.
Why,then,isLilithsofilledwithhatredtowardhumanoffspring?RabbiniclegendtellsusthatsheisjealousofEve,and,aboveall,sheresentsthefactthatthe
offspringofAdamandEveandtheirdescendantsarehuman,whilehersareonlydemons,andthusbothasseducerandasawitchsheseeksherrevenge.
Withthisinmind,itdoesseemstrangethatsomeJewishfeministshaveselectedLilithastheirrolemodel.TheyhaveevennamedLilithMagazineafterher.Lilithwas
selectedbecauseofherindependence,ingeneral,andhersexualindependence,inparticular.Atthesametime,herdemonicqualitieswereignored.
Thequestionis:canonebeselectiveinidentifyingwithsomeaspectsofamythandnotanother?Theanswer,inmyview,isno.Initsformativestage,asplitpreceded
thecreationofthemyth.Certainidentifyingcharacteristicswereisolatedandbecametheessenceofamythicbeing,inthiscaseLilith,theQueenofDemons.Themyth
itselfconsistsofaconstellationofarchetypes,whichtogetherformthemythicfigure,whetheragod,asintheEgyptian,Greek,Canaanite,andBabylonianmyths,or
angelsanddemonsandothersupernaturalbeingsinJewishlore.Toidentifywithsuchamythicbeingresultsinabsorbingallofitscharacteristics,someconsciously,
therestunconsciously.HavingrejectedEveasarolemodel,someJewishfeministshaveturnedtoherpolaropposite,Lilith.ButinsettingupLilithasarolemodel,
theyaredenyingthenegativeandevendestructivesideofthemyth.Infact,theycannotescapeeithertheLilithortheEvesideofthemselves.Rather,theymustcome
totermswithboth.
Thekeyhereistheconceptofpolarity.ThetwopolesthatEveandLilithrepresentareequallypowerful,andbytheverynatureofpolarity,theyarealsoingeneral
balance,wheresometimesoneandsometimestheotherdominates.Foreachside,knowledgeoftheexistenceoftheotherpoleisessential.
AtthistimewecanreconsiderthemeaningofthemythofLilithintheeyesofitscreators,therabbis.Weobservethatitfirstemergesasamythofmale/female
struggle,inwhichneithersideiswillingtocompromise.LilithabandonsAdam,andeversinceshehassoughtherrevengebyseducinghimoverandoveragain,making
himcouplewiththeforcesofevil.Thisdrainsnotonlyhisseed,buthissoul,andmakesitmoredifficult,sometimesimpossible,toattainholiness.ThereforeLilithis
viewedastheagentofSatan,asinthetalmudictalesofRabbiAkibaandRabbiMeir.AndbothLilithandSatanaremythicrepresentationsoftheYetzerHara,the
EvilInclination.
Giventherabbinicperspective,withitsstrictmoralviewoftheworld,itwasinevitablethatpolarrolemodelssuchasLilithandEvewouldbecre

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ated.Indeed,ifLilithhadnotsprungfullyformedfromoneprobleminthebiblicaltext,surelyshewouldhaveemergedfromanother.Herexistencewasasessential
fortherabbisaswasthatofEve.
Itseemsfairtoaskiftherearesimilarpolarmyths,likethisoneofLilithandEve,thatapplytomen.Perhapstheclosestparallelcanbefoundinthethreecasesof
brotherscaughtupinintenserivalryfoundintheBible:CainandAbel,IsaacandIshmael,andJacobandEsau.Ofthesethreepairs,perhapsthatofJacobandEsau
comesclosesttothekindofpolaritywefindinthecaseofLilithandEve.WhileitwouldnotbeaccuratetosaythatJacob'scharacteristicsareparalleltothoseof
Eve,orthatEsau'sareparalleltoLilith,therearesimilarities.Afterall,JacobandEsauaretwins,andevenintheBibletheyareportrayedaspolaroppositesJacob
asfairskinned,EsauasruddyJacobasonewholovedtostudy,EsauasonewholovedtohuntJacobascomplexandeventricky,Esauassimpleanddirect.Andin
theMidrashtheirrolesarefurthertransformedandpresentedinstarklycontrastingterms,whereallofJacob'sactions,eventhequestionableones,arejustified,while
EsauisportrayedasJacob'sevilanddeadlyenemy,symbolicofalloftheenemiesofIsrael.ThusisJacobofferedasthepositiverolemodel,andEsauasthedeeply
negativeone.
Thedangerofsuchrolemodelsisthattheyputastraitjacketonaperson'semotions.Inthepast,ifawomanpermittedherselftoexperiencetheforbiddenpassionsof
Lilith,especiallythoseofasexualnature,shewasindangerofbecomingakindofLilithherselfintheeyesofthecommunity.Nowthatthecommunityisnotas
judgmental,thisdangerisnotasacute.Still,otherdangerslurk,especiallythoseofanunconsciousnature.Somekindofintegrationofthesepolarmythsseemsmuch
preferable.Indeed,themythsofLilithandEvecryoutforrecognitionoftheirpolarnaturewithinasinglewoman,asdothemythsofJacobandEsauineveryman.
Everywomanislikelytoexperiencethefullrangeofemotions,includingthoseattributedtoEveandthoseofLilith.Andeverymanislikelytoexperiencethelightand
darksidessymbolizedbyJacobandEsau.Todenyonesideortheotheristodenythewholenessoftheself.
TheJewishauthorJakovLind,asurvivoroftheHolocaustandtheauthorofSoulofWood,wroteaparableaboutreunitingthesemythicsidesofwomanintoasingle
being.Itiscalled"TheStoryofLilithandEve:"17
BeforeGodcreatedEve,thelegendtellsus,hecreatedLilith,butLilithleftAdam,asshecouldneveragreewithhim,insmallerandlargermatters,whileEvebecameAdam'strue
wife,thatis,awomanwhoisalwaysinagreementwithherman.Lilithleft,butnotforgood.ThelegendtellsusshereturnstohauntAdamaslust.
OnceuponatimetherewasamanwhowashauntedbyLilith.Thedemonhaddisguisedherselfintheclothesofanordinary,simple,agreeablewomanandcametovisitAdam
whenhewasalone.

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"Whyareyouonyourown?"Lilithasked."Whereisyourwoman,theonewhocametoreplaceme?"
"Sheisoutinthecountry,shewenttovisitrelatives,andshewillreturnsoon.Shewillnotbepleasedtofindyouhere,forshefearsyou."
"Whyshouldmysisterbeafraidofme?"askedLilith."Iamassimpleinmyheartassheis.Iamasgoodandkindassheis.IlovemyparentsandIlovemychildren,thesameas
she.ButIdon'tthinkasshedoes,ourdifferenceishiddeninthemind,notinourbodies."
"Ibelieveyou,"saidAdam,"andIloveyou,butIneedapeacefullife."
"Haveityourway,"saidLilith,"haveyourpeacefullife.Iamjustyourotherwoman,andIwillnotleaveyou,butwillloveyouasIalwaysdid."
Adamlookedintohereyesandsaidnomore.Hereyeswerelikedoorswideopenintoaworldhehadalmostforgotten,andhesteppedinside.
Theywereineachother'sarmsandmouthswhenEvereturned.LilithandAdamareunited,shethought.Staywithme,sister.Iwillbringfoodtoyourbed.Shebroughtfoodand
drinktothebedforthemandretiredtoafarcornerofthehouse,whereshecrouchedatthestovetokeepherselfwarmandwentintoatrance.Sheleftherownbodyandentered
thebodyofLilithandthussheembracedandkissedAdamandfelthisloveforherasshehadneverknownitbefore.
"ButIamyourEve,"saidLilith."Whydoyoulovemesopassionately?Youneverlovedmewithsuchpassionbefore."
Adamlaughedandsaid:"YouwillleavewithdawnandIwillnotseeyouforalongtime.IfIampassionateitisbecauseourhappinessisbutshort."
"Howcanyousaythat?"saidLilith."Iwillbeheretomorrowandthedayafterandsofortherestofyourlife.Whydoyoulovemesopassionately?DoyouthinkIamtheoneI
seem?IamEvespeakingthroughmysister'smouth."
"Youarejoking,"laughedAdam."Iknowyouwillleaveatthedawnandwillnotbebackforquitesometime."
Lilith,whowasEvenow,kissedhimandsaid:"Iwishthiswereso,butalasIcannotleaveyou.Iwillstaywithyou,becauseyouarefulloffireforthisotherwomanwhosebodyI
havenowtakenover.Lookatmecarefullyandtellmewhetheryoudon'tseethatIamyourwifeEve?"
"Evesitsinthefarcornerofthehouse,"saidAdam.Butwhenhelookedhecouldnotseeherthere.Whathesawweretheflamesfromthestove.

InthisbrieftaleJakovLindbringstogethertheseparatebutcloselyrelatedmythsofLilithandEve.Inthisretelling,LilithandEvemustultimatelyberecognizedas
polesofthesamepersonalityratherthanasseparateindividuals.WhatLindhasdone,infact,istorepairtheoriginalsplit,whereinEvesymbolizedallpositivequalities
andLilithallnegativeones.ThusthereunitingofLilithandEveintooneinthistaleisclearlyacalltowholeness,toreintegratetheaspectsoftheselfthathavesplit
awayintoseparatemyths.Andthisreintegration,whichisaformofhealing,applies

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tomenaswellastowomen.Surelythemoreweareabletointegrateallsidesofourpersonalityintoacoherentwhole,themoreconsciouswewillbeourtruenature.
Andthemoreconsciousweare,themoreselfknowledgewewillhave.Andthemoreselfknowledge,themorelikelythatwewillsurvive,andperhapsevenflourish.
Jewishmythshaveatendencytoevolve,asdidtheLilithmythinaddingthecharacteristicsofthedemonessObyzouth.SoitiscertainlylegitimateforJakovLindto
imaginethatLilithandEve,ancientenemiesforsolong,eventuallyfindpeacefulcoexistence.LindhasrecognizedthatthepolarmythsofLilithandEvearebest
understoodascoexistinginsameperson.Andfromthisperspectivethecollectivenatureofthemythsthemselvesoffersvaluablecluestothemysteriesofthepartsof
theself.Whenviewedthisway,theseancientmythscanbeappreciatednotonlyasfantasiesorcompellingstories,butalsoasmapsoftheessentialstatesoftheself
theyportraysowell.

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Six
JewishTalesoftheSupernatural
Onedayaboyplayinghideandseekseesafingerinthehollowtrunkofatree.Assuminghehasfoundhisfriend,heputsaringonthefingerandpronouncesthe
marriagevows,allinjest,butsubsequentlyfindshimselfwedtoademoness.She,inturn,killseachofhishumanwives,untiloneofthemfindsawaytoappeaseher
sharingherhusbandwiththedemonessforonehoureveryday.1
Thisnightmaremarriageisrecountedina16thcenturyYiddishfolktale,"TheDemonintheTree."LikemostJewishtalesofthesupernatural,itaddressesoneofthe
mostcrucialturningpointsinaperson'slife.Timesofstress,suchasbirth,marriage,anddeath,inevitablybecomethefocusofrituals,superstitions,andfolklore,and
theJewishtraditionisnoexception.Indeed,thevastmajorityoflegendsandfolktalesthatdrawuponthesupernaturaltakeplaceatoneoftheseturningpoints,oron
suchcriticaloccasionsasBarMitzvah,YomKippur,orotherdaysofobservance,includingtheSabbath.
Itwasthesupernaturalthatprovidedanexplanationforallkindsofevents,especiallymisfortunes.Surroundedbyamyriadofdangers,opposedbybothhumanand
demonicenemies,theJewsturnedtofaithandsuperstitionforanunderstandingoftheworld.Thusastillbornchildcouldbeinterpretedasevidenceofthedestructive
powersofthedemonessLilith,orasuddendeathasthepunishmentofvengefulspirits.Theseexplanations,inturn,eventuallybecameembodiedastalesthatwere
oftenretoldinboththewrittenandoraltraditions.Theseincludetalesaboutwanderingspirits,marriagewithdemons,possessionbydybbuks,ghostlyvisitations,
vampires,werewolves,speakingheads,corpsesbroughttolifewiththepowerofthe

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NameofGod,andeverykindofsupernaturaladversary.Thesefantasiesandnightmares,wheredangerisoftenovercomeinasupernaturalfashion,helpedthe
oppressedJewstofindanoutletfortheirfears.Foritiswellknownthathearingorreadingeventhemostfrighteningtalescanbringaboutacatharsisandreleasefrom
fear.Thesefolkexplanationsnolongerhaveaprimaryplaceinourvisionoftheworld,ofcourse,buttheystillinvokeandexplorethedarksideofthehumanpsyche
thatisasevidenttodayasitwasinthetimeofourancestors.
TheroleofthesupernaturalinJewishlifeandloreisoneoffascinatingcontradictions.Ontheonehand,thereistheclearbiblicalinjunctionagainstsupernatural
practices:
Thereshallnotbefoundamongyouanyonethatmakethhissonordaughtertopassthroughthefire,onethatusethdivination,asoothsayer,oranenchanter,orasorcerer,ora
charmer,oronethatconsultethaghostorafamiliarspirit,oranecromancer.ForwhosoeverdoeththesethingsisanabominationuntotheLord(Deut.18:1012).

Ontheotherhand,eveninthebiblicalaccountofKingSaulandthewitchofEndor(1Sam.28),thisinjunctionisignored,asSaulhasthewitchinvokethespiritofthe
prophetSamuel.Likewise,sorceryisresortedtoonagreatmanyoccasionsinrabbinicliterature,sorcerynotonlybywizardsandwitches,butevenbysomeofthe
mostrespectedrabbis.OnoneoccasionRabbiJoshuabenHananiahperformsamagicalinvocation.Hescattersflaxseedsonatable,watersthemsothatthey
instantlytakerootandgrow,thenreachesintothemtopullouttheheadofawitchwhohascastadamagingspell.2 InanothertalefromtheTalmud,RabbiYannai
divertsawitchwhoattemptstoturnhimintoanass,andtransformsherintothisbeastinstead.3 Theseandmanyotherexamplesclearlyrevealtherabbinic
ambivalenceabouttheinjunctionagainstsorceryandleadtohairsplittingattemptstodefinewhatkindofsorceryisacceptableandwhatkindisforbidden.The
conclusiontherabbisreachdistinguishesbetweensorcererswhoworkthroughdemonsandthosewhoworkbypureenchantment.Thus,accordingtothetalmudic
sageAbbaye,"Ifoneactuallyperformsmagic,heisstonedifhemerelycreatesanillusion,heisexempt."4 Althoughthisdistinctionitselfmayseemtobeanillusion,in
manycasesitaccuratelydefinesthedifferencesbetweenthesorceryoftherabbisandthatperformedbythosewhoinvokedtheforcesofdarkness.
Inpractice,aswell,thedifferencesbetweensacredmagicandsorceryareapparent.Althoughtheblackmagicofthewizardsisdestructiveinintent,thatoftherabbis
isprotectivedrawingmagiccirclesthatguardagainstanyevilonslaughtusingthepoweroftheTetragrammaton,theineffableNameofGod,tobringthedeadto
lifeorexorcisingdybbuks,spiritsofthedeadwhotakepossessionoftheliving.Butonoccasion,whensufficientlyprovoked,thewrathoftherabbisisterribleto
behold:inhis

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angeratwitcheswhohavekidnappedandmutilatedthebodyofaJew,RabbiHayimVitalturnsthemintoblackdogsin"TheHouseofWitches"RabbiShalem
Shabazicausesthreestoriesofabuildingtosinkintothegroundathiscommandin"RabbiShabaziandtheCruelGovernor"andin"TheCauseofthePlague,"Rabbi
JudahLoewdiscoversthatanevilsorcererisresponsibleforaplagueamongtheJews,andturnsthesorcerer'sowndestructivespellagainsthim,causingthesorcerer
toburstintoflames.
Powerssuchasthosepossessedbytheserabbismustbekeptincheck,forsuchgreatpowerholdsthedangerofbeingabused.Thisthemeisfoundinseveralstriking
tales,especiallythatofRabbiJosephdellaReina,whofirsttriestoforcethecomingoftheMessiahbycapturingAsmodeus,KingofDemons,andhisqueen,Lilith,in
"HelenofTroy."JosephdellaReinasucceedsincapturingthembutfallspreytotheirdeception,isdefeated,andafterwardbecomesamadwizard,tutoredbyLilithin
thewaysofblackmagic.Anothertale,"TheHomunculusofMaimonides,"portraysthegreatphilosopherandtheologianasasorcererintentoncreatinganimmortal
beingofunlimitedpowers.ThishasalltheearmarksofafolkexpressionoftheattitudestowardMaimonidesfoundintheantiMaimonidiancontroversy,inwhichthe
opponentsofMaimonidesportrayedhiminthemostnegativeterms.Bothtalescontainimplicitwarningsagainstmessianicaspirations,andbothemergefromperiods
dominatedbysuchlongings,withattendantfalsemessiahs,especiallyShabbataiZeviinthe17thcentury.5
Butmosttalesshowagreatreluctanceonthepartoftherabbistoinvokethesesupernaturalpowers,anditisonlyimpendingdisasterthatforcesthemtodoso.The
youngBaalShemTovisforcedtoconfrontawerewolftoprotectyoungchildrenin"TheWerewolf,"andotherrabbisarebroughtintomagicalcombatwithvarious
demonstosaveakidnappedbridetobe,forexample,asin"TheBrideofDemons,"ortocompeldemonswhohavetakenpossessionofahousetoappearbefore
arabbiniccourt,asin"TheCellar."Thusthesetales,whichflourishedintheMiddleAges,areanoutgrowthineveryrespectofthebiblical,rabbinic,andfolktraditions
thatprecededthem.JewishtaleswithsupernaturalthemesarederivedfromsuchbiblicalmotifsasthespeakingserpentinEden,orSaulandthewitchofEndorand
fromvirtuallyeveryphaseofpostbiblicalJewishliterature,sacredandsecular,writtenandoral.ThewrittensourcesforthesetalesincludetheApocrypha,the
Pseudepigrapha,theTalmud,theMidrash,medievalJewishfolklore,andhasidictexts.Somevariantsandadditionaltalescanbefoundamongthosecollectedorally
fromvariousJewishethnicsources,includingthosepublishedinthiscenturyinYiddishbyY.L.CahanandImmanuelOlsvanger,aswellasthetalescollected,
primarilyinHebrew,bytheIsraelFolktaleArchives.6 Nordoesthetraditionendthere,forthesesamelegendshavebeenselectedbysomeofthemostimportant
modernJewishauthors,suchasI.L.Peretz,S.Ansky,S.Y.Agnon,IsaacBashevisSinger,BernardMalamud,andCynthiaOzick,whohaveusedtraditionaltalesas
thebasisofshortstories,novels,dramas,andpoetry.

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Asmightbeexpected,theimprintofthebiblicalsourcescanberecognizedinmanyofthesesupernaturaltales.Forexample,theBindingofIsaacbyAbrahamat
MountMoriahisechoedin"TheDevil'sFire,"wherearabbistrugglestopersuadethepeopleinaPersiancitythatthepracticeofhumansacrificeiswrong.Therabbi
witnessestheabhorrentpracticehimselfandlaterlearnsthatthereasonthepeoplearesowillingtoleapintotheflamesisbecausetheybelievetheywillsoonreturn.
Thisappearstobetrue,butwhentherabbiinvestigateshediscoversthattheDevilhasdisguisedhimselfastheonewhocomesback,perpetuatingtheillusionthatthe
fireisharmless.Withgreatdifficulty,therabbifinallymanagestoenlightenthepeople.
ItisgenerallyrecognizedthatoneprimarypurposeofthestoryofthebindingofIsaacwastoannounceincleartermsthatallhumansacrificeforJewshadcometoan
end,tobereplacedbyanimalsacrifice.AndanimalsacrificeessentiallycametoanendafterthedestructionoftheTemple.Therabbiinthistale,then,canbeseenas
attemptingtoblotoutthepracticeofhumansacrificeamongpagans.Atthesametimethestoryiscastintheformofataleofterror.
Anotherbiblicaltheme,thatofJosephcastintothepit,isechoedinthetale"TheChronicleofEphraim."HereanevilwizardcausesaJewishfamilytobecastintoapit
todie.Themothergivesbirththere,andwhenthewizardlearnsthisheofferstofreetheminexchangeforthechild,andwithnootherchoicethefamilyrelinquishes
theirsontohim.Heraisestheboyashisown,attemptingtohidetheboy'sJewishheritagefromhim.Thisthemeisalsoechoedinmidrashicliterature,inthetaleof
Mosesbeingcastintoapit,wherehesurvivesfortenyears,secretlyassistedbyZipporah,whomheeventuallymarries.7 Ineachofthesecasestheonecastintothe
pithasanextraordinarynatureJoseph,mostbelovedofhisfatherandmotherMoses,theRedeemerandtheboyEphraim,whoisborncastinganauraoflight,as
wassaidofNoah.ThusdoesthebiblicalepisodeofJosephinthepitbecomeanarchetypeforastageintheexperienceofthosedestinedforgreatnessthedarkpit
symbolizingdangerinwhichtheymiraculouslysurvive.
InsomecasesitispossibletotracetheevolutionofasinglelegendfromitsbiblicalinceptiontoitsrecountingintheTalmud,andfromtheretotheversionfoundinthe
MidrashandthenretoldintheMiddleAgesinmedievalfolkloreandechoedaswellinsomehasidictales.TheJewishliteracytraditionisuniqueinthis,forinnoother
cultureisitpossibletotracesuchadetailedandextensiveevolutionoflegendsinwrittenformthroughouttheages.
Amongthelegendswithbiblicaloriginsandrabbinicandfolkelaborations,nonehadagreaterinfluencethanthatofLilith,whoplaysadualroleasachilddestroying
witchandastheincarnationoflust.TheLilithlegendservedasthebasisofasubstantialbodyofdemonictalesinmedievalJewishfolkloreandlaterhasidicsources.
Thesetalesdrawonthecharacter

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izationofLilithfoundinearlierrabbinictexts,buthavemoreimaginativefreedom.Thisprocessofembellishmenthasapronouncedtendencytobringtogetherasmany
previousthemesandmotifsaspossible,yetatthesametimethenewtaletakesonalifeofitsown.
InthisfashionthearchetypeofLilithbecameimprintedonJewishfolklore,andshereappearswithamultitudeofnames,amongthemObyzouth,Naamah,Agratbat
Mahalath,andtheQueenofSheba,inearlyapocryphal,talmudic,andmidrashicsources,aswellasinmedievalfolkloreandthelaterhasidictales.SotoodoesLilith
playanimportantroleinkabbalistictexts,onethatisessentiallymythicinnature.8 Thetalmudicandmidrashictexts,ofcourse,hadthesealofrabbinicauthority,while
theapocryphaltextsdidnot.Nevertheless,thelatterhadastronginfluenceonthedevelopmentofJewishlore.
Oftheapocryphaltexts,therearetwo,TheBookofTobitintheApocryphaandTheTestamentofSolomoninthePseudepigrapha,thatgreatlyinfluencedthe
subsequentdirectionofdemonologyinJewishfolklore.9 TheBookofTobit,datingfromaround2B.C.E.,recountsthetaleofSarah,whosehusbandsall
mysteriouslydieontheirweddingnights.FinallyTobiasisabletoexpeltheevildemonAsmodeuswho,itturnsout,hadkilledeachandeveryhusband.Thiskey
legendprefiguresboththesubsequentcareerofAsmodeusastheKingofDemonsandthepatternofamultitudeofdybbuktales,inwhichtheevilspiritmustbe
exorcised.TheTestamentofSolomon,survivinginaGreektextthatisestimatedtohavebeenwrittenbetweenthe1stand4thcenturiesC.E.,servesasanearly
compendiumofdemons,whoappeartoKingSolomoninsuccessionathisinvocation,andistheearliesttexttocastKingSolomonintheroleofsorcerer,which
becametheprimarymodelforhiminsubsequentJewishlore.AmongthedemonscompelledtoappearisObyzouth,whohasallthewitchlikecharacteristicsofLilith
andisprobablytheprecursorofLilith,asthemythicidentityofObyzouthlikelyfusedintothatofthemorefamousdemoness.
SometimeduringtheearlyMiddleAgesthelegendofLilith,thedominantfemaledemon,mergedwiththelegendofAsmodeus,theKingofDemons,andshebecame
identifiedashisqueen.AsmodeuswasalreadyafamousfolkcharacterbecauseofthestrikinglegendsabouthimintheTalmud.OnerecountshiscapturebyKing
SolomonduringthetimetheTemplewasbeingbuilt,andanotherdescribeshowAsmodeusoverpoweredSolomonandthrewhimagreatdistance,turninghimintoa
beggarking,andusurpedhisthrone.10InretrospectthemergingofthelegendsofLilithandAsmodeuswasinevitable,giventheirprominence.
Thefolkprocessinvariablyembellishesfolktalesthatcapturethefolkimagination.ThustherichlyexpressivelegendofLilith,whichgrewoutofasinglelineofGenesis,
gavebirthtoamyriadoflegendspostulatingtheexistenceofanotherworld,bysomeaccountsexistingsidebysidewiththisone,ascloseastheothersideofthe
mirrorbyothers,initsownplace,theYenneVelt,Yiddishfor"theOtherWorld."Ineithercasethedemonswere

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believedtoreproduceandproliferateendlessly,creatingdifficultiesateveryturn:causingwinetoturnintovinegar,firetogoout,mentobeimpotent,womentobe
unabletogivebirth.AndofcourseitwasLilithwhowasblamedeverytimeaninfant'slifewaslost.ThusthepresenceofLilithandhercohortswasveryreal,andshe
servedasasymbolofallthatwasenticinganddestructive.
ThusthelegendofLilithgavebirthtoanelaborateJewishdemonology.Onethemeinparticular,thatofmarriagewithdemons,evolvedoutofthelegendofLiliththe
seductress.11InthesetalesthedemonessisnotusuallyidentifiedasLilith,butnonethelessdemonstratesallofhercharacteristics.OnebrieftalefromMidrash
Tanhuma,datingfromaroundthe8thcentury,setsthepatternformanylatertalesandalsosetsanimportantprecedentinassertingthatintercoursewithdemonsdoes
notconstituteprostitutionoradultery:
OnYomKippur,theDayofAtonement,ademonintheshapeofawomancametoapiousmanandseducedhimandmadelovetohim.Afterwardthemanwasverysorry,until
ElijahtheProphetcametohimandaskedhimwhyhewassoupset.Andhetoldhimallthethingsthathadhappenedtohim.AndElijahsaid:''Youarefreefromsin,forshewasa
demon."Afterthatthemanreportedthistohisrabbi,whosaid:"Surelythisjudgmentistrue,forElijahwouldneverhavecometoaguiltyman."12

ThefirstandmostimportantvariantofthisbrieftaleisMa'asehYerushalmi(TheTaleofaJerusalemite),datingfromthe12thcentury.13Hereamanisforcedto
marrythedaughterofAsmodeus,theKingofDemons,inordertosavehisownlife.Heiseventuallypermittedtoreturntohishumanfamilyforoneyear,butwhenhe
refusestoreturntohisdemonwifeshecomestohiscityandchallengeshimbeforeaBeitDin,arabbiniccourt.Heretherabbistakeherside,commandinghimeither
toreturnwithherortopaytheimmensesumcalledforintheirweddingcontract,andwhenhestillrefusesshegiveshimonelastkissthekissofdeath.Ma'aseh
Yerushalmicontainsmostoftheessentialelementsofthelatervariants:theforcedoraccidentalmarriageofamantoademonessanattempttobefreedfromthe
unwantedvowsandadecisionreachedbyarabbiniccourt.
Thisthemeofmarriagewithdemonswasmostpopularinthe16thcentury,bothinEasternEuropeandPalestine.InMaasehNissim,14animportantYiddish
collectionofstoriessetinthecityofWorms,thereisthetaleof"TheQueenofSheba."Inthisstoryademonessbythisnameappearsinapoorinnkeeper'sstoreroom
andseduceshimbothwithhercharmsandwithbagsofsilvercoins.Anothervariantofthisthemeis"TheDemonintheTree,"whereaboyaccidentallyputsa
weddingringonademoness,onlytohaveherhaunthimafterhetriestomarry.TherealsoisathirdvariantfromPalestineinthesamecentury,fromShivheihaAri,
thetalesaboutRabbiIsaacLuriaofSafed.Inthistale,"TheFinger,"three

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youngmenoutforawalkoneeveningfindsomethingthatlookslikeafingerstickingoutoftheearth.Oneofthemjokinglyslipshisringontoitandpronouncesthe
marriagevows.Atthatinstant,withoutrealizingit,hewedshimselftoacorpse,onewhohadnotknownher"hourofjoy"whilealiveandisnotabouttoletitgonow.
TheexistenceofsuchclosevariantsfromplacessodistantseemstoconfirmasubstantialexchangeoflorebetweenEuropeandtheHolyLandduringthatperiod,
especiallyinthecosmopolitanenvironmentofSafed.
Oneofthemostrecentvariantsofthistale,"TheOtherside,"datesfrom19thcenturyEasternEurope.Hereanunsuspectingmanisluredtothekingdomofthe
demons,notfarfromhisowncity,andstepbystepfallsunderthepowerofthedemons,whofinallywedhimtooneoftheirown,thendissolvetheillusion,leavinghim
brokenandmute.Anditisonlyaftertherabbiniccourtcommandsthedemonstoappearandrulesagainstthemthatthemanisfreedfromtheircurse.
Alloftheprevioustalesonthethemeofmarriagewithdemonsconcernamanmarriedtoademoness.Thereare,however,afewtalesinwhichawomaniswedtoa
demon,usuallybydeceitorbyforce.Inonesuchstory,"TheBrideofDemons,"from18thcenturyGermany,Lilithluresayounggirlintocominghomewithher,
imprisoningherinordertoforcehertowedoneofherdemonsons.Onlybygreateffortisshefreedbyherhumanbetrothedwhoriskshislifeforherwithoutever
havingmether.
Perhapsthemostinterestingofthesevariantsisonefrom19thcenturyPrague,inwhichayoungwoman,Haminah,followsherloverintothesea,preparedtoendher
life,onlytodiscoverthatheisthedemonruleroftheriver,whomakesherhisbridein"TheUnderwaterPalace."Thistalecombinestwobasictaletypesintoone.
Oneoftheseisthatofmarriagewithdemons,andtheotherconcernsamidwifewhoisbroughttothekingdomofthedemons.15Herethemidwifemotifisfoundin
thesubplotabouttheauntofthegirl,whosenameisShifra,andwho,asamidwife,isbroughttotheunderwaterpalacetodeliverthechildofthegirlandherdemon
husband.16Suchtales,involvingamidwifeneededtodeliverachildoramohelrequiredtoperformthecircumcision,arefoundinbothEuropeanandMiddleEastern
sources.Thesestoriesemphasizetheparallelsbetweenthelivesofhumansandthoseofdemons,fortheYenneVeltisadistortedmirrorimageofthisworld.The
older,writtenversionsofthistalealmostallconcernamohelwhoisledtoGehenna,andthemorerecentoralversionsarealmostallaboutamidwifewhoistakento
thelandofthedemons.17Thefactthattwosuchseparatetaletypeshavebeencombinedheredemonstrateshowthefolkprocessconstantlyremakesoldthemesin
newways,andthuskeepsthetalealiveintheretelling.
Inonetaleinwhichthisthemeofmarriagewithdemonsisfound,itispossibletoglimpsethehistoricalandpsychologicalkernelunderlyingit.Inthetale,"TheDemon
oftheWaters,"collectedinthe1930sfromaUkrai

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nianimmigrantinIsrael,thestairwaytoamikveh,aritualbath,collapses,throwingawomanintotheriver,wheresheiscarriedaway,whileherdemonicdouble
emergesfromthewaters,takingherplace,andproceedstobehaveinaviolentandabusivemanner.Itisawiseshepherdwhorecognizesthatthedemonofthewaters
isnotreallythewife.18Yetdespitethetraditionalfolkstructureofthistale,itisnotdifficulttoreadbetweenthelinestodiscernthehumantragedyofmadness.And
thespecificnamingofthecharacters,theplace,andthecustomsgivesthestrongimpressionthatanactualincidentliesbehindit,notmerelyafantasy.
This,then,revealsagreatdealabouttheworkingsofthefolkprocess.Oneveryoldlegendsplitsoffintoseveralsublegends,givesbirthtoamultitudeofvariants,and
isembellishedandretoldformanycenturiesinnewversionsthatarethemselvesembellishedandretolduntiltheybearlittleresemblancetotheoriginal.Foritisclear
thatdespitetheirageandfamiliarity,thesesupernaturalthemesretainedgreatpowerforthosewhotoldthem.Andmuchofthispowercamefromthefactthatthese
storiesembodyuniversalfearsandfantasies:Lilithisaprojectionofthenegativefearsanddesiresoftherabbiswhocreatedher.ForifLilithservednootherpurpose
thantoresolvethecontradictioninthebiblicaltext,suchanextensivelegend,withsomanyramifications,wouldneverhavecomeintobeing.
DemonsarenottheonlysupernaturalbeingsfoundinJewishlore.Therearealsoangels,spirits,andotherkindsofimaginarycreatures,suchasvampires,werewolves,
goblins,andghosts.Sometimesthespiritofonewhoisdeadtakespossessionofalivingbeing.Thisspiritiscalledadybbuk,andfromthe16thcenturyon,accounts
ofpossessionsbydybbuksmultipliedwithalarmingfrequency.Thesearenotfolktalesintheusualsense,becausealmostalloftheliterallyhundredsofaccountsof
suchpossessionsinsistthattheeventactuallyoccurredandgiveallkindsofspecificdetailsaboutthoseinvolved.Thepatterninthesetalesisalmostalwaysthesame:
thedybbuk,thespiritofonedead,takespossessionofitsvictim.Eventuallythematterisbroughttotheattentionofarabbi,whointerrogatesthedybbukand
eventuallycastsitout,usuallythroughthelittlefingerortoeofthevictim.
Thispatternisfoundin"TheWidowofSafed,"ataleinShivheihaAriabouthowawidowlivinginSafedwaspossessed,andhowRabbiHayimVital,atthebehest
ofRabbiIsaacLuria,succeededinexorcisingthedybbuk.19Thistaleemergedinthe16thcentury,ataroundthesametimeasthemajorcompendiumofYiddish
folktales,TheMaasehBook,appearedinEasternEurope,inwhichoneoftheearliestdybbuktalescanalsobefound.20ItisthesetalesinShivheihaAriandThe
MaasehBookthatsetthepatternforvirtuallyallsubsequentdybbuktales.21
Sometimesthedybbukfindsasurreptitiouswayofenteringtheperson,suchasinthetaleof"TheFishhead"inShivheihaAri,aboutadybbukwhoentersafish:
whenayoungwomaneatstheheadofthefish,the

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dybbukisabletotakepossessionofher.Inothercasesademonisabletoapproachapersonbecauseheorshesaid,"GototheDevil,"asin"TheBrideofDemons."
Likewise,"TheLostPrincess,''thefirsttaletoldbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,thegreathasidicstoryteller,beginswithjustsuchacurse,causingtheprincesstobe
takenoverintotherealmsofevil,requiringanepicquestinordertosetherfree.22
Mostoftenthespiritisabletoenteritsvictimbecauseofalackoffaith,suchasnotbelievinginthepartingoftheRedSea,orbecausethetextofthemezzuzahonthe
doorsofthehouseisflawedormissing.Oncethedybbukfindsafoothold,throughoneweaknessoranother,itinevitablytakespossession.Andonlyaritual
exorcism,suchasthatportrayedinthelastactofS.Y.Ansky'sdrama,TheDybbuk,23cansucceedinexpellingit.Thesetalesservedasawarning,ofcourse,against
permittingtheforcesofeviltogainsuchafoothold,andthefactthattheyarepresentedasaccountsratherthantalesshowshowdeeplysuchcasesofpossessionwere
believedtobeauthentic.
APersiantale,"TheSoulofAvyatar,"fromanunpublishedmanuscriptof16thcenturyorigin,describeshowthesoulofthesinnerAvyatarenteredahorseand
transformeditintoabeastwithgreatpowers.Thisinitselfisnotuncommon,fordybbuksareoftensaidtotakepossessionofanimals,especiallyadogoracow.
WhatismoreunusualisthatthesoulofAvyatargivesthehorsegreatdestructivepowers,whileotherpossessedanimalsareshortlydriventomadness.Such
possessionusuallyinvolvesawanderingspirit,thatis,adybbuk,althoughthereareexceptionsinwhichdemonsorotherevilbeingstakepossessioninstead.24One
suchunusualaccountis"TheExorcismofWitchesfromaBoy'sBody,"from19thcenturyEasternEurope,inwhichfourwitchestakepossessionofayoungboyat
thesametime.Butasintheothercasesofdybbuks,itisthepowerofGodthatcompelsthewitchestodepart,justasthevariousdybbuksareunabletoopposeit.
S.Ansky'splay,TheDybbuk,isthebestknownandmostoftenperformedYiddishdramaandisconsideredaclassic.Inrecentyearstherehavebeentwomajor
worksoffictiondevotedtothethemeofthedybbuk.TheseareTheDanceofGenghisCohenbyRomainGaryandTheDykeandtheDybbukbyEllenGalford.In
TheDanceofGenghisCohenthedybbukofaJewkilledinaconcentrationcampcomesbacktopossesstheofficerwhogavetheorderforhisexecutionandturns
theofficer'slifeintoalivinghell.Inthewonderfulsatire,TheDykeandtheDybbuk,adybbukbythenameofKokospossessesahighlyindependentwomantaxi
driver,oflesbianleanings,RainbowRosenbloom.ItturnsoutthatasorcererputacurseonRainbow'sancestor,tengenerationsback,thattheirdaughterswouldbe
possessedbyadybbukuntilthe33rdgeneration.Bothbooksworkwithinthegeneraldybbukmotif,buteachtakesitsownliberties.Whilemostdybbuksare
describedascomingfromevilpeople,theJewCohenwhopossessestheNaziisseekingrevenge.Thisisanewturninthedybbuktradition.Like

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wise,thedybbukKokosservesasthefirstpersonnarratorofTheDykeandtheDybbukandemergesasasympatheticfigure,whichisnotthecasewiththe
traditionaldybbuktale.
UnderlyingmanyofthesetalesistheJewishconceptofsinanditspunishment.ThepunishmentsofGehennaarerecountedin"TheDoortoGehenna,"whereawife
disregardsawarningnottoopenadoor.ThemomentshedoessheispulledintoGehenna,JewishHell,wheresheislaterfoundbyherhusband'ssteward.While
manyothersarebeingopenlytortured,hertortureismoresubtleandterrible:sheissurroundedwithgoldandluxuryonallsides,buteverythingisburninghot.This
tale,aswellas"TheDevil'sFire,"previouslydiscussed,wasrecountednotonlytoconveythenarrative,butalsoasawarningofwhatawaitedsinnersdeservingthe
punishmentsofGehenna.
Infact,theonlysinnersdeniedthepunishmentandexpiationthatGehennaoffersarethosewanderingspiritsrefusedentrancethereinthefirstplacebecausetheir
crimesaretooterribletoforgive.Thesewretchedfiguresaresaidtobechasedforagesbyvengefulangelsbearingfierywhips.Becausethepunishedsoulcannotbear
itssuffering,itseeksrefugeinthebodyofalivingpersonoranimal,thusbecomingadybbuk.
InadditiontotheuniquelyJewishtaletypes,suchasthoseaboutdybbuksandJewishdemons,virtuallyallofthetraditionaltypesofsupernaturaltalesarefoundin
Jewishlore.Thisincludesnotonlytheexpectedtalesaboutwitchesandwizards,butalsotalesaboutwerewolves,ghosts,vampires,andevendragons.Naturally
muchofthismaterialwastakeninfromthesurroundingculturesinwhichtheJewsfoundthemselvesandisstronglymoldedbyitssource,butinmanycasesthetales
arerecastinaJewishcontext.
Thereis,forexample,awellknownwerewolftaleabouttheBaalShemTov,founderofHasidism,whenhewasaboy.Inthistale,"TheWerewolf,"foundinShivhei
haBesht,thesingingofthechildrenthattheyoungBaalShemleadstoschoolissopurethatSatanisthreatenedbyit.Satanthensendsanevilsoultotakepossession
ofanalreadywickedwoodcutter,makinghimintoanevilsorcererwholatertransformshimselfintoawerewolfandattacksthechildren.TheboyIsraelultimately
defeatsthewerewolf,theveryincarnationofevil,intheprocessshowingevidenceofhisowngreatpowers,whichhekepthiddenuntiltheageofthirtysix,afterwhich
herevealedhimselfandtookupthemantleofleadership.Thisstorythuscombinesthethemeofpossessionbyadybbukwiththatofthepopularthemeofthe
werewolf,creating,asitwere,aJewishwerewolfstory.
Anotherofthemostbasictypesofsupernaturaltalesistheghoststory,describingencounterswithspiritsofthedead.InJewishloretheroleoftheghost,perse,isa
littledifferent,becausespiritsaremostoftenencounteredasdybbuksaftertheyhavetakenpossessionofthebodyofalivingperson.Thereare,however,more
conventionalghoststories.Themostfamous

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ghostofallis,ofcourse,thatoftheProphetSamuel,calledforthbythewitchofEndorforKingSaul.ManyofthecharacteristicsoftheghostofSamuel,suchashis
angeratbeingbroughtbacktothisworld,becamethemodelforsubsequentghosttales.25
GhoststoriesarealsofoundintheTalmud.Rarely,however,dotheseghostshauntthosewhoencountertheminstead,theyareonlyreluctantlydrawnintotheworld
oftheliving.Onesuchtalereportsthedialoguebetweentwospiritswhoareoverheardwhisperinginthegraveyard.26StillanotherdescribeshowthecorpseofRabbi
EliezerbenShimonremainsperfectlypreservedfortenyearsafterhisdeathandhowhisvoicecomesforthfromtheattictoreplytothequestionsaskedofhim.27This
suggestsinanallegoricalmannerhowsubsequentJewishgenerationsturnedtotheancientsagesforguidance,andeventhoughtheyweredead,theystillrepliedtothe
questionsputtothem.This,ofcourse,waspossiblebyconsultingtheancienttexts,especiallytheTalmud,wheretheopinionsofthesagesarestillverymuchalive.
GhostsalsopopulatetheoppressiveworldportrayedinSeferHasidim,28attributedtoRabbiJudahthePious,fromGermanyinthelate12thorearly13thcentury.
Onesuchtalereportsavisionofamanwhofellasleepinthesynagogue.Heawokeatmidnightandsawmanyspiritswearingprayershawls,includingtwomenwho
werestillalive.Thosetwodiedafewdaysafterward,andthatwaswhyhesawtheirspiritsalreadyamongthedead.29
ThefinestexampleofaJewishfolktaleaboutghostsis"TheDeadFiancee,"wheretheghostofaman'sformerfianceeappearstohimandseemsineverywaytobe
alive.Thismanhadwrongedhermanyyearsbeforebymarryinganotherwhenhewasbetrothedtoher.Thissininturncausedthemantobewithoutchildren,andhis
rabbitellshimthattheonlywaytoannulhercurseistofindherandbegforherforgiveness.Aftergreateffortthemanfindsher.Butonlylaterdoeshelearnthatshe
hasbeendeadforthepasttenyearsandthathehasmetwithherghost.Herreturnischaracteristicofmanyghosttalesinwhichaspiritreturnstoresolveanunfinished
matterofgreatimportance.
Farlessfrequent,butstilltobefound,aretalesofvampires,which,whilehardlyadominantthemeinJewishlore,appearinoneoftheoldesttexts,TheTestamentof
Solomon.HereavampiredemonsucksthebloodofthechildofthechiefbuilderoftheTempleuntilKingSolomonfindsawaytostophim.(Thismayrepresenta
kindoffolkrepresentationofchildabuse.)AstowhythevampiremotifisnotmorecommonlyfoundinJewishlore,itseemslikelythatithasbeenreplacedbytheevil
doingsofLilithandherdaughters,whostrangletheirvictimsratherthandrainthelifeoutofthem.Lilith,afterall,hasseveralcharacteristicsincommonwiththe
vampire:shecantransformherselfintoananimal,usuallyacat,andshemakesdiabolicalattemptstodoharm,oftenfirstdeceivinghervictimsintobelievingsheis
eitherharmlessorirresistible.In"TheOtherSide,"forexample,ademonessfirstappearstoamanasamodestandlovelyyoung

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lady,andin"TheKissofDeath"thedaughterofAsmodeussnatchesthebreathofthemanwhohasbetrayedher,inawaystronglyreminiscentofthefatalkissofthe
vampire.30
JustastheghostofSamuelservesastheearliestarchetypeoftheghostinJewishliterature,sodoesthewitchofEndorserveasthearchetypeofthewitch.Several
talesaboutwitchesarefoundintheTalmud,includingthatoftheeightywitchesdefeatedbyRabbiShimonbenSheetahinAshkelon.31Anothertalmudictaleis"The
RabbiandtheWitch."Inthisandothertalmudictalesthewitchconcealshertrueidentity,buttheobservantrabbiseesthroughher.Thisalsooccursinatalmudictale
wherearabbirecognizesthatanotherrabbi'sdaughtersarewitcheswhenheseesthemstirringthebrothwiththeirhands.32AndwitchescontinuetopopulateJewish
folklore,especiallyinmedievaltextssuchasSeferHasidim,whereawitchcastsaspellthatputsaknifeinademon'sheartinonetaleandturnsherselfintoablack
catinordertogivetheEvilEyetoaJewinanother.33Talesaboutwitchesareevenfoundinhasidiclore.JustastheyoungBaalShemTovdefeatsawerewolf,sotoo
doeshedefeatapowerfulwitchinonetaleandawizardinanother.34
Talesoftherabbisorcererare,perhaps,themostcommonlyfoundamongallthesetaletypes.Mosesservesasamagicianinseveralbiblicalepisodes,includingthe
contestwiththeEgyptianmagiciansinPharaoh'scourt.Thismayindeedbethetruemodelforthesubsequenttalesofsuchcontestsandmagicalcombats.Butitis
KingSolomon,notMoses,whoistheprototypeoftheJewishsorcerer.Solomon'sexploitsareagenreinthemselvesinJewishlore,andonlyElijahtheProphetisthe
heroofmoretales.Solomon'smasteryovertheforcesofthesupernaturalwascomplete.Hedrewonthepowerofhismagicring,onwhichGod'sNamewas
engraved,andultimatelyonthepowerofGod.Solomon,however,wasaking,andamodelwasneededfortherabbisorcerer.Severalrabbisdemonstrate
supernaturalpowersintheTalmud,amongthemRabbisShimonbarYohai,JoshuabenHananiah,Yannai,andEliezerbenHyrcanos.Butnoneofthesecouldbe
describedasasorcerer.
MostmedievaltalesinvolvingaJewishsorcererincludeaconfrontationbetweentheJewishsorcererandanevilsorcerer,whooftenservesasaviceroytoanemperor
orkingandwhoseprimarypurposeistobringharmtotheJews.AmongthemedievalmodelsforrabbisorcererareRabbiSamuelthePiousofRegensburgandhis
son,RabbiJudahthePious,whosemiraclesarerecountedinTheMaasehBook.35ThereisalsothelegendaryRabbiAdam,whohasvastkabbalisticpowersathis
command.Heisthesubjectofseveraltalesinwhichhedrawsuponsupernaturalobjects,suchasamagiclampormirror,inordertoprotectJewsfromimpending
disaster.36
InadditiontoRabbiAdam,oneothermedievalrabbiinparticularisportrayedinJewishlegendashavingpossessedgreatsupernaturalpowers.ThisisRabbiJudah
LoewofPrague,whousedhissupernaturalknowledge

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toprotecttheJewsfromdangersarisingoutofthebloodlibelaccusation,whenJewswereaccusedofkillinggentilesinordertousetheirbloodinpreparingmatzoh
forPassoveranaccusationthatoccurredfrequentlyandunfairlyintheMiddleAges,oftenleadingtoterriblepogroms.RabbiLoewhimselfisfamousforthecreation
ofthecreatureknownastheGolem,amanmademan,createdoutofclayandbroughttolifewithvariousmagicalincantations.Thiscreature,accordingtothelegend,
protectedtheJewsofPraguefromvariousdangers,especiallythatofthebloodlibel,withitsdisastrousconsequences.37
AlthoughtheGolemcycleisthemostfamousofthelegendsofRabbiLoew,therearemanyothertalesinwhichRabbiLoewexhibitshismagicalprowess,suchas
"SummoningthePatriarchs,"inwhichRabbiLoewinvokesthespiritsofthebiblicalpatriarchsatthebiddingoftheemperor,whowishestobeinitiatedintothesecrets
oftheKabbalah.SosimilararethecharacterizationsofRabbiAdamandRabbiLoewthatoneofthetalesaboutRabbiLoewisidenticaltoonethatistoldabout
RabbiAdam:howhecreatedapalaceoutofmagicandinvitedthekingtoabanquetthere.ThesourceaboutRabbiAdamistheolderofthetwoandisavivid
illustrationofhowRabbiAdambecamethemodelforsubsequentJewishsorcerers.38
Hasidiclegend,asrecountedinShivheihaBesht,thefirstcollectionoftalesabouttheBaalShemTov,hasRabbiAdamidentifytheBaalShemTovashissuccessor
whiletheBaalShemTovwasstillaboy.39ManyofthetalesoftheBaalShemTovcasthimintheroleofsorcerer.Butalthoughhe,likeRabbiAdam,isheirtoa
traditionofkabbalisticmagic,thepoweroftheBaalShemTovseemstoderivemorefromhisfaithandlessfromkabbalisticformulasandinvocations.Invirtuallyallof
thesetales,evenifarabbidoesnotserveasthehero,theevilofthewizardiseventuallyuncoveredandawayisfoundtostophim.40Sometimestheonewhodefeats
himishisownpupil.Oneofthese,"TheWizard'sApprentice,"isfoundinanoralversioncollectedbyY.L.CahaninEasternEurope.Thisreworksthethemeofthe
sorcerer'sapprentice,famousinworldfolklore,whichwasespeciallyprominentinEasternEurope.
Oneindicationofatale'spopularityisthenumberofvariantsinwhichitisfound,and"TheWizard'sApprentice"isfoundinatleasthalfadozen.Inoneoralversion,
collectedinEasternEurope,anevilwizardoffersasontoachildlesscoupleiftheywillleavethechildwiththewizardforoneyear.Thedesperatefathermakesthe
bargainbutfailstodeliverthechildwhenpromised.Thewizardthenkidnapstheboyandraiseshimashisapprentice.Whenthetimehaspassed,thefathercomesto
taketheboyback,butthewizardturnstheboyintoabirdandforcesthefathertoagreetoatest:ifthefatherwins,theboywillbereturnedifnot,theboywillremain
withthewizardforgood.Withtheaidoftheboy,thefathersucceedsinfreeinghim,butthefuriouswizardpursuestheboyintheformofvariousanimals.Yeteach
timehetriestokillhim,theboy,whohaslearned

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hislessonswell,transformshimselfintosomethingthatescapesthewizard'sclutches.
Intherealmoffolklorethereare,ofcourse,noboundaries.TheJewsdrewuponthefolkloresofthesurroundingpeoples,andthefolkloreoftheJewsmadeitsway
intothetraditionsofotherpeoples.ButeventheJewishtaleswithuniversalthemes,suchasthoseaboutdemons,vampires,werewolves,orghosts,almostalwaystake
onaJewishcoloration,evenifthetalesdonothaveaJewishcontext.Inthesetales,then,thepeoplefoundanexpressionfortheirfantasiesaswellastheirprimal
fears,andtheactoftellingthemwasinitselfanaffirmationoffaithandoftheJewishfolktradition.Aboveandbeyondthis,theinherentpowerofthetaleisleftto
speakforitself.

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PARTIII
MYTHICECHOES

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Seven
TheMythologyofJudaism
TheBaalShemTovwasonceprayingwithhishasidim.Thatdayheprayedlongerthanusual,andtheothersfinishedbeforehim.Atfirsttheywaitedforhim,but
beforelongtheylostpatience,andonebyonetheyleft.
LatertheBaalShemTovcametothemandsaid:"WhileIwaspraying,IascendedtheladderofyourprayersallthewayintoParadise.AsIascended,Iheardasong
ofindescribablebeauty.AtlastIreachedthepalaceoftheMessiah,inthehighestheavens,knownastheBird'sNest.TheMessiahwasstandingbyhiswindow,
peeringoutatatreeofgreatbeautythatgrewoutside.Ifollowedhisgazeandsawthathiseyeswerefixedonagoldendove,whosenestwasinthetopbranchesof
thattree.ThatiswhenIrealizedthatthesongprevadingallofParadisewascomingfromthatgoldendove.AndIunderstoodthattheMessiahcouldnotbeartobe
withoutthatdoveanditssongforasmuchasamoment.ThenitoccurredtomethatifIcouldcapturethedove,andbringitbacktothisworld,theMessiahwouldbe
suretofollow.
"SoIascendedhigher,untilIwaswithinarm'sreachofthegoldendove.ButjustasIreachedforit,theladderofprayerscollapsed."
Inthishasidictale,"TheLadderofPrayers,"theBaalShemTovascendsintoParadiseonaDivinequesttocapturethegoldendoveoftheMessiah,certainthatthis
willcausetheMessiahtofollow,initiatingthemessianiceraknownasEndofDays.1 ThefailureoftheBaalShemTov'shasidimtoprovidethesupportneededfor
thisgreatendeavor,assymbolizedbythecollapseoftheladderofprayers,causesthemtolosetheopportunityto

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bringtheMessiah.ThatmakesthisonemoretaleaboutwhytheMessiahhasnotcome.Dozensofothersuchtalesrecordlostopportunitiestobringthemessianicera,
orattemptstoforcetheMessiah'shand,andhastentheEndofDays.
Thistale,andvirtuallytheentirebodyofrabbinic,kabbalistic,folk,andhasidiclore,existsinamythologicalframework.TheladderofprayerstheBaalShemTov
ascendswassurelyinspiredbytheheavenlyladderinJacob'sdream.HeclimbsthisladderofprayersintoParadise,amythologicalrealmwithitsownorder,itsown
geography,itsownhistory,anditsowninhabitants,notonlyGodandtheangels,buttheBrideofGodandtheMessiahaswell.ItisunderstoodthattheMessiahis
waitingforthesigntobegiventhatthetimehascomeforthemessianicera.Atthesametime,Jewishmysticismcontainsthesecretofhowtohastenthecomingofthe
Messiah,secretsthattheBaalShemTovhasathiscommand.
Inaddition,thistaledrawsonarichtraditionoftalesaboutheavenlyascent,fromtheascentofElijahinafierychariottothefamoustaleofthefourwhoentered
Paradise.Indeed,"TheLadderofPrayers,"ahasidictaleof18thcenturyorigin,isadirectdescendantofthelegendofthefoursages,whichdatesfromthe2nd
century.Asdidthefoursages,theBaalShemTovascendstoheavenbecauseheseeksgreaterknowledgeoftheDivinerealm,andthatiswherehebelievesitcanbe
found.
Itisapparentatoncethatthistale,andamajorityofallJewishtales,existspurelybyvirtueofthisextensiveandintertwinedbodyofJewishmyth.And,indeed,thereis
aprofoundmythicalstratumofJudaism,whichisbeginningtoberecognized.TheearliestmythsweknowofarefoundintheBible,butprebiblicalmythssurely
existed,drawnfromNearEasternmythology.ThisearliermythologyseemstohavefueledthecontinuingevolutionofJewishmythsasnewonesarosetofillthevoid
createdbythelossoftheold.ThesemythsinvolvenotonlyGod,butalsoGod'sBride,theShekhinah,andliketheGreekmythsofZeusandHera,theysometimes
convergeandsometimesdivergeandoftengivebirthtoadditionalmyths.Sotooarethereothermythicalfigures,includingthatoftheMessiah,alongwithangels,
demons,spirits,andfabulouscreaturesoftheairandsea,suchastheZiz,agiantmythicalbird,orLeviathan,amonstrousseacreature.
ThesourcesforthesemythsincludetheBibleandthetranslationsoftheBible,theJewishapocryphalandpseudepigraphicalworksespeciallytheHekhalottexts
describingheavenlyjourneystherabbinictextsoftheTalmudandMidrash,thekabbalisticliterature,medievalJewishfolklore,andhasidictexts.Somemythic
materialcanalsobefoundamongthetalescollectedbyJewishethnologists.Itisthenatureofthisliteraturethatitssourcesarewidelyscattered,but,oncegathered,
mythsofremarkablecoherenceemerge.
TheprimarybiblicalmythsarefoundinthestoriesofCreation,oftheGardenofEden,theTowerofBabel,thesonsofGodandthedaughtersofmen,thegreat
Flood,thecovenantwithAbraham,thepartingoftheRed

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Sea,theExodus,andtheGivingoftheTorah.SotooistherethevisionofEzekiel,whichisthebasisofonemajorbranchofJewishmysticism,Ma'asehMerkavah,
TheMysteriesoftheChariot.(Creationisthebasisoftheotherbranch,Ma'asehBereshit,concerningtheMysteriesofCreation.)Andtheseareonlythemajor
biblicalmyths.ThereareothersthatgrowoutofkeyepisodessuchasthedeathofEnoch:AndEnochwalkedwithGod,andhewasnot,forGodtookhim(Gen.
5:24)orIsaiah'svisionoftheThroneofGod,whichbeginsIsawtheLordsittinguponahighandloftythroneandthetrainofHisrobefilledtheTemple(Isa.
6:1).
Eventextsthatdidnotappeartobemythological,liketheSongofSongs,arereinterpretedthisway.InRabbiAkiba'sreadingoftheSongofSongs,itisnotanerotic
lovepoem,butanallegoryofGod'sloveforIsrael.Hereallegorypavesthewayforamoremythologicalrelationship.
InsomelatertextstherelationshipbetweenGodandIsraelisdirectlyidentifiedasamarriage.OneoftheseisahymnforShavuotwrittenbyIsraelNajarathattakes
theformofaketubah,orweddingcontact,betweenGodandIsrael.2 Thisliturgicalpoem,whichisfoundintheSephardicprayerbookforShavuot,isbasedonthe
versesAndIwillbetroththeeuntoMeinlovingkindness,andincompassion.AndIwillbetroththeeuntoMeinfaithfulnessandthoushaltknowtheLord
(Hos.2:2122),andIwillmakeanewcovenantwiththehouseofIsrael(Jer.31:31).Thetextofthisketubah,readonShavuot,describestheGivingofthe
TorahatMountSinaiastheweddingbetweenGodandIsrael,asfollows:
Friday,thesixthofSivan,thedayappointedbytheLordfortherevelationoftheTorahtoHisbelovedpeople,theInvisibleOnecameforthfromSinai.TheBridegroom,Rulerof
rulers,Princeofprinces,saiduntothepiousandvirtuousmaiden,Israel,whohadwonHisfavoraboveallothers:"ManydayswiltthoubeMineandIwillbethyRedeemer.Be
thouMymateaccordingtothelawofMosesandIsrael,andIwillhonor,supportandmaintainthee,andbethyshelterandrefugeineverlastingmercy.AndIwillsetasidefor
theethelifegivingTorah,bywhichthouandthychildrenwillliveinhealthandtranquillity.ThisCovenantshallbevalidandestablishedforeverandever."Thusaneternal
Covenant,bindingthemforever,hasbeenestablishedbetweenthem,andtheBridegroomandthebridehavegiventheiroathstocarryitout.MaytheBridegroomrejoicewiththe
bridewhomhehastakenasHislot,andmaythebriderejoicewiththeHusbandofheryouth.

Heretheuseofallegoryisreadilyapparent,withGodrepresentingthegroomandIsraelthebride.Althoughdaring,theallegoricalnatureofthistextisneverindoubt,
forthepersonificationofIsraelisclearlyametaphor.ButotherkabbalistictextsdescribingaunionbetweenGodandtheShekhinaharehardertodismissasmere
allegories,especiallythosethatattributeamythicindependencetothefigureoftheShekhinah.Thefigure/groundnatureofthesetexts,wheremythandallegoryoften
reverseroles,isappar

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ent.Sotooisitintentional.Foraslongastherabbiswereabletopresentmythicmaterialthatcouldalsobeunderstoodinallegoricalterms,theyweresparedthe
dangerofunderminingmonotheism,thecentralpillarofJudaism.InthiswayJewishmythologywasabletoexistandeventhrive,butwithinamonotheisticframework.
AtthispointitmightbeappropriatetodefineouruseofmythintermsofJewishtradition.Mythsrefertoapeople'sstoriesaboutorigins,deities,ancestors,and
heroes.ThesearepreciselywhattheTorahrecountsfortheJewishpeople.Withinaculture,mythalsoservesastheDivinecharter,andthisiscertainlythecasein
Judaism,wheretheTorahservesbothasachronicleandcovenant.Furthermore,mythandritualaretraditionallylinkedinanintegralandmutualfashion,andthisis
certainlytrueinJudaism,wheretheyareinextricablybound.AlloftheseprimaryaspectsofmythologyfindexpressioninJewishtradition.Sotoohaveindividualmyths
exercisedgreatpoweroverJewishlife.EventothisdayJewsrelivetheExodusatPassoverandreceivetheTorahanewonShavuot.Nor,insomeJewishcircles,has
thelongingfortheMessiahsubsided.
Therearetwoprimaryobjectionstotheuseoftheterm''mythology"inrelationshiptoJudaism.Thefirstisthatthetermsuggestsaconstellationofgodsratherthana
single,allencompassing,omnipotentGod.FromtheperspectiveofJewishtheology,wherethecentralprincipleismonotheism,itseemsimpossiblefortheretobea
Jewishmythology.However,justassupernaturalpractices,suchasusingdivinationorconsultingasoothsayer,werecommonlyperformeddespitethebiblical
injunctionagainstthem,soanextensiveJewishmythologyevolved,especiallyinmysticalcircles,whereitwasbelievedpossibletopreserveamonotheisticperspective
whilesimultaneouslyemployingamythologicalone.Hereitisunderstoodthatallmythologicalfigures,especiallytheShekhinah,wereultimatelyaspectsofthe
Godhead,despitetheirapparentmythologicalindependence.Indeed,itsometimesseemsasifallofJewishmyth(andperhapsallofexistence)wastheepicfantasyof
oneDivinebeing,orakindofDivineillusion,similartotheHinduconceptofmaya.Forwhatsometimesappearstohavemythicindependencecanalsobe
understoodasanemanationoftheGodhead.HeretheDivineemanationstaketheformofthetenSefirot,assymbolizedbythekabbalisticTreeofLife.Butthe
Sefirotalsoserveasanantidotetomythology,astheyareentirelyconveyedthroughallegoryandsymbolismandmayhavebeencreatedtocontaintheunbridled
mythicimpulsereleasedinJewishmysticism,aswellastodefineitsunderlyingarchetypalstructure.Certainly,thissystemofDivineemanationsisascomplexand
comprehensiveasthatoftheJungiantheoryofarchetypes.Andwhiletheessenceofmythisarchetype,itismuchharder,ifnotimpossible,tomythologizeasystemas
abstractastheSefirot.Yetunderlyingtheseabstractionsarethelivingforcesofmyth.
Thesecondobjectiontotheuseof"mythology"intermsofJewishtraditionisthatitimpliesthatthebeliefsunderconsiderationarenottrue.Even

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themereidentificationofaculture'sbeliefsasmythologicalindicatesthattheyarebeingviewedfromadistanceratherthanfromtheperspectiveofabeliever.Thatis
why,withafewexceptions,therehasbeensuchgreatreluctancetoidentifyanyofthebiblicalnarrativesasmythsortobringthetoolsofmythologicalinquirytobear
onJudaismorChristianity.Whileitistruethatthestudyofthesereligionsfromamythologicalperspectivedoesimplythedistanceofcriticalinquiry,itdoesnotmean
thatthetraditionsbeingexaminedarethereforeimpliedtobefalse.Mythologicalstudiesarenowcommonlylinkedwithpsychologicalones,andscholarssuchasC.
G.Jung,JosephCampbell,andErichNeumannhavedemonstratedhowitispossibletorecognizepsychologicaltruthsunderlyingmythictraditions.Mythitselfisthe
collectiveprojectionofapeople,or,asJosephCampbellhasputit,mythisapeople'scollectivedream.InthecaseofJudaism,manygenerationsofrabbisreceived
andtransmittedthesacredmythsandtraditions,sometimesradicallytransformingthemintheprocess,aswellasimpartingtheirownhumanandmythicimprint.
Thebodyofthesemyths,multipliedoverthegenerations,issubstantial.TheheavenlypantheonisasextensiveasthatoftheGreeks,butwithahostofangelsplayinga
roleequivalenttotheGreekgods.Thus,insteadofPoseidon,thereistheangelRahab,wholikewiserulesthesea.OrjustasHermesistheDivinemessenger,sothis
roleinJewishmythologyisplayedbytheangelRaziel.Yet,despitestrongparallelswithothermythicsystems,Jewishmythologyisinmanywaysunique.Theprimary
differenceisthatinsteadofconsistingofaconstellationofmanygods,itisdominatedbythepresenceofanallpowerfulGodwho,seatedonathroneinParadise,has
ultimatecontroloveralleventsinheavenaswellasonearth.Thatbeingsaid,Godoftenseemstodelegatethispowertootherfigures,suchastheangelMetatron,
whowasonceEnoch,andissaidtobetheheavenlyscribe,theattendantoftheThroneofGlory,theprinceofthetreasuriesofheaven,therulerandjudgeofallthe
hostsofangels,andtheexecutoroftheDivinedecreesonearth.Ofcourse,themoreGod'spowerisdelegatedinthisfashion,thegreaterthemythicpantheon.
Overtime,asthenumberofsupernaturalfiguresinthispantheonincreasedandinteracted,anabundanceofmythologicalnarrativesemerged.Thesestoriesdescribe
eventssuchasthetransformationofEnochintotheangelMetatron,theGivingoftheTorah,theseparationofGod'sBridefromherSpouse,thechainofeventsthat
hassofarpreventedthecomingoftheMessiah,andtheattemptsofSatantogaininroadsintotheworldofmen.Theyalsomapouttherealmsofheavenandhellin
greatdetail.Byaprocessofaccretion,thesemythicrealmswereembellishedandfurtherdefined,givingbirthtoadditionalnarratives.InthiswayJewishmythologyhas
evolvedintoanextensive,interconnectedandoftencontradictorymythictradition.
AttheheartofJudaismthereisoneuniversal,allconsumingmyth,whichcontainswithinitalltheothermajormyths.Thisisthemythof

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God'scovenantwithIsrael.Sincethisonemegamythservesasaframeworkforalltheothers,andsinceitfindsitsbasisinmonotheism,Judaismcanbesaidtobea
"monotheisticmythology."SuchaconceptionbestdescribesJewishmyth,whichisitsownuniquekindofmythology.Itsmostdistinctivecharacteristicisthatall
mythicalDivinefigurescanultimatelybeviewedasanemanationoftheGodheadandthuscanbecontainedwithinamonotheisticstructure.
IhaveidentifiedwhatIperceivetobethetenmajormythscontainedwithintheframeworkofthefundamentalmythofGod'scovenantwithIsrael.Allofthesemyths
findtheirsourceandpointofreferenceinthisfundamentalmyth,buteachhasevolvedintoafullydevelopedmythicconstellation.Theseare:(1)MythsofGodandthe
BrideofGod,(2)MythsofCreation,(3)MythsofHeaven,(4)MythsofHell,(5)MythsoftheHolyBook,(6)MythsoftheHolyTime,(7)MythsoftheHoly
People,(8)MythsoftheHolyLand,(9)MythsofExile,and(10)MythsoftheMessiah.
Thesetenmythscontainatleastfourhundredsubmythsthatarefoundinwidelyscatteredsources.Thesesubmythscanbeviewedindependently,or,whentakenasa
whole,theydefinetheoverallpatternofthelargermyth.Inalmosteverycasethereisevidenceofmythicevolution,withfragmentarymythsofbiblicalortalmudic
origintransformedintofarmoreextensivemythicnarratives,especiallyinthekabbalisticera,whichrepresentstheculminationofthisprocess.
Bywayofexample,thecategoryofMythsofCreationincludesmythsofpriorworlds,ofhowGodconsultedtheTorahtocreatetheworld,ofthesevendaysof
Creation,therabbinicnotionoftheprimordiallightcreatedonthefirstday,whenGodsaid"Lettherebelight,"andothermythsofthesunandmoonandstars,aswell
asmythsofcosmologyandcosmogony,mythsofsacredwaters,includingtheupperwatersandlowerwaters,thewatersofeternallife,andthekingdomofthedeep,
andthelateLurianicmythsofAdamKadmonandoftheShatteringoftheVesselsandtheGatheringoftheSparks.AlloftheseCreationmythsfindtheirorigininthe
accountofCreationinGenesisandembellishsomeaspectofit.
OneofthemostremarkableaspectsofJewishmythologyisthatitcontinuedtoflourishlongpasttheperiodsinwhichittookitsfinalforminothercultures.Inmost
culturesthedevelopmentofmythoccursduringanearlyperiod,longbeforebeingwrittendown,andoncecommittedtowriting,themythicnarrativegenerallyremains
fixed.ButJewishtraditionhasnotfollowedthispattern.OnereasonforthisistheexistenceoftheOralLaw,whichencouragedthiskindofmythicembellishment.Of
allthefactorsthatpermitthemythicimpulseinJudaismtoexpressitself,thisisthemostimportant.Judaismisuniqueinthatitrecognizesbothawrittenandanoral
tradition.TheWrittenLawis,ofcourse,theTorah,andtheOralLawistheoralcommentarylinkedtoit.Asonemidrashputsit,GodgavetheTorahtoMosesduring
theday,andatnightHeexplainedittohim.3 And

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wheneveraquestionarisesastotheauthorityofastatementoutoftheOralLaw,itisultimatelyattributedtoMosesatMountSinai.
Drawingonthisextensiveoraltradition,whichreachedbackforathousandyears,therabbisproceededtoreimaginetheBible,andintheprocesssubstantially
developeditsmythicelements.ThismakesitpossibletowitnesstheactualevolutionofJewishmyths.Earlymyths,primarilythosefoundintheBible,wereembellished
intheoraltraditionandlaterrecordedintherabbinictexts.Theserabbinicmythswerethemselvestransformedinthekabbalisticandhasidicperiods.Themostfertile
periodofJewishmythtookplacebetweenthe13thand17thcenturies.Thisisaremarkablylateperiodinhumanhistoryforsuchextensivemythicdevelopment.Itis
thenthatthemajormythsofthenatureofGodandofHisBridetookform,alongwithfurthermythsofCreationandoftheMessiah.Butineverycasethese
kabbalisticmythsarerootedinearliersourcesandundergoaprocessofevolutionuntiltheyachievefullexpression.Itisimportanttonotethatthemythic
transformationthattakesplacebetweentheearlyperiodsofJewishmythandtheirlaterevolutionisconsiderable,almostconstitutinganewsetofmythsbasedonthe
oldones.
WhilethevariedperiodsofJewishreligionarecharacterizedbytheirownpredominantmyths,thereisacontinuityamongthemthatisreflectedintherabbinicaxiom
that"thereisnoearlierorlaterintheTorah."4 Commentingonthisstatement,RabbiShlomoberabbiYitzhakhaLeviadds:"Thatistosay,everypartofitisboth
firstandlastlikeasphere...andwhereitends,thereitbegins,forbeholditislikeacircleorasphere."5 Thisprincipleiscertainlyreflectedinthemidrashicmethod
ofdrawingononeepisodeintheBible,suchasthechildhoodofMoses,tofillinanarrativegapinanother,suchasthemissingchildhoodofAbraham.Thisresultsina
distinctlymythmakingprocess,whichcontributesinnosmallparttotheongoingmythicevolution.
Becauseoftheconsiderabledifferencesbetweenthesevariousphases,itisdifficulttospeakofasingleordefinitiveJewishmythology.Yetitisalsoclearthatthe
seedsofallthemajormythsarefoundintheearliertexts,wheretheyareoftenthesubjectofaprofoundevolutionaryprocess,adialecticthatalternatesbetweenthe
tendencytomythologizeJudaismwithaninclinationtoresistsuchmythologicalimpulses.
ThecontinuityofstyleandmodethatlinksthelegendsoftheTalmudandMidrashislargelypreservedinthekabbalisticperiod.Butbecauseofthekabbalistic
imperativetoperceivetheScripturesfromamysticalperspective,changesinthemeaningofconceptsandlegendsarecommonandareoftenofaradicalnature.
PerhapsnoJewishmythundergoesasradicalatransformationasdoesthatoftheShekhinah.
InitsearliestusageintheTalmud,"Shekhinah"referstoGod'sDivinePresence,thusthepresenceorindwellingofGodinthisworld.ThispersonificationofGod's
presencewaslinked,inparticular,tothesenseofholi

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nessexperiencedontheSabbath.AtthistimenoattemptwasmadetosuggestthattheShekhinahwasinanywayindependentofGod,ortoimplythattheterm
referredtoafeminineaspectoftheDeity.Instead,thetermimpliedthenearnessofGod,asinthishomilyofRabbiAkiba:"Whenamanandwifeareworthy,the
Shekhinahdwellsintheirmidstiftheyareunworthy,fireconsumesthem."6
YetsomerabbiniclegendssetthestagefortheultimatetransformationoftheShekhinahintoanindependentbeing,inpassagessuchasthisfromtheMekiltade
RabbiIshmael:
WheneverIsraelwentintoexile,theShekhinah,asitwere,waswiththem.WhentheywereexiledtoBabylon,theShekhinahwaswiththemwhentheywereexiledtoElam,the
Shekhinahwaswiththem,asitissaid,AndIwillsetMythroneinElam(Jer.49:38).7

InthiscontextthepresenceoftheShekhinahisintendedtoaffirmthatGodremainedtruetoIsraelandaccompaniedthemwherevertheywent.Intime,however,the
term"Shekhinah"cametobeidentifiedwiththefeminineaspectoftheDivinityandcametoacquiremythicindependence.Mythsemergeinthekabbalisticandhasidic
literaturethatportraytheShekhinahastheBrideofGodandtheSabbathQueen,personifyingherasanindependentmythicfigure.Indeed,thereareseveralother
mythicidentitieslinkedtotheShekhinah,whoissometimesalsoportrayedasaprincess,abride,anoldwomaninmourning,adove,alily,arose,ahind,ajewel,a
well,andthemoon.ThesemultiplefacetsoftheShekhinahsuggestthatasamythicfigure,theShekhinahhasabsorbedmanytypesoffemininerolesthatare
incarnatedasseveraldifferentgoddessesinothertraditions.
IntheZoharwefindareworkingoftherabbiniclegendabouttheShekhinahaccompanyingthechildrenofIsraelintoexilethatdemonstrateshowfarthismythic
processhasevolved:
WhentheSanctuarywasdestroyedandtheTemplewasburntandthepeopledrivenintoexile,theShekhinahleftherhomeinordertoaccompanythemintocaptivity.Before
leaving,however,shetookonelastlookatherHouseandtheHolyofHolies,andtheplaceswherethepriestsandtheLevitesusedtoperformtheirworship....Sointhedaysto
come,whentheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,willrememberhispeople,thecommunityofIsrael,theShekhinahwillreturnfromexilefirstandproceedtoherHouse,astheholy
Templewillberebuiltfirst.8

ThepresenceoftheShekhinahamongtheexiledIsraelitesisalsovividlyportrayedinthefollowingpassagefromtheZohar:9
WhenIsraelwerejourneyinginthewilderness,theShekhinahwentinfrontofthem,andtheyfollowedherguidance.TheShekhinahwasaccompanied

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byallthecloudsofglory,andwhenshejourneyedtheIsraelitestookuptheirmarch.AndwhentheShekhinahascended,thecloudalsoascendedonhigh,sothatallmenlooked
upandasked:Whoisthisthatcomethoutofthewildernesslikepillarsofsmoke(S.S.3:6).ForthecloudoftheShekhinahlookedlikesmokebecausethefirewhichAbrahamand
hissonIsaackindledclungtoitandneverleftit,andbyreasonofthatfireitascendedbothascloudandsmokebutforallthatitwasperfumed,withthecloudofAbrahamonthe
rightandwiththecloudofIsaacontheleft.

ThislastpassagenotonlyaffirmsthepresenceoftheShekhinahamongtheIsraelitesduringthewanderinginthewilderness,thearchetypalexile,butitalsolinksthe
ShekhinahtothepatriarchsAbrahamandIsaac.TheintentionclearlyistoprojecttheconceptoftheShekhinahasamotherfiguretoallofIsraelbackintothe
biblicaltext.CertainlytheidentificationoftheShekhinahwiththeCloudofGlory,describedinExodus,whichguidedtheIsraelitesduringtheday,succeedsindoing
justthis,andthedescriptionofthecloudofsmokecreatesaswellaconnectiontothesacrificeoftheramonMountMoriah.Thefinalimage,ofthecloudsof
AbrahamandIsaac,ispuremythology,wherethepatriarchsexistasarchetypes.TheeffectistocreateasenseofthetimelessnessofJewishhistory,inwhichthe
essenceofallpasteventsclingstothepresentlikethesmokeofthesacrificetotheCloudofGlory.10
Indeed,thereareaseriesofmythsabouttheShekhinahfoundintheZohar,severalofwhicharefocused,likethepreviouspassage,ontheexileoftheShekhinah.
Perhapsthemostimportantoftheseisthefollowing,inwhichitbecomesclearthattheShekhinahhasachievedmythicindependence:
WhentheTemplewasstillstanding,Israelwouldperformtheirrites,andbringofferingsandsacrifices.AndtheShekhinahresteduponthemintheTemple,likeamotherhovering
overherchildren,andallfaceswereresplendentwithlight,sothattherewasblessingbothaboveandbelow....WhentheTemplewasdestroyedtheShekhinahcameandwent
uptoallthoseplaceswheresheusedtodwellatfirst,andshewouldweepforherhomeandforIsrael,whohadgoneintoexile,andforalltherighteousandthepiousoneswho
usedtobethereandhadperished....AtthattimetheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,questionedtheShekhinah,andsaidtoher,"Whatailsyounow,thatyouhavegoneupentirely
totheroofs?"...AndshesaidtoHim:"Mychildrenareinexile,andtheTempleisburnt,sowhyshouldIremainhere?"...NowtheTempleisdestroyedandtheShekhinahis
withIsraelinexile...andthereisnojoytobefound,aboveorbelow.11

WhilemanyofthemythspromulgatedintheZohararecouchedinallegoricalterms,thispassageisclearlymythologicalinitsintent.Thedialogueunmistakably
resemblesthatbetweenahusbandandwifeatodds.

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ThetensionbetweenthemisapparentinthewordsoftheHolyOne:"Whatailsyounow?"andintheBride'sreply:"Mychildrenareinexile,andtheTempleisburnt,
sowhyshouldIremainhere?"Fromthisdialogueitisapparentthattheconfrontationtakesplacebetweentwomythicfigures,anditisatthispointthatitbecomes
clearthattheShekhinahhasachievedmythicindependence.
Withthiskabbalisticinitiation,then,thepresenceoftheShekhinahisfullyinjectedintothetradition.Itpreparesthewayforaseriesofvisionsandencounterswiththe
Shekhinahinsubsequentliteraturethatareassociated,inparticular,withtheKotel,theWesternWalloftheTemple,alsoknownastheWailingWall.12
Inthesekabbalisticandpostkabbalisticlegendsitisapparentthat,atleastfromamythologicalpointofview,theShekhinahhasbecomeanindependententity.
Nevertheless,theShekhinahwasregardedatthesametimeasbeinganextensionoraspectoftheDivinity,whichwas,ofcourse,necessaryinordertoupholdthe
essentialconceptofmonotheism.TrueinitiatesoftheKabbalahwerenotdisturbedbytheseapparentcontradictions,but,forothers,thedangerofviewingthe
Shekhinahasaseparatedeitywasrecognized,andthatexplainswhythestudyofthekabbalistictextswasnotpermitteduntilamanhadreachedhisfortiethyearand
wasmarried.Onlysuchapersonwasfelttobegroundedenoughinthetraditionnottobeoverwhelmedbythekabbalisticmysteries,whileyounger,morevulnerable
menmightwellbeledastray.
NordoestheevolutionofthemythoftheShekhinahendinthekabbalisticperiod.TheimplicationsoftheexileoftheShekhinahwereexpandedinthe16thcentury
byRabbiIsaacLuria,asexplainedbelow.Andinthe19thcenturyRabbiNachmanofBratslavtoldthetale,"TheLostPrincess,"whichhintsatanidentificationofthe
ShekhinahwithJung'sconceptoftheanima.ThisimplicitlinkbetweenShekhinahandanimaismadeexplicitinthestory,"ThePalaceofPearls,"13byPenina
Villenchik.
OneothersubtleidentityoftheShekhinahissuggestedinthetalmudictraditionofeveryJewreceivinganeshamahyeterah,asecondsoul,ontheSabbath:"Rabbi
ShimonbenLakishsaid:'OntheeveoftheSabbaththeHolyOne,blessedbeHe,givesmananextrasoul,andatthecloseoftheSabbathHewithdrawsitfrom
him,'"14ThisextrasoulisbelievedtodepartafterHavdalah,theritualofseparationperformedattheendoftheSabbath.Thissecondsoulfunctionsasakindof
ibbur,literally"animpregnation,"whichisthespiritofaholyfigurethatfuseswiththesoulofalivingperson,bringinggreaterfaithandwisdom.Butinthiscaseitisa
DivinesoulthatfuseswiththesoulsofJewsontheSabbath.ItisnotdifficulttoidentifythissecondsoulwiththepresenceoftheShekhinah,theDivinePresence,who
isalsotheSabbathQueen.Certainly,thearrivalanddepartureoftheSabbathQueenandthatofthismysterioussecondsoularesimultaneous.Identifyingthesecond
soulwiththeShekhinahisawayofacknowledgingthesacrednessoftheSabbathbothfromwithinandwithout.

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Thuswefind,especiallyintheZohar,acycleofmythslinkedtotheShekhinah.SomeoftheseportraytheunityofGodandHisBride,whileothersconcerntheir
separation.Thekeymyth,asnoted,isthatoftheexileoftheShekhinah,foratthetimetheBridegoesintoexile,themythicfigureoftheShekhinahbecomeslargely
independentoftheDivinityandtakesonaseparatemythicidentity.
NotethatthemythoftheexileoftheShekhinahisatwopartmyth.InthefirststagetheBrideofGodgoesintoexileatthetimeofthedestructionoftheTemple,
whileinthesecondstagetheShekhinah,identifiedastheSefirahMalkhut,isreunitedwiththemaleaspectofGod,identifiedbySefirahTiferet.Thisreunion,which
isdescribedintheZoharasamarriage,15isbroughtaboutthroughtheactivitiesofIsraelinfulfillingrequirementsofthemitzvot,andthroughtheintensity,or
kavanah,ofprayers.Whenthisreunificationbecomespermanent,theexileoftheShekhinahwillcometoanend.Thisdevelopmentislinkedtothecomingofthe
Messiah,inthatoneoftheconsequencesofthemessianiceraisthattheTempleinJerusalem,whichwastheShekhinah'shomeinthisworld,willberebuilt.Sincethe
Shekhinahwentintoexilebecauseofitsdestruction,therebuildingoftheTemplewouldsurelyrepresenttheendofherexile.InthiswaythemythsoftheShekhinah
andtheMessiahbecamelinked.
ContributingtothelonglifeofJewishmythssuchasthatoftheShekhinaharetheassociatedrituals.ThemostimportantrituallinkedtothemythoftheShekhinahis
thatknownasKabbalatShabbat,recreatedbyRabbiIsaacLuriainthe16thcentury.Heretheworshipersgooutintothefieldsjustbeforesunsetontheeveofthe
SabbathandwelcometheSabbathQueen.TheArifoundthebasisforthisritualintheTalmud,whereitisrecountedthatRabbiHaninawouldputonhisrobesand
standatsunsetontheeveoftheSabbathandsay,"Come,letusgoouttogreettheSabbathQueen."16Ofcourse,bythetimetheAriformalizedthisritual,the
conceptoftheSabbathQueenhadevolvedintoanindependentmythicfigure,andtheritualitselfbecomesakindofgoddessworship,but,withinamonotheistic
structure.
AccordingtoWalterF.Otto,"Mythdemandsritual."17ThisisthecentralpremiseoftheMythandRitualschoolofmythologicalstudies,whichprobablyhasmore
advocatesthananyother.Certainly,thecloserelationshipbetweenJewishmythandritualmorethanfulfillstherequirementsofthisapproach,andthereforeitcanbe
saidthatJewishmythpossessesbothoftheprimaryelementsofamythicsystem:mythandritual.
Asinothertraditions,Jewishmythandritualreaffirmandvalidateeachother,foraslongastheyremainlinked,theritualkeepsthemythalive.Butassoonastheritual
fallsintodisuse,themythlosesitsprimarypurposes:linkingthepastandthepresentthroughtheactingoutoftheritual.Withouttheritual,themythisnomorethana
story,albeitapowerfulandcompellingone.ForobservantJews,thestoriesthataccompanyJewishritualshaveretainedthestatusofabsolutetruth,whichishowa
mythappears

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intheeyesofabeliever.Indeed,thekeytestinourtimeforwhetheroneholdsOrthodoxviewsiswhetheronebelievesthatGoddictatedtheTorahtoMosesat
MountSinai.Forwithoutthisbelief,thesealoftruththatbindstheTorahandmakeseverydetailfraughtwithinfinitemeaningwouldbecalledintoquestion.Thus,for
believers,theultimatetruthoftheTorahisselfevidentandbeyondanydoubt.Thisistheessentialconditionforamythicsystemtoflourish.However,evenforthosein
ourtimeforwhomJewishmythnolongerrepresentstheprimarywayofviewingtheuniverse,themythsthemselvesretaintheirinherentpower.Likeallmythstheyare
notarbitrarycreations,butprojectionsfromthedeepestlevelsoftheself.Fromthisperspective,themythscanbereadaspsychicmaps,archetypesofthecollective
Jewishunconscious.
Atthesametime,muchoftheevolutionofJewishmythologyseemstohavehadadistinctlyconsciouselement.Sotoodoesitdivergefromtheanonymousnatureof
mostmythologyinthatitispossibletopinpointtheauthorsofmythictransformation,especiallyMoshedeLeon,theprimaryauthoroftheZohar,andtheAri,whowas
notonlyagreatrabbi,butagreatmythmakeraswell.
Drawingontheformandmethodofrabbiniccommentaryfoundinthemidrashim,MoshedeLeoncreatedamysticalcommentaryontheTorahthatitselfbecamethe
primarymysticalJewishtext.ItisintheZoharthatthekeymythsabouttheexileoftheShekhinahemerge,alongwithmanyothers.Themythicdaringfoundinthistext
wasconsideredsoextremethatitwasforbiddentostudytheZoharorotherkabbalistictextsunlessamanwasfortyyearsoldandmarried.Thesebarrierswere
erectedtoguardagainstthemythologicalimpactoftheZoharandothermysticaltextsandtolimitaccesstothosebestsuitedtointerpretthemallegorically.Thegreat
fearunderlyingtheserestrictionsisthatthetextwouldbemisreadinawaythatwouldunderminebeliefintheprincipleofmonotheism.Atthesametime,fortheselect
fewwhogainedentrancetothesemysticaltexts,therewastheopportunitytoachieveaprofoundlevelofmysticalknowledgeandspiritualattainment.
AmongthosemysticsforwhomtheZoharbecameatextassacredastheTorahwastheAri.HewassaidtohavepurchasedamanuscriptoftheZoharfroma
wanderer,andthiseventwastheturningpointinhislife.NotonlydidtheAridevotetherestofhisbrieflifetomysticalcontemplationandstudy,buthemodeled
himselfandhisdisciplesontheportrayalofRabbiShimonbarYohai,theherooftheZohar,andhiscircle.Thispatternofmasteranddisciplesbecame,inturn,the
modelfortheBaalShemTovandsubsequenthasidicrabbisandtheirhasidim.
ItwasthegeniusoftheAritohavesuchadeepunderstandingofJudaismthathewasabletocreatethemythoftheShatteringoftheVessels,thelastmajormythto
enterJewishtradition.ThisisthemostcosmologicaloftheJewishCreationmyths.ItscentralphasesconcernthemysteriesofCreation:HowGodhadtocontract
Himselfinordertomakespaceforthe

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Creationoftheworld,inaprocessknownastzimtzum.HowGodthensentforthvesselsofprimordiallightthatsomehowsplitapart,scatteringthesparksofholy
lightallovertheworld,butespeciallyintheHolyLand.Andhowgatheringthesesparkscanrestorethebrokenvesselsandreturntheworldtoitsprimordial
condition.
ThismythoftheAriisessentiallyanoriginalmythdrawnfromGnosticthemes,yetatthesametimeitisaremarkablecommentaryonMa'asehBereshit,has
discerniblelinkstothesystemoftheSefirot,andalsolinkstwootherprimaryJewishmyths,thoseoftheCreationandoftheMessiah.Forthebrokenvesselsinitiated
thecosmicFall,andtherestorationofthevesselswillinitiateamessianicerathatwillresurrectthedead,rebuildtheTempleinJerusalem,andrestoretheworldtoits
primordialstate.ThusthiscombinedmythservesasaframeworkforallofJewishhistory.
TheAri'smythisstunninginitssimplicity,originality,andessentialintegrity.Yet,acloseexaminationofthecomponentsofthemythrevealsthattheyeachhaveanalogs
insomekeyepisodeoftheTorah,aswellasingnostic,apocryphal,andmerkavahsources.Thefirstphaseofthemyth,tzimtzum,describingtheContractionofGod,
likelyfindsitsbiblicalinspirationinthecloudthatfillstheTentofMeetinginExodus40:3435:Thenacloudcoveredthetentofthecongregation,andtheglory
oftheLordfilledthetabernacle.AndMoseswasnotabletoenterintothetentofthecongregation,becausethecloudabodethereon,andthegloryofthe
Lordfilledthetabernacle.ThispassagedemonstratesthatGod'spresenceoccupiesspace.Therefore,itleadstotheconclusion,aspostulatedbytzimtzum,thatit
wasnecessaryforGodtocontractHispresenceinordertomakespaceinwhichtocreatetheworld.Accordingtothekabbalisticconceptoftzimtzum,God
withdrewHisPresencefromthecenter,bycontractingoutwardtoleaveaplaceemptyofHispresenceinwhichHecouldcreatetheworld.Sotheworldiscreatedin
themiddleofGod,butinaplacevacatedofHispresence.
TheconceptoftzimtzumcanalsobeseenasareplytotheverseDonotIfillheavenandearth?saystheLord(Jer.23:24).Thisverseisreinforcedbythe
talmudicdictim,"Godistheplaceoftheworld,buttheworldisnottheplaceofGod"(Gen.Rab.68:9).SuchaDivinecontractionisdirectlysuggestedintheMidrash
Rabbah,whereitisstatedthat"ThissameGlory,thatwassovast,compresseditselfsoastoappeartobespeakingfromabovethearkcoverbetweenthetwo
cherubim"(Num.Rab.14:22).Indeed,thekabbalisticconceptoftzimtzummaywellhaveitsspecificorigininthispassage.
TheshatteringofthevesselsfindsitsbiblicalparallelinMosesthrowingdownthefirsttabletsoftheLaw,whichshatter(Ex.32:19):Anditcametopass,assoonas
hecamenighuntothecamp,thathesawthecalf,andthedancing,andMoses'angerwaxedhot,andhecastthetablesoutofhishands,andbrokethem
beneaththemount.Yetthereisalsoanotherpossiblebiblicalsourcefortheimageofscatteredsparks,derivingfromEzekiel10:2,

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wherecoalsoffirefromthealtararescatteredbysomeangelicfigure,identifiedasthemanclothedwithlinen(Ez.9:11),overthecityofJerusalem:Fillthinehand
withcoalsoffirefrombetweenthecherubims,andscatterthemoverthecity.Finally,thereisapotenttalmudicaphorismthatmayhaveservedasinspirationfor
theAri:''ThewordsoftheTorahhavemanymeanings.Sparksflyindifferentdirections.Eachwordmaycatchadifferentspark."(B.Kid.30b).Asforthegathering
ofthesparks,thisaspectoftheAri'smythseemslikelytohavebeeninspiredbythegatheringofthemannabytheIsraelitesinthewilderness(Ex.16:21):Andthey
gatherediteverymorning,everymanaccordingtohiseating.
NotethateachoftheseprimarybiblicalanalogsfindsitsoriginintheaccountofthewanderinginthedesertinExodus.ThisalsosuggeststhatthemythoftheArican
alsoberegardedasamysticalcommentaryofthebookofExodus.ThesethreepassagesdelineatethethreeprimaryfiguresinthedramaoftheExodus,thatofGod,
Moses,andthepeopleofIsrael.ItisGodwhosepresenceintheTentofMeetingmakesitimpossibleforMosestoenter.ItisMoseswhobreaksthetabletsofthe
Law,afterseeingthegoldencalf(Ex.32:19).Andrabbiniclegends,suchasinAvotdeRabbiNatan2:11,speakofthelettersthatflewfromthestonetabletsbefore
Mosesshatteredthem,justasthesparksarescatteredeverywhereintheAri'smyth.Atthesametime,theimageofsparksitselfmayhavebeensuggestedbyIsaiah
50:11Behold,allofyoukindleafireandsurroundyourselveswiththesparks.Thereforeyouareonlywalkinginthelightofyourownfireandinthesparks
thatyouhavekindled.ThispassagealsoconveysmuchofthebeautyandmysteryassociatedwiththemythoftheAri.Finally,thefallingofthemannarepresents
God'sexplicitloveofIsrael,asitconstitutesamiracle,especiallyasitischaracterizedintheMidrash,whereitistoldthateachpersontastedthefoodtheylovedthe
bestinthemanna.Likewise,thesparksthatarescatteredaredivine,andtheactofgatheringthemfulfillsaperson'sdestiny,since,accordingtotheAri,Godissaidto
havecreatedtheJewishpeoplefortheexplicitpurposeofgatheringthesparks.
ThedeepestmysteryofallamongthestudentsoftheAriconcernsthetruereasonfortheShatteringoftheVessels.Themostimportantconsequencesofit,however,
areapparent:itshiftstheresponsibilityforthefallenstateofexistencefrommantoGod,anditalsosetsthestageforthefinalphaseofthemyth,thatoftheGathering
theSparks.Herethescatteredsparksaresoughtoutandgatheredinthebeliefthatwhenenoughhavebeenraisedup,thebrokenvesselswillberestoredandthe
worldreturnedtoitsprelapsarianstate.TheAriidentifiedthisgatheringofthesparkswithfulfillingthemitzvot,theDivinecommandments,whichendowedtheseritual
requirementswithaDivinepurpose.ThismythalsogivesapositiveexplanationtotheproblemofJewishexile,especiallyaftertheexpulsionoftheJewsfromSpainin
1492.WhilethereiscurrentlyascholarlydebateabouttheextentoftheimpactoftheexpulsioninthemysticaltheoriesoftheAri,thisevent,whichtookplaceonly
thirtyyearsbeforehisbirth,can

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notbeignored.ForthemythoftheAriproposesthattherewasaDivinepurposebehindtheexilesthathavehauntedJewishhistory,andthattheJewsarethechosen
peopleinthesensethattheywerecreatedtosearchforandraiseupthescatteredsparks.
Thismyth,initsapparentsimplicity,conveyedkabbalisticprinciplesinawaythatcouldbereadilyunderstood.Asaresult,itwastakenupbytheJewishcommunityat
large,breakingthegriponthemysticaltraditionthathadbeenthedomainofaselectcircleofrabbissinceancienttimes.Thismythspoketothepeople,turningthe
curseofexileintoablessing.ItgavemeaningtotheirwanderingintheDiaspora,forthescatteredsparkshadtobefoundandraisedupwherevertheywerehidden.
Anditheldouthopeforamessianicerathatcouldbebroughtcloserbyactsofhumanpiety.
ThemostessentialfeatureoftheAri'smythisitstwopartnature,forGod'scontractionshouldbeseenasapreparatorystepthatmadetheshatteringofthevessels
possible.Hereitisunderstoodfromthefirstthatthecompletemythrequiresbothpartsitisnotpossibletoconsideronewithouttheother.Thefirstpartofthis
cosmologicalmythisdestructive,thesecondpartcreative.Thearchetypalpatternisthatofshatteringandrestoration.ButinsteadofshiftingtheblamefortheFallto
AdamandEve,hereitcanbedirectlylinkedtoGod,Who,afterall,istheultimatecreatorandthereforeresponsibleforanyflawsinCreation.
NotetheremarkableparallelsbetweentheAri'sCreationmythandthatoftheexileoftheShekhinah.Botharetwopartbothinvolveseparationandreunion,exile
andreturnbothattributetotheprayersofIsraelthepowertoaccomplishthenecessarytikkunorrepair.Indeed,itispossibletoviewthemythoftheAriasa
mysticalrestatementoftheexileoftheShekhinah.
Thusthekabbalistsdidastherabbishadbeforethem:theyreceivedonemythandtransformeditintoanother,whichmorecloselymirroredtheirviewoftheworld.
Forthemthismeantresurrectingthelostgoddess,butdoingsoinacontextthatappearedtopreservethemonotheisticbasisofJudaism.Soitisthatthemythsabout
God,theBrideofGod,andtheMessiahconverge,diverge,andultimatelycometogetherinthemessianicvisionoftheEndofDays.Forwhenalloftheholysparks
havebeenliberated,theMessiahwillcome,theTemplewillberestored,andGod'sBridewillcomeoutofexile,restoringtheGodheadtowholeness.Inthis
convergencewecanfinallyseeinperspectivetheultimateJewishmyth,thatofthelongstandingcovenantbetweenGodandIsrael,inallitsmythicpermutations.

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Eight
TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics
Thewritingsofmysticalcirclesarealmostalwaysaccompaniedbytalesrecountingthemysticalexperiencesofthekeyreligiousfigures.Thisistrueofthetalesabout
ZenandSufimasters,aswellasthoseofJewishandChristianmysticssuchasRabbiIsaacLuriaandSt.JohnoftheCross.Somekindofdirectexperienceor
revelationoftheDivineisoftenfoundinthesetales.Sotoodotheydefinetherangeofmysticalexperience.Atthesametime,suchtalesbringwiththemthepowerof
thestory,makingthemfarmoreaccessiblethanmostmysticaltexts.1
OneofthemostfamousJewishmysticaltalestellsoffoursageswhosomehowenteredParadise.Onelosthislifethereanotherlosthismindthethirdbecamean
apostate.OnlyRabbiAkiba"ascendedanddescendedinpeace."2 Generationsofrabbishavedebatedwhatcausedthedownfallofthethreesagesandhaveusedthe
storyof"TheFourWhoEnteredParadise"asawarningtaleaboutthedangersofmysticalcontemplation.Nevertheless,therewasalsoanancientJewishsectthat
createdtextsdescribingsuchheavenlyjourneysingreatdetail.Thesewritings,knownasHekhalottexts,seemtohaveservedasguidebooksforascent,muchasThe
TibetanBookoftheDeadwasintendedtoguidethesoulofonewhojourneyedfromthisworldtothenext.ThusthestoryofthefourwhoenteredParadiseserveda
keyrolefromtheperspectiveofboththosewhounderstooditasawarningtaleandthosewhosawitasamodelforascent.
Thisaccountofthefoursages,oftalmudicorigin,representsakindoftale,basedonamysticaltheme,thatconstitutesagenreofitsown.Andlikefairytales,talesof
thesupernatural,parables,andfables,thesemysticaltalesarefoundineveryphaseofJewishliterature.

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ThisunexpectedlyrichtraditionofJewishmysticaltalesaboundsinpostbiblicalsources,notonlyinsacredtextsbutinsecularonesaswell.Thesesacredtexts
includekabbalisticandhasidicsources,wheresuchtalesaremostlikelytobefound,aswellastheearlierpseudepigraphalandrabbinictexts,whereasthesecular
textsaredrawnfromaremarkablebodyofmysticalfolktalesinmedievalJewishfolkloreandinoraltalescollectedinthiscentury.
ThesemysticaltalesconstitutethelegendarydimensionoftheJewishmysticaltradition.Theyaccompanyandinmanywayscomplementabodyofcomplexmystical
teachingsthatcanbebroadlydefinedaskabbalistic,whenthattermisusedtorefertoanesotericmysticaltraditionthathasitsoriginsinthebiblicalaccountsof
CreationandthevisionofEzekiel3 andisfoundineverysubsequentphaseofsacredJewishliterature.4
Thesetalesincludeawiderangeofmysticalexperiences,virtuallyallpresentedastrueaccounts,notonlyofmysticalunionbutofvisions,dreams,soultravel,
encounterswithangelsanddemons,possessionbybothgoodandevilspirits,miracles,andexperiencesoutofbodyandoutoftime.Yet,despitethesedisparate
themes,virtuallyallofthemhaveincommonsomekindofrevelationorinteractionwiththeDivinerealmandassuchcanbeproperlydefinedasmystical,forthe
imprintoftheDivineisdeeplyreflectedinthesetales.
JustastheaccountofthefoursageswhoenteredParadiseservesasthemodelformysticaltalesofheavenlyascent,sothemodelsformostoftheprimarytypesof
mysticaltalescanbefoundintheTalmud.TheprimaryrepositoriesofrabbiniclegendarethetwoTalmuds,finallyeditedor"redacted"inBabylonandintheLandof
Israelinaboutthe5thcentury,andthevastmidrashicliterature,whichwasproducedwellintotheMiddleAges,upuntilatleastthe12thcentury.Theseincludetales
aboutmysticalvisions,visionsofGod,Divinemiracles,andattemptstohastenthecomingoftheMessiah.
Indeed,virtuallyallofthemajormysticalthemesarefoundintheearlyrabbinictales.However,thetales,astheyhavebeenpreserved,tendtobeconcise.Thereis
littleofthenarrativeembellishmentfoundinlatertales,especiallythoseoffolkorigin.Inmanycases,includingthatofthefourwhoenteredParadise,thetalesare
fragmentary,andonlythebarebonesofwhatwasclearlyamoreextensivetraditionhavesurvived.Forexample,thelegendofthefourwhoenteredParadiseandthe
accompanyinglegendsintractateHagigahoftheTalmudresemblefragmentsofaHekhalottext,someofwhichwerecontemporaneouswiththeTalmud.
Sotooistheinfluenceoftheseearlyrabbinictalesonthesubsequentliterarytraditionimmense.Indeed,manykabbalisticandhasidictalesseemtoseekoutrabbinic
modelsintentionallyinordertodrawaparallelbetweentheearlierrabbisandthoseoftheirownera.
Thereareseveralearlykabbalisticworks,inadditiontotheHekhalottexts,suchasSeferYetzirahandSeferBahir,thatclearlydemonstrateade

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velopingmysticalconsciousnessinJudaism.ButitisnotuntiltheappearanceoftheZohar,thecentraltextofJewishmysticism,inthe13thcentury,thatthekabbalistic
erabegins.Thisperiod,whichisusuallydatedbetweenthe13thand17thcenturies,encompassesthewritingoftheZoharinthe13thcenturyandtheemergenceof
theteachingsandtalesoftheAriandtheothersagesofSafedinthe16thcentury,aswellastheschoolofRabbiShalomSharabiinJerusalemandthemessianic
movementofthefalsemessiahShabbataiZeviinthe17thcentury.Itshouldbenoted,however,thattherewereJewishmysticsinthe12thcenturywhoseteachings
maywellhaveinfluencedtheZohar,andtheHasidicmovementofthe18thand19thcenturieswasdeeplyinfluencedbykabbalisticteachings.
Someofthemostimportantmysticaltalesemergedoutofthiskabbalisticperiod.TheZoharitselfisoneoftherichestsourcesofbothmythicandlegendarymaterial.It
containsmanyanecdotesaboutthetalmudicsageRabbiShimonbarYohai,knownbytheacronymRashbi,wholivedinthe2ndcenturyandwhoisreputedtohave
beentheauthoroftheZohar.However,asGershomScholemandotherscholarshavedocumented,theactualauthorwasalmostcertainlyMoshedeLeon,wholived
inGuadalajara,Spain,inthe13thcentury.DeLeonpresentedthetextoftheZoharasamanuscripthehadfound.5 Butuntiltheworkofmodernscholarscastdoubt
ondeLeon'sclaimofdiscovery,itwasconsideredauthentic,andtheZoharwassoonidentifiedasasacredtext.EventodaymanyobservantJewscontinuetoassert
thatRabbiShimonbarYohaiisthetrueauthoroftheZohar,rejectingthescholarshipinthesamewaythattheyrejectanysuggestionthatGoddidnotliterallydictate
theTorahtoMosesatMountSinai.Butforscholarandbelieveralike,theZoharremainsthecentraltextoftheKabbalah.
Becauseoftheirinfluenceonthesubsequentdevelopmentofthemysticaltale,thetalesfoundintheclassickabbalistictexts,especiallytheZohar,andcertainkey
legends,suchasthataboutJosephdellaReina,whosoughttoforcethecomingoftheMessiah,aswellasthetalesabouttheAri,constitutethecoreofJewishmystical
tales.Atthesametime,thesetalesarelargelyacontinuationoftheearlierrabbinictraditions,justastheZoharpresentsitselfasthemysticalaccountofthelifeand
teachingsofatalmudicsage,RabbiShimonbarYohai.Thusitisimportanttodistinguishtheterm"mystical"fromthenarrowerterm"kabbalistic."Inageneralsense,
KabbalahreferstotheentirefieldofJewishmysticism.Butinamoretechnicalsense,itrefersspecificallytotheperiodbetweenthe13thand17thcenturies.
ThekabbalisticeraconcludeswiththetraumaofthemessianicmovementofShabbataiZeviinthe17thcentury.6 Sincekabbalisticconceptsweretheunderpinningof
theteachingsofShabbataiZevi,hisapostasyresultedinrenewedeffortstolimitaccesstothekabbalistictextsandtokeeptheentirestudyesoteric.
Duringthehasidicperiod,beginninginthe18thcentury,themysticaltalereemergedandachievedafloweringthatdwarfsallotherperiods,in

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cludingthekabbalistic.HerearefoundanabundanceoftalesaboutthehasidicrabbisresemblingthoseoftheZenandSufimasters.Certainrabbis,inparticular,such
astheBaalShemTov,RebPinhasofKoretz,RebElimelechofLizensk,andRebNachmanofBratslav,demonstrategreatmysticalpowers.Butevidenceofthese
powersisalsofoundintaleslinkedwithmanyotherhasidicrabbis,suchasRebLeviYitzhakofBerditchev,RebEizekofKallo,ortheMaidofLudomir,oneofthe
onlywomenrecognizedasarebbe.7 Whileeachofthesemastersfollowshisorherownpath,itisapparentthatthemodelsofthemasterinthesetalesaredrawn
fromthelegendsofRabbiShimonbarYohai,RabbiIsaacLuria,andtheBaalShemTov.
AlthoughtheJewishmysticaltaleisprimarilyfoundinsacredtexts,therearealsosecularexpressionsofthesemysticaltalesincollectionsofmedievalJewishfolklore
andamongtherichtreasuryoforaltalescollectedbyethnologistsfrombothEasternEuropeanandMiddleEasternJewishcommunities.Thesetalesareprimarily
collectedintwoarchives:theYIVOarchivesofEasternEuropeanfolklore,originallyofVilna,nowofNewYork,andtheIsraelFolktaleArchives(IFA)inHaifa,
whichhascollectedtalesofvirtuallyeveryJewishethniccommunityintheworld.
ThemajorityofthesemysticaltalesareaboutkeyJewishmasters.Certainpatriarchs,prophets,andrabbisweredepictedasdrawingonknowledgeoftheDivine
realmtofulfillsomekindofmysticalpurpose.Someweredescribedasseekingpersonalenlightenment,othersknowledgeoftheDivinemysteriessomeasseekingto
haveheavenintercedetoprotecttheJewishcommunityfromonedangeroranotherstillothersasseekingtohastenthecomingoftheMessiah.Thusthesemasters
functionasshamans,goingintotrances,communingwithangelsandspiritsofthedead,confrontingevilspirits,and,ingeneral,demonstratingtheirmasteryofallthe
spiritualandphysicalrealms.
Thestoriesaboutthesemysticalmastersoftenformcyclesoftales.TherearemajorcyclesinvolvingbiblicalfiguressuchasEnoch,Moses,andElijahtalmudicsages
suchasRabbiAkiba,RabbiShimonbarYohai,andRabbiIshmaeltheHighPriestmedievalfiguressuchasJudahthePious,RabbiIsaacLuria,andRabbiJudah
Loewand,amonghasidicmasters,theBaalShemTov,inparticular,aswellasmanyothers.Inaddition,therearemysticaltalesaboutmanyotherrabbisandhidden
saints.EachofthescatteredJewishcommunitieshadtheirownlegends.Evenrelatedstoriesabouttheirdisciples,suchasthoseaboutRabbiHayimVital,theprimary
discipleofRabbiIsaacLuria,oftenconstituteastorycycleoftheirown.
Thesetalecyclesoftenbeginwithlegendaryaccountsofthelivesofthesemasters,fromtheirmiraculousbirthstothelegendssurroundingtheirdeaths,aswellas
sporadicreportsoftheirspiritsreturningafterdeath.ThispatternofreturnfromthebeyondfirsttakesforminthemanylegendsaboutthereappearanceoftheProphet
Elijahinthisworld,oftendisguisedasawanderingbeggar.8 InthemajorityofJewishfolktales,Elijahdraws

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uponhismiraculouspowerstoassistJewsinneed.ButhisrolechangeswhenhestudieswithmysticssuchasRabbiShimonbarYohaiandtheAri.Hedoesnot
concealhisidentityfromthem.Rather,herevealsmysteriesofheaven,servingasakindofheavenlymaster,themodelforallthelivingmasterswhofollow.
ThefirstofthetalmudicsageswhosespiritreturnsafterdeathisRabbiShimonbarYohai,knownasRashbi,whospentthirteenyearshidingfromtheRomansina
cave,wherehewasreputedtohavewrittentheZohar,theprimarytextofJewishmysticism.9 SopowerfulisBarYohai'ssouldthattherearemanyaccountsofhim
appearingintheworldlongafterhisdeath.Inonesuchstory,"TheDancingoftheAri,"heappearsattheLagbaOmercelebrationofRabbiIsaacLuriaanddances
withhim.Inanotherhereturnsinadream,asinthisearlymidrashictale:
OneofthedisciplesofRabbiShimonbarYohaiforgotwhathehadlearnedandwentweepingtothecemetery.AfterthisRashbiappearedtohiminadreamandsaid:"Whenyou
throwthreepebblesatmeIwillcometoyou."Thedisciplewenttoadreaminterpreter,whotoldhimtorepeateachlessonthreetimesandRabbiShimonwouldcometohim,and
hewouldnolongerforgetwhathehadstudied.Thisturnedouttobetrue.Everytimeherepeatedthelessonthreetimes,RabbiShimoncametohimandhismemorywas
restored.10

Thismidrashictaleistheforerunneroftheideaofanibbur,literally"animpregnation."11ThisisalittleknownformofspiritpossessioninJudaisminwhichthesoulof
anancestororamasterentersthesoulofalivingpersoninordertocomfortorinstructhim.Thisisincontrasttopossessionbyadybbuk,inwhichthesoulofone
whohasdiedtakespossessionofoneofthelivingandmustbeexorcised.ThusthisbrieftaleofRabbiShimonbarYohaiheraldsaspecifictypeofJewishmystical
tale,littleknown,focusedonpossessionbyibur.
MoststudentsofJewishfolkloreandmysticismarefamiliarwiththeconceptofpossessionbyadybbuk.S.Ansky'sfamousdramaTheDybbukportrayssucha
possession,andthefinalactoftheplayisbasedonanactualrabbinicexorcismceremony.Thisisanegativeformofpossession,butthereisalsothislittleknown
positiveformofmetempsychosisinwhichalivingsageispossessedbythespiritofanibbur.Thepresenceofanibburwasregardedasaexceptionalblessingby
Jewishmystics,especiallythoseofSafedinthe16thcentury,whilethesamemysticsstrovegreatlytoexorcisedybbuksfromthosewhowerepossessedbythem.
Justastherearetalesinwhichthepossessionofadybbukisportrayed,sotooaretheretalesaboutpossessionbyanibur.However,therearefarmoredybbuktales,
assuchpossessionwasoftentheexplanationformadness,andtheexorcismservedasthecure,onethatoftenworked.Thesedybbuktales,virtuallyallofwhichare
presentedastrueaccounts,always

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followthesamepattern.Anevilspirit,pursuedbyavengingangels,entersintovariousobjectsandbeings,suchasarock,aflower,adog,acow,oraperson.The
personbeginstobehavestrangely,withthespiritspeakinginavoiceofitsown.Arabbiiscalledin,whodeterminesthatadybbukhastakenpossession.Therabbi
thencompelsthedybbuktorecountthestoryofhissinandthehistoryofhissoulafterdeath,untilittookpossessionofthatperson.Thentherabbiexorcisesthe
dybbukanditisforcedtodepart,usuallythroughalittlefingerortoe.
Inonefamoustalefromthe16thcentury,"TheWidowofSafed,"12adybbuktakespossessionofawidowbecauseshedoesnotbelievethatthewatersoftheRed
Seatrulyparted.RabbiIsaacLuriasendshisdisciple,RabbiHayimVital,toexorcisethedybbuk.HayimVitalquestionsthedybbuk,extractsitsstory,andexorcises
it.Lateritisdiscoveredthatthetextinsidethemezzuzahonthedoorpostofthewidow'shousewasflawedandthereforeineffective.Thusitwasherfailureofbelief
andthelossoftheprotectivepowersofthemezzuzahthatmadehervulnerabletothedangerofpossessionbythedybbuk.
Consideringthatpossessionbyadybbukissocloselylinkedtoevilandmadness,itisremarkabletodiscoveraJewishformofspiritpossessionthatisregardedas
positive.Yetthatisindeedthecase,asdemonstratedbythetalesaboutpossessionbyanibbur.Unlikethatofadybbuk,however,thiskindofpossessionis
temporaryandislinkedtoasacredobject,suchasaholybookorphylacteries,knownastefillin.Wheneverthelivingsageopensthatbookorputsonthetefillin,
thespiritoftheibburfuseswithhisown.
Inonesuchtale,"AKissfromtheMaster,"13arichman,whocannotreadtheAramaicinwhichtheZohariswritten,ispossessedbytheibburofShimonbarYohai
anddiscoversthathecanbothreadandfullycomprehendthedifficulttextbysimplyopeningthebook.NotethatthepossessionbythespiritofRabbiShimonbar
YohaionlytakesplacewhenthemanopenstheZohar,thebooksocloselyidentifiedwithShimonbarYohai.Andthepossessiononlylastsaslongasthebookis
open.ButduringthattimethespiritofShimonbarYohaifuseswithhisown.ThistalewascollectedorallyinthecityofSafedinmoderndayIsrael,demonstratingthat
eventothisdaythetraditionabouttheibburisstillrecountedthere.ItisinterestingtonotethatthisoraltaleisclearlyavariantoftheearliertaleaboutShimonbar
YohaifromEcclesiastesRabbah,inwhichBarYohaicametothestudentafterhehadrepeatedhislessonthreetimes.Sincethetwotalesareseparatedbymorethan
athousandyears,itshowshowtheoraltraditioninJudaismstillremainsalive,eventothisday.
Likewise,otheribburtalesportraysuchatemporarykindofpossession,suchasthefamoustaleof"TheTefillinoftheOrhaHayim."HereRabbiHayimbenAttar,
knownastheOrhaHayimafterthetitleofhismostfamousbook,toldhiswifeonhisdeathbedthatafterhisdeathamanwouldcomefromanothercityandseekto
purchasehistefillin(phylacteries).Therabbiencouragedhertosellthemforahighpriceandtowarnthepur

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chaserthathemustneverallowhimselftobecomedistractedwhenheworethem.
EverythingtookplaceastheOrhaHayimhadsaid,andwhenthemanwhohadpurchasedthetefillintriedthemon,hewassuddenlyfilledwithadeepsenseof
holiness.Andwhenheprayed,hedidsowithafervorhehadneverknown,andhisprayersascendedonhigh.Thislastedaslongasheworethetefillin,butwhenhe
tookthemoff,theholyspiritdeparted.
Oneday,whilehewaswearingthetefillin,themanwasdistractedbyoneofhisservantsaboutabusinessmatter.Andwhenhereturnedtohisprayers,theholyspirit
wasgoneforgood.Finallyhetookthetefillintoascribe,whoopenedthewoodenboxofthetefillinandfoundthattheparchmentinsideitwasblank,forthe
lettershadflownaway,alongwiththesouloftheOrhaHayim.
Asthistalemakesabundantlyclear,thepresenceofanibburwasregardedasagreatblessing,andunlikepossessionbyadybbuk,therewasnoattempttoexorcise
theibbur.Howdidtheconceptoftheibburoriginate?ItmayhavedevelopedfromawellknowntraditionabouttheSabbathfoundintheTalmud,datingbacktothe
5thcentury,inwhicheveryJewissaidtoreceiveanextrasoul(neshamahyeterah)ontheSabbath.Thisisaholysoulthatremainswithapersonthroughoutthe
SabbathandonlydepartsaftertheperformingoftheritualofHavdalah,whichclosestheSabbath.Amongthehasidim,itwascustomarytodelaythisclosing
ceremonyoftheSabbathforaslongaspossible,inordertoholdontothisextrasoul.ThisextrasouliscloselylinkedwiththefigureoftheShekhinah,theDivine
PresencewhoisalsoidentifiedastheSabbathQueensaidtobepresentduringeverySabbath.ItseemslikelythattheextrasoulisthemanifestationoftheSabbath
Queenasexperiencedineachperson.Thisisalsoakindofspiritpossession,aprecursoroftheibbur.
ThereisstillanotherformofspiritpossessionfoundinJewishlore,whichcomesevenclosertotheconceptoftheibbur.ThisreferstothestrangecaseofRabbi
JosephKaro,wholivedinthecityofSafedinthe16thcentury.RabbiKarowastheauthoroftheShulhanArukh,theCodeofJewishLaw.Eventothisday,this
bookistheultimatereferencefordecisionsaboutmattersofritualandlaw.Yet,remarkablyenoughforonewithsuchafinelytunedlegalmind,JosephKarowasa
mysticwhowroteabookrecountinghispossessionbyaspiritwhenhestudiedtheMishnah,thecoretextoftheTalmud.Heidentifiedthisspiritasamaggid,a
heavenlyteacher.OnseveraloccasionsotherswerepresentwhenthisspiritoftheMishnahspokethroughhim.OnsuchoccasionsRabbiKaroseemedtogointoa
trance,andthespiritspokeinhisplace,inavoiceofitsown.ThespiritremainedaslongashecontinuedtostudytheMishnah,thendeparted.RabbiKaroregarded
thisspiritashisheavenlyguideandrecordeditspronouncementsinMaggidMesharim.Again,thiskindofpossession,whilenotthatofthespiritofahumanbeing,is
verycloselylinkedtotheconceptoftheibur.

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TherearealsoibburtalestoldamongthehasidimofEasternEurope.OneofthemostintriguingconcernsthehasidicrabbiZeviHirschofZhiadchov,whowassaidto
havebeenpossessedbytheibburofRabbiIsaacLuriaofSafed,oneofthegreatestmysticalrabbis,wholivedinthe16thcentury.Howthistookplaceisrecounted
inthetaleof"TheSouloftheAri."14
OnewintermorningRebZeviroseveryearly,whenitwasstillverydarkoutside.Althoughnocandlesinthehousehadbeenlit,stillalightpervadedtheroomsasiftiwereday.
Curioustoknowthesourceofthislight,RevZevisearcheduntilhefoundthatitwascomingfromalittlecupboard.Therehefoundapreciousstoneaslargeasanegg,that
glowedwithabrightlightfromwithin.RebZevirealizedthatthevalueofthatstonecouldnotbecalculated,andhehiditaway.
ThenhefastedfromtheendofoneSabbathuntilthebeginningofthenextsothatheavenmightinformhimofwhatitwas.Andinadreamhewastoldthatthisstonehadbeena
giftforhimfromheaven.Ifhechosetokeepit,heandallofhisdescendantswouldbeverywealthy.Butifhechosenottokeepit,thenthesouloftheholyAriwouldbecome
fusedwithhisown.
NowRebZevididnotdesirewealth,andthechoicewasnotdifficultforhimtomake.Heaskedinadreamquestionhowheshouldreturnthepreciousstone,andhewastoldto
flingituptowardheaven.Thishedid,andfierysparksflewfromituntilnothingmorecouldbeseen.
LateroneofRebZevi'sstudents,whosleptintheroomnexttohis,heardavoicespeakingtohismasterduringthenight.HeknewthatnooneelsewaswithRebZevi,soherose
andwashedhishandsandstoodbesidethewallandlistened.ThevoicethatspokewasinterpretingapassageoftheZohar,castinggreatlightonitsmysteries.Thestudentwas
filledwithwonder,buthedarednotasktherabbiaboutit.
DuringthenextSabbathRebZevibegantoexpoundonapassagefromtheZohar,andthestudentrecognizedtheteachingsofthemysteriousvoicehehadheard.AndwhenReb
Zevifinished,hesaid:"ThisiswhatIlearnedfromtheverymouthoftheAri."

Asthistalemakesabundantlyclear,possessionbyanibburofagreatmaster,suchastheAri,wasconsideredevenmorepreciousthangreatwealthandwasoneof
theultimateblessingsthatheavencouldbestowonalivingsage.Whatthisunusualkindofspiritpossessionprovidedwasagreaterknowledgeofthemysticalmeaning
ofTorah.ForonlywiththeassistanceofthespiritofagreatsagecouldalivingsagepenetratethehiddenlightoftheTorah,whichwasconcealedfromeveryoneelse.
ThuswefindanunusualdualtraditionofspiritpossessioninJudaism,wherepossessionbyanevilspirit,adybbuk,requiredexorcism,and,atthesametime,
possessionbythespiritofadepartedsage,anibbur,wasregardedasthegreatestpossibleblessing.

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OneoftheprimarycharacteristicsofJewishliteratureisthattheearliertextsserveasmodelsforthelaterones.ThetwotalesabouttheibburofShimonbarYohai
demonstratethis.Certainly,inthecaseofthelatermysticaltales,itisalmostalwayspossibletofindaprototypeintheearlyrabbinictexts.Ingeneral,theselatertales
drawonthemodelsoftheAggadah,thelegendarymaterialoftheTalmud,justasthemysticalcommentaryintheZohar,thecentraltextoftheKabbalah,oftenseems
tobebuiltonearliermidrashiccommentary.Thedifferenceisthattherabbiniccommentaryisprimarilylegalorlegendary,whereasthatfoundintheZoharischiefly
mystical.SotooarethetalesfoundintheZoharofamysticalnature.Here,forexample,ShimonbarYohaiandhisdisciplesseesignsthatrevealGod'sintentions,
speakwithanangelintheformofarock,meetsaintsfromtheOtherWorld,ascendtothecelestialAcademy,andreadthebookthatAdamwasoncegivenbyan
angel.
Thelinksbetweentheclassicrabbinictalesandthoseofkabbalistic,hasidic,orfolkoriginalsorevealhowthelaterrabbissoughttheirpersonalmodelsinthelivesof
theearliersages.TheprimarymodelswerethetalmudicsagesRabbiAkiba,RabbiIshmaeltheHighPriest,RabbiYohananbenZakkai,andRabbiShimonbar
Yohai.Ofthese,themostextensivelegendarytraditionisthatsurroundingBarYohai.Itisthislegendarymodel,especiallyasfoundintheZohar,thattransformedBar
YohaiintotheforemostarchetypeofJewishmystics.
AmongthosewhomodeledthemselvesafterShimonbarYohaiwereRabbiIsaacLuriaofSafed,theAri,andtheBaalShemTov,thefounderofhasidism,knownas
''theBesht."TheArioncetookhisdisciplestotheplacewhereShimonbarYohaiusedtomeetwithhisdisciples.Hehadeachofthemsitintheplaceofoneofthe
disciples,andhehimselfsatintheplaceofShimonbarYohai,makingtheparallelbetweenthemexplicit,andevenhintingthathewasthereincarnationofBarYohaiin
thatgeneration.15
Later,thismodelofthemasterwastakenupbythehasidim,beginningwiththeBaalShemTov,andisclearlyreflectedintherichbodyofhasidictales.Heretherole
oftherebbe,thehasidicmaster,isofprimaryimportance,fortherebbewasbelievedtopossessDivineknowledgeandtobeincommunicationwiththeworldabove.
Certainlyamajorpurposeofthesetaleswastocreatealegendarytraditionabouttheserabbis,todemonstratetheleveloftheirspiritualattainmentandtheextentof
theirmysticalpowers.
ItisnoaccidentthattheAriwouldhintthathewasthereincarnationofShimonbarYohai,ashewastheprimaryexponentofGilgul,themysticaldoctrineofthe
transmigrationofsouls.Drawingonthisdoctrine,itwascommontoassertthatonerabbiwasareincarnationofanotherorthatonerabbihadsparksofthesoulsof
severalgreatfigures.Theconceptofsparksofsoulsderivesfromthetraditionthat600,000soulsgatheredatMountSinai.Later,whenthereweremoreJewsthan
this,wholesoulswerenotavailabletoeveryone,andinsteadonepersoncouldhavethesparksofsev

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eralsouls.RabbiHayimVital,theprimarydiscipleoftheAri,assertedseveraltimesthathissoulwasthesoulofRabbiAkiba,whileRebNachmanofBratslavstated
thathissoulcontainedsparksofthesoulsofMoses,theAri,andtheBaalShemTov.AndRavKookwasreportedtohavesaid,"IamthesoulofRebNachman,"as
ifhewerethereincarnationofRebNachmanorthatthespiritofRebNachmanhadtakenpossessionofhimintheformofanibbur.Thusthesenseofspiritual
continuitywithspecificsagesofthepastpervadestheaccountsofthegreatJewishmysticalmasters.
Amongthetalesthehasidimtold,therearemanyinwhichahasidicrebbetakesonthecharacteristicsofoneofthelegendarysages,especiallythoseofthetalmudic
era.SincethehasidimwerewellschooledintheTalmud,theywouldrecognizeatoncethelinkbetweentheancienttaleandthatoftheirmaster.Inthiswaythehasidic
rebbewaselevated,intheeyesofhishasidim,totheleveloftheancientsages.Eventuallythisfocusonthemasterledtothedoctrineofthetzaddik,wherethemaster
playedanalmostmessianicroleforhisfollowers,andeachgroupofhasidimbelievedthattheirrebbewasthetzaddikhador,thepotentialMessiahofthat
generation.16Andsomeoftheserebbes,includingRebNachman,stronglyhintedtotheirdisciplesthattheirrolewasamessianicone.17
Eachofthemastersfollowedadifferentpath,somethingthattheArirecognizedwhenheturnedawaysomeofthosewhosoughttobehisdisciples.Inoneinstance
theAricomfortedadistraughtrabbihehadturnedawaybytellinghimthatinthislifetimeitwashisdestinytostudytheliteralmeaningofthesacredtexts,whilethe
Ari'sdestinywastostudythemysticalmeaning.Butinafutureincarnation,theyweredestinedtostudytogether.18
Sotoodoeseachofthemysticalmastersdemonstratehismasteryinadifferentway.TheAriknowsthehistoryofeverysoul,andheknowsonYomKippurwhose
namehasbeeninscribedintheBookofLifeandwhoisdestinedtodie.TheBaalShemTovcangointoatranceandguidehissoultoheaveninordertoopena
heavenlygatethatispreventingtheprayersoftheJewsfromascendingonhigh.WhenRebPinhasofKoretzopensapageoftheZohar,heistransformedintothe
AngeloftheZohar.RabbiNaftaliKatzhasthepowertoprojecthisimagetodistantplacesandtocontroleventsthere,asdoesRebIssacharDovofBelz,who
appearsinavisiontoFranzKafka'sfriendJir[Ji&rcaron]LangerinPraguewhileIssacharDovisactuallyinBelz.19ThespiritofShimonbarYohaireturnsfromthe
deadtoassistthosewhostudytheZohar,whilethespiritofRebNachmanofBratslavguidesandprotectshishasidimtothisday.
Perhapsthemostastonishingofthepowersdemonstratedinthesetalesistheabilitytocauseapersontoexperienceanillusionoutoftime,whereinmanyyearsseem
topassinthespaceofaminute.ThesecanbedescribedasJewishtalesofillusion,forthosewhoexperiencethesespellsareastoundedtodiscoverthattheyhave
beenlivinginaworldofillusion.Butineverycasetheylearnanimportantlessonthattransformstheirlives.

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ThesetalesareremarkablyparalleltomanyIndianmyths,suchasthoseconcerningVishnu,whichalsoportrayanillusoryworld,thatofmaya.20
Oneoftheearliestexamplesoftheseillusiontalesis"TheMagicFlock,"21ofmidrashicorigin.HerethepatriarchJacobmeetsanotherherdsmancrossingtheriver
Yabbok,andtheyagreetohelpeachotherforgetheriverwiththeirflocks.ButnomatterhowmanyflocksJacobcarriesacross,thenumberofthoseofthestranger's
remainingcontinuestoincrease.Finally,Jacobrealizesthattheflocksareanillusionandthattheotherherdsmanissomekindofsorcerer,andhewrestleswithhim
untildawn.ThesorcererturnsouttobetheguardianangelofEsau,whohascometoweakenJacobbeforemeetingEsauthenextday,andthestoryitselfisa
midrashiccommentaryontheidentityofthemysteriousfigureJacobwrestledwithinthebiblicalaccount(Gen.32:2333).
InlaterJewishfolklore,KingSolomonexperiencesthepowersofillusionfirsthandasabeggarking.22Thistraditioniscarriedonbyrabbissuchasthemedieval
sorcererRabbiAdam,23aswellasRebPinhasofKoretzandRebElimelechofLizenskinstoriessuchas"TheUndergroundForest"24and"TheYoungMagician."25
In"TheUndergroundForest,"forexample,RebPinhascausesastudentdescendingintoamikvehtoenteranotherworld,wherehehasaseriesofadventureslasting
formanyyears,onlytodiscoverthatitwasallanillusion.Butasaresult,helearnsthatheisdestinedtowedthedaughterofRebPinhas.
"TheTaleoftheKugel"26isanotherfineexampleoftheillusiontale.HereRabbiMenachemMendelIofLubavitchdemonstratesgreatpowersofillusion,showinga
manavisionofthepathhislifewilltakeifhedivorceshiswifefornothavingborneachild.
Inadditiontodrawingonthesemysticalpowersastheyareneeded,thesemasterstransmitthemysteriesoftheTorahtotheirdisciples.IntheirhandstheTorahis
revealedtobeasecretcodeaboutthemythictruthsoftheuniverse.Whenthistruthisdeciphered,theroleoftheJewsinthefabricofCreationisrevealed,anditturns
outtobecrucialinrepairingthecosmicrentsthattookplaceatthetimeofCreation,aswellasinbringingtogetherGodandHisBride,theShekhinah,whohavebeen
tornapart.AccordingtothemythoftheexileoftheShekhinah,atthetimeofthedestructionoftheTemple,God'sBridewentintoexilewithherchildren,Israel.
SomehowGodandHisBridehadtobebroughttogether.TheAriprovidedmanyspecialprayersforthispurpose,knownasyihudim.Byprefacingeverymitzvahor
commandmentwiththeseprayers,itbecamepossibletoassistinrepairingtheworld.
FromtheseexamplesitisapparentthattheJewishmysticaltaleemergedoutofahighlychargedspiritualenvironment,filledwithmysticalexpectations.Inthiscontext,
accountsofthemiraculousbecameinevitable,aswellaslegendaryembellishments.Sotoowasthisaspectenhancedbythemodeoftransmission.Virtuallyallofthese
taleswerefirstcirculatedorally,primarilyamongthefollowersofthesemasters,andtheywerewrittendown

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onlyaftertherabbi'sdeath.Andeventuallytheytoobecameakindofsacredtext.
AmongthemysticalthemesmostoftenfoundinthetalesoftheserabbisarethoseconcerningtheDivinePresence,themysteriesofCreationandoftheChariot,as
wellasmysteriesoftheTorah,oftheWord,andofprayer.Therealsoaretalesofthepowerofprayerandrepentance,themysteryoftheSabbath,communication
withtheworldabove,andheavenlyjourneys.ManyofthesetalesrecountvisitstoParadiseortheGardenofEdenorjourneystotheHolyLandthroughenchanted
caves.Therearemanyaccountsofwanderingsoulsandreincarnation,ofexperiencesbeyondtimeandspace.Othertalesofferexamplesofkabbalisticmagic,
miraclesaboutmastersandhiddensaints,encounterswithangelsanddemons,andmanylegendsabouttheMessiahandtheWorldtoCome.
Itiscommontofindaccountsofoutofbodyexperiencesinthesetales,aswellaseventsthattakeplaceoutoftime.Intheformeraremanyaccountsoftheascentof
thesoul,akindofastralprojectioninwhichthesoulisguidedtowardParadise.Anotherkindofsoultravelisfoundinthetalesofthoserabbiswhocouldcasttheir
imagetodistantplacesandaffecteventsthere.Thereisalsoaformofenchantedjourney,knownasKfitzathaDerekh,"LeapingtheWay,"inwhichmasterssuchas
theBaalShemTovtravelfromoneplacetoanotherbymysticalmeans.Inthesestoriesthehoovesofthehorsesnolongertouchtheground,forthecarriageisflying
toitsdestination,muchasdidtheMerkavah,theDivineChariotinthevisionofEzekiel.
TherearetwoprimarybranchesofKabbalah.OneisknownasPracticalKabbalah.ItmakesuseofthepowersinherentinKabbalahthroughmanipulationofletters
andnumbersandbydrawingonthepowersofholynames.TheseareusuallythenamesofGod,ofwhichtheTetragrammaton(YHVH)istheholiestandmost
powerfulofall.Orthenamesarethoseofangels,eachofwhichbringswithititsownuniquepowers.Therearethearchangels,Gabriel,Michael,Uriel,andRaphael,
whoserveasmessengersofGod.Inaddition,therearehundredsofotherangels,includingRaziel,theangelofsecretsandmysteriesRahab,theangelofthesea
Sandalphon,whoweavesagarlandofflowersoutoftheprayersofIsraelforGodtowearontheThroneofGloryandMetatron,whowasonceEnoch,chiefamong
theangelsandtheheavenlyscribe.Andtheseareonlythebestknownoftheangels.Therearemanyotherswhosenamesthemselvesaresecrets.Oftentheseholy
namesarecombinedintokeysthatcanunlockthegatesofheaven.ThepurposeofdrawingonthesepowersisusuallytoprotecttheJewishcommunityorthelivesof
individuals.Otherwise,theuseofthesepowersisforbidden.
TheotherbranchisthatofSpeculativeKabbalah,sometimesreferredtoasContemplativeorTheosophicalKabbalah.Itismoreinwardlydirected,wheremystical
longingfindsitsfocusinprayerandinmysticalcontemplationofthetextoftheTorah,aswellasintheinteractionofthetenSefirot.

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SointenseisthiscontemplationthatitnotonlyincludesthewordsoftheTorah,butevenregardsthelettersandnumbersasgatesofmystery,andprayersasvirtual
laddersofascent,asin"TheLadderofPrayers,"27wheretheBaalShemTovascendstheladderoftheprayersofhishasidimallthewaytothepalaceofthe
Messiah.Someofthemeditativeexercisespracticed,suchastryingtocombinethenamesofGodinprayersofunification,producemysticaleffects,suchasvisionsof
theDivineThroneandtheShekhinah.ThesevisionsshouldberegardedasaJewishkindofuniomystica,theunitivemysticalexperience,eventhoughtheredoesnot
appeartobealossofawarenessoftheself.Suchvisionsandmysticalilluminationsweretheultimategoalofkabbalisticcontemplation.
Likewise,thesestoriesmightberegardedasalegendaryportrayalofthemysticalexperienceinitsJewishrepresentation,demonstratingtheconceptofdevekut,of
cleavingtoGod.Certainly,manyrabbisareportrayedinthesetalesinastateofpossessionthatresemblesmysticalecstasy.However,whilereportsofmysticalunion
inwhichtheselfdissolvesintotheDivinearefoundinthewritingsofAbulafiaandothers,fewsuchaccountsarefoundinthesemysticaltales.Mostoftherabbisin
thesetales,nomatterhowprofoundtheexperienceortowhatheightstheymayascend,retainastrongsenseofselfidentityevenatmomentsofecstasy.Thosewho
losethemselves,aswassaidtohavehappenedtoBenAzzai,oneofthefourwhoenteredParadise,oftenlosetheirlives.Furthermore,oneofthegoalsofmystical
endeavorswastoobtainknowledgeoftheDivinemysteries.Suchknowledgerequiredcontinuedawarenessinordertobeabletorecalleverydetailofthe
experience.FortheprimaryfocusoftheKabbalahisonacomprehensiveunderstandingofthemysticalmeaningoftheTorah.Thusmysticalknowledgewasashighly
regardedastranscendentalexperience.
ThesetwobranchesofKabbalah,thePracticalandtheSpeculative,areportrayedindifferentkindsofJewishmysticaltales.Butbothbrancheshaveasubstantial
numberoftaleslinkedtothem,andaproperdefinitionoftheJewishmysticaltalemustincludetalesdrawnfromboth.Amongthekindsoftalesthatdemonstrate
PracticalKabbalaharethosedrawingonkabbalisticmagic,suchas"RabbiShimon'sEscape,"28wherearabbiusesthepoweroftheNametomakeadrawingofa
shipbecomerealandinthiswayescapesexecutionforhimselfandhiscompanions.
ThethemesofthetalesofSpeculativeKabbalah,ontheotherhand,concernthemysteriesoftheTorahandthepoweroftheword,suchasseveraltalesaboutthe
themeofflyingletters,including"TheBookofFlyingLetters,"29whereadiscipleofShimonbarYohaihasavisionofhismaster'ssoulascending,followedbythe
flyinglettersthatmakeupthebookofhiswisdom,whichwasalsodepartingfromthisworld.Likewise,in"TheFlyingLetters,"30thelettersofaTorahscrollinone
towntakeflightbecauseoftheevilinhabitantsandflytoanothertown,wheretheylandonanemptyscrollascribeisabouttowrite.

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JewishloreholdsthattheskyopensatmidnightonShavuotandthegloryofheavenisrevealed.Thiskindofrevelationisatthecoreofthesestories.Ineachonethere
comesatimewhentheDivinerealmissuddenlyglimpsed,andthereisamomentofrevelation.Atthismoment,therabbisoftenappearpossessedorsurroundedbya
DivinePresence.In"TheCircleofFire,"31adiscipleoftheBaalShemTovseeshimlyingonthefloor,surroundedbyafierycircle.Suchasacredfiresurroundsboth
RabbiEizekofKalloandthehiddensaintwhocomestovisithimin"ThePrayerLeader."32Theseexampleshighlightthedifficultyofportrayingmysticalexperiencein
thesetales.Itisgenerallyreportedbyanoutsider,whowitnessestheeffects,oranaccountisgivenafterwardbytheonewhohasundergonetheexperience.Bothof
theseperspectivesarefoundin"UnlockingtheGatesofHeaven."33First,theBaalShemTovisseeninacatatonicstate,withbulgingeyes.Then,whenthevisionhas
ended,hereportswhattookplaceduringhisheavenlyjourney.
Oncethesestorieswererecorded,atransformationtookplace,andtheythemselvesbecomeakindofmysticaltext,withseverallevelsofmeaning.Notonlydothey
havestrongmysticalandlegendarydimensions,butmetaphoricalonesaswell.Fromthisperspective,theheavenlyjourneycanbeseenasanarchetypalsymbollinking
thisworldwiththatoftheDivine.Oranencounterwithanevilangelcanrepresentaninnerstrugglebetweentheforcesofgoodandevil.Suchmultiplelevelsof
meaningwerenotlostontherabbis,whocreatedasystemoffourlevelsofinterpretationknownbytheacronymPaRDeS,inwhichalllevelsofmeaningwere
regardedasequallyvalid.Thissystemofinterpretationrecognizestheliteral,symbolic,allegorical,andmysticalmeaningsofanysacredtext,especiallytheTorah.34
Therealsoisastrongmythicaldimensionunderlyingthesemysticalaccounts.Fourkabbalisticmyths,inparticular,aremostinfluentialinthesetales:mythsofCreation,
oftheDivineChariot,oftheBrideofGod,andoftheMessiah.ThefirsttwoofthesemythsconstitutetherootsofKabbalahintheBible,emergingasakindofmythic
commentaryonCreationandthevisionofEzekiel.Virtuallyallkabbalistictextsandtalesgrowoutofatleastoneoftheserootmyths,althoughotherbiblicalepisodes
ofamysticalnature,suchasthegivingoftheTorahatMountSinaiorIsaiah'svisionofGodseatedonaheavenlythrone,arealsothefocusofkabbalisticcommentary.
ThekabbalistictermforthestudyofCreationisMa'asehBereshit,theWorkofCreation,whilethetermforthestudyoftheDivineChariotisMa'asehMerkavah,
theWorkoftheChariot.InthiscontextWorkcanbeunderstoodasMysteries.
Thefirstoftheseprimarykabbalisticmyths,thatofCreation,actuallyconsistsofthreeseparatebutrelatedmyths.InadditiontotheaccountofCreationfoundin
Genesis1:131,inwhichGodcreatedtheworldinsixdaysandrestedontheseventh,therearetwoadditionalkabbalisticcosmol

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ogies.OneisthatoftheTenSefirot,oftenillustratedinadiagramofthekabbalisticTreeofLife,whichproclaimsCreationintenprimarystagesofemanation.There
arespecifickindsofinteractionsbetweentheseSefirot,whichareknownastheThirtytwoPaths.Thesepathsrepresenttheinfinitepossibilitiesoftheinteractionof
theDivine,asrevealedthroughthesymbolsoflanguage.EachoftheSefirotisasymbolofanaspectofGod,aswellastageintheemanationofCreation.TheSefirot
functioninkabbalistictextsasarchetypesoftheinteractionofGodandexistence.AttachedtoeachoftheSefirotarerichandvariedmeanings,someofwhichare
mystical,somemythical.InthekabbalisticmythologyassociatedwiththeSefirot,Samael,thefallenangel,comestorepresentthemasculineprincipleofevil,whereas
Lilith,thedemoness,istransformedtorepresentthefeminine.CounteringLilithisthepositivefeminineprinciple,identifiedwiththeShekhinah,theSabbathQueenand
BrideofGod.OneimportantfacetoftheSefirotisthattheycouldbeinfluencedbyspecialprayersofunification,knownasyihudim.Thismadepotentiallygreat
powersavailabletothosemysticswhounderstoodthesecretofmakingtheseunificationseffective.Theyheldthepower,forexample,ofbringingGodandHisBride
closertogether,aswellasthepotentialtounleashtheEndofDays,themessianicera.
ItishardtoreconciletheCreationmythinGenesiswiththeemanationsoftheSefirot,andinfacttheyareseparatemythsofCreation.Yetbothmythsaredrawnupon
bytheAri'screationmythoftheShatteringoftheVesselsandtheGatheringoftheSparks.Godsentforththevesselsthatshattered,containingprimordiallight.To
restorecosmicunity,thesescatteredsparksmustbesoughtoutandraisedupsothatthebrokenvesselcanberestoredandtheworldreturnedtoitsprimordial
condition.Andthisrepairoftheworld,knownastikkun,canbeaccomplishedbyfulfillingthemitzvot,theDivinecommandments.35
ThelinksbetweenthemythoftheAriandthesystemofSefirotbecomeapparentuponcloserobservation.LiketheSefirot,theAri'smythdescribesaprocessof
emanationinwhichthevesselsoflightprogressfromonerealmofexistencetoanother.TheSefirot,however,representanongoingprocessoftransformation,while
theShatteringoftheVesselstookplaceattheearlystagesinCreationandwasacosmiccatastrophe,similarinimpacttotheexilefromEdenorthedestructionofthe
TempleinJerusalem.YetbecausethefirststageoftheAri'smythisinextricablylinkedtothesecond,thatofGatheringtheSparks,ittoocanberegardedasan
ongoingprocess.Thus,onewayofviewingthemythoftheAriisasareworkingofthedoctrineoftheSefirot,andsomekabbalisticschoolsregardtheAri'steachings
asadirectanddetailedexplicationoftheSefirot.
Thismythcanalsoberecognizedasthesourcebehindmanytalesconcerningtheprincipleoftikkinolam,orrepairoftheworld.Heretheroleoftherabbiisoften
thatofahealer.In"RepairingSouls,"36RabbiHayimbenAttargoesintothemountainstorepairthesoulsgatheredthere.In"RedemptionoftheLostSouls,"37the
famouskabbalistShalomSharabi

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seeksoutlostsoulsamongthe"SonsoftheDesert,"astheBedouinswereknown,andredeemsthem.Noristhisrepairlimitedtotheeventsofthisworld.Afterall,
theShatteringoftheVesselswasacosmiccatastrophe,andtheheavensthemselvesrequirerepair.Thisisthesecretworkofthehiddensaints,suchasShimonPilam
in"TheTzaddikoftheForest"38ofHayimtheVinekeeperin"ThePrayerLeader."39
ThesecondprimarymythisthatoftheDivineChariot,basedonthevisionofEzekiel.AswithCreation,Ezekiel'svisiongavebirthtomorethanonemyth.Thereisthe
mythoftheDivineChariot,whichrepresentsthemysteryoftheDivinity.JustasEzekiel'svisionisperplexing,soisthestudyofthismystery,knownasMa'aseh
Merkavah,theWorkoftheChariot,analmostimpenetrableenigma.TheMerkavahrepresentsbothGod'sThroneofGloryandtheDivineChariot,whichare
mysticallyregardedasone.Visionsofthischariotareextremelyrareinthesemysticaltales,butthemereactofcontemplatingthismysteryoftentriggersmystical
experiences,asin"MysteriesoftheChariot."40
AnotherkeymythtoemergefromEzekiel'svisionisthatofheavenlyascent.ThismythrepresentsthelongingtoenterintotheDivinepresence,whichistheultimate
goalofmysticalascent.Thislonging,then,consistsofayearningforpersonalexperienceoftheDivine,tocomeintothepresenceoftheKing,tobeholdHim
personally,ratherthantoremainoutsidethepalaceandhearrumorsoftheKing.Itisnotnecessarilyalongingformysticalunioninthetraditionalsense,wherethe
mystic'sidentitydissolvesintothatoftheDivine.Somehowtherabbisretainasenseofthemselvesinthesevisions,nomatterhowexalted.This,then,shouldbeseen
asauniquecharacteristicofJewishmysticism.ThismythofascentfindsexpressionbothinthetaleofthefoursageswhoenteredParadiseandinthemanyaccountsof
heavenlyjourneysfoundintheHekhalottexts.InthesetextstheindividualcomesintothepresenceofGodandexperiencescompleteawe,inwaysthatareoften
overpowering.And,asthesetextsmakeclear,thereisaninherentdangerintheseDivinevisions,aswellasgreatrewards.
ThethirdofthesekabbalisticmythsistheexileoftheShekhinah,God'sBride.InitsearliestuseintheTalmudandMidrash,theterm"Shekhinah"referredtoGod's
presenceintheworld.LaterkabbalisticmythturnedtheShekhinahintoaseparatemythicbeing,whoseparatedfromherspouse,God,whenherearthlyhome,the
TempleinJerusalem,wasdestroyed,andwentintoexilewithherchildren,Israel.Furthermore,itisbelievedthattheShekhinahwillremaininexileuntilthedaysof
theMessiah,whentheTemplewillberebuilt.ThisbelieflinksthemythoftheShekhinahtothemythoftheMessiah.
OneoftheearliestpersonificationsoftheShekhinahisasMotherZion,asfoundinthismidrashictext:
WhenJeremiahsawthesmokeoftheTempleinJerusalemrisingup,hebrokedown.Andwhenhesawthestonesthatoncewerethewallsofthe

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Temple,hesaid:"Whatroadhavetheexilestaken?Iwillgoandperishwiththem."
SoJeremiahaccompaniedthemdowntheroadcoveredwithblooduntiltheyreachedtheriverEuphrates.Thenhethoughttohimself:"IfIgoontoBabylon,whowillcomfort
thoseleftinJerusalem?"Thereforehetookhisleaveoftheexiles,andwhentheysawhewasleaving,theywept,asitiswritten,BythewatersofBabylon,therewesatdown,yea,
wewept(Ps.137:1).
AshewasreturningtoJerusalem,Jeremiahliftedhiseyesandsawawomanseatedatthetopofamountain,dressedinblack,cryingindistress,ingreatneedofcomfort.Sotoo
wasJeremiahintears,wonderingwhowouldcomforthim.Heapproachedthewoman,saying,"Ifyouareawoman,speak,butifyouareaspirit,departatonce!"Shesaid:"Do
younotrecognizeme?Iamshewhohasbornesevensons,whosefatherwentintoexileinadistantcitybythesea.Thenamessengerbroughtthenewsthatmyhusband,the
fatherofmychildren,hadbeenslain.Andontheheelsofthatmessengercameanotherwiththenewsthatmyhousehadfalleninandslainmysevensons."
Jeremiahsaid:"DoyoudeserveanymorecomfortthanMotherZion,whohasbeenmadeintoapastureforthebeasts?"Andshereplied:"IamMotherZion,themotherofseven,
asitiswritten,Shethathasbornesevenanguishes(Jer.15:9).41

ThispersonificationofMotherZioneventuallyevolvedintothatoftheShekhinah,oneofwhoserolesisthatofthemotherofIsrael.TheShekhinahistypically
portrayedasabrideinwhiteorasagrievingwomaninblack,mourningoverthedestructionofherhome,theTemple,andthescatteringofherchildren.In"AVision
attheWailingWall"42bothpersonificationsarefound,whiletheimageofthebrideisfoundin"AVisionoftheBride"43and"TheSabbathGuests."44TheShekhinah
isalsoidentifiedastheSabbathQueen,abelovedfigurewhosepresencemakestheSabbathholy.ItistheSabbathQueenthattheAriandhisdisciples,dressedin
white,wentouttomeetatsunsetinthehillsofSafedintheritualknownasKabbalatShabbat.TheSabbathQueenisalsowelcomedwiththefamoushymnLekhah
DodieveryFridayeveningatthebeginningoftheSabbath.
ThearrivaloftheSabbathQueeniscloselylinkedtothebeliefthateverypersonreceivesanextrasoulontheSabbath.ThetalmudicsourceforthisbeliefisinB.
Betzah16a:"RabbiShimonbenLakishsaid:'OntheeveoftheSabbaththeHolyOne,blessedbeHe,givesmananenlargedsoulandatthecloseoftheSabbathHe
withdrawsitfromhim.'"ThisneshamahyeterahorextrasouliscloselyidentifiedwiththeShekhinah,andespeciallywiththepersonificationoftheShekhinahasthe
SabbathQueen.Thistraditioncanbeconsideredanibburvisitationinthebroadestsenseoftheconcept.Becausetheyareloathtolosetheirextrasoul,manyhasidim

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putofftheHavdalahceremonythatmarkstheendoftheSabbathaslongaspossible,sometimesuntillongpastmidnight.
ThefourthandlastoftheprimarykabbalisticmythstoinfluencethesemysticaltalesisthemythoftheMessiah.Here,too,themythisfoundintwodistinct
formulations,whichareultimatelylinked.OneoftheseconcernsaMessiahwhoisthesonofJoseph,andthesecondaMessiahwhoisthesonofDavid.Messiahben
Joseph,asheisknown,willbeahuman,thetzaddikofhisgeneration,whowillpreparethewayforMessiahbenDavid,whoissometimesidentifiedasahuman
beingandsometimesasacelestialMessiahwholivesinaheavenlypalace.45
ThelongingfortheMessiahhasbeenpalpablethroughoutJewishhistory.Inadditiontoseveralfalsemessiahs,suchasShabbataiZevi,manyattemptstohastenthe
comingoftheMessiaharerecordedinthesetales.See,forexample,"TheChainsoftheMessiah,"46aboutthemonumentalfailureofRabbiJosephdellaReina,who
soughttoforcethecomingoftheMessiahbycapturingAsmodeusandLilith,thekingandqueenofdemons.Butonefatalerroratthelastminutecausedhimtolose
everything.SotooaretheremanytalesaboutmomentsintimethatwouldhavebeenperfectopportunitiestobringtheMessiahbutweresomehowlost.In"The
JourneytoJerusalem"47theAriannounceshisplantosetoutforJerusalematoncewithhisdisciples.Someofthemagreetogounquestioningly,butothershesitate,
andthiscausesthemtolosetheopportunitytobringtheMessiah.In"TheSabbathGuests,"48RabbiEizekofKalloseeksablessingfromtwovisitinghasidimfora
mysteriouscouplewhohavecometohisSabbathtable.Thehasidim,scandalizedbytherabbi'swarmthtowardthewoman,refuse.Onlyafterwarddotheylearnthat
theirguestsweretheMessiahandtheSabbathQueen,andifthehasidimhadgiventheirblessing,theweddingwouldhaveinitiatedthemessianicera.Accountsof
theselostopportunitiestobringtheMessiahmakeuponecharacteristictypeoftheseJewishmysticaltales.
EveninpresentdayIsrael,messianiclongingsarewidespreadinthemostreligiouscircles.AfewyearsagotherewasareportthatthreerabbisinJerusalemhad
dreamedonthesamenightthatthecomingoftheMessiahwasimminent.Thissentawaveofmessianicexpectationthroughthecommunity.Atthesametime,there
aremanyexplanationsaboutwhytheMessiahhasnotyetcome,asinthislegendrecentlycollectedinIsraelbytheIsraelFolktaleArchives:
FormanygenerationstheMessiahhassatcaptive,chainedwithgoldenchainsbeforetheThroneofGlory.Elijahhastriedtoreleasehimmanytimes,buthehasneversucceeded.
SoElijahdescendstoearthandexplainsthatinordertobreakthechainsoftheMessiah,heneedsamagicsawwhoseteetharethedeedsofIsrael.Everydeedaddsatoothtothis
saw,buteverysintakesoneaway.Whentherearetwiceasmanygooddeedsastherearesins,then

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49

thesawcanbeused.ThatiswhyitissaidthattheMessiahwillnotcomeuntilwebringhim.

Inadditiontothesefourprimarymyths,therearemanyothermythicconcernsreflectedinthesetales,especiallythoseinvolvingjourneystoheavenorhell.Many
detailsaboutsuchmythicrealmsemergehere.FromthesearemarkablydetailedknowledgeoftheDivinerealmcanbegained,aswellashowtoinvokeitspowers
throughtheuseofholynames,prayersofunification,50astralprojection,sympatheticmagic,andothermysticaltechniques.Withthesepowersitbecomespossibleto
enterintothesacreddimensionwhereangelsareoftenencounteredandwherevisionsoftheDivinePresence,intheformofthemythicfigureoftheShekhinah,are
regardedastheultimaterevelation,asin''AVisionoftheBride."51
Atthesametime,theuseofthesemysticalpowerswasreservedforexceptionalsituations,suchascounteringanevildecreeagainsttheJewishcommunity.These
talesrecounthowcertainrabbisareabletoaffecteventsfarawaybysoultravelandprojectionoftheirimagestodistantplaces,wheretheyaccomplishmiraculous
feats.In"ABowlofSoup,"52RabbiElimelechofLizenskspillsabowlofsoupattheSabbathtable,andlateritislearnedthatatthesamemoment,astheemperor
wasabouttosignadecreeagainsttheJews,thebottleofinkspilledonit,andtheemperortookthisasasignthatthedecreemustnotbesigned.53Likewise,Rabbi
NaftaliKatzdrawsuponhismysticalpowersin"RabbiNaftali'sTrance,"54notonlytolocateamissinghusbandinGehenna,theJewishhell,whereheisbeing
punished,buttosetupameeting,inthepresenceofwitnessesandavengingangles,betweenthehusbandandthewifeheabandoned,inordertoobtainthebillof
divorce.Sotooaretheremanyaccountsofrabbiswhousetheirpowerstoraiseupthesoulsofthedead,whooftencalluponthemfortheirhelp.RebNachmanof
BratslavaskedtobeburiedinthecemeteryinthecityofUmansothathecouldraiseupthesoulsofthoseburiedtherewhohadlosttheirlivesinapogrom.55Sotoo,
in"TheFieldofSouls,"56doesarabbiwhopraysinafieldonYomKippurunknowinglyfreethemanysoulsstrandedthere,whilein"TheBoyWhoBlewthe
Shofar,"57aboyiscalleduponbythesoulsofthedeadtosetthemfree.
Fromthisitcanbeseenthatthesetalesaresetinaworldwheretheboundarybetweenthelivingandthedead,betweenearthandheavenandhell,betweenspiritand
body,isafluidone,andtheworldisseenasaplacepopulatedwithallkindsofspirits,includingangels,demons,andspiritsofthedead.Therabbisinthesetalesare
mastersofthisspiritualrealm.Theyhavearemarkablycompleteknowledgeofitsworkings,andpossessholynamesthatserveasspellsincallinguponangelsand
otherspiritstodotheirbidding.Theirgoalsarebothspiritualandpractical,theirmostpressingdesire,ofcourse,tohastenthecomingoftheMessiah.
Butthemysticalquestsfoundinthesetalesarenotlimitedtoattemptstohastenthemessianicera.Indeed,theprimaryquestisthatformystical

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knowledge,knowledgeofGodandtheperfectionoftheworld,whichislinkedtothecomingoftheMessiah.Thisqueststartsbyseekingthemysticalmeaningofthe
Torahandothersacredtexts,wherethelettersofthewordsareassignificantastheirmeaning,andwherewordsthathavethesamenumericaltotalarebelievedtobe
mysticallylinked.58
Thusthewordisseeninthesetalesasagatewaytotherealmofcelestialmysteries.ThisisanaturalextensionoftheprimaryrabbinicbeliefthattheTorah,dictatedby
GodtoMosesatMountSinai,isthesourceofalltruths,mysteries,andhiddenmeanings.TheZohar,theprimarykabbalistictext,describesacelestialTorahwrittenin
blackfireonwhite.In"TheFlamingLetters,"59RebShneurZalmancreatesasetofHebrewlettersthatprovestobeidenticaltothecelestialmodel,liftingyetanother
veilofthecelestialmystery.Eventheblankportionsofthepageonwhichthewordsarewrittenareregardedasbeingmeaningful,suggestingafigure/ground60
reversalofthetext,whichisseentorevealaworldofmysteries.
WiththemysticalexperienceinJudaismsoremarkablyfocusedonthepage,itisnotsurprisingthattherearemanytalesinvolvingthepowerofthewordorofpotent
combinationsofwordssuchasincantations.Aboveall,thereisthepowerofprayer.Andtheessenceofthispowerderivesfromtheintensityoftheprayer,knownas
thekavanah.SotooaretheremysticaltechniquesknownasyihudimorunificationsthatseekcelestialunitybycreatinganinteractionamongtheSefirot,withthe
ultimategoalofbringingGodandHisBrideclosertogether.TheseyihudimcombinelettersfromdifferentnamesofGodinverycomplexmentalexercisesthatwere
believedtoproduceprofoundeffectsinthisworldandtheworldabove.61Inaddition,theyihudimwereusedtoexorciseevilspirits.Therearealsoholynamesthat
areusedtocallforthangelicfigures,suchasthePrinceoftheTorah,ortoopenthegatesofheaven.Withthepowersmadeavailablethroughthesemysticalmethods,
itbecamepossibletoenterintothesacredrealmwhereangelsareoftenencounteredandvisionstakeplaceinParadise.
Fromagreatmanyofaccountsofheavenlyjourneysfoundinthepseudepigraphicaltextsandrabbiniclore,aswellasinmanyahasidictale,avividportraitofheaven
emerges,withacelestialJerusalemthatisthemirrorimageofJerusalemonearth,exceptthattheTempleonhighstillexists,whilethatinthisworldhasbeen
destroyed.Andthereareamultitudeofsecretplaces,treasuries,heavenlyacademies,and,ofcourse,palacesofheaven,includingthepalaceoftheMessiah,known
astheBird'sNest.Itisacomplex,labyrinthinevisionofthecelestialworld,whichisruledbyitsownlawsandexistsonitsownterms.Thereisaplaceforevery
purposeinCreation,suchastheGuf,theTreasuryofSouls,fromwhichsoulsaredrawn,62ortheHouseofTreasures,whereGodkeepsallthethingsHecreated
beforetheCreationoftheworld,includingtheCelestialTorah.Allinalltherearesevenheavens,thehighestofwhichisknownasAravot,andineachsuccessive
heaventhemeritsoftherighteouswhoarefoundthere

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increase.Sotoodothegreatsageshavetheirownacademiesinheaven,wherethesoulsoftherighteousandangelsgathertogethertoheartheirteachingsofthe
Torah.
Humanbeingsarebynatureexplorers,motivatedbycuriosity,andinmanywaysheavenhastraditionallybeenconsideredthefinalfrontier.Thus,fromtheperspective
oftheknowledgegatheredfromtheseheavenlyjourneys,therabbiscanbeseenascelestialexplorers.Whateverrealmtheyentered,whetherinthisworldorinthe
spiritualrealm,theyexploredingreatdetail.Partofthisinterest,ofcourse,comesfromthebeliefthatheavenisthelocationoftheOlamhaba,theWorldtoCome,
whererighteouswillreceivetheirrewards.Andforthosegenerationslargelydeprivedofmaterialrewards,andmoreoftenthannotsubjecttopersecution,thedream
ofarealminwhichtheywouldbejustlyrewardedservedasagreatsolace.
ThefirstfiguretobecreditedwithjourneyingintoheavenandexploringitwasEnoch.VerylittleissaidaboutEnochintheTorah.Hisnameappearsinagenealogy
linkingAdamandNoah,andallthatdistinguisheshimisthewayhisdeathisreported.Forwhileitissaidabouteveryoneelsethat"hedied,"aboutEnochitissaid,
AndEnochwalkedwithGod,andhewasnotforGodtookhim(Gen.5:34).Eventheslightestvariationinbiblicalphrasingwastakentohaveprofound
significanceinthiscaseextensiveconclusionsweredrawnfromtheunusualstatementabouthisdeath.
InthreemajorpostbiblicaltextsfoundinthePseudepigrapha,EnochcametobedescribedasoneofthefewrighteousmenintheevilgenerationprecedingtheFlood.
HewastakenupintoParadiseinachariotatGod'scommandandtaughtthesecretsoftheuniverse.Thenhecamebacktoearthtoinstructmen,andfinallyhe
returnedtoheaven,wherehewastransformedintothefieryangelMetatron,whobecametheattendantoftheThroneofGlory,theprinceofthetreasuriesofheaven,
andtherulerandjudgeofallthehostsofangels,executoroftheDivinedecreesonearthandtheheavenlyscribe.
OneoftheprimarypurposesoftheascentofEnochwastoprovideadetaileddescriptionoftherewardsandpunishmentsawaitingtherighteous,aswellastomapthe
landscapeofthesedistantandmysteriousrealms.AndsuchamapofheavenandhelldoesemergefromtheextensiveliteratureaboutEnoch.
NotonlyistheheavenlyParadiseexploredingreatdetailinJewishmysticaltextsandtalessotooistheearthlyParadise,theGardenofEden.Inonelegend,"The
GatesofEden,"63AlexandertheGreat,apopularfigureinJewishlore,comestothegatesoftheGardenofEdenandisrefusedadmittance.Insteadanangelgives
himaneye,which,whenweighedonascale,outweighsallhisgolduntilitiscoveredwithdust.Thepointisthat"theeyeofahumanbeingisneversatisfied"
alwayswantingmoreuntildeathtakesawayalldesire.Inanothertale,"ACrownofShoes,"64theBaal

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ShemTovistransportedinaninstanttotheGardenofEden,wherehefindsangelsgatheringshoesthatflewoffthefeetofthosedancingonSimhatTorah.Theyflew
offwithsuchjoythattheyflewallthewaytotheGardenofEden.TheretheBaalShemTovlearnsthatanangelmakesacrownoutoftheseshoesforGodtowearon
theThroneofGlory,justasHewearsacrownwovenfromtheprayersofIsrael.Inanothertale,"TheTreeofLife,"65theBaalShemTovuseshisgreatpowersto
transportnotonlyhimself,butalsohishasidim,totheGardenofEden.HetriestoleadthemtotheTreeofLife,butonebyonetheybecomefascinatedwithsome
lessermystery,andbythetimetheBaalShemTovreachestheTreeofLife,heisalone.
Therealsoareamultitudeofencounterswithangelsinthesetales.ForemostamongtheseistheangelGabriel,whoservesastheprimarycelestialguide.In"The
Tzohar"66GabrielassistsJosephinthepit,wherehisbrothershadcasthim,andin"RabbiIshmael'sAscent"67theangelmeetsRabbiIshmaelasheascendsonhigh
andrevealssecretsthathehasheardfrombehindthePargod,thecurtainthatseparatesGodfromtheangels.In"Gabriel'sPalace,"68Gabrielvisitstheimprisoned
RabbiMeirofRottenberginadreamandbringshimacelestialTorahtoreadfromontheSabbath.
Butnotallangelsaregood,asonestudentlearnsin"TheEvilAngel."69Sotoodoeshelearnhowtodistinguishthegoodonesfromtheevilones:bothhaveGod's
Nameinscribedontheirforeheads,butthelettersofthenameofthegoodangelareinscribedinwhitefire,whilethoseoftheevilangelburninblack.
Inaddition,therearebeingsthatareneitherspiritnorangel,butacombinationofboth.Thesespirits,knownasmaggidim,comeintobeingasaresultofintensestudy
ofthesacredtexts,andtheyspeakthroughthemouthsofgreatsages,suchasRabbiJosephKaro,theauthoroftheShulhanArukh,theCodeofJewishLaw.That
sucharespectedscholaroftheLawasJosephKarocouldatthesametimebeamysticpossessedbythespiritoftheMishnahmayappeartobeagreatparadox.Yet
inonebook,MaggidMesharim,hekeptadiaryoftheknowledgehehadreceivedfromthisspirit,whocametohimandspokethroughhismouthofteninthe
presenceofothers,asrecountedin"TheAngeloftheMishnah."70
Fromapsychologicalperspective,theaccountsofboththeibburandthemaggidcanbeseenasakindofautomaticspeakingfromtheunconscious.Ithasalsobeen
suggestedthatpartsoftheZohar,thecentraltextofKabbalah,werewrittenautomaticallybytheauthor,MoshedeLeon.Also,manyformsofkabbalisticmeditation,
suchastheyihudim,theprayersofunification,seemintendedtoinvokeunconsciouspowers.Thisunderscoresoneimportantaspectofkabbalisticstudyitseemsto
callforthunconsciousforces,whichrevealthemselvesthroughsymboliclanguage.Inaveryrealsense,thelettersofthealphabetandthetenSefirotserveasgatesof
spiritualforcesandfunctioninwaysthatarequitesimilartoboththePlatonicarchetypesandC.G.Jung'sconceptofthearchetypesofthecollectiveuncon

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scious.71Indeed,thisparallelisevenmorestrikingintermsofthekeyfemininefigureoftheShekhinah,theBrideofGod,andJung'sconceptoftheanima,the
symbolicfeminineaspectofeveryman.Jungianthoughtrequirestheseekingoutandunitingwiththeanimainordertoattainpsychicwholeness,whichJungcalls
Individuation.Intheartsthisfigureisidentifiedasthemuse,andtheartistcanflourishonlywhenheisinthepresenceofthemuse,justasnothingisconsideredtobe
sacredthatdoesnottakeplaceintheDivinePresence,whichhasbeentraditionallyidentifiedwiththeShekhinah.Thus,fromaJungianperspective,oneoftheeffects
ofkabbalisticstudywasthediscoverybythekabbalistsofthefemininewithinthemselves.Fromthispointofview,theirattemptstounifyGodandHisexiledBride
throughprayersofunificationcanalsobeseenasanattempttounitewiththeirownanima.Thesemysticaltales,aswell,canbeseenasproductsofthisunconscious
process,withastrongsymboliccomponentandmanylevelsofmeaning.ThetalesofRabbiNachmanofBratslav,inparticular,lendthemselvestothiskindof
interpretation,where,forexample,thesearchfortheprincessinhisfamousstory"TheLostPrincess"canbeseentorepresentaquestnotonlyfortheBrideofGod,
butalsofortheexiledanima.72
OnefurtherimportantparallelbetweenthekabbalisticviewofexistenceandJungiantheoryconcernstheunderstandingofevil.IntheKabbalahtheworldofevilis
knownastheSitraAhra,theOtherSide.Thisgrowsoutofthetalmudicviewthat"foreverythingGodcreated,Healsocreateditscounterpart."73Allinall,the
kabbalisticworldisapolaronepreciselyintheJungianmodel,wheretheforcesoftheunconsciousareunderstoodtobearrangedinapolarconfiguration.
JustasheavenisthoroughlymappedoutintheEnochandHekhalottexts,sotooistherealmofevilfullyexplored.Thisworldisportrayedinverydifferentways.
ThereisGehenna,Jewishhell,wherethesoulsofthosewhosinnedarepunished,inwaysthatareasexplicitasthoserecountedbyDanteinTheInferno.Thereis
alsotheSitraAhra,filledwithevilforcesandswarmsofspirits,someofthempoorsoulswhoarebeingpunishedbyendlesswandering.Itfunctionsasadistorted
mirrorofexistenceruledbytheforcesofevil.AndonlytherabbiswhohavemasteredthemysteriesofKabbalahhaveitwithintheirpowertoassisttheselostsouls
andbringtheirwanderingtoanend,asin"TheBlindAngel,"74whereRabbiMordecaiofChernobylusesthegiftofapreciousmenorahtoguidethesoulofthehasid
intoheaven.
Theexistenceofdemonsandtheportrayalofevilinkabbalisticliteraturedrawonseveralsources,amongthempopulardemonologicaltraditions,aswellasthe
influenceofmagicaltextssuchasSeferhaRazim75andthewidespreaduseofmagicalamulets,whichinevitablyincludedmagicalspells.IntheZoharandother
kabbalistictexts,thesetraditionsaretransformedintomoreabstractforcesofgoodandevil.
Thenthereareotherspiritswhotravelthroughthecyclesofrebirth,knownasgilgul,andarereincarnatedinavarietyofforms,suchasastone,

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aflower,oratree,aswellasinbothanimalandhumanform.Oftenthesamesoulwillbeforcedtoundergoallthesetransformations,asin"TheVoiceintheTree."76
Morethananythingelse,thesesoulslongtobefreedfromthechainofreincarnationtoascendonhigh,ashappensin"TheSabbathFish."77
Thisfocusongilgul,thetransmigrationofsouls,gavetheJewishmysticsacompletelydifferentperspective,inwhichthehistoryofaperson'ssoulwastheprimary
factorinshapinghislife.ItissaidabouttheArithathecouldlookataman'sforeheadandreadhissoul'shistorythere.Hecouldlistentothedialogueoftwobirdsand
recognizeoneofthemasthereincarnationofBalaam.HecouldrecognizethatablackdogthatcontinuedtohaunthimwasthereincarnationofJosephdellaReina,
whofellintoevilwaysafterhefailedtohastenthecomingoftheMessiah.78Andhecouldevenrecognizeasoultrappedinonestoneinthewallofanancient
synagogue,ashedoesin"AStoneintheWall."79Thiskindofknowledgeofthehistoryofsoulswasrareevenamongthemysticalmasters,butin"AWandering
Soul"80oneoftheBelzhasidimknowsthathehasbeenrebornthreetimes:onceasasheepinJacob'sflockonceasafollowerofKorah,whorebelledagainst
Mosesandwaspunished,alongwithhisfollowers,whentheearthswallowedthemupandonceashimself.Theconceptofgilgulinmanywaysresemblesthatof
samsera,thecycleofdeathandrebirthinHinduthought,includingthelawofkarmathatisinvolvedinthesamseraprocess.Yetithasalsobeenformedbythe
Jewishmysticalcontextoutofwhichitemerged.
Asforthefateofthesoulsoftheliving,thisissaidtodependonthestateoftheirsoulcandles,asdescribedin"TheCottageofCandles."81Apersonlivesonlyas
longashissoulcandlecontinuestoburn.Anditisforbiddentotrytostealoilfromonecandleforanother,asthedoomedmaninthisstoryfindsout.Indeed,these
storiesteachreverenceforeverykindoflivingbeing.Eventreeshavesouls,asRebNachmanofBratslavdiscoversin"TheSoulsofTrees."82
Aboveall,suchtalesrevealthelongingtocommunicatewiththeworldaboveandthebeliefthatsuchcommunicationispossible,atleastforthegreatestfigures.And
basedontheevidenceofthetales,thesecommunicationstookmanyforms,includingheavenlyvoices,angelicmessengers,omens,visitsofthepatriarchsand
matriarchs,heavenlybooks,prophecy,andDivinemessagessuchasletterssentfromheaven,aswellasdivinationbytheholyspirit,knownasRuahhaKodesh.
OtherpopularmethodsofdivinationwereSheilatSefer,diviningfromabook.Inreplytoanimportantquestion,aholybookisopenedatrandomandapassage
blindlyselected,whichservesasthereply."TheSoulsofTrees"83and"DiviningfromtheZohar"84containexamplesofthiskindofdivination.And,aboveall,such
communicationwiththeworldabovetookplaceintheformofvisionsordreams.Thesevisionsmightinvolveheavenlyascents,asin"RabbiIshmael'sAscent,"85or
theShekhinah,asin"AVisionattheWailingWall"86and"AVisionoftheBride.''87Insomestories,suchas

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"TheVisionoftheHighPriest"88and"TheEnchantedIsland,"89thereisevenavisionofGod.
LetusreturntothefoursageswhoenteredParadise.Itcannowbeseenthatthisbrief,enigmatictalmudiclegendhasmultiplelevelsofmeaning,whereascentmaybe
understoodasavisionaryexperience,ontheonehand,andasametaphorformysticalcontemplationontheother.90Thereforeitisimportantnottooverlookthe
metaphoricaldimensionsofthisaccount.
Intheoriginaltalmudiclegend,thefoursagesenterPardes.Thismeans,literally,thattheyenteredanorchard.Butbecauseofthedireconsequencesoftheiractions,it
isclearthatthepassageisnotintendedtobeunderstoodsolelyontheliterallevel.Ofcourse,theorchardalsosuggestsagarden,whichsuggeststheGardenofEden,
theearthlyParadise.FromthisinterpretationitisnotfartothenotionthattheplacetheyenteredwasParadise,referringtothecelestialParadise.Thisreadingis
confirmedbyoneversionofthislegendthatconcludesthat"onlyRabbiAkibaascendedinpeaceanddescendedinpeace"ratherthanthathe"enteredinpeaceand
departedinpeace."91
What,then,doesthestorymean?Probablythatthesefour,amongthegreatestsagesofalltime,engagedinsomekindofmysticalcontemplation.Observehowwell
thislegendmanagestoworkontwolevelsatthesametimetheessentialfactorinforminganallegory.Ontheliterallevelthesageshaveenteredanorchard.Thisis
demonstratedwhenElishabenAbuyahcutstheshoots.Ontheallegoricallevel,thereisnodoubtthatthistalmudiclegendisusingPardestorefertoParadise,
becausesomeofthecompanionlegendsdescribethesagesintheheavenlyrealm.92Butsince"Paradise"itselfisametaphorformysticalcontemplation,Pardesrefers
totheenticingbutdangerousrealmsofmysticalspeculationandcontemplationsymbolizedbyheavenlyascent.93
SomesuchdangersarealsorecountedinatalmudicaccountofachildofexceptionalunderstandingwhoreadtheBookofEzekielathisteacher'shome.He
comprehendedthetruemeaningofthewordhashmalinthepassageAndIlooked,and,behold,astormywindcameoutofthenorth,agreatcloud,withafire
flashingup,sothatabrightnesswasroundaboutitandoutofthemidstthereofasthecolorofelectrum(hashmal),outofthemidstofthemire(Ezek.1:4).
Atthatinstantafirewentforthandconsumedhim,liketheflamethatgoesforthfromthemouthofafurnace.94ThatiswhyitiswrittenintheMishnah:"TheMysteries
ofCreationshouldnotbeexpoundedbeforetwopersons,northeMysteriesoftheChariotbeforeone,unlessheisasageandhasanindependentunderstanding.For
whoeverpondersonfourthings,itwouldhavebeenbetterforhimnottohavebeenborn:Whatisabove,whatisbelow,whatisbeforetime,andwhatwillcome
hereafter."95
Thefoursagesenteredintothisdangerousrealmofmysticalcontemplation,andonlyRabbiAkibaemergedunharmed.Whatwasitthattheywere

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contemplating?ItwasalmostcertainlyeitherMa'asehBereshit,themysteriesofCreation,orMa'asehMerkavah,themysteriesoftheChariot.Sincethejourneyof
thesagesisunderstoodasanascentintoParadise,itseemslikelythattheywerecontemplatingMa'asehMerkavah,whichisconcernedwithascent.
ThebriefaccountofthefourwhoenteredParadiseisclearlyabarebonessummaryofamoreextensivelegend.Afewremainingfragmentsofthislegendarefoundin
thesametractateoftheTalmudandshedmorelightonthefateoftwoofthethreelostsages.96WelearnthatElishabenAbuyah"cuttheshoots,"meaningthathecut
histiestohisreligion,afterseeingtheangelMetatronsittingonaheavenlythroneandconcluding,"Theremustbe,Godforbid,twopowersinheaven."97Thelegend
goesontotellusthatGodsentanangeltopunishMetatronwithsixtylashesofaflamingwhipforgivingElishabenAbuyahthisfalseimpression.AfterthisElisha
becomesknownasAher,theOther,becauseofhissubsequentapostasy.
ThereisalsoabrieflegendconcerningthefateofBenZoma,wholookedandlosthismind.Heissaidtohaveencounteredhisteacher,RabbiJoshua,whowas
walkingwithhisstudents.ThisrabbigreetedBenZoma,whofailedtoreturnthegreetingandinsteadreplied:"Betweentheupperwatersandthelowerwatersthere
arebutthreefingerbreadths."Hearingthistherabbisaidtohisstudents:"BenZomaisgone,"meaningthathehadlosthismind.98HereBenZoma'sstatementabout
theupperandlowerwatersseemstobelinkedtosomethinghehadseenduringhisheavenlyascent.ReferringtotheCreationofthefirmament,whereGoddivided
thewatersthatwerebeneaththefirmamentfromthewatersthatwereaboveit(Gen.1:7),BenZomaseemstobeexpressingamazementthattheupperwatersandthe
lowerwaterssymbolizingheavenandeartharesoclose.99
AsforBenAzzai,hisfateisthemostuncertain.InonemidrashfromLeviticusRabbah,RabbiAkibatellsBenAzzai:"Iheardthatyousitdownandstudy,andflames
surroundyou.Isaid,'BenAzzaihasdescendedtotheChambersoftheChariot.'"100HereBenAzzaiisportrayedasagreatmystic,whichreinforcesthetraditionthat
hediedbythekissoftheShekhinah,meaningthathissoulwastakendirectlyintoheaven.ThistraditioncontradictsthatwhichassumesthatBenAzzaidiedfromthe
shockofmysticalrevelations.Accordingtothisview,BenAzzaiwasdrawntothemysteriesofheavenlikeamothtoaflame,andinthiswayhelosthislife.
TogethertheselegendsconstitutetheprimaryaccountintheTalmudandMidrashofthelegendofthefoursages.Overtheagestheywererecognizedasreferringto
anesoteric,mysticaltraditionwithinJudaismthatwasatthesametimebothalluringanddangerous.ThistraditionlaterbecameidentifiedasKabbalah,andthese
talmudiclegendsaboutthefoursagesplayacentralroleinthecreationofamysticalmythology.
Ontheonehand,thelegendofthefoursageswasgenerallyinterpretedtomeanthatmysticalcontemplation,whichwasregardedassynonymouswithstudyofeither
CreationorthevisionofEzekiel,wasdangerous.Asa

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result,barrierswereestablished,limitingthestudyofthesesubjects,asnotedinthepreviousquotationfromtheMishnah.Inaddition,itwasrequiredthatthosewho
studiedbeatleastfortyyearsold,married,andlearnedintheTalmud.(Itgoeswithoutsayingthatwomenwereforbiddentoconsiderthesesubjects.)Itwasbelieved
thatwhenamanhadreachedthisageandhadafamily,hewassufficientlygroundedtobetrustedwiththesedangeroussubjects.Later,theprohibitionagainstthe
studyofMa'asehBereshitandMa'asehMerkavahwasextendedtoincludeallkabbalistictexts,whichareinanycasebasedupononeofthesetwoprimarybiblical
sources.
Butthestricturesderivingfromthedisasterthatbefellthreeofthefoursageswerenot,however,theonlyreactiontothisfamousepisode.Fortherewasalsothe
oppositereaction:theirascentintoParadisewasregardedbysomeasamodelforsubsequentheavenlyjourneys.Thesesagesviewedmysticalcontemplation,as
symbolizedbytheheavenlyjourney,astheultimatemysticalobjective.TheyaretheauthorsofwhatareknownastheHekhalottexts,whichdescribeingreatdetail
journeysintoParadise.Hekhalotmeans"palaces,"andthisreferstothepalacesofheaven.SotooisthisfieldofmysticalcontemplationknownasMerkavah
Mysticism,becauseofitsfocusonascent,assymbolizedbytheMerkavah,theheavenlychariotinthevisionofEzekiel.Severaloftheseimportanttextshavebeen
discoveredinrecentyears,andtheyarethesubjectofintensivescholarlystudy.ItisdifficulttodeterminewhetherthosewhowrotetheHekhalottextsregardedthe
ascentasanactualbodilyone,orasanascentofthesoul.Butitseemsmorelikelythatitwasunderstoodasanascentofthesoul.Lateraccountsofheavenly
journeys,suchasthosetakenbytheBaalShemTov,describeanascentofthesoul.Andeveninsomeoftheearliertexts,suchasTheLegendoftheTenMartyrs,
101itisclearthatRabbiIshmael'sbodyremainsonearthwhilehissoulascendsonhigh.
Sometimesthesemysticalascentsweresaidtotakeplaceinmeditativestates,afterlongfastingandprayer,andsometimesindreams,asthesoulwasbelievedto
leavethebodyeverynightandwanderinthecelestialrealms,returningtothebodyshortlybeforewaking.Inanycase,theHekhalottextsthemselvesarequiteexplicit
aboutthenatureofeachofthepalacesofheaven,plusthenamesoftheangelsthatstandoutsidetheirgatesandwhatholynamesmustbepronouncedinordertoget
pastthem.Indeed,theyreadasaprecisemapofheaven,drawingontheexplorationsofEnochandrecountingjourneysofothersages,includingRabbiAkibaand
RabbiIshmael,intotheheavenlyrealms.YeteventodaythetruemeaningandpurposeoftheHekhalottextslikethelegendofthefoursagesareelusiveandopen
tointerpretation.
Indeed,therearemanytheoriesaboutthemeaningofthislegend.Ithasservedasamodelforheavenlyjourneysandasawarningtaleofthedangersofmysticism.To
theexistingtheories,letusaddonemore:eachofthefoursagescanbelinkedtooneoftheschoolsorsectsofearly,formativeJuda

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ism.BenAzzaicanbeidentifiedwiththeschoolthatfocusedonthevisionofEzekiel,knownasMa'asehMerkavah,orMysteriesoftheChariot.BenZomacanbe
linkedtotheschoolthatstudiedtheMysteriesofCreation,knownasMa'asehBereshit.ElishabenAbuyahrepresentstheJewishGnostics,whotookadualisticview
oftheDivinity.AndRabbiAkibarepresentstheschoolofTalmudTorah,emphasizingTorahstudy,whichistheapproachstillfollowedbyOrthodoxJewstothisday.
WehavediscussedthekeypassagesintherabbinictextsthatlinkeachofthesesagestooneoftheseearlypathsofJudaism.BenAzzai,who"lookedanddied,"is
portrayedasaconsummatemysticinthemidrashictexts,whereheisdescribedasbeingsurroundedbyfire.102Itisveryclearthatheisactivelyseekingmystical
illumination,andhereBenAzzaiisdirectlylinkedtoMa'asehMerkavah,theMysteriesoftheChariot.
Likewise,apassageintheTalmudaboutBenZomacontemplatingtheMysteriesofCreationclearlylinkshimtothatschool.103HereBenZomaisportrayedas
havingbeendriventomadnessbyhiscontemplationofthesemysteries,againdirectlylinkinghimtotheearlyJewishsectofMa'asehBereshit.BenZoma'sfailureto
returnhisteacher'sgreetingwasconsideredaclearsignthatsomethingwasseriouslywrong.BenZoma'ssubsequentexplanationofproximityoftheupperwatersand
thelowerwatersplaceshiscontemplationrightatthebeginningofGenesis,intheCreationmyththatistheprimaryfocusofthosewhosoughttoexploretheMysteries
ofCreation.ThusBenZoma'svisionplaceshimsomewhereintheheavens,highenoughtoreachtheplacewheretheupperwatersandthelowerwaterswere
separated.104
InanotherkeypassageAhermeetsMetatroninParadise,inwhichhemakesthestatementthat"thereareGodforbidtwopowersinheaven,"stronglyimpliesthat
theheresythatturnedElishaintoAher,theOther,wasGnostic.HereElishahasreachedalevelofParadisewherehehasfoundthechiefangel,Metatron,seatedona
throne.Ledtobelievethat"therewasnosittinginParadise,"outofrespectforGod,ElishaissodisillusionedthatheseemstohavebecomeaGnostic,expressing
beliefinadualdivinity.Thelegend,however,makesitclearthatElishaismistakeninhisbeliefabouttwopowersinheaven,forGodthenhasMetatronwhippedfor
havingremainedseated.ThisclearlydemonstratesGod'spoweroverMetatron.
ThusthestoryofthefourrepresentstherabbinicviewthatonlythepathofTalmudTorahisacceptable.Itimplicitlyrejectssomeofthealternatepathsto
Enlightenment,thosethatturnedtostudiesofCreationorthevisionofEzekielasanexpressionofearlyKabbalah,aswellastheviewsoftheearlyJewishGnostics.
And,ofcourse,RabbiAkibaistheultimatemodelofTalmudTorahandconsequentlyistheperfectfiguretorepresentit.Thusthebriefbutcruciallegendofthefour
canbereadasadefenseofTalmudTorahagainstthethreeotherprimarypathsthatexistedatthattime.
Drawingonthisinterpretation,thelegendofthefourcanalsobesaidtoprovideanacknowledgmentonthepartoftherabbisthatpathsother

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thanthatofTalmudTorahdidexistandthattherewereJewswhofollowedthem.Fromourperspective,itappearsthatthesealternatepathsofJewishmysticismwere
ultimatelyincorporatedintoKabbalahand,indeed,serveastheveryrootsofmedievalJewishmysticism.
ItisamatterofscholarlydebateastowhetherthelegendofthefourintheTalmudinspiredthebodyoftextsknownasHekhalottexts,orwhetherititselfisa
fragmentofanearlier,farmoreextensiveHekhalottext.Indeed,oneoftheHekhalottextsisdevotedtoRabbiAkiba'sascentintoParadise,butinthisaccount
makestheascentonhisown.105
Thissuggestsyetanotherreadingofthelegendofthefour:thattheonelegendsummarizesexistingmysticaltraditionslinkedtoeachofthefourrabbis,andthustheir
journeysintoParadisemayhavebeenseparateones.Afterall,thetalmudiclegenddoesnotsaythatthefourembarkedonthejourneyatthesametime,onlythat
theyengagedinsomekindofmysticalcontemplationlinkedtoaheavenlyjourneyatsometime,andnotnecessarilyallatonce.
Itisalsopossibletoreadtherabbinicattitude,representingTalmudTorah,towardthedangersposedbyaheavenlyascent,inthatonlyoneoffourofthegreatest
sagessurvivedit.Theotherapproaches,oftheMysteriesofCreationandoftheChariot,areconsideredtoorisky.ThatoftheGnosticisbeyondthepale,intherealm
oftheheretical.Fencesaredrawnaroundthedangersofmysticalcontemplation.
Whilemysticalascentisonemethodofbringingthelivingintocontactwiththeheavenlyrealm,dreamsarethemostcommonmediumbywhichspiritscommunicate
withthelivingandbywhichthesoulsofthelivingareabletowanderfromworldtoworld.And,ofcourse,thistraditionofdreamsgoesallthewaybacktotheBible,
tothedreamsassociatedwithJacobandJoseph.Itisonemoreexampleofhowthepatternsestablishedintheearliesttexts,especiallytheTorah,arerepeatedinnew
variationsinlaterphasesofJewishliterature.Nomatterwhattheirsource,sacredorsecular,thesetalesplacegreatemphasisonthedreamasadoorwaytothe
spiritualrealm,whichmaytaketheformofoneoftherealmsofParadise,theGardenofEden,theHolyLand,orevenanenchantedcave.Inonetale,"The
HandwritingoftheMessiah,"106RabbiHayimVitaldreamsthathismaster,theAri,returnsfromthedeadandbringshimamessagefromtheMessiah.Inanother,
"TheSwordoftheMessiah,"107arabbiascendsinadreamtothepalaceoftheMessiah.Andin"TheCaveofMattathias,"108ahasidtrappedinasnowstormlights
theHanukkahoilhehasbroughtwithhimanddreamsofmeetingthefatheroftheMaccabeesinacaveintheHolyLand.
ThedistinctionbetweensacredandseculartalesinpostbiblicalJewishliteratureisdifficulttomakebecauseofthecloseinteractionbetweentherabbiniccircleslinked
tothesacredliteraturesandthecommonfolk.Ingeneral,therabbinicsourcesofferlegendsandtalesasexempla,fortheirallegoricalmeaningandmoralintent,
withoutplacingundoemphasison

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thenarrative.Beginninginthe16thcenturyinConstantinople,however,collectionsofJewishfolklorewerepublishedthatwerenotconsideredtobesacredtexts,and
thestoriesinthesecollectionsplaceconsiderableemphasisonnarrativeembellishment,whilethelinktothesacredtextisatleastonceremoved.
Itistruethatmanyofthesefolktaleshavetheirorigininoneofthesacredsources,oftentheTalmud,whoseloreistheprimarysourceandmodelforallsubsequent
Jewishliterature.ButthethemesthatareemphasizeddrawfromthefolkelementslinkedtotheserabbinicmodelsthemagicalpowersoftheNameencounterswith
angels,spirits,anddemonsvariouskindsofquests,andsimilarfolkmotifs.
Tosomeextent,themysticalfolktaleforthereissuchataletypemirrorsthefolkunderstandingofthecomplexkabbalisticmythology.Onlycertainaspectsof
theseesotericrabbinictheoriesbecameapartofthefolktradition.TheseincludethegreatkabbalisticemphasisonthepotencyofthelettersoftheHebrewalphabet.
Thustalesfocusingonletters,numbers,andholynames,especiallyontheTetragrammaton,God'smostsacredName,areoftenfound.However,thefolkinfluenceis
notlimitedtothesetaletypes,forsomeofthemysticalthemesarecloselyassociatedwiththemesofgreatfolkpopularity,suchasvisitstotheGardenofEden,
encounterswithoneoftheThirtySixHiddenSaints,oraccountsofangels,demons,andwanderingspirits.Certainlythefactthatthemysticaltalecanalsobefoundin
medievalJewishfolklore,aswellasinallofthesacredsources,confirmsitasaprimarytypeofJewishtale.
Indeed,itbecomesapparentthatdespitethefactthatthesetalescoveraperiodoftwothousandyears,andrangefromEasternEuropetotheMiddleEast,they
belongtothesamegenreofJewishmysticaltales.Theyarelinkedbythemysticalthemestheyhaveincommon,aswellasbythelatermasterswhofoundtheirmodels
intheearlierones.Kabbalahmeanstradition,andthemanneroftransmissionoftheseesotericmysteriesisachainlinkingonemysticalmastertothenext,whetheror
nottheylivedatthesametime.ThustheAriconsidershimselftobeadiscipleofRabbiShimonbarYohai,wholivedmorethanathousandyearsearlier.Sotoodoes
theBaalShemTovregardtheAriashismodel,whileRebNachmanofBratslavfoundhismodelinhisgreatgrandfather,theBaalShemTov.Asachild,Reb
NachmanspentmanyhourslayingonthegraveoftheBaalShemTov,communingwithhim.Sotooisthechainofgenerationsdemonstratedinmidrashiclegendssuch
asthatof"TheTzohar,"109whichlinksthegenerationsfromAdamtoSethtoEnochtoMethuselahtoLamechtoNoahtoAbrahamandtheotherpatriarchs,andso
on,downthroughthegenerations.TheglowingjeweloftheTzoharitself,containingtheprimordiallight,symbolizestheJewishmysticaltradition.JustastheTzohar
hasbeenhandeddownineachgeneration,sodothegenerationsperpetuatethischainoftraditionbytransmittingtheancientandarcanesecretsoftheKabbalah.

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Aboveall,thesetalesserveasexamplesofhowamysticallifecanbelived.Itisnecessarytoenteraworldofsignsandsymbols,whereeverythingthattakesplace
hasmeaning,aworldofmythicproportionsinwhichtheforcesofgoodandevilareengagedinacontinualstruggle.Itisaworldinwhichthespiritsofthedeadareno
longerinvisible,noraretheangels.AndaheavyresponsibilityhangsonthemasterandhisdisciplestorepairtheworldinordertomakeitpossibleforGodandHis
Bridetobebroughtbacktogether,forthebrokenvesselstoberestored,andfortheMessiahtobefreedfromthechainsthathaveheldHimbackforsolong.These
talesillustratethissacred,mythicalworldandpreservethelegendsofthegreatestJewishmystics.

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Nine
TheQuestfortheLostPrincess
TransitionandChangeinJewishLore
I
TheQuestfortheLostPrincess
EveryoneinIsraelisoccupiedwiththesearchforthelostprincess.
RabbiNathanofNemirov
ItissaidthatRabbiIsaacLuriahadgreatmysticalpowers.Bylookingataman'sforeheadhecouldreadthehistoryofhissoul.Hecouldoverheartheangelsandknewthe
languageofthebirds.Hecouldpointoutastoneinawallandrevealwhosesoulwastrappedinit.Sotoowasheabletodivinethefuture,andhealwaysknewfromYomKippur
whoamonghisdiscipleswasdestinedtoliveordie.Thisknowledgeherarelydisclosed,butonce,whenhelearnedtherewasawaytoavertthedecree,hemadeanexception.
SummoningRabbiAbrahamBeruchim,hesaid:"Knowthataheavenlyvoicehasgoneforthtoannouncethatthiswillbeyourlastyearamongusunlessyoudowhatis
necessarytoabolishthedecree."
"WhatmustIdo?"askedRabbiAbraham.
"Know,then,"saidtheAri,"thatyouronlyhopeistogototheWailingWallinJerusalemandtherepraywithallyourheartbeforeGod.Andifyouaredeemedworthyyouwill
haveavisionoftheShekhinah,theDivinePresence.ThatwillmeanthatthedecreehasbeenavertedandyournamewillbeinscribedintheBookofLifeafterall."
RabbiAbrahamthankedtheAriwithallhisheartandlefttoprepareforthejourney.Firstheshuthimselfinhishouseforthreedaysandnights,wearingsackclothandashes,and
fastedthewholetime.Then,althoughhe

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couldhavegonebywagonorbydonkey,hechosetowalktoJerusalem.AndbythetimeRabbiAbrahamreachedJerusalem,hefeltasifhewerefloating,asifhissoulhad
ascendedfromhisbody.AndwhenhereachedtheWailingWall,thelastremnantofSolomon'sTemple,RabbiAbrahamhadavisionthere.Outofthewallcameanoldwoman,
dressedinblack,deepinmourning.AndRabbiAbrahamsuddenlyrealizedhowdeepwasthegriefoftheShekhinahoverthedestructionoftheTempleandthescatteringofher
children,Israel,allovertheworld.Andhebecamepossessedofagriefasdeepastheocean,fargreaterthanhehadeverknown.Itwasthegriefofamotherwhohaslostachild
thegriefofHannah,afterlosinghersevensonsthegriefoftheBrideoverthesufferingofherchildren,scatteredtoeverycorneroftheearth.
AtthatmomentRabbiAbrahamfelltothegroundinafaint,andhehadavision.InthevisionhesawtheShekhinahoncemore,butthistimehesawherdressedinherrobewoven
outoflight,moremagnificentthanthesettingsun,andherjoyfulcountenancewasrevealed.Wavesoflightarosefromherface,anaurathatseemedtoreachoutandsurround
him,asifhewerecradledinthearmsoftheSabbathQueen."Donotgrieveso,mysonAbraham,"shesaid."Knowthatmyexilewillcometoanend,andmyinheritancewillnot
gotowaste.Andforyou,myson,thereshallbeagreatmanyblessings."
JustthenRabbiAbraham'ssoulreturnedtohimfromitsjourneyonhigh.Heawokerefreshed,asifhehadshedyearsofgrief,andhewasfilledwithhope.
WhenRabbiAbrahamreturnedtoSafedhewasanewman,andwhentheArisawhim,hesaidatonce:"IcanseethatyouhavebeenfoundworthytoseetheShekhinah,andyou
canrestassuredthatyouwillliveforanothertwentytwoyears.Knowthateachyearwillbetheblessingofanotherletterofthealphabet,forthelightoftheDivinePresence
shinesforththrougheveryletter.Andyou,whohavestoodfacetofacewiththeShekhinah,willrecognizethatlightineveryletterofeveryword."
SoitwasthatRabbiAbrahamdidliveforanothertwentytwoyears,yearsfilledwithabundance.Andallwhosawhimrecognizedtheaurathatshonefromhisface,forthelightof
theDivinePresencealwaysreflectedfromhiseyes.1

Thistale,"AVisionattheWailingWall,"derivesfromthecityofSafedinthe16thcentury.ItisoneofacycleoftalesaboutthegreatJewishmysticRabbiIsaac
Luria.TheAriperceivesthatoneofhisdisciplesfacesamidlifetransitionandsendshimonajourneytowholeness,aquesttotheWesternWall,thelastremaining
walloftheTempleinJerusalem,topleadmercyfromtheShekhinah,whoisidentifiedintheKabbalahastheBrideofGod.ThereRabbiAbrahamhasavisionofthe
Shekhinah,inwhichhefirstseesherasanoldwomanwhoemergesfromthewall"dressedinblack,deepin

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mourning.''SoonafterthishefaintsandhasavisionoftheShekhinahasacelestialbride.
CentraltounderstandingthismysticaltaleistheconceptoftheShekhinah.ThetermisfirstfoundintheTalmud,codifiedinthe5thcentury,whereitreferstothe
DivinePresence,thatis,thepresenceofGodintheworld.Itislinked,inparticular,tothesacredqualityoftheSabbath.Butbythe16thcenturythemeaningofthe
term"Shekhinah"hadevolvedconsiderably.ItcametobeidentifiedwiththefeminineaspectoftheDivinityandtookonmythicindependence.Mythscanbefoundin
theZoharandotherkabbalistictextsthatportraytheShekhinahastheBrideofGodandSabbathQueenwhooncemadeherhomeintheTempleinJerusalemand
later,whentheTemplewasdestroyed,wentintoexilewithherchildren,Israel.AtthispointthemythicfigureoftheShekhinahbecomesentirelyindependentofthe
divinityandtakesonaseparateidentity.NorwillherexileenduntiltheTemplehasbeenrebuilt,whichJewishlegendlinkswiththecomingoftheMessiah,sincethe
rebuildingoftheTempleissaidtobeoneofthemiraclesthatwilloccurinthemessianicera.
ThetwoappearancesoftheShekhinahthatRabbiAbrahamenvisionsattheWall,thatoftheoldwomaninmourningandofthebrideinwhite,arethetwoprimary
aspectsassociatedwithher:sheappearsasabrideorqueenorlostprincessinsometextsandtalesandasanoldwomanmourningoverthedestructionoftheTemple
inothers.In"AVisionattheWailingWall"sheappearsinbothforms,signifyingthathisencounterwithheriscomplete.
Fromourperspective,theShekhinahcanberecognizedasbothamythicandarchetypalfemininefigure,veryclosetothepurestvisionofJung'sconceptofthe
anima,thesymbolicfeminineaspectofeveryman.In"TheVisionattheWailingWall"theArirecognizesthatifRabbiAbrahamcontinuesonhispresentpath,heis
goingtoshortlymeethisdeath.Thatistosay,hislifehasreachedadangeroustransition,andinordertosurviveit,hemustundertakeanextraordinarytask.Therefore
theArisendshimonaquesttofindtheShekhinahinthelogicalplacewhereshecouldbefoundtheWailingWall,theremnantofherformerhome.RabbiAbraham
encountershertherebothasagrievingoldwomanandasaradiantbride,andafterwardheisanewman,whothroughthisvisionaryexperiencehasrediscoveredhis
lostanimaandreintegratedhisfeminineside.Thatiswhyheisabletoliveforanothertwentytwoyears,oneyearforeachletteroftheHebrewalphabet,representing
awholenewcycleofhislife.
Thereismuchtolearnfromthistaleabouthowtoreadrabbinictalestodiscoverthepsychictruthsatthecoreofthem.First,however,itisnecessarytolearnhowto
interprettheirsymboliclanguage.IdentifyingtheShekhinahwiththeanimaisthefirststeptowardtranslatingthislanguageintoanarchetypalframework.

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ThenextstepistorecognizethatthequestofRabbiAbrahamisprimarilyaninnerone.Afterall,astheArimakesverycleartohim,hemustsavehimself.Allthe
actionsheundertakes,fromwearingsackclothandmourningtowalkingtoJerusalem,aremysticaltechniquesintendedtoputhiminaproperstateofmindtoreceive
thevisionattheWailingWall.InthissenseRabbiAbrahammightbeseenasnotonlypreparinghimselfforthevision,butofinducingitaswell.OrtheAricanbeseen
ashavingplantedtheseedofthevisionwhenhesenthimonthequest.Thisquestanditscorrespondingvision,althoughexpressedintermsofreligioussymbolism,is
essentiallyanexplorationoftheworldwithin.
Indeed,thefolkstructurethatbestexpressestheessenceoftransitionisthatofthequest,representingtheinnerjourneythatmustbetakenbeforethetransitioncanbe
completed.Itisnoaccidentthatasmanyashalfofallfairytalesarequesttales,wherethequestrepresentsjustsuchapsychictransition.Thisistrue,inparticular,of
Jewishfairytales,sincethemotifofexileisoneofthedominantthemesofJudaism,echoedinthebiblicalaccountsoftheexpulsionfromtheGardenofEdenandthe
ExodusfromEgypt,aswellasintheBabylonianexilethatfollowedthedestructionoftheTemple,andtheexpulsionfromSpainin1492.
ThemostpopularthemeinallofJewishfolkloreisthequest.ThereareamultitudeofJewishfairytalequestsforlostqueensorprincesses,anapplefromtheTreeof
Lifeoracityofimmortals,whileholyquestsforthepalacesofheaven,thecityofJerusalem,theBrideofGod,orthegoldendoveoftheMessiahareamongthemost
prominentthemesofJewishmysticallore.OfalltheJewishquesttales,themostsignificantisalmostcertainlyRabbiNachmanofBratslav's"TheLostPrincess,"2
whichconcernsaquesttofindaprincesswhomthedisciplesofRabbiNachmanreadilyidentifyastheShekhinah.Morethananyothertale,"TheLostPrincess"
presentsthemythoftheShekhinahinfairytaletermsthatmakeituniversallyrecognizable.
RabbiNachmanofBratslavholdsauniqueplaceinJewishlore.ThegreatgrandsonoftheBaalShemTov,heiswidelyacclaimedasthegreatestJewishstorytellerof
alltime."TheLostPrincess"wasthefirsttalehetoldtohishasidimwhenhebegantotellstories.Inall,hetoldthirteenprimarytalesandafewdozenotherscattered
tales.
Onthesurface"TheLostPrincess"appearstobeaconventionalfairytale,andassuchitisacompellingone.Butitwasactuallyintendedtoserveasanallegoryofa
primaryJewishmyth,thatoftheexileoftheShekhinah.ItwasRabbiNachman'smethodtodisguisehismythic,kabbalistictalesintheformofintricatefairytales,with
manytaleswithintales,aboutkingsandqueens,princesandprincesses.Hehintedthathedidthisinordertoconcealthemysteriesrevealedinthesetales.Hishasidim
knewhowtoexplorethesemysteriesbyexaminingtheirsymbolismandtranslatingittotheappropriatemysticaldoctrine.

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This,inbrief,isthetaleof"TheLostPrincess":
Thereoncewasakingwhohadsixsonsandonedaughter.Hisdaughterwasespeciallydeartohim,butonedayhebecameangrywithherandsaid,"GototheDevil!"andthe
nextdayshewasgone.
Theheartbrokenkingthensenthismostloyalministeronaquesttofindher,givinghimallthathemightneedtoaccomplishthequest,includingaservant.Theministersearched
everywhereintheworldbutfailedtofindtheprincess.Atlasthecametoaremotepalacewherehediscoveredher,andhemanagedtotalktoher.Shetoldhimthatshewasbeing
heldcaptiveinthepalaceoftheEvilOne,whotookherwhenthekingsenthertohim,andthatinordertosetherfree,theministermustlongforherreleaseforayear,andatthe
endofthatyear,fastforoneday,neithereatingnordrinking,andthenshewouldbeabletoreturntoherfather,theking.
Theministerremainedthereforayear,longingforherfreedom,butonthelastday,whenhewassupposedtobefasting,hesawanappleonatreethatwassoappealingthathe
pickedandateit.Afterthishefellasleepandsleptforseventyyears.Whenatlastheawoke,hisservanttoldhimofhislongsleep.Then,heartbroken,hereturnedtothelost
princess,whotoldhimtorepeattheyearoflonging,butthistimehewaspermittedtoeatbutnottodrinkonthelastday.Herepeatedtheyearlongvigil,butonthelastday
hesawthatthewatersofafamiliarspringhadturnedred,andhecouldnotresisttastingthem.Theyturnedouttobeadeliciouswine,andhedrankhisfillandonceagainfell
asleep.
Thistime,whilehewassleeping,theprincessleftthepalaceoftheEvilOneandrodepasthiminacarriage.Shegotoutofthecarriageandtriedtowakehim,butwhenshecould
not,sheweptintoherscarfandleftitwithhim.Whenhefinallyawokeseventyyearslater,hisloyalservanttoldhimallthathadtakenplaceandshowedhimthescarf.Heheldit
uptothesunanddiscoveredthatthetearsofthelostprincesshadwrittenamessageonthescarf,inwhichshetoldhimthathenceforthshecouldbefoundinapalaceofpearls
onagoldenmountain.
Soitwasthattheheartbrokenministersetoutonasecondquest,whichturnedouttobefarmorearduousthanthefirst,becausenoonehemethadeverheardofapalaceof
pearlsonagoldenmountain.Hesearchedformanyyears,andhisquestbroughthimatlasttoagreatdesertwhereheencounteredthreegiantsoneinchargeoftheanimals,one
inchargeofthebirds,andoneinchargeofthewindsallofwhomwerebrothers.Eachofthegiantscarriedagianttreeasastaff.Thesegiantscalledtogethertheanimals,the
birds,andthewinds,butnonehadheardofthepalaceofpearls.Atlastalatewindarrived,andwhenrebukedbythegiantforbeinglate,itexplainedthatithadbeencarryinga
princesstothatverypalaceofpearls.
Thegiantthengavetheministeranenchantedbagwithanendlesssupplyofgoldandorderedthewindtobringhimtothefootofthegoldenmoun

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tain.Therethestoryends,withRabbiNachman'sassurancethateventuallytheministerdidfreetheprincess,althoughhedoesnotrevealhowthistookplace.

Thisappearsinallrespectstobeacharacteristicfairytale,withaking,alostprincess,aquest,threegiants,andanenchantedpalace.Assuch,itcanbeinterpreted
fromaJungianperspectiveasauniversalfairytale,wherethequestforthelostprincesscanreadilyberecognizedasaninnerjourney.ThisisalsotheessentialJewish
meaningofthetale,whenthesymbolsinitaretranslatedintotheirJewishequivalents.
SuchaninterpretationcanbefoundintheBratslavercommentarieson"TheLostPrincess,"forthistaleandtheothersthatRabbiNachmantoldwereexaminedbyhis
hasidimwiththekindofintensescrutinyreservedforthesacredtexts.Itwasanarticleoffaithwiththemthathisstoriescouldbestbeunderstoodallegorically,and
indeed"TheLostPrincess"lendsitselftosuchaninterpretation.Thekeyisthekingwhohassixsonsandonedaughter.ThekingiseasilyrecognizableasGod,whois
traditionallyrepresentedasakinginamultitudeofrabbinicparables.Thesixsonsandonedaughtercanbereadilyidentifiedasthesixdaysoftheweekandthe
Sabbath.AndtheidentificationoftheSabbathwithaprincessnaturallyevokestheSabbathQueen,whichisoneoftheprimaryidentitiesoftheShekhinah.
TheapplethattheministerpicksrecallstheforbiddenfruitoftheGardenofEden,andineatingitonthefinalfastday,herepeatsthesinoftheFallandmustwaitfor
anothergeneration,symbolizedbytheseventyyearshesleeps.Indeed,thestagesofthestorycanbeseentorepresentthebiblicalchronology.Theprincessislinked
tothesevendaysofCreation.TheepisodeoftheGardenofEdenisechoedbytheeatingoftheapple.Theepisodeofthewaterturningintowinecanbelinkedwith
thestoryoftheFloodandthesinofNoahinbecomingdrunk.Also,thethreegiantsthattheministerencountersinthedesertcanbeidentifiedasthethreetowering
patriarchs,Abraham,Isaac,andJacob,whilethetreestheyuseasstaffscanbeidentifiedwiththeTorah,asinthepassage,It[theTorah]isaTreeofLifetothose
whoclingtoit(Prov.3:18).Sotoodoestheminister'ssearchforthepalaceofpearlsrepeattheIsraelites'searchoftheHolyLand.Asforthescarfwiththewords
writtenbythetearsofthelostprincess,itrepresentsthesacredwritingsoftheTorah.Thesesymbolicparallelstothebiblicalchronologydemonstratethat"TheLost
Princess"canalsobeunderstoodasreflectingthecollectiveJewishexperience,relivingthearchetypalexperiencesrepresentedinthesekeybiblicalepisodes.That
suchacollectiveinterpretationofthetextwasintendedisfoundintheHaggadahforPassover,whereitisstatedthat"ineverygenerationeachpersonmustregard
himselfasifhehimselfwentforthoutofEgypt."
Sotoocanthisseminalstorybeunderstoodonthelevelofpersonalinnerexperience.Oncethelinkhasbeenperceivedbetweenthelostprin

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cessandtheShekhinah,theallegoricalmeaningofRabbiNachman'stalerevealsitselfasafairytaleretellingofthemythoftheexileoftheShekhinah.Theking's
angrywords,whichresultinthedisappearanceoftheprincess,areequivalenttothedestructionoftheTempleinJerusalemandthesubsequentexileofboththe
ShekhinahandtheChildrenofIsrael.Atthesametime,theyareequivalenttotheexpulsionfromtheGardenofEden,thewanderinginthewilderness,andother
variationsonthemythofexile,whichisanotheroftheprimaryJewishmyths.
ThusthefigureofthelostprincessinRabbiNachman'stalecanberecognizedasananimafigure.Assuch,sherepresents,inpersonalterms,acrucialmissingelement
inthepsychicequation,whichtheministerseekstorestoreinhisquest.IncollectivetermstheexileoftheShekhinahcanbeseenasapsychicdislocationofthe
JewishnationbroughtaboutbytheirexilefromthePromisedLand.
RabbiNathanofNemirov,RabbiNachman'sscribe,confirmstheidentificationofthelostprincesswiththeShekhinahintheintroductiontoSippureMa'asiyot,
RabbiNachman'sprimaryvolumeofhistales:3
Behold,thestoryoftheprincesswhoislostisthemysteryoftheShekhinahinexile....Andthisstoryisabouteverymanineverytime,forthisentirestoryoccurstoeveryman
individually,foreveryoneofIsraelmustoccupyhimselfwiththistikkun(actofredemptionorrestoration),namelytoraiseuptheShekhinahfromherexile,toraiseherupfromthe
dust,andtoliberatetheHolyKingdomfromamongtheidolatersandtheOtherSideamongwhomshehasbeencaught....ThusonefindsthateveryoneinIsraelisoccupiedwith
thesearchforthelostprincess,totakeherbacktoherfather,forIsraelasawholehasthecharacteroftheministerwhosearchesforher.

ThesignificanceofRabbiNathan'scommentthat"everyoneinIsraelisoccupiedwiththesearchforthelostprincess"shouldnotbemissed.Hereistheclearest
statementindicatingthattheprocessofsearchingforthelostprincess,whoisidentifiedwiththeShekhinahandthuswiththeanima,isaninnerone.Wemustmarvel
atthepsychologicalinsightofRabbiNachmanandRabbiNathan.ItisclearfromRabbiNathan'sstatementthatRabbiNachman'staleispresumedtobeallegorical.
Thustherecognitionofacomplexsymbolsystemisnotonlylinkedtoamysticaltheologybuttoaninnerquestthat"everyoneofIsraelisoccupiedwith."
Therearethreestrongpossibilitiesfortheidentityoftheloyalminister:Theministercanbeidentifiedwiththetzaddik,therighteousone,whomustsearchandfindthe
lostprincessandbringherbacktothekingor,symbolically,toGod.OrtheministercanbeidentifiedwiththenationofIsraelwhosetaskitistosearchforthelost
princess,ortheShekhinah,inherexile.OrtheministercanbeidentifiedwiththeMessiah,andherethelinkageseemsquitenatural,forkabbalisticmythholdsthatthe
exileofthe

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ShekhinahwillnotenduntiltheTempleisrebuilt,whichisnotdestinedtotakeplaceuntiltheadventoftheMessiah.Andthereason"TheLostPrincess"isleft
unfinishedisbecausetheMessiahhasnotyetcome.
Allthreeoftheseinterpretationsoftheroleoftheministerseemquiteaccurate,andeachpermitsthetaletobeseenfromanotherimportantperspective.Whenthe
ministerisseenasthenationofIsrael,theresponsibilityforfindingthelostprincessrestsoneveryJew,andtheimportanceofthisdoctrinetoeachindividualis
emphasized.Whentheministerisviewedasatzaddik,thekeyroleofthetzaddikinbringingaboutthereunionofShekhinahandMessiahisunderscored.Andby
identifyingtheministerwiththeMessiahwecanrecognizethatRabbiNachmanhascombinedtwoprimaryJewishmyths,thatoftheShekhinahandthatofthe
Messiah,intoonemythicfairytale,thusdemonstratingtheirinterdependence.Norisitnecessarytonarrowtheseinterpretationstoone.Oneofthebeautifulthings
abouttheprocessofcommentaryinJewishtextsisthatmultiplereadingsarenotonlypermitted,butencouraged.Thereforewecaneasilyacceptthelegitimacyofall
threeinterpretations.
AsfortheJungiansymbolismofthecomingoftheMessiah,itcanbeidentifiedwiththeindividual'sprocessofpsychicgrowththeindividuationprocess.Justas
individuationisanongoingprocess,sotooisthewaitingfortheMessiah,asisindicatedinthetwelfthoftheThirteenPrinciplesofMaimonides,fromhisCommentary
ontheMishnah:"IfirmlybelieveinthecomingoftheMessiah,andalthoughhemaytarry,Idailywaitforhiscoming."Thusthemessianiceraistheculminationofthe
seriesoftransitionsthatconstitutethehistoryoftheJewishpeopleandrepresentsatimewhenthejourneysoftheindividualandthecollectivewilleachbeajourneyto
wholeness.WenotealsothatboththeShekhinahandtheMessiahareinexile,andthereforetheyhavetobefoundandbroughtintoconsciousness.Atthesametime,
thearrivalofthemessianicerawillbetheequivalentofareturntotheGardenofEdensinceitinvolvesareturntoaprelapsariancondition.Therefore,arrivingatthe
messianicerarepresentsafullreturntothebeginning,themeaningoftheHebrewtermteshuvah,whichmeansboth"return"and"repentance."Suchareturncanalso
beviewedasareturntotheprimordialstateweexperiencedatthebeginningofourlives,whichisrepresentedbytheGardenofEden.
Forthemostpart,themythsconcerningtheShekhinahandtheMessiahareseparate,buttheyconvergeatthesameconclusion,whichistheEndofDays.Foroneof
theconsequencesofthecomingoftheMessiahwillbeamiraculousrecreationoftheTemple,exactlyasitwas.ThereforethecomingoftheMessiahisessentialto
endingtheexileoftheShekhinah,andthetwomythsareeternallyboundtogether.
ThereisanotherhasidictalethatdrawsonthethemesoftheShekhinahandtheMessiah.Thisis"TheSabbathGuests,"ataleofRabbiEizikofKallo,afamous
Hungarianhasidicmaster.

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TwotravelinghasidimarrivedinthecityofKalloontheeveoftheSabbathandsoughtoutthehospitalityoftheRabbiofKallo,aboutwhomtheyhadheardsomuch.Taleswere
toldofhismiraclesthroughoutHungary,andthevisitinghasidimgreatlyanticipatedspendingtheSabbathinhiscompany.
SooneveryonehadgatheredtogethertocelebratetheSabbath,andalllookedtowardthetzaddikofKalloforthesignaltowelcometheSabbathQueen.Butthetzaddikdidnot
stir.Notasinglemusclemoved.Everyeyeremaineduponhim,yetheseemeddetached,indeepconcentration.
Thevisitinghasidimwerestartledatsuchbehavior,fornooneeverdelayedthebeginningoftheSabbathforevenaninstant.Coulditbethattherabbihadlosttrackoftime?
Allatoncetherewasaknockingatthedoor,andwhenitwasopenedacouplecamein.Theyoungmanwasdressedinawhiterobe,aswasworninthecityofSafed.Theyoung
woman,whowasalsowearingwhite,washauntinglybeautiful,withverydarkeyes,herheadcoveredwithawhitescarf.Thetzaddikrose,atthesametimesignalingforthe
Sabbathtobegin.TheHasidimbegansingingLekhaDodi,thesongthatwelcomestheSabbathQueen,astheRabbiofKallowenttomeethisguests.Hetreatedthemwithevery
kindness,payingasmuchattentiontothewomanastotheman.Thiswastoomuchforthevisitinghasidim,buttheywereguests,andtherewasnothingtheycoulddo.
AfterthemealtheRabbiofKalloroseandsaid,"Thiscouplehascomeheretobewedthisday.AndIhaveagreedtomarrythem."Nowthesewordswereadeepshocktothe
visitinghasidim,forweddingsareforbiddenontheSabbath.Andtheybeganrecitingpsalmstothemselves,toprotectthemselvesfromthedesecrationoftheSabbath.Atthat
momenttheRabbiofKalloturnedtothetwohasidimandaddressedthem.Hesaid,"Ofcourse,theconsentofeveryonepresentisnecessary,iftheweddingistobeperformed.
Pleasetellusifwemayhaveyourconsent?"Andtherewasalmostapleadingtoneinhisvoice.
Nowitisonethingtowitnesssuchadesecration,andquiteanothertoperformone.Butthetwohasidimdidnotdareturnthetzaddikdown.Insteadtheyeachdroppedtheireyes
andcontinuedrecitingpsalms,andagreatfearwasintheirhearts.
Atlast,whentheyraisedtheireyes,theysawthatthecouplewasgone.TheRabbiofKallowasslumpedinhischair.Foralongtimetherewassilence.Atlasttherabbisaid,"Do
youknowwhotheywere?"Eachofthevisitinghasidimshookhisheadtosayno.Andtherabbisaid,"HewastheMessiah.ShewastheSabbathQueen.Forsomanyyearsof
exiletheyhavesoughteachother,andnowtheyweretogetheratlast,andtheywantedtobewed.And,aseveryoneknows,onthedayoftheirweddingourexilewillcometoan
end.Butthatispossibleonlyifeveryonegiveshisfullassent.Unfortunately,youdidnot,andtheweddingcouldnottakeplace."4

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InthistaleofRabbiEizikofKallo,theMessiahandtheShekhinaharriveunexpectedlyathishouseontheSabbathasacouplewhowishtowed.TheRabbiofKallo
recognizeswhotheyare,butthevisitinghasidimdonot,andbecauseoftheirblindness,theopportunitytobringthemessianiceraislost.JustasRabbiNachman'stale
of"TheLostPrincess"linksthemythsoftheShekhinahandtheMessiah,sodoesthistaleidentifythepairasabrideandgroom,suggestingthattheirunionwould
heraldtheEndofDays,therabbinicvisionofthemessianicera.Inasense,thistaleofRabbiEizikmakestheconvergenceofthetwomythsoftheShekhinahandthe
Messiahcomplete,assymbolizedbytheirdesireforunion.Suchmythicfusioniscommonandoftenresultsinthecreationofanewmyth.
FromaJungianperspective,thistaleseemstoadvocatethefusionofthemaleandfemale"innerbeings,"asrepresentedbytheShekhinahandtheMessiah.Sucha
unioncanbeviewedasthefullintegrationofthemaleandfemalearchetypalfiguresandasymbolofpsychicwholeness.Unfortunately,thetaletellsus,themarriage
hasnottakenplacebecauseyou,thevisitortotherealmoftheunconscious,haven'tgivenyourapprovalforit.Thustheconclusionofthestorycanbeinterpretedasif
itwereadream,reportingthepresentstateofpsychicbalance.Fromthisperspectivethestoryreportsalostopportunityforpsychicunity,whilefromthetraditional
perspectiveitisataleofwhytheMessiahhasnotyetcome.SuchstoriesexplainhowthereareopportunitiesineverygenerationfortheMessiahtocome,ifsomething
doesnotgowrong.Andthereareamanysuchtales,forthelongingfortheMessiahisverygreat.
ThatthequestofunitingtheShekhinahandMessiahisprimarilyaninneroneiswellillustratedbytheconceptoftikkun,meaning"redemption"or"restoration."Thisis
theverytermthatRabbiNathan,RabbiNachman'sscribe,linkstotheexileoftheShekhinahwhenhesaysthat"everyoneofIsraelmustoccupyhimselfwiththis
tikkun."Heretikkunisdirectlyunderstoodasaninternalprocessofhealingandrepair,anditisunderstoodthatittakesplaceonapersonallevelandacollectiveone
atthesametime.Thatiswhyitisknownastikkunolam,repairoftheworld.
Theconceptoftikkunisitselfthesubjectofavivid16thcenturymyth,whichwasthelastmajormythtobeaddedtoJewishtradition.Thismyth,createdbythesame
RabbiIsaacLuriawhosentRabbiAbrahamonhisfatefulquest,representsthecoreoftheAri'steachingsandhisgreatestgifttoJewishtradition.Itillustratesthe
Jewishvisionoftheveryprocessofrestorationandtransformation.Accordingtothiscosmologicalmyth,Godsentforthvesselsbearingaprimordiallightatthe
beginningoftime.Hadthesevesselsarrivedintact,theworldwouldhaveremainedinitsprelapsariancondition.Butsomehownooneknowswhythevessels
shatteredandscatteredtheirsparksthroughouttheworld,especiallyontheHolyLand.ThisisthefirststageoftheAri'scosmology,knownas"TheShatteringofthe
Vessels."ItisthesymbolicequivalentofothercosmiccatastrophessuchastheexpulsionfromEden,thedestructionoftheTemplein

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Jerusalem,andtheexpulsionoftheJewsfromSpainin1492,whichtookplacejustfortytwoyearsbeforetheAriwasborn.
Thesecondphaseanditistheexistenceofthissecondphasethatmakesthemythsoremarkableiscalled"GatheringtheSparks."Heretheobjectistocollectthe
fallensparksandraisethemup.Thisistheverydefinitionoftheprocessoftikkun,ofhealingaworldthathasbecomeunraveled.Theprocessofraisingupthe
scatteredsparksinvolvesthefirstexplanationandjustificationoftheritualrequirementsspecifiedintheTorah,knownasthemitzvot.Eachtimeoneofthemitzvotis
fulfilled,accordingtotheAri,scatteredsparksareraisedupandredeemed.Ultimately,whenenoughsparkshavebeengathered,thebrokenvesselswillberestored,
andthisisthesymbolicequivalentofthemessianicera.ThusthemythoftheAristatesunambiguouslythataperson'sdeedsservedirectlytotransformandrestorethe
world.Andatthesametime,ofcourse,thisprocessoftransformationoccurswithintheindividualaswell.ThustheAri'smythisahealingone,focusedonthe
processesofbreakingapartandrestoringtowholeness.
PerhapsthemostremarkableaspectoftheAri'smythishowit,too,combinestwoprimaryJewishmyths,thatofCreationandthatofthemessianicera,intoone.
Ratherthanpresentaviewoforiginalsin,asisfoundinCatholicism,theimperfectionsintheworldaremadethedirectresponsibilityofGod,removingmuchorallof
theblamefromthehumanrealm.SotooistheroleoftheJewsdefined:togatherthescatteredholysparksandraisethemup.Thismemorablemythspreadrapidly
throughouttheJewishworldandbroughtkabbalisticprinciplestotheJewishmassesforthefirsttime.TodayitremainsoneofthemosthauntingandrelevantofJewish
myths.
FromaJungianperspective,theshatteringofthevesselsmightbeidentifiedinindividualtermsastheequivalentofabreakdown.Itrepresentsabreakingthroughof
theunconsciousatatimeofpsychictransition.Onthecollectivelevel,theshatteringofthevesselsrepresentsatimeofupheaval,suchasthatresultinginthe
destructionoftheTempleinJerusalem,ortheexpulsionfromSpainin1492oranyofthedozensofcrisesinJewishhistory.Thegatheringofthesparksrepresents
theprocessofrestorationbothontheindividualandcollectivelevelsthatultimatelyachievesthekindofpsychicbalanceknownasindividuation.Andwenotethatthe
developmentalsequenceoftheAri'smythrequirestheshatteringtotakeplacebeforetherestorationcanbeachieved,indicatingthattheshatteringisanessential,as
wellasinevitable,phaseofthisprocess.
Inbothteachingsandtales,theprimaryroleofthemasterortzaddikistoguidehisdisciplesonthepathoftheTorah.ThemythoftheAridoesthis,explainingthat
followingthispathwillresultinpersonalandcosmicrestoration.AndinthetaleofRabbiAbraham,thematterisframedintermsofYomKippurandthelong
establishedtraditionthataperson'sfutureisdecidedonthatday,whilethequestonwhichtheArisendshimgrowsout

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ofthemythoftheexileoftheShekhinah.Asaresult,RabbiAbrahamsurvivesadifficultandcrucialtransitioninhislifeandemergesnotonlyrenewedbut,inavery
realsense,reborn.
Thusitcanbeseenthattherolesofthetzaddikandthetherapistareparallel.JustasthetzaddikbringshisdisciplestorecognizetheirpersonalconnectiontoJewish
myth,asinthestoryofRabbiAbraham'svisionattheWailingWall,thetherapisthelpsanindividualrecognizethatothersgothroughasimilarprocessandthatthe
stagesofpersonalexperiencethatleadtoindividuationtakeplaceinapersonal,aswellasuniversal,sphere.
InthetaleofRabbiAbraham,thetransitionheconfrontsisidentifiedasamatteroflifeanddeath,andthisisoftenthecase.Byputtingthetransitionintheseterms,we
caneasilyrecognizeitsimportance.Inmostofthesetalesthekeyeventstakeplaceduringtimesoftransition,involvemajorlifeeventssuchasbirth,marriage,and
death,andareoftenlinkedtooneoftheholydays.ThatiswhenJewsaremostsubjecttoDivinejudgment.
Judaism,ofcourse,offersamultitudeofritualsandceremoniestoeaseanddefinelifetransitions.Theceremonyofthebrit(circumcision)addsaneightdayoldboy
tothecommunityofIsraelbarandbatmitzvahserveasinitiationsintoadultlifeanelaborateweddingservice,followedbysevendaysofcelebratingtheSheva
Berakhot(sevenblessings),leavesacouplefeelingverymarriedandtheextensiveritualslinkedtodeath,beginningwiththoseofshivah(sevendaysofmourning),
shloshim(thirtydaysofmourning),andcontinuingwiththerecitingoftheKaddishforanelevenmonthperiod,havetheeffectofprovidingconsolationtotheones
whoaregrievingandameaningfulstructureatatimeofchaosintheirlives.
Atthesametime,Jewishtalesportrayatransitionprovokedbyatimeofdanger,ofeitherinnerorouterorigin,inwhichtheconventionalritualstructureisnotenough
andthepresenceofsomekindofguideisrequiredinordertosurvive.Thefigurewhothenmiraculouslyappearsisusuallyidentifiedwithoneofthepatriarchsor
prophets,especiallyElijah,whooftenappearsinatimeofdireneed.Furthermore,thekindofsurvivalindicatedinthesetalesoftenrequiresradicaltransformationof
theselfinordertoachievethepsychicbalancefoundinindividuation.
Agoodexampleofsuchataleis"AKissfromtheMaster,"collectedinIsraelbytheIsraelFolktaleArchives:5
DuringthedayswhentheshrineofRabbiShimonbarYohaiwasstillopen,thewisemenofSafedwouldenteritonLagbaOmer.OncearichmanwhowasvisitinginSafedonthe
eveofLagbaOmerwasinvitedbyhishosttovisitRabbiShimon'sgraveinMeron.Whenhearrived,hesawthatthesagesweresittinginsidetheshrine,rejoicing.Theyinvited
therichmantojointhem,andtheygavehimanhonorableplaceamongthem.
Then,oneatatime,theyreadpassagesfromtheZohar,aswastheir

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custom.Butwhentheguestreceivedthebook,hecouldnotreadtheAramaicinwhichitwaswritten,andhewasdeeplyashamed.
Aftertheyhadfinishedreading,everyonebuttherichmanreturnedtotheirtents.Butheremainedintheshrine,weepingbitterlyforhislackofknowledgeoftheTorah,untilat
lasthefellasleep.AndnosoonerdidhesleepthanhedreamedthatRabbiShimonbarYohaiappearedtohimandcomfortedhim,andbeforedepartinghekissedhimonthemouth.
Andthatiswhentherichmanwokeup.
Fromthemomentheopenedhiseyes,therichmanfeltasifanewspiritwerewithinhim.HepickedupthebookoftheZoharandopenedittothefirstpage.Therehefound,much
tohisamazement,thathecouldnowreadtheletters.Notonlythat,butthetruemeaningofeveryletterroseupinhisvision,forthespiritofRabbiShimonhadfusedwithhissoul.
InthiswayhiseyeswereopenedtothehiddenmeaningsoftheTorahanditsmysterieswererevealedtohim.
Latertheothersreturnedtotheshrine,andtheybegantodiscussadifficultpassageintheZoharthatnoneofthemcouldcomprehend.Thentherichmanspokeandexplained
thatpassagetothemasifitwereelementary,andtheireyeswereopenedtoitstruemeaning.Evenmore,theywereamazedathiswisdom,fortheyknewhecouldnotevenread
thelanguageandyetwhathesaidcouldonlycomefromamasteroftheTorah.
Thenthesagesdemandedthattherichmanexplainhowthistransformationhadtakenplace.AndtherichmanrevealedhisdreamaboutShimonbarYohai.Andwhenthesages
heardthisdream,theyunderstoodthatamiraclehadoccurredandthattherichmanhadbeenpossessedbyanibur,thespiritofagreatsagewhofuseshissoultothesoulof
anotherandinthiswaygivesitguidance.SotoodidtheyknowthatthissagecouldbenoneotherthanShimonbarYohai,sincethatwastheveryplacewherehewasburied.
AfterthattherichmanfoundthatallhehadtodotocallforththesoulofRabbiShimonwastoopenthebookoftheZohar.Thenhewouldbeabletounderstandthemysteriesof
theZoharasiftheywerethealephbet.Andinthedaysthatfollowed,thesagesinvitedhimtoremaininSafedandtobringhisfamilytojoinhim.Thishedid,andbeforelong
theymadehimtheheadofthekabbalistsofSafed,fortheyknewthathespokewiththewisdomofShimonbarYohai.

WhatthistalesuggestsisthatthespiritofRabbiShimonbarYohaireturnedintheformofanibbur,literallyanimpregnation,apositivekindofpossessioninwhichthe
soulofagreatsagewhohasdiedbindshisspirittooneofthelivinginordertoincreasethatperson'swisdomandfaith.Thisisincontrasttopossessionbyadybbuk,
whereamalevolentspirittakespossessionofoneoftheliving.HerethespiritofShimonbarYohaicomesinadreamtoamanuneducatedintheTorah.Thespirit
kisseshim,andafterwardthemandiscoversthathehasbecomeamasteroftheTorah,possessedwiththespiritofShimonBarYohai.

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Itischaracteristicofthesetalesthatpossessionbyanibburisnotpermanentbutistriggeredbysomething,suchasthestudyofaparticulartextorthewearingof
tefillin,thephylacterieswornbymenduringthemorningprayers.Thereisastory,forexample,aboutthetefillinofRabbiHayimbenAttar,whowasknownasthe
OrhaHayim.6 Thesewerepurchasedafterhisdeathbyawealthyman,whodiscoveredthatthespiritoftheOrhaHayimwouldemergewheneverheworethem,
givinghimaspiritualawarenessfarbeyondanythinghehadpreviouslyexperienced.Inbothofthesetales,thatofShimonbarYohaiandthatoftheOrhaHayim,the
ibburrepresentstheinnerbeingthatemergestoguideapersonthroughadifficulttimeoftransition.Thefactthatthepresenceoftheibburmustbetriggeredinsome
wayindicatesthatthepresenceofthisinnerbeingonlyemergeswhenitisrequiredbyinternalorexternalcircumstances.
OneofthemosttantalizingindicationsofthepresenceofanibburconcernsRabbiAbrahamIsaacKook.ItwaswellknownamongthefollowersofRavKookthata
greatchangehadcomeoverhimwhenhecametotheHolyLand.Sogreatwasthetransformationthatevenhishandwritingchanged,asifhehadbecomeadifferent
person.And,indeed,RavKookwasonceheardtosay:''IamthesoulofRebNachman."RavKook'sstatementisamysteriousone,whichsuggestsadirect
connectionbetweenthesoulsofthetwogreatrabbis.Aboveall,itdemonstrateshowgreatlyRavKookadmiredRebNachmanandhowstronglyheidentifiedwith
him.AmongthefollowersofRavKook,thisstatementwasunderstoodtomeanthatthesoulofRebNachmanhadcometoRavKookasanibburandthetwosouls
hadfused.This,then,explainsthechangesthatcameoverRavKookwhenhearrivedintheHolyLandandlinkshimtoRabbiNachman,whoselovefortheHoly
Landwaslegendary.Furthermore,RabbiNachmanregardedhisjourneytotheHolyLandasthecompletionofaqueststartedbyhisgreatgrandfather,theBaal
ShemTov,thefounderofhasidism.SoherewehaveaqueststartedinonegenerationbytheBaalShemTov,continuedinanotherbyRabbiNachman,andextended
intoyetanothergenerationbyRavKook.
Theconceptoftheibburhasbroadpsychologicalimplications.Apersonpossessedbyanibburhasbecometransformedthenewsoulhasfusedwiththeold.The
resultisasoulguidedbythespiritofasage,whichbringsbothwisdomandstrengthtoawaveringsoulfacingavirtualabyssthathastobecrossed.FromaJungian
perspective,themanhasactivatedthearchetypeoftheWiseOldManinhimself.Asaresultofthistransformation,hecannowreadinalanguagethatwasforeignto
him.Thismeansthathecannowcommunicatewiththatpartofhimselfwhosepreviousmessageswerenotreceived.Furthermore,hisabilitytocomprehendthetrue
meaningofthesemessagesisgreatlyenhanced.
TheZoharitself,thebookthatopenedtothismanbecauseofthepossessionoftheibbur,isthekeytextofKabbalah.ItcontainsmanytalesaboutRabbiShimonbar
Yohai,agreattalmudicsageofthe2ndcentury,whowas

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thereputedauthoroftheZoharuntilGershonmScholemandotherscholarsdemonstratedthattheprimaryauthorwasMosesdeLeon,wholivedinSpaininthe13th
century.AnyonewhohasspentanytimewiththeZoharwillconfirmthegreatdifficultyofitstext.Furthermore,thetextisaboveallasymbolicone,drawingonarich
kabbalisticmythology,andintheprocesstransformingthemeaningofmanyconceptsfromthewayinwhichtheywereunderstoodinearliersacredtexts.
Followingtheearlierdiscussionabouttheneedtolearntoreadthesymboliclanguageofthesetales,thisoneembodiesasolution,addressingtheveryissueoflearning
toreadaforeignlanguagebyfindingthesolutioninadream,amessagefromtheunconscioustotheconscious.ThedreamisthekeyvehicleinJewishtalesfor
messagestobedeliveredfromtheDivinerealmtoourown.SotoodoesthedreamofthemanintheshrinebringwithitthepoweroftheWiseOldManwholies
dormantuntilactivated,exactlyasdoestheibbur.BecausethenewsoulissocloselyidentifiedwithRabbiShimonbarYohai,themanwhoreceivesithasnodifficulty
acknowledgingitsinherentwisdom.Thusheisopentothewisdomultimatelyemanatingfromhisunconsciousself.Inanutshell,themessageofthetaleandthedream
canbesummedupasfollows:Theknowledgeandwisdomyouseekcanbefoundwithin.
Hereisanothertale,thisahasidicone,inwhichadreamguidesamantoapatriarchalfigure,whoprovidessalvation.Thistaleis"TheCaveofMattathias"anditwas
alsocollectedorallyinIsrael,demonstratingthecontinuedvitalityoftheoraltradition.ItisataleaboutahasidoftheRabbiofRiminov,asfollows:7
InavillagenearthecityofRiminovtherewasahasidwhosecustomitwastobringnewlymadeoiltoRabbiMenachemMendelofRiminov,andtherabbiwouldlightthefirst
candleofHanukkahinhispresence.
Oneyearthewinterwashard,thelandcoveredwithsnow,andeveryonewaslockedintheirhomes.ButwhentheeveofHanukkaharrived,thehasidwasstillplanningtodeliver
theoil.Hisfamilypleadedwithhimnottogo,buthewasdetermined,andintheendhesetoutacrossthedeepsnow.
ThatmorningheenteredtheforestthatseparatedhisvillagefromRiminov,andthemomenthediditbegantosnow.Thesnowfellsofastitsooncoveredeverylandmark,and
whenatlastitstopped,thehasidfoundthathewaslost.Thewholeworldwascoveredwithsnow.
Nowthehasidbegantoregretnotlisteningtohisfamily.Surelytherabbiwouldhaveforgivenhisabsence.Meanwhile,ithadbecomesocoldthathebegantofearhemight
freeze.Herealizedthatifheweretodiethereintheforest,hemightnotevenbetakentoaJewishgrave.Thatiswhenherememberedtheoilhewascarrying.Inordertosavehis
life,hewouldhavetouseit.Therewasnootherchoice.
Asfastashisnumbfingerscouldmove,hetoresomeoftheliningoutofhiscoatandfashioneditintoawick,andheputthatwickinthesnow.Then

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hepouredoilonitandprayedwithgreatintensity.Finally,helitthefirstcandleofHanukkah,andtheflameseemedtolightupthewholeforest.Andallthewolvesmoving
throughtheforestsawthatlightandranbacktotheirhidingplaces.
Afterthistheexhaustedhasidlaydownonthesnowandfellasleep.Hedreamedhewaswalkinginawarmland,andbeforehimhesawagreatmountain,andnexttothat
mountainstoodadatetree.Atthefootofthemountainwastheopeningofacave.Inthedreamthehasidenteredthecaveandfoundacandleburningthere.Hepickedupthat
candle,anditlitthewayforhimuntilhecametoalargecavern,whereanoldmanwithaverylongbeardwasseated.Therewasaswordonhisthigh,andhishandswerebusy
makingwicks.Allofthatcavernwaspiledhighwithbalesofwicks.Theoldmanlookedupwhenthehasidenteredandsaid:"BlessedbeyouintheNameofGod."
Thehasidreturnedtheoldman'sblessingandaskedhimwhohewas.Heanswered:"IamMattathias,fatheroftheMaccabees.DuringmylifetimeIlitabigtorch.Ihopedthatall
ofIsraelwouldjoinme,butonlyafewobeyedmycall.NowheavenhassentmetowatchforthelittlecandlesinthehousesofIsraeltocometogethertoformaverybigflame.
AndthatflamewillannouncetheRedemptionandtheEndofDays.
"Meanwhile,Ipreparethewicksforthedaywheneveryonewillcontributehiscandletothisgreatflame.Andnow,thereissomethingthatyoumustdoformewhenyoureach
theRabbiofRiminov,tellhimthatthewicksareready,andheshoulddowhateverhecantolighttheflamethatwehaveawaitedsolong."
Amazedatallhehadheard,thehasidpromisedtogivethemessagetotherabbi.Asheturnedtoleavethecave,heawokeandfoundhimselfstandinginfrontoftherabbi'shouse.
Justthentherabbihimselfopenedthedoor,andhisfacewasglowing.Hesaid:"ThepoweroflightingtheHanukkahcandlesisverygreat.Whoeverdedicateshissoultothis
deedbringsthetimeofRedemptionthatmuchcloser."

Likethetaleofthemaster'skiss,thisoneusesadreamasavehicletoencountertheWiseOldMan,whoisidentifiedhereasMattathias.Themessagefrom
Mattathiasisthatthemessianiceraisalmostuponthem,hintingthattheRabbiofRiminovcanhaveanimportantroletoplayinthisevent.Buttherealimportanceof
thisdreamisthewayitprovidessalvationtothehasidtrappedinthesnow.Bycreatingtheconditionstosavehimself,usingtheoilfortheHanukkahcandles,hesaves
himselffromfreezingandisabletosleep,andthustodream.Thedreamfirsttransportshimfromacoldplacetoawarmone,andthenbringshimfacetofacewith
Mattathias.Thisdreammeetingisafatefuloneforthehasid,forwhenheawakeshefindshimselfattherabbi'sdoor.Amiraclehasoncemoretakenplace,asitdidto
RabbiAbrahamwhenhehadavisionoftheShekhinah,andasitdidtotherichmanwhowaskissedbyShimonbarYohai.

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Thismiracleindicatesthattheabysshasbeencrossedandthetransitioncompleted.
Fromtheselasttwotales,andfromamultitudeofothers,wecanrecognizethatthereisapatterntotheroleoftheWiseOldMan.Thisfigureisinevitablyidentified
withoneofthegreatJewishpatriarchsorsages,whosearrivalatatimeofdangerheraldsamiraculousevent.Ineverycasewecanrecognizeinthispatternthe
presenceofthearchetypeoftheOldManwho,liketheibbur,bringswisdomandthestrengthtosurviveadifficulttransition.
Yet,forthosewhofailtorecognizeitsimportance,thisencounterwiththeWiseOldMancanbedisastrous."TheCottageofCandles,"8 aremarkableJewishfolktale
fromAfghanistan,presentsavividdemonstrationofsuchanencounter:
ThereoncewasaJewwhowentoutintotheworldtoseekjustice.Somewhere,hewascertain,truejusticemustexist,buthehadneverfoundit.Helookedinthestreetsandthe
marketsofcitiesbutcouldnotfindit.Hetraveledtovillagesandheexploreddistantfieldsandfarms,butstilljusticeeludedhim.Atlasthecametoanimmenseforest,andhe
enteredit,forhewascertainthatjusticemustexistsomewhere.
Hewanderedthereformanyyearsandhesawmanythingsthehovelsofthepoorestpeasants,thehideawaysofthieves,andthehutsofwitchesinthedarkestpartofthe
forest.Andhestoppedineachofthese,despitethedanger,andsoughtclues.Butnoonewasabletohelphiminhisquest.
Oneday,justasduskwasfalling,hearrivedatasmallclayhutthatlookedasifitwereabouttocollapse.Nowtherewassomethingstrangeaboutthishut,formanyflickering
flamescouldbeseenthroughthewindow.Themanwhosoughtjusticewonderedgreatlyaboutthisandknockedonthedoor.Therewasnoanswer.Hepushedthedooropen
andentered.
Assoonashesteppedinside,themansawthatthecottagewasmuchlargerontheinsidethanithadappearedtobefromtheoutside.Inithesawhundredsorwasit
thousandsofshelves,andoneachoftheshelveswereamultitudeofoilcandles,burningbrightly.
Steppingcloser,hesawthatsomeoftheflamesburnedwithaverypurefire,whileothersweredull,andstillothersweresputtering,abouttogoout.Sotoodidhenownoticethat
someofthewickswereingoldenvessels,whileotherswereinsilverormarbleones,andmanyburnedinsimplevesselsofclayortin.Theseplainvesselshadthinwicks,which
burnedquickly,whilethosemadeofgoldorsilverhadwicksthatlastedmuchlonger.
Whilehestoodthere,marvelingatthatforestofcandles,anoldmaninawhiterobecameoutofoneofthecornersandsaid:"Shalomaleikhem,myson.Whatareyoulooking
for?"
"Aleikhemshalom,"themananswered."Ihavetraveledeverywhere,searchingforjustice,butneverhaveIseenanythinglikethis.Whatareallthesecandlesfor?"

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Theoldmanspokesoftly."Knowthateachofthesecandlesisthecandleofaperson'ssoul,asitissaid,ThesoulofmanisthecandleofGod(Prov.20:27).Aslongashiscandle
burns,amanremainsalive.Butwhentheflamegoesout,hissoultakesleaveofthisworld."
Thenthemanwhosoughtjusticeturnedtotheoldmanandasked,"CanIseethecandleofmysoul?"
Theoldmannoddedandledhimintothedepthsofthatcottage,whichthemannowsawwasmuchlargerontheinsidethanitappearedtobeontheoutside.Atlasttheycameto
alowshelf,andtheoldmanshowedhimalineofclayvesselsonit.Hepointedoutonethathadverylittleoilleft.Thewickwassmokingandhadtiltedtooneside."Thatisthe
candleofyoursoul,"saidtheoldman.
Thenagreatfearfelluponthemanandhestartedtoshiver.Coulditbethattheendofhislifewassonearandhedidnotknowit?
Thenthemannoticedthatnexttohiscandletherewasanother,filledwithoil.Itswickwasstraight,burningwithaclear,purelight.
"Andthisone,towhomdoesitbelong?"askedtheman,trembling."Thatisasecret,"answeredtheoldman.''Icanonlyrevealeachman'scandletohimselfalone."
Soonafterthattheoldmanvanishedfromsight,andthecottageseemedemptyexceptforthecandlesburningoneveryshelf.
Whilethemanstoodthere,heheardasputteringonanothershelf,andlookingup,hesawawispofsmokerisingintheair.Somewhereasoulhadjustlefttheworld.
Theman'seyesreturnedtohisowntin.Hesawthatonlyafewdropsofoilremained,andthattheflamewouldsoonburnout.Atthatinstanthesawthecandleofhisneighbor,
burningbrightly,sofullofoil.
Suddenlyanevilthoughtenteredhismind.Helookedaroundandsawthattheoldmanhaddisappeared.Helookedcloselyinthecornersofthecottage,buttherewasnosignof
himthere.Thenthemanreachedoutandtookholdofthecandlenexttohis,andraiseditabovehisown.Suddenlytheoldmanappearedoutofnowhereandgrippedtheman's
armwithagriplikeiron.Ithurtsomuchthatheclosedhiseyes.
Andwhenatlastheopenedhiseyes,themansawthateverythinghaddisappeared:theoldman,thecottage,theshelves,andallthecandles.Hefoundhimselfstandingalonein
theforest,andheheardthetreeswhisperinghisfate.

ThistaleisanexampleofaDivinetest,suchasthatoftheGardenofEden,orthatofthebindingofIsaac,orthatofJob.Themanseekingjusticeattemptstofulfillthe
biblicalinjunctionJustice,justice,shaltthoupursue(Deut.16:20)bysettingoutonaquesttofindjustice.Atlasthearrivesatthecottageofcandles,wheretheold
manpermitshimtoviewthecandleofhissoul.Theidentityoftheoldmanremainsamystery,althoughhissupernaturalaspectisquiteclear.AstheKeeperofthe
Soul

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CandleshefunctionsasanElijahtypefigurewhoishiddenintheforest.Aboveall,heistheincarnationofthearchetypeoftheWiseOldMan.
ThetestthattakesplaceinthecottagesurelydoessoatthebehestofGod,soitremainsaDivineone.Onewayofreadingthetaleistoseethatinarrivingatthis
cottage,themanisonthevergeofcompletinghisquesttofindjustice,butheisfirsttestedtoseeifhehimselfisjust.Insteadofprovingworthy,heattemptstosteal
fromanother'slifetolengthenhisown.Butheiscaughtandmadetofacetheconsequencesofhisaction.Inthissensehedoesfindjusticeatlast,forjusticeismeted
out.9
Itisapparentfromthestorythatthemanwhoisseekingjusticeisattheveryendofhislife,asindicatedbythefactthathissoulcandleisabouttoburnout.Ifhewere
abletopassthetestinthecottageofcandles,hewouldhavereceivedhisjustreward.Buthefailsthetestattheveryend,demonstratingthatheisnotatrueseeker
afterjustice,sincehedoesnotabidebyithimself.ThushefallspreytothepowersoftheYetzerHara,theEvilInclination,whichmustbeovercomeinorderto
achievejustice,whichisrepresentedinthisstoryasakindofinnerharmonyandacceptanceofone'sfate.
Thuswehaveseenhowarchetypalfigures,suchastheanimaortheWiseOldMan,appearinJewishloreandaretransformedintomythicfiguressuchasthe
Shekhinahorapatriarch.Indeed,allofthetalesdiscussedheredrawonthecollectiveJewishmyth.Justasindividualsgothroughaseriesoftransitionsintheirlives,
sohavetheJewishpeoplegonethroughaseriesofcollectiveexperiences,notonlythoserecountedintheScriptures,butthecollectiveexperienceofthepeoplein
everygeneration.ThereforethesetalescanbeunderstoodintermsofboththecollectiveJewishmeaningandtheindividual'spsychicexperience.Sotooistherea
deepercollectivelevelwherethesetalescanberecognizedinpurelyarchetypalterms.Thesethreelevelsofmeaningexistsimultaneouslyinallofthesetalesand
providethemwithaprofounddepthofmeaning.
Whatisfound,then,intheserabbinictales,istheprojectionofunbridledimaginationssetinamythicalworldreflectingtheconditionsoftheirinnerlives,drawingona
complexsystemofsymbolsthathavearemarkableparalleltotheJungianconstellation.Thatthesymbolsusedbytherabbishaveanarchetypalcharacterisconfirmed
bythetalesofRabbiNachmanofBratslav.ThetraditionalBratslavercommentaryonthesetalesclearlydemonstratestheywereunderstoodtohaveadirect
correlationtokeymysticalfiguressuchastheShekhinahandtheMessiahandtomanyothermysticalconcepts.Astudyofhowthismysticalsystemwasunderstood
andwhatpurposesitwasintendedtoserverevealsthatitwasamethodofspiritualpurification,drawingonmanymysticaltechniques,includingprayer,fasting,ritual
immersion,and,asdiscussed,allegoricalreadingsofsacredtexts.DreamswererecognizedasDivinemessagesaswell,andattemptsweremadetointerpretthem,
sinceitiswrittenthat"adreamthatisnotinterpretedislikealetterthatisnotread."10

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CertainkeyJewishmyths,suchasthatoftheShekhinahandthatoftheMessiah,haveadirectcorrelationtorecognizablearchetypalpatternsandfigures,andwhen
consideredfromthisperspectivetheyreadilyopenthemselvestointerpretation.TheJewishtalesthatdrawonthesemythscanbeseentomirroracomplexpsychic
processinvolvingtheinteractionofaconstellationofarchetypes.Suchananalysisrevealsthecentralroleofpsychologicalprocesses,especiallythoseconcernedwith
patternsofchange,inJewishmysticalteachingsandtales.
Inconclusion,thereisarecurrentpatterninJewishtalesofapersoninmidlifereachingacrisisthatisresolvedbytheinterventionofsomecelestialorsaintlybeing.In
Jungianterms,thesebeings(anima/Shekhinah,WiseOldMan/Elijah)areinnerbeings,introjectionsoftheperson'sownsoul/selfwhoemergetohelptheperson
throughthecrisisandassistinatransitiontoahigherstateofpersonalpsychicdevelopment,thatofindividuation.
II
TheQuestforJerusalem
WhereverIgo,IamgoingtowardJerusalem.
RabbiNachmanofBratslav

Inthetaleof"AVisionattheWailingWall"withwhichwebegan,theArisendsRabbiBeruchimonadoublequest:togotoJerusalemandtofindGod'sBride,the
Shekhinah,attheWesternWall.Onlyafterhecompletesthefirstquestisheabletocompletethesecondtheyareinextricablylinked.InthiswayJerusalemitself
becameidentifiedwiththeShekhinah,andtherearemanyotherlegendsthatlinkthetwotogether.
OncetheGardenofEdenwascutoffforalltime(exceptinlegends),JerusalembecamethefocusofJewishlongingasthecityinwhichGod'spresenceismanifest.
Therefore,everyjourneytoJerusalembecomesaquest,andthereareagreatmanylegendsinwhichsuchjourneysareregardedasholyquests.Ultimately,Jerusalem
becamethearchetypeoftheholycity,somuchsothatitwassaidtobethemirrorimageoftheheavenlyJerusalem.
Duringalloftheirmanyexiles,JewslongedtotraveltotheholycityofJerusalem.ThisisnotonlyajourneytotheheartoftheHolyLand,butalsoaquestforthe
Shekhinah,whoissocloselylinkedtotheKoteltheWailingWallallthatremainsoftheTempleoncesaidtohavebeentheShekhinah'shome.Thiskindof
intenselongingisimprintedonallofJewishliterature,fromtheBibletothefolktalescollectedorallyinEasternEuropeandIsraelinthiscentury.Sometimesthese
queststoJerusalemweremiraculous,asinthistaleaboutthetalmudicsageHaninahbenDosafromEcclesiastesRabbah.Notetheroleofastoneinthisstory.As
everyone

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knows,thebeautiful,glowingstonesoutofwhichthebuildingsofJerusalemhavebeenconstructedareworldfamous,andit'snotsurprisingtoseehowtheyhave
workedthemselvesintothefolkloreofJerusalem.
Longago,inthehillsoftheGalilee,farfromthecityofJerusalem,therelivedarabbinamedHaninahbenDosa.Thisrabbiwassopoorthatheandhiswifehadlittletoeatexcept
forthecarobsandolivesthatgrewwildthere.Yethewasstillhappy,forhisloveofGodwasverygreat.
Oneyear,beforeShavuot,RabbiHaninahsawhisneighborspreparingtogouptoJerusalem.Everyyeartheymadeapilgrimagetheretocelebratetheholiday.Everyonetookthe
finestfruitsoftheharvest,orthefinestsheeporgoatfromhisherd,andbroughtitasagiftfortheTemple.RabbiHaninahalsowantedtobringagift,buthewassopoorthathe
hadnothingtooffer.
ButRabbiHaninahcouldnotgotoJerusalememptyhanded.Hewentintohishouseandlookedallaroundit,buthecouldnotfindaworthygift.Sohetookawalk,tryingtothink
ofwhathemightdo.Allatonce,henoticedalarge,beautifulstonelyingbythesideoftheroad.Hecriedout:"IcantakethisstoneasagiftforJerusalem.ButfirstImustworkon
it,sothatitwillbeaworthygift."
SoRabbiHaninahbegantoworkonthatstone.Hechiseledandfashionedit.Thenhecarvedinbeautifuldesigns.Finallyhepolishedthestoneuntilitshonebrightlyinthesun.
RabbiHaninahsteppedbackandlookedathisfinishedstone,andhesawthatitwasindeedaworthygift.ThenhedecideditwastimetosetoutforJerusalem.Soheputhisarms
aroundthatstoneandtriedtoliftitbutthestonedidnotbudge.RabbiHaninahrealizedthathewouldnotbeabletomoveitwithouthelp.
Justthen,fourfarmerscamewalkingdowntheroad.RabbiHaninahaskediftheywouldhelphimcarrythestonetoJerusalem.Buttheywantedtobepaidfortheirwork,andall
RabbiHaninahhadwasfourpennies.Sothemencontinuedontheirway.
RabbiHaninahbecameverysad,forherealizedthathecouldnotaffordtopayanyonetohelphimtakethatgifttoJerusalem.AndwhenGodsawhowsadhewas,hesentfour
angelsdowntoearthtohelphim.Theangelsdisguisedthemselvesasmen,andsoonRabbiHaninahsawthemcomingdowntheroad.
OnceagainRabbiHaninahaskedforhelp,andtheangelsagreedtoassisthim,aslongashealsolentahand.Ofcourse,RabbiHaninahagreedtothis.Andtheinstantheputhis
handonthestone,itflewupintheair,andRabbiHaninahfoundhimselfflyingacrosstheheavenstowardJerusalem,alongwiththeangels.Andastheyapproachedtheholy
city,itfirstappearedasajewelglowinginthedistance.RabbiHaninahsaidtohimself:"NowIknowwhyJerusalemiscalledthejewelinGod'scrown."
SoonRabbiHaninahfoundhimselfstandingneartheentranceoftheTempleinJerusalem,andthestonewastherebesidehim.RabbiHaninah

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lookedaroundforthefourmen,buttheywerenowheretobeseen.Justthenagroupofwearypilgrimsarrived,andwhentheysawthestonethatRabbiHaninahhadcarved,they
said:"Lookatthatbeautifulstone!Letusresthere."RabbiHaninahwasfilledwithjoy,foramiraclehadbroughthisgifttoJerusalem,andnowitwouldserveasaplaceforweary
travelerstositandrest.
ThatstoneremainedthereaslongastheTemplewasstillstanding.ButwhentheTemplewastorndown,thestonedisappeared.Somesayitwasusedinrebuildingthewallsof
Jerusalem.OtherssaythatthesameangelswhobroughtittoJerusalemlaterbroughtitintoheaven,totheTempleintheheavenlyJerusalem,whereRabbiHaninahnowmakeshis
home.11

RabbiHaninah'sflightwiththeangels,bearingthestonetoJerusalem,turnsourattentiontotheheavensandtheheavenlyJerusalem,whereRabbiHaninahnowmakes
hishome.TheconceptofaheavenlyJerusalemisapowerfulmythicmotifthatimmortalizestheholinessofJerusalem,sincethecitybelowissaidtobeamirrorimage
ofthecityabove.KingDavidissaidtohavevisitedthisheavenlycityinhisdreams.ThereKingDavidexploredthecelestialTempleandcametoenvisiontheholy
Templethathisson,Solomon,laterbuiltinJerusalem.JewishtraditionholdsthateventhoughtheearthlyTemplehasbeentorndown,theheavenlyTemplecontinues
toexist.
ThetraditionthatKingDavid'splansfortheTempleweredrawnfromtheheavenlyJerusalemisbasedonIChronicles28:1112:
ThenDavidgaveSolomon,hisson,thepatternoftheporch[oftheTemple],andofthehousesthereof,andoftheupperroomthereof,andoftheinnerchangesthere....Andthe
patternofallhehadbythespirit.

Byusingakindofmidrashiclogicininterpretingthispassage,thephrase"Andthepatternofallhehadbythespirit"seemedtoimplytheexistenceofaheavenly
Jerusalem.Inthisway,theconceptoftheheavenlyJerusalemcameintobeing.ThisheavenlyJerusalemalsorepresentedthearchetypeofJerusalem,theembodiment
ofadreamofJerusalemasithasgrownoverthecenturiesbythoselongingtoreturnthere.FromaJungianperspective,theheavenlyJerusalemrepresentstheholycity
within,thehomeofthepsycheandthesoul.
WecanalsotracetheevolutionofaheavenlyJerusalemfromtwootherprimarybiblicalpassages.ThefirstisJacob'sstatement,afterwakingfromthedreaminwhich
hesawtheheavenlyladder:ThisisnoneotherthantheHouseofGod,andthisisthegateofheaven(Gen.28:17).Theidentificationofthecelestialladderasthe
gateofheavengavebirthtomeditationaboutthenatureoftheheavenlyrealm,andthat,inturn,gavebirthtospeculationabouttheexistenceofaheavenlycity,which
fromthefirstwaslinkedtoJerusalembecauseofitsunique,holystatus.

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ThesecondbiblicalversetoeffecttheevolutionoftheconceptofaheavenlyJerusalemisIsaiah'svision:IbeheldmyLordseatedonahighandloftythroneand
theskirtsofhisrobefilledthetemple.Seraphsstoodinattendancearoundhim(Isa.6:1).Herethenotionofaheavenlytempleispresenteddirectlyforthefirst
time,andofcoursetheexistenceofsuchatemplegavebirth,inturn,tothenotionofaheavenlycity.AnalmostidenticalvisionisreportedbytheprophetMicah:I
sawtheLordseateduponHisthrone,withalltheangelsofheavenstandingtotherightandleftofhim(IKings22:19).
Astimepassed,additionaldetailsabouttheheavenlyTemplewereadded.TheangelMichaelwassaidtoserveasthehighpriestintheheavenlyTemple,anditwas
saidthatthesamesacrificeswereperformedthere,andthesamehymnsweresungasintheearthlyTemple.SincetheearthlyTemplewasbuiltintheearthly
Jerusalem,theheavenlyTemplemustexistinacelestialJerusalem.
TheaccountofRabbiHaninah'squesttoJerusalemisfoundintheTalmud,asisthislegendaboutKingDavid,whichdemonstratestheintensesanctityofJerusalem
and,especially,ofthesiteoftheTemplethere:
ItwasKingDavidwhofirstdreamedofbuildingtheTempleinJerusalem.Atnight,inhisdreams,hewouldclimbJacob'sladderuntilhereachedtheheavenlyJerusalem.Forthere
isaJerusaleminheaventhatisthemirrorimageoftheJerusalemonearth.
KingDavidwasfascinatedwiththeheavenlyTemple,whichwasbuiltatthebeginningoftime.Hewouldstudyitfromeveryangle.Sotoodidheexploreeverychamberofthat
Temple.Andwhenheawokefromthesedreams,hewouldwritedownthedescriptionoftheheavenlyTemple,foritwashisplantobuildoneexactlylikeitinthecityofJerusalem.
FromthesedreamsKingDavidalsolearnedthattheearthlyTemplemustbebuiltaboveanancientstone,knownastheFoundationStone,whichGodhadsetintotheearthatthe
timeofcreation.ButwherewasthisFoundationStonetobefound?KingDavidcommandedthatshaftsbedugtoadepthoffifteenhundredcubits.Andlo,theystruckastonein
oneofthoseshafts.Assoonashelearnedofit,KingDavidwenttherewithAhitophel,hiscounselor,andwithothermembersofthecourt.Theydescendedintothepit,and
there,atthebottom,theysawtheimmensestone,shininglikethedarkestemerald.
Allthosewhosawitwereamazed,andtheyknewthatitmust,indeed,bethatfabledstonewhichservedastheworld'sfoundation.YetallatonceKingDavidwaspossessedbya
greatcuriositytoseewhatlaybeneathit.KingDavidorderedittoberaised,butavoicecameforthfromthestone,saying:"BewarnedthatImustnotbelifted,forIservetohold
backthewatersoftheAbyss."
Allofthemstoodinaweofthatvoice,butKingDavid'scuriositywasstillnotsated.Hedecidedtoignorethewarning,andoncemoreheorderedthestonetoberaised.Noneof
hisadvisorsdaredsayanything,fortheyfearedhis

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wrath.Afteragreateffort,acorneroftheFoundationStonewasliftedup,andKingDavidbentdownandpeeredintotheAbyssbeneathit.Thereheheardsomethinglikethe
soundofrushingwaters,andhesuddenlyrealizedthatbyliftingthestonehehadsetfreethewatersoftheDeep.Onceagaintheworldwasindangerofbeingdeluged,asinthe
timeofNoah.
KingDavidtrembledwithfear,andheaskedtheotherswhattheymightdotocausethewaterstofallback,butnoonespoke.ThenKingDavidsaid:"PerhapsifIwrotetheName
ofGodonapotsherd,andcastitintothedepths,wemightstillbesaved.Butdoesanyoneknowifthisispermitted?"Stilltheotherssaidnothing,andKingDavidgrewangryand
said:"Ifanyoneofyouknowsthisandstillrefusestoanswer,thenyoursoulwillbearthecurseoftheendofexistence!"ThenAhitophelspoke:"SurelytheNamecanbeusedto
bringpeacetothewholeworld."SoDavidpickedupapotsherdandscratchedthefourletterNameofGodintoit,andcastitintothebottomlesspit.Allatoncetheroarofthe
watersgrewfainter,andtheyknewthattheyhadbeensavedbythepoweroftheName.
InthedaystocomeKingDavidrepentedmanytimesforhissin,andhegavethankstoGodforsparingtheworldfromanotherflood.Andhisson,Solomon,hadtheHolyof
HoliesoftheTemplebuiltexactlyabovetheFoundationStone,forboththestoneandtheTempleborethesealofGod'sblessing.12

InthisstoryfromtheTalmud,KingDavidsetsouttodigthefoundationsoftheTempleandstrikestheFoundationStoneoftheearthuponwhichGodbuilttherestof
thisworld.ThisconfirmsthatJerusalemistheverycenteroftheworld,asitwasportrayedinancientmaps.
Atthesametime,thistaleisaDivinetest,notunlikethetestsofAdamandEve,ofAbrahamintheAkedahthebindingofIsaacandofJob.Eventhoughavoice
fromthestonewarnshimnottoliftit,KingDavid,notunlikePandora,liftstheFoundationStoneandsetsfreethepowersofchaos,thewatersoftheAbyss,which
threatentoinundatetheearthasinthetimeofNoah.InadesperatemomentDavidwritestheTetragrammaton,thesecretNameofGod,onasherdandthrowsitinto
theabyss,andthepowerofGod'sNamecausesthewaterstoretreat.(Notetheechotonuclearwarinthisepisode.DavidlearnsthattheFoundationStonemustnot
betamperedwith,aswehavelearnedofthedangersposedbytamperingwiththeatom.)
Indeed,asthelegendoftheFoundationStonesuggests,JerusalemisatthecenterofJewishlifeandlore.TherearecountlesstaleslinkedtoJerusalem,totheWailing
Wall(theKotel)wherevisitorsleavemessagesinthecracksinthewallforGodtoread,tothemanysynagogues,tombs,andotherholysites,andeventothecaves
andspringsofJerusalem.ThesestoriesarefoundineveryphaseofJewishlife,startingwiththeBible,andincludingrabbinicliterature,Jewishfolklore,Jewishmystical
texts,hasidictales,andtheoraltalescollectedinrecentyears.

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ItwasnotKingDavid'sfatetolivetoseethebuildingoftheTemple,althoughthedreamtobuilditwashis.ItwasSolomon'saccomplishmenttocompletethe
Temple.TherearenumeroustalesaboutthebuildingoftheTemple,suchasoneintheTalmudabouthowKingSolomoncapturedAshmodai,thekingofdemons,and
kepthimimprisoneduntiltheTemplewascomplete.13SotooisthereanearlytaleinTheTestamentofSolomonaboutavampiredemonthatvictimizedthesonof
thechiefbuilderinordertodistracthisfatherandpreventhimfromcompletingthebuildingoftheTemple.14
ThereisalsoalovelyfolktaleaboutthebuildingofthewallsoftheTemplethatwascollectedbyZevVilnay,thegreatexpertonthefolktraditionsofJerusalem,froma
youngmanhemetnearthewall.ThistaleexplainshowthewesternwallescapeddestructionwhentherestoftheTemplewastorndown.
WhenthetimecameforKingSolomontobuildtheTemple,hecalledeveryonetogethertherichandthepoor,theprincesandthepriestsandhesaid:"PeopleofIsrael,letus
buildasplendidTempleinJerusaleminhonorofGod.AndsincetheTemplewillbetheholyplaceofallthepeople,allofthepeopleshouldshareinbuildingit.Thereforeyouwill
castlotstodecidewhichwallyouwillbuild."
SoKingSolomonpreparedfourlots.OnonehewroteNorth,onanotherSouth,onthethirdEast,andonthelastWest.Thenhehadeachgroupchooseoneofthem.Inthisway,
itwasdecidedthattheprinceswouldbuildthenorthernwallaswellasthepillarsandthestairsoftheTemple.AndthepriestswouldbuildthesouthernwallandtendtheArkand
weaveitscurtain.Asforthewealthymerchants,theyweretobuildtheeasternwallaswellassupplytheoilthatwouldburnfortheEternalLight.Thejobofbuildingthewestern
wall,aswellasweavingtheTemple'scurtains,felltothepoorpeople,whoalsoweretoprayfortheTemple'scompletion.Thenthebuildingbegan.
Themerchantstookthegoldenjewelryoftheirwivesandsoldittopayworkerstobuildthewallforthem,andsoonitwasfinished.Likewisetheprincesandthepriestsfound
waystohavetheirwallsbuiltforthem.Butthepoorpeoplehadtobuildthewallthemselves,soittookthemmuchlonger.
EverydaythepoorcametothesiteoftheTemple,andtheyworkedwiththeirownhandstobuildthewesternwall.Andallthetimetheyworkedonit,theirheartswerefilledwith
joy,fortheirloveofGodwasverygreat.
AtlasttheTemplewasfinished,asbeautifulastheTempleonhigh.Nothingintheworldcouldcomparewithit,foritwasthejewelinthecrownofJerusalem.Andafterthat,
wheneverthepoorpeoplewenttotheTemple,fatherswouldsaytotheirsons,"Doyouseethatstoneinthewall?Iputittherewithmyownhands."Andmotherswouldsayto
theirdaughters,"DoyouseethatbeautifulcurtainintheTemple?Iwovethatcurtainmyself."

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Manyyearslater,whentheTemplewasdestroyed,onlytheWesternWallwassaved,fortheangelsspreadtheirwingsoverit.Forthatwall,builtbythepoor,wasthemost
preciousofallintheeyesofGod.
EventodaytheWesternWallisstillstanding.NowitissometimesknownastheWailingWall,foreverymorningdropsofdewcanbeseenonitsstones,anditissaidamongthe
peoplethatthewallwascryingatnightfortheTemplethatwastorndown.
And,aseveryonewhohasbeentherecantestify,God'spresencecanstillbefeltinthatplace.15

TherearemanyaccountsofmiraclesandvisionsassociatedwiththeTemple,forbothinitspresenceanditsabsence,theTempleinJerusalemhasalwaysbeencentral
totheholinessofthecity.Oneofthemostfamousvisions,asrecountedintheTalmud,wasthatofthehighpriestwhowassaidtohaveseenGodonYomKippur,
insidetheHolyofHolies:
Once,whenRabbiIshmaelbenElisha,theHighPriest,wentintotheHolyofHoliesoftheTemple,helookedupandsawAkatrielYah,theLordofHosts,seatedonahighand
exaltedthrone.AndtheLordspoketohimandsaid:"Ishmael,Myson,blessme."AndRabbiIshmaelraisedhishandsinablessingandsaid:"Myson,blessme."AndRabbi
Ishmaelraisedhishandsinablessingandsaid:"MayitbeYourwillthatYourmercyovercomesYourjustice,andmayYourchildrenbeblessedwithYourcompassion."And
whenRabbiIshmaelraisedhiseyes,theLordinclinedHisheadtowardhim.16

TheTemplewastwicedestroyed:oncein586B.C.E.bytheBabylonians,whowereledbyNebuchadnezzarandcarriedtheIsraelitesintocaptivity,andagainin70
C.E.bytheRomans.InJewishfolklorethesetwocatastrophesblurintoone,especiallysincebothweresaidtohavetakenplaceonthe9thofAv.Allthatremainsis
theKotel,theWesternWall,thelastretainingwalloftheTemple.TherearemanyheartwrenchingmidrashimaboutthedestructionoftheTemple,especiallyin
LamentationsRabbah.OneofthemostmovingisfoundintheTalmudandconcernstheHighPriest:
TheTempleinJerusalemhadbeensetaflame,andthemomentofdestructionhadarrived.TheHighPriestwentuptotheroof,thekeysoftheTempleinhishand.Therehecalled
out:"MasteroftheUniverse!ThetimehascometoreturnthesekeystoYou."Thenhethrewthekeyshighintotheair,andatthatinstantahandreacheddownfromaboveand
caughtthemandbroughtthembackintoheaven.17

ThedestructionofthesecondTemplewasthebeginningofaverylongexilefromJerusalem,whichdidnotenduntilJerusalemwascapturedbytheIsraeliforcesinthe
1967war.ThroughoutmostofJewishhistory,theJewishpeoplehavebeentryingtogetbacktoJerusalem.That'swhy"NextyearinJerusalem!"issaidattheendof
theSederandonYomKippur,and

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thosewhowereabletofulfillthisinjunctionweretraditionallyconsideredamongtheblessed.
ThislongingforJerusalemfoundexpressioninamultitudeoftalesaboutqueststotheHolyCity.Inadditiontotheaccountofquestfoundin"AVisionattheWailing
Wall,"thereisanotherstoryabouttheAriandamysticaljourneytoJerusalem:
ItistoldthatonedayRabbiIsaacLuriaofSafed,knownastheAri,wasmeditatinginafieldwithhisdisciples.Suddenlyheturnedtothemanddeclaredthattheymustsetoutfor
Jerusalematonce.Thedisciplesweretakenaback,buthalfofthehadsuchperfectfaithintheArithattheystoodup,readytodepart.Buttheothersgrewafraid.Afterall,they
hadnottoldtheirfamilies,norhadtheymadeanypreparationsforthejourney.TheybeggedtheAritogivethemenoughtimetodothesethingsbeforetheydeparted.Andthe
Arilookedatthem,brokenhearted,andsaid:"Iheardabatkol,aheavenlyvoice,proclaimthatifweundertakeajourneytoJerusalematonce,withouttheslightesthesitation,the
footstepsoftheMessiahwillsoonbeheard.Butjustasyouraisedyourobjections,IheardthevoicesaythatthechancetobringtheMessiahhadbeenlost."18

EventhoughtheArilivedintheholycityofSafed,itisclearfromthistalethatinhiseyesJerusalemwasanevenholiercityandthatundertakingaquesttoJerusalem,
atthatmoment,withouthesitation,wouldhaveinitiatedthemessianicera.NotethatthistaleimplicitlylinksJerusalemwiththecomingoftheMessiah,andmanytales
aboutJerusalemhavesuchmessianicovertones.TheprimarylinkoftheMessiahtoJerusalemconcernstherebuildingoftheTemple,which,itissaid,willtakeplacein
themessianicera.
AnincidentafewyearsagoservedasareminderofthemessianiclinktoJerusalem.ItwasreportedwidelythatthreeofthemostprominentrabbisinMeaSha'arimin
Jerusalemhaddreamed,onthesamenight,thattheMessiahwasabouttocome.Thisincidentsentamessianicshudderthroughallthehasidimandmanyother
observantJews,whohadalreadyidentifiedtheRussianwarinAfghanistanastheWarofGogandMagogthatwouldprecedethecomingoftheMessiah.This
messianicfervorwasonlycalmedwhentwoofthethreerabbisannouncedthattheyhadnothadanymessianicdreamsafterall.
TheheavenlyJerusalemisthesubjectofmanyfinetales,includingthefollowinghasidictaletoldabouttheKotzkerRebbe.Herewehaveanotherkindofquestto
JerusalemaheavenlyjourneytothecelestialJerusalem.Thestoryiscalled"TheOceanofTears"andwastransmittedbyRabbiShlomoCarlebach:
ForRabbiMenachemMendelofKotzk,knownastheKotzkerRebbe,truthwasthemostimportantthing.Sodedicatedtotruthwashethathespentthelasttwentyyearsofhis
lifeinhisstudy,whichheseldomleftandwherehe

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onlyrarelyreceivedvisitors.Oneoftheseguestswashisclosestfriend,RebYitzhakofVorki.SocloseweretheythatRebYitzhaknamedhisyoungerson(laterhissuccessoras
RebbeinVorki)MenachemMendel,afterhisfriend.Fatherandsonwereverycloseandwerealwaysseentogether.AndifRebYitzhakhadtoleavehissontogoonajourney,
theywouldwritetoeachothereveryday.ThenithappenedthatRebYitzhakdied,andhissonMendelecouldnotbeconsoled,buthestillexpectedtohearfromhisfatherinsome
way.However,nomessagecame,noteveninadream.Soamonthafterhisfather'sdeath,MendelewenttovisittheKotzkerRebbetoaskwhynowordhadcomefromhisfather.
TheRabbiofKotzksaid:''Mendele,Ishareyourgriefoverthedeathofyourfather,forhewasmyclosestfriend.AndI,too,expectedhimtocontactmefromtheworldtocome,
andIwassurprisedthathedidnot.Andsincehewasnotcomingtome,Idecidedtogotohim.
"ThereforeIpronouncedaholynameandmysoulflewuptoheaven.IascendedallthewaytotheJerusalemonhigh.ForjustasthereisacityofJerusalemintheHolyLand,so
tooisthereoneinheaven.NowIknewthatallofhisdaysyourfatherlongedtobeinJerusalem,andIwascertainthatIwouldfindhimthere.
"BeforelongIfoundmyselfstandingbeforethecelestialTemple,suspendedintheheavensabove.ForalthoughtheTempleonearthwastorndownlongago,thecelestial
Templestillexists.ThereIsawangelsenteringanddepartingingreatnumbers,andIwenttothemandaskediftheyhadseenRebYitzhak.Andtheysaidyes,hehadbeenthere,
buthehadleft.
"SoIleftthereandflewthroughallthepalacesofheaven.Forallofthegreatprophetsandsageshavetheirownpalacesintheworldtocome,wheretheycontinuetoteachthe
Torah.IwenttothepalaceofRashi,thegreatcommentator.AndthereIwastoldthatyes,yourfatherhadbeenthere,buthehadleft.
"ThenIroseupthroughthepalacesofMaimonides,ofRabbiAkiba,andeventhoseofMosesandAbraham.AndeverywhereIwentIaskediftheyhadseenRebYitzhak,and
theyalwaystoldmethatyes,hehadbeenthere,buthehadleft.
:FinallyIcalledupontheangelGabriel,andfromhimIlearnedthatifIwantedtofindyourfather,Iwouldhavetosearchforhiminadarkforestattheendsoftheearth.SoIgirded
mystrengthandenteredthatendlessforest.AndallthewhileIwonderedwhatyourfatherwasseekinginthatdarkplace.
"Forwhatfeltlikealifetime,Imademywaythroughthatforest.Then,whenIreachedtheendofit,Isawthestrangestsightamightyocean,withwavesthatroseupveryhigh,
andastheyroseandfelltheymadeasobbingsound.Andthere,bytheshore,IsawRebYitzhak,leaningonastaff.AndIsaid:'Yitzhak,itisme,Mendel.Ihavefoundyouatlast!'
"Andyourfathersaid:'Mendel,comehere!Ihavesomethingtoshowyou.'AndwhenIstoodbesidehim,hepointedtotheoceanandsaid:'Doyouknowwhatoceanthisis?'I
turnedtothatstrangeocean,andsawhow

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highthewavesroseup,andhearditsmoaningandsighing.AndIsaid:'No,neverhaveIseensuchanocean.Whatoceanisit?'
"AndRebYitzhaksaid:'KnowthatthisistheOceanofTearsofallthetearsshedbyIsrael.AndthewavesofthisoceancryouttoGod,andthatiswhythereisthesoundof
sobbing.IcouldhavespenteternityintheheavenlyJerusalem,butIhavevowednevertoleavethisplaceuntilGoddriesallthetears.Ihavebeenprayingdayandnight.Willyou
praywithme?'
"Ofcourse,Isaidyes.SoyourfatherandIprayedtogether.NeverhaveIprayedsohard.Tearsfellfromoureyesintotheoceanoftears.Andthenamiracletookplace,foreach
timeoneofourtearsfellintotheocean,thewaterswentdownalittlefurther,until,atlast,theoceanwasdry.
"Then,allatonce,agreatrainbowfilledtheheavens,themostbeautifulrainbowIhadeverseen.Thesightofthatrainbowfilledmewithhope,forIwascertainitwasthesame
rainbowthatNoahhadseen.
"ThenIknewitwastimetotakemyleaveofyourfather,andreturntothisworld.Weembraced,andheaskedmetoassureyouthatyouwouldbehearingfromhimverysoon."
NowwhenyoungMendeleheardthesewords,hewepttearsofjoy.AndthatnighthedreamedthatheandhisfatherwerestandingtogetherinsidethecelestialTempleinthe
heavenlyJerusalem,surroundedbyjoyfulsagesandangels.Andawonderfullightshonefromhisfather'sface.19

AnotheraccountofaholyquesttoJerusalemwascollectedbytheIsraelFolktaleArchives,founded40yearsagobyProfessorDovNoyofHebrewUniversity,
whichtodayhascollected20,000oraltalesfromeveryJewishethniccommunityinIsrael.Thistale,fromPoland,likesomanytalesconcerningtheMessiah,explains
whytheMessiahhasnotyetcome:
Eightyyearsago,inaPolishyeshivah,thereweretwostudentswhowerefilledwithalongingforredemption.BothofthemwereeagertotraveltotheHolyLand,andthey
especiallywantedtoseeKingDavid'stomb.Theydreamedaboutitdayandnight,andatlasttheydecidedtosetoutonthejourney,eventhoughtheydidn'thaveanymoney.On
thewaytheymetwithmanyobstacles,butatlasttheyarrivedattheHolyCityofJerusalem.Theywerethrilledtohavearrivedtheresafeandsound,buttheydidnotknowhowto
findKingDavid'stomb.Whiletheywerewonderingwhereitwas,ElijahtheProphetappearedbeforethemintheformofanoldmanandshowedthemtheway.Andwhenthey
reachedthefootofMountZion,Elijahsaid:
"Nowmysons,ascendMountZionuntilyoureachtheentranceofKingDavid'stomb,andenterthereandgodownthesteps,untilyoureachthebottomofthetomb.Thereyou
willbeblindedbyvisionsofgold,silver,anddiamonds.Theseareonlyillusions,settotemptyoufromyourpurpose.Ignorethemandsearchforthejugofwaterattheheadof
KingDavid.ThatjugcontainswaterfromtheGardenofEden.PourthewaterfromthatjugoverthehandsofKingDavidashestretcheshishandstowardyou.Pourthe

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waterthreetimesovereachhand,andthenKingDavidwillriseupandthefootstepsoftheMessiahwillbeheardintheworld.ForKingDavidisnotdeadhelivesandexists.He
isonlyasleepanddreaming,andhewillarisewhenweareworthyofit.Byyourvirtueandmerit,hewillariseandredeemus.Amen,andmaythiscometopass."
WhenElijahfinishedthesewords,hedisappeared.TheyoungmenthenascendedMountZionandwentdownintothedepthsofKingDavid'stomb.EverythingwasjustasElijah
hadsaiditwouldbe.TheysawKingDavidstretchedoutonacouch,withajugofwaterathishead.AndwhentheyreachedKingDavid,hestretchedouthishandstothem.But
justthentheyoungmenwereblindedbyalltherichestheysawinthattomb,andtheyforgottopourwaterontotheking'soutstretchedhands.Inanguishhishandsfellback,and
immediatelytheking'simagedisappeared.
Theyoungmenwerestartledwhentheyrealizedthattheyhadlettheopportunityforredemptionslipthroughtheirfingers,andnowitwastoolate.20

ThisisoneofmanytalesaboutKingDavidbeingalive.Allofthemgrowoutofthefamoussong,"DovidMelekhYisrael,haihaivikayom"David,KingofIsrael,
livesandexists.Andinasenseitistrue.KingDavid'spresenceinJerusalemissovividthatitseemsimpossibletobelievethatheisnotalive.Foramongthose
awaitingthedaysoftheredemption,whenthefootstepsoftheMessiahwillbeheard,itisequallyimpossiblenottobelievethatsomeonerighteousenoughwillmerely
havetopourwaterfromtheGardenofEdenoverKingDavid'shandsandhewillwakeup.

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PARTIV
MODERNJEWISHLITERATUREANDTHEANCIENTMODELS

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Ten
RabbiNachmanofBratslav
ForerunnerofModernJewishLiterature
Theemergence,inthepresentera,ofaflourishingmodernJewishliteraturewasmadepossiblebytheevolutionfromasacredwrittentraditiontoaconsciously
literary,secularone.AkeyfigureinthistransitionwasthehasidicmasterRabbiNachmanofBratslav(17721811).Fromhismother'sside,RabbiNachmanwasthe
greatgrandsonoftheBaalShemTov,founderofhasidism.Fromhisfather'sside,NachmanwasadescendentofthefamousRabbiJudahLoewofPrague,knownas
theMaharal,towhomlegendattributesthecreationoftheGolem,amanmadeoutofclay.ThusfromhisbirththegreatestexpectationswereheldforRabbi
Nachman,andinlightoftheseitisnotsurprisingthathebelievedfromayoungagethathisdestinywasagreatone,perhapsevenmessianicinnature.
Inthe17thcenturytherehadbeenagreatmessianicuproarcenteredaroundShabbataiZevi,whoultimatelyprovedtobeafalsemessiahbyconverting,underduress,
toIslam.Butbeforethathappened,hundredsofthousandsofeuphoricJewsmadepreparationstoselltheirpossessionsandfollowhimtotheLandofIsrael.Unlike
ShabbataiZevi,RabbiNachmanneveropenlydeclaredamessianicroleforhimself,1 nordidhesuccedinacquiringmorethanasmallcircleofhasidimwhoaccepted
himasatzadik,muchlessamessianicfigure.YetsincehisdeathRabbiNachman'simportancehascontinuedtogrowsothathenowstandsasoneofthemosthighly
regardedfiguresofhasidismaftertheBaalShemTov.
RabbiNachman'steachingsareprofoundandprolific,buttheprimaryreasonforhisimportanceintheeyesoftheworldcanbefoundinthetalesthathetold,forin
thelastyearsofhislifeRabbiNachmanchosetoclothehisteachingsinthegarboffairytalesaboutunhappykings,lostprincesses,

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andloyalministers.Despitetheirapparentsimplicity,however,thesetalesareactuallycomplexandmysteriousallegories.ThusNachmanwasthefirstrebbetomake
thetellingoftalestheprimarymethodofconveyinghisteachings.Whileprevioushasidicmasters,includingtheBaalShemTov,hadbeenthesubjectofarichbodyof
miracletales,andsomemasters,suchastheBaalShemTovandRabbiLeviYitzhakofBerditchev,toldoccasionalbriefparables,nonehadmadeapracticeoftelling
talesasaprimarymethodofinstruction.ButthisispreciselywhatRabbiNachmandidinthelastfouryearsofhislife,andthesetaleshaveachievedinternational
renownandnowexistinEnglishinseveraltranslations.2
ThereasonsthatledRabbiNachmantobeginretellingtalesareveiledinmystery,butsomesurmisescanbemade.DuringmostofhislifeRabbiNachmanalternated
betweenperiodsinwhichhefeltamythicsenseofdestinyandallpervasivemeaningandperiodsofdeepdespairandthesensethatheknewnothing.Eventually,he
cametoregardtheseperiodsofdespairasinevitableandevenincorporatedthemintohisvision,teachingthatadescentmustprecedeeveryascent.Withsuch
teachingsNachmancametofunctionalmostasatherapisttohisdisciples,leadingthemthroughthedepthsaswellastotheheights.Evenafterthedeathofhisyoung
son,ShlomoEphraim,andtheabandonmentofanymessianicaspirationshemayhaveheldeitherforhimselforhisson,Nachmandidnotretreatintosilence,but
discoveredanewformofexpressionforhismessianicimpulsesthetaleshebegantotellinhisfinalyears.ItisinthesetalesthatRabbiNachmanfinallyembracedhis
truedestiny.
SinceJewishfolklorehadflourishedasanoraltraditionamongthecommonfolk(ifnotamongtherabbis)fromatleasttheearlyMiddleAges,itwasnotanillogical
modeofexpressionforRabbiNachman.However,itmustberememberedthatthisfolklorehadneverachievedanythinglikethestatusofthevarioussacred
literatures,andnotuntilthelateMiddleAgeswasanyeffortmadetorecordthesetales.Eventuallysomeofthemwerepreservedincollectionsthatbecamewidely
known,suchasTheMa'asehBookandTze'enahURe'enah.
Itisapparent,however,thatdespitethelowstatusoffolklore,anditsuniversalasopposedtospecificallyJewishcharacter,RabbiNachmanfeltdrawntothismodeof
expressioninapowerfulway.OneclueforthisattractioncanbefoundinthedreamsofRabbiNachmanthathavebeenpreserved.Themoststrikingqualityistheir
similaritytohistales,asinthefollowingexcerpt:
AsIascendedthemountain,Isawagoldentreewithbranchesofgold.Fromthebrancheshungallsortsofvesselsthatwerelikethosedepictedinthebook.Insidethosevessels
wereothervesselsthatweremadeoutofthesevesselsandthelettersinthem.Iwantedtotakethesevesselsfromthere,butIcouldn'tbecausethethicketdidnotpermitmetogo
through.3

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OftenthesedreamsalsoseemlikecondensedversionsofoneofNachman'sepictales,suchas"TheMasterofPrayer"4 or"TheSevenBeggars,"5 asthefollowing

dream,recordedinitsentirety,demonstrates:
InmydreamIwokeupinaforest.TheforestwasboundlessIwantedtoreturn.Someonecametomeandsaid:"Thisforestissolongitisinfinite.Alltheinstrumentsandthe
vesselsofthisworldaremadefromthisforest."Heshowedmeawayoutoftheforest,whichbroughtmetoariver.Iwantedtoreachtheendoftheriver.Amancametomeand
said:"Thisriverisendless.Allthepeopleofthisworlddrinkfromthisriver."Thenheshowedmeamillthatstoodatthesideoftheriver,andsomeonecametomeandsaid:"All
thefoodforallthepeopleintheworldisgroundinthismill."ThenIreenteredtheforest,andthereIsawasmithworking,andtheytoldme:"Thissmithmakesthevesselsforthe
wholeworld."6

SuchdreamsraisethepossibilitythatRabbiNachmanbasedhistalesonhisdreams,elaboratingonthemintheretelling.However,itisnotpossibletoconfirmthis
hypothesis,sincenoneofthesurvivingdreamscontainsmaterialthatwasdirectlyincorporatedintothetales.
Mostofall,theessentialqualitiesoftheenchantedworldoffairytales,withitssolutionsthatinevitablydrawonthemagicalandtheabilityofthegoodtoprevail
despitetheodds,wereallenormouslyappealingtoRabbiNachmannandreflecthisownworldvision,inwhichthepoweroffaithcansurmountanyobstacle.
Thetale"TheLostPrincess,"forexample,hasasitsprimarymotifathemethatcommonlyreappearsinworldfolkloreasaquestinwhichaprincesetsouttorescuea
princesswhohasfallenunderanevilspell.7 Fortheuninitiated,thistaleissimplyonemorevariantonacommontheme.ButamongRabbiNachman'shasidimitwas
understoodthatthisandallofRabbiNachman'stalescontainmeaningshiddenfromallbutthosewhoknewhowtoseekthemout.ThusamongtheBratslavhasidim,
RabbiNachman'stalesareregardedassacredtextsandaresubjectedtothesamethoroughexegesisasarethesacredScriptures.8
InSichoshaRanRabbiNachmanisquotedbyRabbiNathan,hisscribe,assaying:"Evenatzaddikwhosearchesafterlostthingsishimselfsometimeslost,asitis
written:Theyshallsearchandbelost(Ps.83:18)."9 Thisstatementrevealsthepersonaldimensionsof"TheLostPrincess"thatRabbiNachmanidentifiedwiththe
loyalministerwhodevoteshislifetothequestoffindingthelostprincess.RabbiNachman'sstatementaboutthelosttzaddikisalsoacommentontheinevitable
obstaclesthatmustbeovercomeforasuccessfulascent.
ItisalsoapparentthatRabbiNachmanmadeuseofcommonfolkmotifsinhistalesinpartbecauseherecognizedthebiblicalarchetypesglimmeringbeneaththe
surfaceofthetraditionalfairytaleandhadfoundawayto

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relatethesefolkmotifstohishasidimbyforcingthemtoconsiderthemfromthetraditionalJewishperspective.Heperceivedthatinthiswayhisteachingwouldbe
revealedtothembutwouldremainconcealedfromothers,whowouldbemisledbythesimplesurfaceofthetales.
EvenmoreobviouslyintendedtoserveasacommentaryonMa'asehBereshit,theWorkofCreationthatis,theprocessbywhichtheworldcameintobeingis
RabbiNachman'sfamouslasttale,"TheSevenBeggars."10Thisstoryhasanunusualstructureinwhichsevenbeggarscometotwoorphanchildrenwhoaretobe
wed,eachtellingataleandgivingthechildrenablessing.Thenumberofbeggars,aswellasthenatureoftheirstories,suggeststhesevendaysofCreation.Asinthe
biblicalmythofCreation,theseventhdayandtheseventhbeggararesingledoutforparticularemphasis.Theseventhday,ofcourse,representstheSabbath,whilethe
seventhbeggarmaybeseenastherepresentativeofthemessianicera,ifnotoftheMessiahhimself.Thetalesofthefirstsixbeggarsaretold,butthatoftheseventh
beggarremainsmysteriouslyuntold,withthefinalobservationbyRabbiNathan:"NorwillwebeworthytohearituntiltheMessiahcomesinhismercy,mayhecome
speedilyinourdays,Amen."
ItalsoseemslikelythatRabbiNachmanintendedeachofthebeggarstorepresentoneofthebiblicalpatriarchs.ThustheblindbeggarrepresentsIsaac,whowas
blindthedeafbeggarrepresentsAbraham,whowasdeaftothenoiseoftheworld,sointentlywasheconcentratedontheCovenantbetweenGodandhimselfthe
beggarwhostutteredrepresentsMoses,whodescribeshimselfintheTorahasslowofspeech,andofaslowtongue(Ex.4:10)thebeggarwiththecrookedneck
representsAaron,brotherofMosesandthefirsthighpriestofIsraelasthehighpriesthisdutyistouniteIsraelandGod,andhisafflictionfocusesontheneck,
whichlinksthehead(God)totherestofthebody(Israel)thehunchbackedbeggarrepresentsJacob,whosehunchbacksymbolizesthepowerof"thesmallwhich
containsthegreat,"justasJacobisidentifiedintheAggadahasthepillarthatsupportstheentireworldthebeggarwithnohandsrepresentsJoseph,amasterofthe
spiritualpowerssometimesassociatedwiththehands(keepinginmindthateachbeggarexplainsthathedoesnotinfactsufferfromhisdeformity,quitetheopposite)
andtheseventhbeggar,whohasnofeet,canbeseenastherepresentativeoftheMessiah,whohasnotyetcomewhenheisabouttoarrivewewillentertheeraof
the"footstepsoftheMessiah."
TheclearestindicationoftheconcernofthistalewithMa'asehBereshitcomesinthetaleoftheblindbeggar.Herecountsameetingofthosewhosememories
reachedbacktotheearlyphasesofCreation.Oneremembers"themomentwhentheypluckedtheapplefromthebranch"thesecondrecalls"themomentthatthe
candleburned"thethirdtheprecise"momentwhenthefruitwasformed"thefourth"themomentthattheyextractedtheseedtoplantthefruit"thefifth''thewisemen
whodiscoveredtheseed"thesixth"thetasteofthefruitbeforeitenteredthefruit"and

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theseventh"theappearanceofthefruitbeforeitattacheditselftothefruit."Thebeggarwhoistellingthestoryhasamemorythatreachesbackevenfurther,to"the
timebeforetherewasanythingthatistheVoid."InthissequenceRabbiNachmansuggeststheninestagesofemanationofthekabbalisticSefirotthatbroughtthe
worldintobeing.Thetenthstage,whichprecedesalloftheothers,goesunremarkedbecauseitisthatofEinSof,thataspectofGodthatremainshiddenand
unknownfromeveryman.ThesestagesofemanationarethekabbalisticequivalentofthesevendaysofCreation,althoughtheyarefarmoreabstractandobscure.
ThefactthatthistalewithinataleisthefirsttobetoldemphasizesitsroleasanallegoryaboutCreationandoftheimportanceofunderstandingofthemysteriesof
Creation,whichareparticularlydifficulttocomprehend.
Furtherkabbalisticallegoriesaretobefoundinthetales"ThePortrait,"11"TheRoyalMessenger,"12"TheLetter,"13and"TheTaleoftheMenorah."14In''The
Portrait"akingcollectsportraitsofallthegreatkings,andseekstheportraitofakingwhorepresentsGod.Thecentralsymbolof"ThePortrait"isclearlyintendedto
designatethePargod,thecurtainreferredtoinkabbalisticliteraturebehindwhichtheHolyOnesitsonHisThroneofGlory.Thissymbolthuspersonifiesthehidden
aspectsofGod,knownasEinSof.IntheearlyHekhalottexts,recountingjourneystoParadise,andinthelaterkabbalistictexts,thePargodisdescribedingreat
detail.ThesidefacingGodis,ofcourse,hidden,butallsoulsaresaidtobewovenintotheotherside,facingtheangels,whichhasbeendescribedasakindof
archetypalscreenonwhichflickersallofpastandfuturedestiny.
TheprimarypurposeofthePargodistoserveasareminderthatcompleteknowledgeoftheDivinityisbeyondthecapacityofhumanstheymaytravelsofar,allthe
wayintoParadise,buttheycanneverprobethemysteryofGodHimself.NoteventheangelsarepermittedtoknowthataspectofGodonlytheShekhinah,the
DivinePresenceandBrideofGod,andthesupremeangel,Metatron,arepermittedbehindthePargod.
RabbiNachman'sabilitytointegratekabbalisticconceptsintothestraightforwardandessentiallysimplefairytalenarrativewaspossiblebecauseheseemed
instinctivelytocomprehendthepersonalpsychicdimensionsofboth.Heseemstohaverecognizedhoweachhasitssourceintheinnerworldanditsownlaws,which
arequiteindependentofthoseofthe"real"world.Furthermoreheseemstohaveunderstood,ashavepsychologistssinceJung,thenatureofthepsychological
processofprojection.Certainlyforthiskindofliteraturetosucceed,itisnecessaryfortheauthortosomehowdescendintohisunconsciousandtoreportbackthe
mythicandarchetypaldramaasitisreflectedthere.Nachmanperceived,forexample,thattheexileoftheShekhinahconcernedhiminthemostpersonalway
possible.TheShekhinahwasnotonlylosttoIsraelasawhole,butalsotohimindividually,anditwaspossibleandnecessarytosetoffonthequesttorestorethe
Shekhinahtoherformerpositionofglory.Thequestdescribedin"TheLostPrincess,"then,isnotjustafairytalequestoran

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allegoryoftheexileoftheShekhinah(althoughitisboth),butitmustbeunderstoodasamirrorofacrucialdramaofthepsyche.TheabilityofRabbiNachmanto
personalizethesemythicelementsofJudaismbytransmutingthemintotheuniversallanguageoffairytaleswasaboldactwithprofoundimplications.
ThissuggeststheprocessbywhichthemythoftheShekhinahevolvedinthefirstplaceandonepossibleapproachofthemodernreadertoaliteraturemakinguseof
suchsymbolicfigures.Startingwithapsychictruth,suchastheexistenceoftheanima,theJewishmythprojectsthepresenceofsuchafigurewhoisconcernedwith
thepeopleasawhole,justasaman'sownanimaisconcernedwithhisspiritualandemotionallife.Themodernreadermightthenbewelladvisedtoattempttorelate
tohisorherownpsychicrealitythemythologicalprojectionsthatwerethestartingpointsofthismythologyinthefirstplace.Thisisnotanintellectualprocess,buta
spiritualandemotionalone.Whatitrequires,aboveall,isthatthereaderbeopentothepsychictruthsthatserveasthefoundationfortheentireaggadictradition.
ThenthemythologythatfindsitsfirstexpressionintheBibleandiscultivatedthroughoutallsubsequentJewishliteraturewillonceagainexerciseitscompellingpower,
makingpossibleapersonalcontactnotonlytothetraditionitself,butalsotoallthegenerationsthathavereceivedandtransmittedituntilthistime.
ThislinkbetweenkabbalisticthinkingandthetheoryofarchetypalsymbolismasproposedbyJung15isstronglyprefiguredinRabbiNachman'stale"ThePortrait."
Theconceptofthearchetypeisitselfclearlydefinedinthistale:16
Nowthereisacountrythatcontainswithinitallcountries.Andinthatcountrythereisacitythatcontainsallthecitiesofthatcountrythatcontainsallcountries.Andinthatcity
thereisahousethatcontainsallhousesofthatcitythatcontainsallthecitiesofthatcountrythatcontainsallcountries.Andinthathouseisamanwhobearsallthiswithinhim.

In"ThePortrait"thekingrepresents,ofcourse,theHolyOnewho"ishiddenfrommen.Hesitsbehindacurtainandisfarfromthepeopleofhisland."Thisking's
distance,whichhastheeffectofcausingdistortionsofthetruthamonghispeople,isasourceofmysteryandconfusion.Noonepossessestheportraitofthisking
becauseitisimpossibletoobtain.Yet,paradoxically,attheendofthetale"thefaceofthekingwasrevealed,andthewisemensawhim."Thisdoesnotmeantoimply
thatthemosthiddenandreconditesecretsoftheDivinitywillberevealedtothosewhosteepthemselvesinthemysteriesoftheKabbalah,butratherthatimmersionin
thesemysteriesmakespossibleaknowledgeabouttheDivinitypreviouslyimpossibleamongmen.
Thekeyrevelationisthattheking"cannotbeartheliesofthekingdom."Godispainedbyfalsehoodandimperfectionintheworld,although,ironi

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cally,itexistsbecauseofHisdistancefromHisCreation.Thisparadox,whichcannotberesolvedsimply,isatthecoreofRabbiNachman'scomplexvisionof
existence,andoftheeternalkabbalisticvisionitself,inwhichthefurtherthedistancefromEinSof,thehiddenaspectofGod,thefurtherthedistancefromthesource
ofTruthitself,andthegreaterthedistortionsthatcomeintobeing.
AttheendofRabbiNachman'stale"TheSpiderandtheFly"17isanotherpassagethatdefines,forallpracticalpurposes,theinexhaustibleaspectoftheconceptof
archetype(symbolizedbytheimagewornbythemaiden)andthefactthatitisessentiallyindependentofthevesselthroughwhichitexpressesitself:
Hesawthatamongthemyriadsofprisonershehadtakentherewasabeautifulmaiden.Themaidenpossessedeverylovelinessthatwastobefoundonearth,thebeautyofthe
formthatwasfeltassweetwaterunderthefingers,thebeautyoftheeyesthatwasasacaressofthehands,andthebeautythatisheardlikethesoundofbellstouchedbythe
wind.Butwhenthekinglookeduponher,hesawthatherbeautywasnotherown,butthatitcameforthlikeaperfumeoutofthetinyimagethatsheworeuponherself.Andit
wasthisimagethatcontainedallformsofbeauty,andbecauseitwasuponher,itseemedthatallthoseformsofbeautywereherown.

Thetale"TheRoyalMessenger"18isfocusedonthequestionoftheexistenceofGod:"Thekinghadsentalettertoawisebutskepticalman,who,inhisfaraway
province,refusedtoacceptit."Thequesttotheendoftheworldtodiscoverifthekingactuallyexistsrepresentstheextensivekabbalisticquestforknowledgeofthe
Divinity.Despiteevidenceofthegreatnessoftheking,theskepticalmanremainsunsatisfiedthatproofoftheking'sexistencehasbeengiven.
ThistaleisenhancedbycomparisonwithNachman'stale"TheLetter,"19anallegoryaboutaprincewhoreceivesaletterandrecognizesthehandwritingofhisfather,
theking:
Oncetherewasaprincewhowasseparatedfromhisfather,theking,inhisyouth,andlivedinalandfarfromhishomeland.Therehegreatlyyearnedtobereunitedwithhisfather,
sofaraway.Butbecauseofthegreatdistancethatseparatedthem,thiswasnotpossibleatthattime.Soitwasthatmanyyearspassedwithoutanymessagesbetweentheprince
andhisfather.Thenoneday,totheprince'sgreatjoy,hereceivedaletterfromtheking.Thisletterhadtraveledtohimoveragreatdistance,andthemessengerhadovercome
manyobstaclestoseethatitreachedtheprince'shand.Theprincereadtheletterasifinadream,sovividlydiditevokehisfather'spresence.Andwhenhehadfinishedreading
it,hisheartwasfilledwithlongingtoseehisfatheragain.Andhethoughttohimself:"IfIcouldonlyseemyfathernow.IfIcouldonlytouchhishand!"Andwhileheharbored
theselongings,

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athoughtcrossedhismind:"DoInothavemyfather'sletter?Andwasthisletternotwritteninhisveryownhand?Andisnotthehandwritingnotunliketheveryhandthat
pennedit?"Andwiththisthoughtheheldtheletterclosetohimandsaidoverandovertohimself:"Thehandwritingofthekingthehandoftheking."

Alsorelatedis"ThePortrait,"previouslydiscussed,aboutthekingwholivesbehindacurtainandthuscannotbeseen.In"TheLetter"and"ThePortrait"the
nonappearanceofthekingisnotasourceforskepticismabouthisexistence,butin''TheRoyalMessenger"thedifficultyofacceptingtheparadoxofaGodwhomust
remainhidden,andthusultimatelyunknown,ispresentedinitsmostpowerfulform,withtheskepticreceivingthefinalword.
Both"TheRoyalMessenger"and"TheLetter"havearemarkableparalleltoFranzKafka'sfamousparable"AnImperialMessage,"20whichtheyprecededbymore
thanahundredyears.InKafka'sparableanemperorgiveshisdeathbedmessagetohisfaithfulmessengertodeliver"toyou,thehumblesubject,thesignificant
shadowcoweringintheremotestdistancebeforetheImperialsuntheEmperorfromhisdeathbedhassentamessagetoyoualone."Duetoinsurmountableobstacles,
itbecomesimpossibleforthismessagetobedelivered,sothatthereaderremainsuncertainastowhetherthemessageactuallyhasbeensentwhether,indeed,the
Emperorandthemessengerevenexistorwhetherthe"humblesubject"hasmerelydaydreamedthewholeincident.
InKafka'sparable,aswellasthoseofRabbiNachman,onelikelymeaningisthatwhichproposesthattheemperororkingisintendedtorepresentGod.Theletter
sentmaybeidentifiedastheTorah,containingalltruth,orastheveryexistenceoftheworldaroundus.InKafka'sparablethe"humblesubject"inaremotecornerof
thekingdomdeeplybelievesintheexistenceoftheletter,andthattheEmperorsentittohimashisdyingact,andthatfortheobstacles,"If[themessenger]could
reachtheopenfieldshowfasthewouldfly,andsoondoubtlessyouwouldhearthewelcomehammeringofhisfistsonyourdoor."InNachman's"TheRoyal
Messenger,"ontheotherhand,theletterarrives,buttherecipientpaysnoattentiontoitscontents,insteadconcerninghimselfsolelywiththequestionoftheexistence
oftheauthoroftheletter.WesuspectthatKafka'speasantwouldnothavebeenassailedbythesedoubts!Butthemostfortunateofallistheprincein"TheLetter,"
whorecognizesthehandwritingofhisfather,thatis,thetzaddikwhorecognizestheCreatorthroughHisCreation.Thusinthesethreeparablestheessenceofthe
worldviewsrangesfromthetotalbeliefintheexistenceofbutinabilitytoreceivethemessagesentbyGodtoman("AnImperialMessage"),todoubtintheexistence
oftheCreator,despiteevidencetothecontrary("TheRoyalMessenger").Theseparablescanbeseentorepresent,respectively,theviewsofthebelievers("TheLet

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ter"),thereligiousexistentialists("AnImperialMessage"),andtheatheists("TheRoyalMessenger'').
Ingeneral,RabbiNachman'sviewisclosesttothatheldbytheprincein"TheLetter"hehasrecognizedtheCreatorandHisCreation.Itisnatural,then,thatthekey
figurereappearinginRabbiNachman'stalesisthetzaddik,thespiritualguidethateveryrebbesoughttobetohishasidim.CertainlythecentralfigureoftheMasterof
Prayerinthestoryofthesametitleisclearlyintendedtobesuchatzaddik.ItistheclarityofvisionoftheMasterofPrayerthatenablestheinitialconfusionofthe
worldinthistaletobeeventuallyovercome.Likewise,thetale"HarvestofMadness"21emphasizesthenecessitythatthetzaddikretainhisclarityofvisionevenifhe
seemstobemadintheeyesoftheworld.Herethekingandhiscounseloraretheonlyonessparedthegeneralmadnessbroughtonbyataintedharvest.Thistaleis
identicalinthemetoaSufifolktalecollectedbyIdriesShahinTalesoftheDervishes.22TheonlydifferenceisthatintheSufitalethemadnessiscarriedbywater,
ratherthanwheat.TheSufitale,whichShahcalls"WhentheWatersWereChanged,"concernsawarninggiventhatonacertaindateallthewatersintheworldthat
hadnotbeenspeciallypreservedwoulddisappear,toberenewedwithdifferentwater,whichwoulddrivemenmad.Onlyonemanlistenstothiswarningandstores
waterforhimself.Andwhenthewatersstopflowingandthenbegintoflowagain,hefindsthatmenhavebeguntothinkinanentirelydifferentwayandhavelosttheir
memoriesofwhathashappened.Theyregardthislastsanemanasmad,andtheresultingisolationleadshim,eventually,todrinkfromthenewwater,despitethe
consequences,becausehecannotbearthelonelinessofbeingdifferentfromeveryoneelse.Afterhedoesdrinkoftheirwaterhebecomeslikeeveryoneelse,andthey
regardhimasamadmanwhohasbeenrestoredtohissanity.
Anothertaledealingwithmadnessandsanityis"ThePrinceWhoThoughtHeWasaRooster."23Hereaprincewhohasbeengivenupasmadisfinallyrestoredto
sanitybytheactionofthewisemanwhopretendstosharehismadnessand,gaininghisconfidenceinthisway,eventuallyinfluenceshimtofunctionagainasahuman
being.InhisowncommentonthistaleRabbiNachmanmakesitclearthatthestoryisintendedasanallegoryoftheroleofthetzaddik,whomustbepreparedto
descendtothelevelofthosehehopestoinfluence:"Inthiswaymustthegenuineteachergodowntothelevelofhispeopleifhewishestoraisethemuptotheir
properplace."
AfurtherkabbalisticallegoryisfoundinRabbiNachman's"TheTaleoftheMenorah,"24whichillustratesthecentralkabbalisticconceptoftikkun,ofredemptionand
restoration.InRabbiNachman'stalethesonconstructshismenorahoutofthedefectsofthosewhoobserveit.Wemayassumethatthecraftsmanisfamiliarwith
thosebeforewhomhedemonstrateshisskills.Theprimarypurposeofthemenorahinthistaleistomakethese

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othersawareoftheirowndefects,sincethisawarenessisthefirstandmostessentialstepbeforetheactoftikkuncantakeplace.Inthiswaythemenorahserves
symbolicallyasthetzaddikshouldservehishasidimmakingthemawareoftheirdefectssothattheycanbegintheprocessoftikkun.Thisreadingofthetalecanbe
summarizedinthetalmudicphrase"Anyonewhofindsaflawfindshisownflaw."25
RabbiZalmanSchachter,however,suggestsanotherwayofapproachingthistale.Hisviewcanbesummedupinwhatmightbecalled"TheTaleoftheOpal":An
opal'smostdistinguishingfeatureisthefireinitscenter,butthisfireisalsoitsflaw.Whenseenfromoneangle,thefireresemblesnothingmorethanacrack,butfrom
anotherperspectiveitisthemostbeautifulpartoftheopal.Thuswhatappearstobethedefectinthemenorahiswhatmakesituniqueandmorebeautiful.Rabbi
Schachterfeelsthatthisinterpretation,whichemphasizesRabbiNachman'sbeliefintheessentialpolarityofexistence,preservesthecomplexityofhisvision.
ThecraftsmanwhocreatesthemenorahmayalsobeseentorepresentGod,whilethemenorahisGod'sCreation,theworld.Insuchareadingthesevenbranchesof
themenorahmaybeseenasthesevendaysofCreationdescribedinGenesis1:124.Inthiscasethelightoftheflamesonthemenorahcanbeidentifiedwiththe
primordiallightthatcameintoexistenceonthefirstday,whenGodsaidLettherebelight,andtherewaslight(Gen.1:3).26Ifthistaleisreadasanallegoryofthe
Creationoftheworld,RabbiNachmanmaybeseentobesayingthatthedefectsarethedefectsofthisworldandthatGodcreatedtheworldoutofthedefectsinit.
NordoesthisconflictwiththetraditonalviewofCreation,sinceGodformedmanoutofthedustoftheearth(Gen.2:6).
ItisinterestingtonotethatRabbiNachman,aswellasbeingaforerunnerofthemodernJewishliterarytradition,wasalsooneoftheverylastgreatfiguresintheoral
tradition.Forhimthema'asehcouldonlybetoldorally,butfortunatelythesetaleshavebeenpreservedbecausehewasblessedwithahighlyresponsiblesofer,or
scribe,RabbiNathan(Nussan)ofNemirov.ItisasifRabbiNachman'ssoulhaditssourceintheoraltradition,whileRabbiNathan'sderivedfromthewritten,for
theirmutualeffortwasrequiredinordertobringRabbiNachman'stalesbackfromthehighestheavens,wherehishasidimbelievedhereceivedthem.
ThatRabbiNachmanwaswillingtopermithistalestoundergothefolkprocessinwhichthetaleisnevertoldtwiceinexactlythesamefashionisapparentbyhis
decision,onoccasion,totellthetalesonaFridaynight.DuringtheSabbath,ofcourse,thebanagainstwritingwasineffect,anditwasthereforenecessaryforRabbi
Nachman'shasidimtoretellthetaleamongthemselvesmanytimesinordernottoloseanyofit,untiltheSabbathcametoanend.OnlythencouldNathanwritedown
thetale,alreadylikelytohaveundergonetheprocessofrecastingthatnaturallyoccurswitheveryretelling.

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ThattheBratslavhasidimbelievedthatRabbiNachmanhadthestatureoftheancientpatriarchsandprophets,andthathisstorytellingwasacontinuationofan
unbrokentradition,isdemonstratedinthisremarkableprayer,whichtheyinvokedbeforethetellingoftales:
MasteroftheUniverse,Thouworkestwondersineverygenerationthroughthetruetzaddikimofeverygeneration,asourfathershaverelatedtous,allthegreatdeedsand
wondersandgreatmiraclesthatThouhastperformedineachgenerationthroughThytruetzaddikimfromthebeginningoftimeuntothisday.Inthisgenerationtoothereare
tzaddikimandtruewonderworkers.ThereforemayThouinThineabundantmercygrantandhelpmeandstrengthenandanimatemesothatImaybeworthytotellthetalesof
thetruetzaddikim,ofallthathappenedtothemintheirdays,bothtothemandtheirchildren,andallthegreatandaweinspiringwondersandsignsthattheyperformedbothin
secretandinpublic,andalltheholinessandrevelationofGodthattheyeffectedintheworldallthismayImerittohearwellwithmyearsandheart,andmeditateandalwaysretell
them.27

BeforehisdeathRabbiNachmandirectedhishasidimtoburnaboxofhiswritings.RabbiNachman'sfirstdisciple,Shimon,carriedoutthisorderrightafterRabbi
Nachman'sdeath,asRabbiNathandescribeswithobviousdistress:
BeforeRabbiNachmandepartedfromthisworld,heleftinstructionstoburnallhiswritingswhich,secretedinaspecialbox,noonehadbeenpermittedtoread.Immediatelyafter
hissoullefthimandhisclotheswerebeingremoved,RabbiShimonhastenedtoopenthebox,tookoutallthehiddenmanuscripts,carriedthemtothestove,builtafire,and
consignedthemtotheflames.Ifollowedafterhim,inordertosniffthesacredfumesoftheawesomeTorahwhoseenjoymentwasdeniedtoourgeneration.28

Onhisdeathbed,RabbiNachmanissaidtohavedirectedhishasidimnottoappointasuccessor,forhewouldalwaysbetheirrebbe.29TheBratslavhasidimhave
scrupulouslyobservedthisrequest,andalthoughhasidimtraditionallyappointanewrebbeuponthedeathoftheoldone,theyhavenevernamedasuccessortoRabbi
Nachman.Forthisreasontheyaresometimescalled"thedeadhasidim."TheyregardRabbiNachman'steachings,andespeciallyhistales,assacredtexts,asprecious
astheTorahortheTalmud.Andeveryyear,ontheyahrzeitofRabbiNachman'sdeath,hishasidimreadhistalesoutloudinanextendedceremony.
TheunusualcircumstancesrelatingtoRabbiNachman'sdeathledtoapowerfulfolkbeliefaboutRabbiNachman'sspirit.TheBratslaversbelievethatRabbi
Nachman'sspiritchosetoremaininthisworld,abandoningitsheavenlyreward,inordertoguardoverandguidehisfollowers.

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ThemostfamoustaleconcerningRabbiNachman'sspiritconcernsthefateofhischair.OneofRabbiNachman'shasidimcarvedabeautifulchairforhim,whichhe
loved.DuringtheSecondWorldWartheBratslaversinEasternEuropedecidedtoescapetoJerusalem,buttheyknewtheycouldneversmugglethechairpastthe
Nazis.Norcouldtheyleaveitbehind.Sotheydecidedtocutitintosmallpieces,andeachBratslaverwasgivenonepiece,andtheymadeavowtomeetinJerusalem
andreassemblethechair.And,despitetheterribledangersofthattime,everyBratslavercarryingapieceofthatchairarrivedsafelyinJerusalem.Ofcourse,they
attributedthismiracletoRabbiNachman.Afterthat,thechairwasreassembledsoperfectlythatthereisnoindicationitwasevercutapart.Itcanbefoundinthe
BratslaversynagogueinJerusalem,locatedinMeaSha'arim.30
AllinallthereareanastonishingnumberofaccountsofthosewhohaveexperiencedRabbiNachman'sbenevolentpresence,reportsnotunlikethoseaboutElijahthe
ProphetthataresocommoninJewishfolklore.SomeofthesereportscomefromnonBratslaversources,suchastheIsraeliwriterYehudaYaari,whosaidthatwhile
hewasworkingonaretellingofRabbiNachman'stalesinmodernHebrew,hewrotethemdownfrommemory.Andhesworethatashewrote,heheardRabbi
Nachman'svoicerecitingthetales,andlikeRabbiNachman'sscribebeforehim,hewrotedownwhatheheard.
OneofthebestknowntalesaboutanencounterwithRabbiNachman'sspiritwastoldbyRabbiYisraelOdesser.31WhenRebYisraelwasayoungman,he
mistakenlyateonthe17thofTammuz,afastday,andhebecamesodowncastoverthisthatheconsideredsuicide.Butbeforetakingsuchaterriblestep,hedecided
tousethemethodofdivinationknownasSheilatSefer,openingabookatrandomtoseeifhecouldfindareasontolive.32Heclosedhiseyesandtookdowna
bookfromtheshelf.Whenheopenedit,aletterfellout.WhenhereadtheletterhefoundthatithadbeensentbyRabbiNachmantohimfromthebeyond.Inthe
letterRabbiNachmansaid:"Itwasveryhardformetodescendtoyou.Mypreciousstudent,bestrongandcourageous.MyfirewillburnuntiltheMessiahcomes.As
asignthatthisletteristrue,onthe17thofTammuztheywillsaythatyouarenotfasting."Theletterwassignedwithastrangecode:NaNachNachmaNachman
miUmanNachmanofUman,referringtothecityinwhichRabbiNachmanwasburied.Duringthe1990sthiscodephrasebegantoappear,firstintheGalileeand
thenthroughoutIsrael,writteninlargelettersontheroofsofhousesandonwallsinmanypublicplace.ItspeakstotheongoingfaithinRabbiNachmanandhis
wanderingspiritamongtheBratslaverhasidim,whocontinuetobeguidedbytheirRebbeevenafterhisdeath.33
AfterRabbiNachman'sdeaththeimpactofhistalesrapidlyemergedfromthelimitedcircleofBratslaverhasidimtotheworldatlarge.Thiswasinpartbecauseofthe
universalappealofthetalesandinpartbecauseNachmanhimselfcametoberecognizedasthemostcharismatichasidic

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figuresincetheBaalShemTovthefactthathewastheBaalShem'sgreatgrandsononlyemphasizedthislink.34BecauseRabbiNachmanhadchosentotellhistales
inYiddish(althoughNathan,hisscribe,latertranslatedthemintoHebrew,andthetraditonaltextincludesbothlanguages),hehadsignificantinfluenceonthemodern
Yiddishliterarytradition,forwiththemodelofNachman'sbroadacceptanceinYiddishliterature,Yiddishwriters,especiallyMendeleMokherSeforim,Sholom
Aleichem,andI.L.Peretz,hadtheconfidencetowritetheirstoriesintheirnativetongue.AndbecausetheirstorieswerepublishedinthewidelycirculatedYiddish
newspapersofEasternEuropeandRussia,theysoonpossessedanenviablefollowingamongYiddishspeakingJews.
ThewidecurrencyofRabbiNachman'stalesalsoprovedinfluentialinotherdirectandindirectways.RabbiNachman'sstylewasthedirectmodelforYiddishwriters
suchasDerNisterandDovidIgnatow.35Butmoreimportant,thebreakRabbiNachmanhadmadewiththepastbythemeretellingofhisallegoricalfairytales
createdanatmosphereinwhichitwaspossibletoapproachthesacredliteraturesfromaconsciouslyliteraryperspective.ItishardtoimaginethecareerofI.L.
Peretz,forexample,withouttheexistenceofRabbiNachmanashispredecessor.Peretzwasaware,ofcourse,thatRabbiNachmanhadbeenthefirsttoutilize
folkloreinaliterarycreation.PeretzhimselfmadegooduseofthefolktalesthathisfriendS.Ansky,authorofTheDybbuk,gatheredinhiscapacityasoneofthefirst
collectorsofJewishfolklore.
Aboveall,itwasRabbiNachman'sabilitytosustainamythologicalvisionofexistence"atthemeetingplacebetweenthetruthofthesoulandthetruthofthecosmos,"
asArthurGreenstatesinhisexemplarybiographyofNachman,TormentedMaster,36thathasservedtoinspiresubsequentJewishauthors.ForRabbiNachmanhad
anintuitiveabilitytoenterintotheworldofthesacredandtodiscoverthesecretbywhichamythickingdomcouldbemadetoflourish.Thatsecrethehassucceeded
intransmittingtohissuccessors,whohaveacknowledgedhisroleasprogenitorandhavesought,inturn,tokeeptheJewishliterarytraditionalive.

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Eleven
S.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer
ModernMastersoftheAggadah
I
AllofthecategoriesofsacredandsecularliteratureshavebeendrawnuponbymodernJewishauthors.Thetwoprimaryliterarytraditionsthathaveutilizedthese
traditionalsourcesareassociatedwiththeprimaryJewishlanguages,HebrewandYiddish.1 Eachoftheseliteraturesischaracterizedbytwodistinctliterary
approaches:therealisticandtheparabolic.Therealisticapproach,exemplifiedbywriterssuchasMendeleMokherSeforimandAbrahamReisenamongYiddish
writers,waslargelydivorcedfromthemodelsoftraditionalJewishliterature.2 Rather,thesewriterslookedprimarilytothetrendsofthecurrentEuropeanliteratures
andlettheseserveastheirprimarymodels.
Theallegoricalwriters,ontheotherhand,sawthemselvesasbeingdirectlyintheaggadictradition.Drawingonthevariouscategoriesofsacredliterature,includingthe
rabbinic,folk,andhasidic,thesewriters,S.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer,inparticular,soughttheirmodelsfromthepast.Ofcourse,theywerealsofamiliar
withvarious20thcenturyliteraturesanddrewonthesesourcesaswell.Thisconjunctionoftheancientandmodernprovedafertilemeetinggroundinwhichthesetwo
richliteratures,theHebrewandtheYiddish,couldeachtakeroot.Onceagain,thetraditiondemonstrateditsflexibilitybyincorporatingthepastintothepresentand
thepresentintothepast.
WhileHebrewandYiddishliteratureeachrepresentsaseparateliterarytraditionwithitsownhistoryandprimaryfigures,therewere,infact,considerablelinks
betweenthetwo.Ofprimaryimportancewasthefactthat

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manyoftheYiddishwritersfirstwroteinHebrew,andseveraloftheHebrewwritersbeganinYiddish.Thisistrueofmajorfiguresinbothfictionandpoetry,suchas
I.L.Peretz,whoseHebrewcontributionishighlyvalued,althoughheisprimarilyrecognizedasoneofthepreeminentYiddishwriters.S.Y.Agnon,ontheotherhand,
wrotesomeofhisfirststoriesinYiddish,andZalmanShneurmadeequallyvaluablecontributionsinbothlanguages.
IthappenedthatboththeHebrewandYiddishliterarytraditionsweredominatedatanearlystagebyagreatmasterAgnon3 inHebrewliterature,andPeretzin
Yiddish.ShmuelYosefAgnonisoftenincludedintheelitecircleofgreatmodernauthorsthatincludesFranzKafka,JorgeLuisBorges,ItaloCalvino,andBruno
Schultz.Liketheworkoftheseseminalfigures,Agnon'sHebrewwritingsarevisionaryandoftensurreal,evenastheyarepresentedinthestatelypersonaofamodern
scribewhoseeverywordissteepedintradition.Indeed,Agnon'spersonaasawriterwasaswellcultivatedasthatofBorges,andlikeBorges,manyofhisgreatest
storiesarewritteninthefirstperson.
Moreso,perhaps,thananyothermodernJewishwriter,Agnonsoughttocreatealiteraturethatwastheologicallycompatibleinallwayswiththeancienttradition.The
personathatAgnonprojectedwasthatofadevout,observantJewsteepedsolelyinthesacredwritings,whosetechniqueitwastoborrowandbuilduponthebiblical
andaggadictraditionsinmuchthesamewaythatIsraelhasbuiltnewcitiesoverancientones.BecauseofhisexquisiteuseofHebrewandthetraditionalloreinwhich
hewasimmersed,Agnonwasabletocreateabodyoftextsclosertothespiritoftheoriginal,intermsofstyleandlanguage,thanthosecreatedbyanyoneelseinthis
century,fortheyare,infact,cutfromthesamecloth.
Atthesametime,Agnonwasalsoabletowriteinavisionary,surrealstyle,notunlikethatofFranzKafka.Agnoninsisted,however,thateventhesesurrealwritings
werealogicalextensionofthetraditionalsources,andhestronglyresistedthenotionthatmorerecentwritershadinfluencedhisstyle.Inparticular,hestoutlydenied
thatKafka'swritingshadaseminalinfluenceonhisownandwentsofarastoclaimthathehadnotevenreadtheworksofKafka.4
Agnonwrotebothnovelsandstoriesandeditedtwoclassicanthologiesofrabbinictexts,DaysofAweandPresentatSinai,bothofwhichhavebeentranslatedinto
English.AmongthenovelsthathavebeentranslatedareTheBridalCanopy,AGuestfortheNight,ASimpleStory,andtheposthumouslypublishedShira.In
addition,twonovellas,BetrothedandEnoandEnam,werepublishedasTwoTales,andanothernovella,IntheHeartoftheSeas,hasalsobeentranslated.This
listoftranslatedworksmaygivetheimpressionthatAgnonwasprimarilyanovelist,but,aswithKafka,Agnon'struegeniusliesinhisshortstories.Whileonlytwo
collectionsofAgnon'sstoriesareavailableinEnglish,TwentyoneStoriesandABookThatWasLostandOtherStories,theyaresufficienttodemonstrateAgnon's

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masteryoftheform,evenintranslation,forAgnon'swritings,whichdrawoneverystratumofHebrewliterature,areexceptionallydifficulttotranslate.Itisnothardto
imaginethathadAgnonlivedafewcenturiesearlier,andnotbeenexposedtothetemptationofwritingfiction,hewouldhavebeenoneofthegreatrabbinic
commentators.Atthesametimeadeepskepticism,borderingonreligiousdoubt,isalsoanessentialelementinhiswritings.
JustasAgnonstraddlestwoworlds,oneancient,onemodern,inhiswritings,sohedidinhislife,whereheledthelifeofanOrthodoxJewwhileretainingclosetiesto
thelessobservantliteraryandscholarlycommunities,wherehisclosestfriendsincludedGershomScholemandMartinBuber.Indeed,BuberandScholemstrongly
influencedAgnontomovefromBerlintomakehishomeinJerusalem.
AmongAgnon'sgreatestliteraryinfluenceswasRabbiNachmanofBratslay,whosecomplexfairytalesareinterpretedbytheBratslaverhasidimasiftheywere
Torah.RabbiNachmanpointedthewayforAgnontowritesacredtalesinasecularworld.Also,inAgnon'sworld,asinRabbiNachman's,everyactisasymbolic
one.In"Agunot,"5 whichisgenerallyregardedasAgnon'ssignaturetale,agirlwhoisbetrothedisseducedbythesingingofanartistashebuildsanarkforanew
sanctuary.AlthoughheisexpectedtodedicatehimselftoGod,hedirectshissonginsteadtotheimpressionablegirl.Later,discoveringhehasgone,shestrikestheark
inonefatalmoment,andasaresultofthissymbolicstrikingoutatGod,herlifeandthoseofmanyothersareturnedupsidedown.
Agnon'sclearandintentionaluseoftraditionalsourcesconveysavisionofcircularhistory.HisstoriesfulfillthePassoverinjunctiontorelivetheExodus,notmerely
recallit.In"OnOneStone,"6 awriterwhoisclearlyAgnonhimselfplanstowriteastoryaboutthestonethatopenedupforthelegendarykabbalistRabbiAdamBaal
Shem,sothathecoulddeposithismanuscriptthereforsafekeeping.Atonepointthewriterhasavisioninwhichhepeersintothestoneandseesthewritingonevery
page.Hegoesofftowritethestoryinaforest,wherenoonewilldisturbhim.Justasheisabouttofinishit,heseesanoldmanwhoislostandhurriestoassisthim,
leavingthepagesbehind.Then,justbeforetheSabbath,hereturnstorecoverhismanuscript,onlytoseeit,too,swallowedupbyastone.Yeteveninthismiraculous
recurrencethereisanirony,forinthiswaythewriterhaslosthisstory.AnditisthisbalanceofreverenceandironythatbestcharacterizesAgnon'swritings.
ThisbriefstoryaboutastoryrevealsagreatdealaboutAgnon'srelationshiptotherabbinicsourceshedrewupon.AllofJewishliteratureislikeanarcheologicaldig,
withthewritingsofeachgenerationbuiltontheseofthepreviousones,andAgnonwasthegreatestliteraryarcheologistofall,whosewritingstransformtheancient
Jewishliterarytraditionintoaliving,secularone.Atthesametime,hisbestworkstranscendthesesources,creatinguniversalfictionsthatbeartheimprintofaliterary
master.

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Agnon'suseofsourcesiswellillustratedinhis"FableoftheGoat,"7 whichisbasedonafolktaleaboutagoatthatdiscoversanenchantedcaveofferingpassage
directlytoandfromtheHolyLand.Thedelicioustasteofthegoat'smilkinthistalederivesfromthefactthatithasbeengrazingintheHolyLand.Andwhenthe
father,inhismistakengrief,hasthegoatslaughteredwhenitreturnswithouthisson,healsodestroyshislinktotheHolyLand,andcausesthesecretlocationofthe
enchantedcavetobelost.
TheaggadicprototypeforthisfableislikelytobefoundinthelegendsconcerningtheCaveofMachpelah,8 inwhichthebodiesofAdamandEveweresaidtobe
buriedperfectlypreservedalongwiththoseofthePatriarchs,andwhichwasfilledwiththearomaoftheGardenofEden,suggestingthatthecavewaslocatedin
thevicinityoftheGarden.ThisbeliefisdirectlystatedintheZohar.AparallelmotifisalsofoundinthehasidiclegendaboutthejourneyoftheBaalShemTovtothe
HolyLand.9 HererobbersoffertoshowtheBaalShemTovashortwaytotheLandofIsraelthroughcavesandundergroundpassages.ButwhentheBaalShemTov
enteredthecavehesawtheretheflamingswordwhichturnedeveryway(Gen.3:24),meaningthatthewaywasclosedtohim.Alsostandingbehindthisfableof
Agnon'sisthemessianictraditionthatwhentheEndofDaysarrives,"therighteouswhowereburiedabroad...willrollthroughundergroundcavesuntiltheyreach
theLandofIsrael.AndwhentheyreachtheLandofIsraelHewillputthespiritoflifeintothemandtheywillstandup."10
TheIsraelFolktalesArchivesinHaifahascollectedadozenormorevariantsofthisfolktale,someaboutagoat,someacow.Oneoftheseisremarkablycloseto
Agnon'sversionofthetale,suggestingthathehimselfmayhaveheardthetaleandretolditinawaythatisquiteclosetotheoriginal,exceptforelementsofstyleand
interpretation,which,ofcourse,arecentralinAgnon'swriting.Atranslationofthisorallycollectedfolktalefollows:11
InYemen,inavillagenearTzena,livedaverypoorJewwhoscarcelyearnedenoughforhimselfandhisfamily.Everydayhewentouttothefieldswiththefewpoorgoatshehad.
Intheeveninghemilkedthemandsoldtheirmilkcheaply.Onlyverypoorpeoplewouldbuythemilkfromhim,formostJewshadtheirowngoatsandcowsthatweretakento
grazebyArabshepherds,butourpoorJewwouldhimselfgotothefieldsforhisgoatstograzeandhewenttoagreatdealoftroubletofindthemgrazingland.Whenhereturned
intheevening,beforenightfall,tohishome,hewastired,wornout,andbroken.
Onedaythepoormangotsick.Hedidnotgoouttothegrazinglandandaskedhistwosons,agedfourteenandten,togoinhisstead.Thetworoseinthemorningandwentto
lookforgrazingland.Buttheydidnotfindany,fortheytookthewrongroad.
Suddenlyoneofthegoatslefttheherdandtheeldersonfollowedittobringitback.Thegoatstartedtorunthesonranalso.Thegoatfledandthe

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sonfollowed.Hecalledtohisyoungerbrother:"ReturnhomemeanwhilewiththeothergoatsandI'llfollowwiththestubbornone."
Sotheyoungerbrotherreturnedwiththegoatsandtheeldercontinuedtochasethefleeinggoat.Timepassed,andtheelderbrotherfailedtoreturnhome.Hisfamilybeganto
worry,andasmoretimepassed,theirworryincreased.Thenextdaytheybegantoprayforhiswellbeingandevenfasted.Buthedidnotreturnhome.
Thegoatherd'ssoncontinuedtopursuethegoatuntil,towardevening,hefollowedittoawonderfulsitewherehesaworangesradiatinglikethesun,appletreesilluminatinglike
themoon,pearsfullofjuice,olivegroves,andvineyards.Amongthevarioustreesranstreamsofpureclearwatertorefreshthesoulanddelighttheeye.
Thegoatsplashedaboutintheclearwateranddrankofit,thenrubbeditselfagainstthetreetrunks.Theson,intoxicatedbythesightbeforehiseyes,whichseemedtohimto
resembletheGardenofEden,couldnotleavetheplace.Heateofthefruittreesandhisdesirewasgreattostaythereandcontinuetoenjoythegoodnessandbeautyoftheplace.
Thegoatherd'ssontookapieceofpaperandwrote,"DearFather,Iaminanenchantedplacecontainingallthedelightsandbeautiesoftheworld,averitableGardenofEden.
Please,Father!Leaveyourimpoverishedhomeandcomeheretoenjoyallthegoodnessofthesite.AndyouwillneveragainsufferpovertyanddeprivationforGodshowedme
thewayandthegoatledmehere."
Whenhefinishedwriting,hetookthenoteandputitinthegoat'searandthegoatreturnedtothepoorgoatherd'shome.
Thegoatreturnedtothegoatherd'shomealiveandwell.Whenitarrived,theentirehouseholdhastenedtogreetit,buttheirpainwasgreatwhentheysawthatthegoathad
returnedwithoutthesonandwithoutanysignofwhathadcometopasswiththem.
Thehouseholdbelievedthatthesonhadbeenkilledandwouldnotreturnhome.Theyimmediatelybegantoweepandeulogizethelossoftheirpoorboy.Whentheygotupfrom
thedaysofmourningthebereavedfathertookthegoatandoutofdeepsorrowandpainatthedeathoftheson,slaughteredit,forhecouldnotbeartolookatthecauseofhis
son'sdeath.Morningandeveningthegoatremindedhimofhisbelovedsonandthecauseofhisdeath.
Afterthefatherslaughteredthegoat,hesuddenlyfoundthenoteinitsear.Hequicklyreaditandimmediatelyregrettedhisrashbehavior.Whatapitythatthegoatcouldnot
showhimwherehissonwas,thesiteofhappinessandplenty,ofrestandtranquility.
Thepoorfatherremainedwretcheduntiltheendofhisdaysandneveragainheardanythingabouthiselderson.Andthesoncontinuedtoenjoythedelightsoftheplace,which
wasliketheGardenofEden,andwaitedanxiouslyforhisfatherandfamilytocome.Heneverunderstoodwhatpreventedhisfatherandfamilyfromjoininghim.

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AssumingthatsomeversionofthiswellknownfolktalewasfamiliartoAgnon,itisinterestingtonotewhichversionofthestoryheisdrawntoretell.Inthefolktale,
theyoungmanisledbyagoattowhatappearstobe''averitableGardenofEden,"whileAgnon,stillalludingtoreferencetotheGardenofEden,directlyidentifiesthe
placetheyoungmancomestoastheLandofIsrael,specifically,theholycityofSafed.Indoingsohetransformsthemeaningofthetale,whichbecomesinsteadan
allegoryoftheprocessofseparationbetweentheolderandyoungergenerationsthatAgnon,whoemigratedtoPalestinefromPoland,wasintimatelyfamiliarwith.The
cave,whichdoesnotappearinthisversionofthefolktale(butdoesinmostotherversions),becomes,inAgnon'srendering,amagicallinkbetweentheoldcountry
andtheLandofIsrael,whichbothparentsandtheirchildrenlongedfor.Theexistenceofsuchanenchantedcaveisexplainedbythemessianictraditionthatthereare
hiddencavesthroughoutthewholeworld,whichthebonesofthedeadwillrollthroughatthetimeoftheMessiah,untiltheyreachtheMountofOlives,wheretheywill
beresurrected.Asforthereasonforthecontinuedseparationoftheyoungmanandhisfamily,thiswasbroughtaboutbythekillingofthegoat,whichthereforecould
notleadthefathertohisson.InthiswayAgnonhasmadethestorymuchmorepoignanttohisHebrewreaders,themselvesimmigrantslikelyseparatedfrommanyin
theirfamilieswhoremainedbehind.
Agnonbuildshisstoriesoutofbiblical,rabbinic,andfolksources.In"TheFableoftheGoat,"thefatherdiscovershiserrorinslaughteringthegoatandcriesout,"My
son,myson,whereareyou?Myson,wouldthatImightdieinyourstead,myson,myson!"ThesemovinglinesaretakendirectlyfromthewordsofKingDavidon
hearingofthedeathofhisson,Absalom(2Sam.19:1).FortheHebrewreaderfamiliarwiththebiblicaltext,therecanbenodoubtabouttheoriginofthisspeech,
andtheemotionalcontextoftheoriginaliseasilytransferredtothemoderntale,enrichingitinmanyrespects.
ThuswhileAgnonhasundoubtedlybeentruetothesource,hehasalsosubtlyintroducednewelementsthathaveenhancedandenlargedthescopeofthemeaningof
theoriginal,whilepreservingitsoriginalintent.ThisapproachischaracteristicofasubstantialpartofAgnon'swork,becauseitwashisintentbothtoenhanceand
transmitthesourceshewasdrawnto.Inmanyothercases,however,Agnon'sreworkingoftheoriginaltextismuchmoreextensive.Yeteveninthesecasesitis
possibletorecognizeinhisnarrativestheimprintofthetraditionthatstandsbehindthemandonwhichhisstoriesandnovelshavebeenbuilt.
WhileAgnonwassomethingofaselfcontainedphenomenon,thelastinthelonglineofscribes,theoppositeistrueofPeretz,whoseworkbecametheprimarymodel
formuchofYiddishliterature.Drawntotherabbinic,thefolk,andthehasidicmodels,Peretzwasalmostalwaystruetothespiritofhissources,butnotinaliteral
way.Hewouldreinterpretandembellish,fillingeachofhisstorieswithhisgenerousspirit.Thisvoiceof

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thestorytellerisalwayspresentinhistalesandgivesthemanexceptionalvitality.PeretzsawhisroleasthatofatransmitterofJewishtraditionandalsoservedasa
mentortoagreatmanyyoungerwriters.Indeed,hisstories,agreatmanyofthemdrawingontraditionalfolkandhasidicsources,areanexceptionalbodyofJewish
tales.
OneofthemostremarkableaspectsofPeretz'scareerwashisuseofthefolklorebroughttohimattheendoffolktaleexpeditionsbyhisfriendS.Ansky,theauthorof
TheDybbuk.PeretzwoulddebriefAnskyofhistalesandthenmakedirectuseofthem.Inoneinstance,AnskymarveledathowPeretztransformedoneofthetales
hehadbroughthimonlyamonthearlier,relatingittoAnskyasapolishedtale,whereastheoriginalhadbeenaroughgem.AnotherprimarysourceforPeretzwasthe
hasidictale.Steepedinhasidiclore,Peretzinmanycasescombinedandlinkedvarioustalesandwovethemintoaseamlessfabric.
AnexampleofPeretz'suseofsourcescanbeseenbycomparinghisversionof"TheStoryoftheHeGoatWhoCouldn'tSayNo"12withthehasidictaleofthe
KotzkerRebbe,RabbiMenachemMendelofKotzk,onwhichitisbased.ThePeretzstoryisaboutahegoatwholivedintheruinofasynagogueandnibbledthe
grassthere,intheveryspotswherethearkoftheTorahhadbeenandwhereJewishbloodhadbeenshed.Duetosomestrangequalityofthatgrass,itmadethe
goat'shornsgrowsolongtheyreachedthesky.AtmidnightthegoatusedtoraiseitshornstotheheavensandaskifitwastimefortheMessiahtocome.Themoon
repeateditsquestiontothestars,untilthequestionreachedthehighestheavens,causingGodtosigh.ThenithappenedthataJewaskedthegoatifitcouldtakeabit
ofitshornforasnuffbox,andthegoatcouldn'tsayno.Thewordgotaround,andeveryonewantedsuchafinesnuffbox,andinthiswaythegoathadnohornsleftto
reachintoheaven.
Herefollowstheoriginalversionofthetale,"TheSacredGoat,"whichistoldabouttheKotzkerRebbe:13
RabbiYitzhakofVorkiwasoneoftheveryfewwhowereadmittedtoRabbiMendelduringtheperiodwhenhekeptawayfromtheworld.OncehevisitedKotzkafteralong
absence,knocked,enteredRabbiMendel'sroom,andsaidingreeting,"Peacebewithyou,rabbi."
"Whydoyousayrabbitome?"grumbledtherabbiofKotzk."Iamnorabbi!Don'tyourecognizeme!I'mthegoat!I'mthesacredgoat.Don'tyourememberthestory?
"AnoldJewoncelosthissnuffboxmadeofhorn,onhiswaytothehouseofstudy.Hewailed,'Justasifthedreadfulexileweren'tenough,thismusthappentome!Ohme,ohmy,
I'velostmysnuffboxmadeofhorn!'Andthenhecameuponthesacredgoat.Thesacredgoatwaspacingtheearth,andthetipsofhisblackhornstouchedthestars.Whenhe
heardtheoldJewlamenting,heleaneddowntohim,andsaid'Cutapiecefrommyhorns,whateveryouneedtomakeanewsnuffbox.'TheoldJewdidthis,madea

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newsnuffbox,andfilleditwithtobacco.Thenhewenttothehouseofstudyandofferedeveryoneapinch.Theysnuffedandsnuffed,andeveryonewhosnuffeditcried,'Oh,
whatawonderfulbox!Whereverdidyougetit?'Sotheoldmantoldthemaboutthesacredgoat.Andthen,oneaftertheother,theywentoutonthestreetandlookedforthe
sacredgoat.Thesacredgoatwaspacingtheearthandthetipsofhisblackhornstouchedthestars.Oneafteranothertheywentuptohimandbeggedpermissiontocutoffabit
ofhishorns.Timeaftertimethesacredgoatleaneddowntogranttherequest.Boxafterboxwasmadeandfilledwithtobacco.Thefameoftheboxesspreadfarandwide.Atevery
stephetook,thesacredgoatmetsomeonewhoaskedforapieceofhishorns.
"Nowthesacredgoatstillpacestheearthbuthehasnohorns."

AscanbeseenbycomparingthistalewiththatofPeretz,hehasbeenessentiallyfaithfultothenarrative.Whathehasaddedtothetale,aboveall,isasenseof
identificationwiththeram,whichbroadensourunderstandingoftheextentofitssacrifice.Peretzinventsthestoryoftheoriginoftheram'shorns(itgrazedintheruin
ofasynagogue).Providingsuchoriginsis,ofcourse,anessentialelementintheaggadictradition.Thissourceofnourishmentforthegoat,whograzes,inparticular,at
twospotsthatoftheTabernacleandwhereJewishbloodhadbeenshedexplainsthemiraculousgrowthofitshorns.InthiswayPeretzmakesthegoatasymbol
ofJewishtradition,whichmakescontactwithGodpossible.Theenchantedgoatdescribedhereisafiguredirectlyoutofmythology,whoseessenceisJewishbecause
ofthelinkitshornscreatebetweenearthandheaven,akindofJacob'sladder.
Ontheotherhand,PeretzomitsfromhisversiontheconnectionbetweentheKotzkerRebbeandthegoat.TheKotzkerRebbeassertsthatheisthegoat.Butbythe
endofthetaleitisapparentthatbythishemeansthathe,likethegoatwholostitshorns,hasbeenwornawaybythedemandsmadeofhim.Peretzalsotransforms
thetaleintoamessianicone,havingthegoathook"thepointsofhishornaroundthemoon,toholdher"andask:"Isn'tittimeyetfortheMessiahtocome?"Thissets
offacosmicecho,inwhichtheram'squestionreachesallthewaytoGod'sThroneofGlory.Thisabilityoftheramtohaveitsquestionwhichisalsomankind's
questionreachintothehighestheavens,Peretzimplies,mighthaveultimatelysucceededinbringingtheMessiah.Butwhentheram'shornsarecutoff,duetothe
goat'scompassionandmen'sselfishness,thecomingoftheMessiahisdelayedwhoknowsforhowlong?
PeretzplayedapivotalroleinbringingmodernJewishreadersandwriterstoregardtheoldtraditionasatreasurehouseofrichesthatcouldbedrawnupon.And
becausehehimselfwasapurevessel,hesucceededintransmitting,aswell,anessentialreverenceforJewishtradition.14
ThroughmostofthehistoryofYiddishliteraturethedominantfigureswereMendeleMokherSeforim,SholomAleichem,I.L.Peretz,DerNister,

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and,beforehisaccusationsofapostasy,SholemAsch.However,allofthesefigureshavebeeneclipsedbythemajorroleIsaacBashevisSingercametoplay.Singer's
receiptoftheNobelPrizein1979wasconfirmationnotonlyofhisworldstaturebutalsoofthevalidityofthemodernYiddishtradition.Singerwasoneofthelastof
thedyingtraditionofYiddishliteratureandpossiblyitsgreatestexemplar.LikePeretzandSholomAleichem,SingerpublishedhisstoriesandnovelsintheForward.
AndliketheearlierYiddishmasters,Singerminedtheaggadictraditionformuchofhissubjectmatter.Butunlikemostofthemhewasawriterwhowasasfascinated
withthepassionsofthefleshashewaswiththemysteriesofexistence.
SingerwasbornintoarabbinicfamilyinLeoncin,avillageinPoland,in1904andgrewupinWarsaw,wherehebeganhiswritingcareerin1925.Itisimportantto
emphasizethecrucialroleplayedbyhisolderbrother,IsraelJoshuaSinger,authorofYosheKalbandTheBrothersAshkenazi,inthecareerofhisyoungerbrother.
Singer'semigrationtotheUnitedStatesin1935andthesubsequentdestructionofthePolishJewishcommunitiesbytheNazisinWorldWarIIcreatedasituationin
whichhehadtoturn,ofnecessity,tohismemoryandimaginationforsubjectmatter.SogreatwashissuccessthatformanyreadersSinger'sdescriptionsoflifein
prewarPolandformthebasisfortheirconceptionofthisperiod.Tohisdetractors,Singer'scharacterportraits,withtheiremphasisonthegrotesqueandthetension
betweenthesacredandthesexual,areoverworkedandexaggerated.ButSingerhasalwaysemphasizedtheprimaryroleoftheimaginationinhisstoriesandnovels.It
isatributetothepowerofhisimaginedworldsthatthisdisputehaslongcontinuedtosmolder.
SpurredbytheacclaimreceivedbyhisfirststorytobetranslatedintoEnglish(bySaulBellow),"GimpeltheFool,"15andbyhisnaturalattractiontotheshortstory
form,Singercontinuedtoworkinthisgenre,andtheregularappearanceofmanyofhisstoriesinTheNewYorkerandothermagazinesbroadenedhisaudience
immeasurably,as,ofcourse,didthereceiptoftheNobelPrizein1978.
Singer'sfirstnovelstobetranslatedandpublishedinEnglishwereTheFamilyMoskat,arealisticfamilychronicle,andSataninGoray,anovelaboutthehysteriain
17thcenturyPolandbroughtonbythehopesraisedbythefalsemessiah,ShabbataiZevi.Thesebookswerewellreceived,butitwasnotuntilthepublicationof
Singer'sfirstbookofshortstories,GimpeltheFool,in1957,thathiswritingsbegantoattractworldwideattention.ForalthoughSingerisahighlyaccomplished
writerineverystyleandformathehastried,hisgreatestsuccesseshavecomeintherealmoftheshortstory,wherehemustbenumberedamongthemastersinworld
literature.
Singeris,aboveall,astoryteller.Indeed,onmanyoccasionsSingerstatedthatheconsideredthisabilitytobethemostimportantawritercanpossess.Eventhe
demonsandimpswhofrequentlynarratehisstoriesdemonstratethesamekeen,ifsomewhatironic,intelligenceastheircreator,andlikehimtheycarefullyobserve
everysituationandattempttopenetrate

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everymystery.Singerisamasterofironyandsatire,modesthatarerarelyencounteredinthetraditionalliterature.WhilesomeYiddishreadershaveregardedSinger's
useofironyandsatireinconjunctionwithsacredsourcesasabetrayal,othersacceptitasanevolutioninstyle,wheretheessenceofhissourcesremainsessentially
intact.
SuchauseofironycharacterizesSinger'sstory"SabbathinGehenna."16ThemythsofGehenna,17Jewishhell,areintroducedintheTalmudastheinverseof
everythingParadiserepresents.Theconceptof"Gehenna"isbasedonthebiblicalValleyofGehinnomandbiblicalpassagesaboutthepunishmentofsinners,suchas
thatfoundinPsalm11:6:UponthewickedHewillcausetoraincoalsfireandbrimstoneandburningwindshallbetheportionoftheircup.Inmanyrabbinic
sourcesGehennaisdescribedastheplacewherethesoulsofsinnersaresubjectedtoapainfulprocessofpurificationthatlastsforuptotwelvemonthsbeforethey
arepermittedtoascendtotheheavenlyabode.ThisparallelbetweenParadiseandGehennaismadeexplicitinthefollowingtalmudicpassage:18
Eachpersonhastwoportions,oneintheGardenofEdenandtheotherinGehenna.Ifapersonisworthyandrighteous,hetakeshisshareandthatofhisfellowintheGarden
whileifhehasincurredguiltandiswicked,hetakeshisshareandthatofhisfellowinGehenna.

ThenatureofGehennaandthepunishmentsofthewickedareportrayedindetailinavarietyoftalmudicpassages,suchasthisone:19
TheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,punishesthewickedinGehennafortwelvemonths.Firstheforcesthemtoenterthecold,thentoenterafire,andthentoenterthesnow,where
theysay"Woe,woe."

Thesepunishmentsandothersareembellishedinsubsequenttexts,suchastheMidrashRabbahandtheZohar.ItisintheZohar(2:251a)thatwefindtheissueof
SabbathinGehennadealtwithdirectly:20
EverySabbatheve,whenthedaybecomessanctified,heraldsgoouttoallthosecompartmentsofGehennaannouncing,"Ceasepunishingthesinners,fortheHolyKing
approachesandtheDayisabouttobesanctified.Heprotectsall!"Instantlyallpunishmentceases,andtheguiltyhavearespite.ButthefireofGehennadoesnotletofffrom
thosewhoneverobservedtheSabbath.SincetheydidnotobservetheSabbathbefore,theywillhavenorespiteforever.AnangelwhosenameisSantriel,whichmeansGodismy
Guardsman,goesandfetchesthebodyofthesinner.HebringsittoGehennabeforetheeyesoftheguilty,andtheyseehowithasbredworms.Theyknowthesoulofsucha
sinnerhasnorespitefromthefireofGehenna.Andallthoseguiltywhoaretheresurroundthatbodyandproclaimoveritthat"thispersonisguilty,forhewouldnotregardthe
honorofhisMaster,hedeniedtheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,anddeniedtheTorah.Woetohim!Itwouldhavebeen

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betterforhimnevertobecreatedandnottobesubjectedtothispunishmentandthisdisgrace!"
RabbiYehudasaid:"AftertheSabbathgoesouttheangelcomesandtakesthatbodybacktoitsgrave,andboththebodyandthesoularepunished,eachinitsownway."
Andallthistakesplacewhilethebodyisstillwellpreserved.Butoncethebodyisdecayed,itnolongersuffersallthesepunishments.Theguiltyonesarepunishedintheir
bodiesandtheirsouls,eachwithasuitablepunishment,solongasthebodyinthegraveisintact.Butwhenthebodybreaksdownthepunishmentofthesoulceases.Hewho
mustleaveGehennaleaves,andhewhomustfindresthasrest.Hewhomustbecomeashesanddustunderthefeetofthepiousturnstoashesanddusttoeachoneisdone
whatissuitableforhim.

WhileSinger'ssatiricviewofGehennaimpliesalackofbeliefinit,thereisindeedtraditionalbasisforthisview,whichcanalsobefoundreflectedinthefollowing
storyaboutGehennathatwasattributedtoMiriam,thesisterofRebShmelkeofNicholsberg,whomitconcerns:
TheholyRebShmelkelivednextdoortoamitnagdid,afierceopponentofthehasidim,whounderstoodtheletteroftheLawinthemostliteralway.Thereforeheperformed
Havdalah,theceremonyendingtheSabbath,assoonasthreestarsappearedinthesky.RebShelmke,ontheotherhand,kepttheSabbathcandlesburningfarintothenight.And
longafterhehadfinishedsayingHavdalah,theneighborwouldpeeroutsidehiswindowandseethattheSabbathcandleswerestillburningnextdoor.Andthatbotheredhimto
noend.
ThisneighbortookitonhimselftosaveRebShmelkefromthissin.Soassoonasthreestarswouldappearinthesky,hewouldopenhiswindowandshout:"Threestars!Timefor
Havdalah!"TheseshoutswoulddisturbRebShmelke'sreveries.Nonetheless,RebShmelkerestrainedhimself,andneversaidanythingaboutittohisneighbor.Instead,he
continuedtosavortheSabbathformanyhoursafterhisneighborhadremindedhimthattheSabbathwasover.
SeeingthathehadfailedtoconvinceRebShmelketochangehisways,theneighbordecidedonamoredrasticapproach.Assoonasthethreestarsappeared,hewentoutside,
pickedupsomepebbles,andthrewthemthroughRebShemlke'swindow.OneofthosepebblesstruckRebShmelke,tearinghimfromthearmsoftheSabbathQueen.RebShmelke
feltthepainofhisloss,butheknewaswellthathisneighborhadmadeaterriblemistake.Andbeforemanymonthshadpassed,theneighborbecamesickanddied.
Somemonthsafterthat,whenRebShmelkewassittingattheSabbathtable,aboutthetimethefirstthreestarsappeared,hesuddenlysmiledmysteriously.Andhemumbledthe
words"Frombelowtheylookabove,fromabove,below."Noneofhishasidimunderstoodwhathemeant,buttheyhad

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towaituntiltheendoftheSabbathtoaskhim.ThenRebShmelkesaid:"ThesoulofourneighborwassenttoGehennaforhissins,whereheispunishedallweeklongbutspared
ontheSabbath.Butassoonasthreestarsappear,theangelsdraghimbacktoGehenna.Andallthewaythereheshouts,'ButRebShmelkeisstillcelebratingtheSabbath!'"21

Thisstory,whichtakestheformofajoke,revealsthatthedarkhumoroftheJewsevenfoundawaytomakefunofthefateofthosewhowerebeingpunishedin
Gehenna.Thishumordoesnotnecessarily,though,implythattheynolongerbelieveinit.Singer'ssatire,ontheotherhand,hasamockingedge,especiallyashe
roastshisfellowYiddishwriters,andsuggestsmoredoubtthanbelief.
AsaformeryeshivahstudentinWarsaw,I.B.Singerbecameacquaintedwiththefullrangeoftraditionalsources,includingtheTorah,theTalmud,andtheMidrash,
andhealsoexploredtheesotericworldoftheKabbalahanditsprimarytext,theZohar.BlendingdetailsaboutGehennadrawnfromthesesources,Singerpresentsa
criticalviewofhellthatisadistortedextensionofthehellishpresent.Despitehisuseofauthenticsources,theprimarydifferencebetweentheseandSinger'sstoryis
substantialbecauseSingerchoosestoregardthewholeinasatiricallight,andidentifiesthesufferersasYiddishwriterswhohaveallbeencondemnedtoGehennafor
theirsins.TakingaslantedlookatbothtraditionalsourcesandthepresentbybringinghisironicvisiontothemisquitecharacteristicofSingerandprobablyaccounts
formuchofhisliterarysuccessaswellasfortheanimosityfeltforhimbythetraditionalists.22Theobjectofthestory,then,istosatirizetheYiddishwritingcommunity
asmuchasitistousethetraditionalsourcesforGehenna.TheironyisparticularlypointedwhentheYiddishwritersdecide,eveninGehenna,thatthethingtodois
tostartanewspaper,andSingercreatesagreatdealofcomedyoutofthissituation.
ManyreadershavewonderedtowhatextentSingerbasedhisstorieswithsupernaturalthemesonexistingJewishfolktales.Acloseexaminationofthesestories
revealsthatwhileSingerdoesoccasionallybaseastoryonanexistingfolknarrative,ingeneralhecreatestheplotsofthesetaleshimself,butpopulateshisstorieswith
authenticfiguresoutofJewishfolklore.Singer'suseofthesefiguresisentirelywithintheirrolesinJewishfolklore,whileoperatingwithinplotsofSinger'sowncreation.
ToreadersunfamiliarwiththerichbodyofJewishlegendsandfolklore,thestoriesandnovelsofI.B.Singerhaveafantastic,startlingqualitythatisalmostsurreal.But
tothereaderfamiliarwiththesesources,Singer'swritingsareimmediatelyrecognizableasafusionoftheancientandmodernJewishliterarytraditionswithSinger's
distinctivevision.ThusSinger'sbestwritingsmustbeacknowledgednotonlyasliterarymasterpiecesbutalsoasavaluablestorehouseofthefolkloreandsuperstitions
oftheJewishcommunitythatwascurrentduringhischildhood,whichtheyaccuratelyreflect.23

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Twelve
ModernJewishLiteratureandtheAncientModels
ThevisionfirstformulatedintheBibleandsustainedanddevelopedthroughoutthesubsequentphasesofJewishliteraturehascontinueduninterruptedintothiscentury
inthewritingsofJewishauthorsofmanynationalities.1 TheseincludeNobelPrizewinnerssuchastheHebrewauthorS.Y.AgnonandtheYiddishauthorIsaac
BashevisSinger,aswellasmajorfiguressuchastheYiddishwritersMendeleMoykerSform,I.L.Peretz,SholomAleichem,S.Ansky,DavidPinski,DerNister,
SholemAsch,andItzikMangertheHebrewwritersHayimNachmanBialik,M.J.Berditchevsky,HaimHazaz,YehudaYaari,M.J.Feierberg,AharonAppelfeld,
PinhasSadeh,DavidShaharandDavidGrossmantheRussianwriterIsaacBabeltheGermanwritersMartinBuber,FranzKafka,ElseLaskerSchuler,Franz
Werfel,StefanZweig,andJakovLindtheFrenchwritersAndreSchwarzBart,EdmondJabes,AlbertMemmi,RomainGary,andElieWieselthePortugesewriter
MoacyrScliartheSpanishwritersIsaacGoldemberg,MarioSatz,andIlanStavanstheHungarianwritersLajosSzabolsci,ArnoldKiss,andPeterUjvaritheCzech
writersJir[Ji&rcaron]LangerandLadislavGrosmanthePolishauthorBrunoSchultztheJudezmowritersKameliaShaharandAlfredoSarranaandtheEnglish
languagewritersIsraelZangwill,BernardMalamud,CynthiaOzick,HughNissenson,MeyerLevin,DanJacobson,LeslieA.Fiedler,SteveStern,TovaReich,Ellen
Galford,andFrancineProse.
Beforeproceedingfurther,itwouldbeusefultoconsiderwhytheseauthorshavesoughtinspirationintheancientJewishliterarytraditionandhowintheprocessthey
havecontributedtothatsametraditionandkeptitalive.

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Amongtheliteraryschoolsofmodernism,twodominantmodelshavearisen.Oneisprimarilyconcernedwiththeexternallandscape,andtheotherisconcernedwith
explorationoftheinner,orspiritual,world.Realismisthedominantstyletoemergefromthoseauthorsforwhomtheouterworldhasremainedthecentralsubject,
whilethosewhoseprimaryimpulseistomapouttheinnerlifehaveutilizedthesymbolismassociatedwithdreams,mythology,legends,andvariouskindsofreligious
texts,andtheirprimaryliterarymodehasbeenanallegoricalone.ToalargeextenttheJewishwriterswhohavesoughtinspirationintheancientsourcesmanifestan
impulsetowardselfexplorationandthereforeoftenutilizetheallegoricalorparabolicmode.2
ThekeyfigureinredirectingthemoderngazefromtheworldoutsidetothatwithinisFranzKafka.Kafka'sstorieshavetheimpactofmyths,andtherearemany
modernreaderscarryinghisdarkmythsaroundintheirheads.Kafka'snovel,TheTrial,andmanyofhisstories,especially"InthePenalColony,"arewidely
acknowledgedasaprophecyofthecomingwarandHolocaustinEurope.Amonghisotheraccomplishments,Kafkasinglehandedlyresurrectedalostliteraryform,
theparable.HisbookParablesandParadoxesincludessuchclassicsas"BeforetheLaw,"excerptedfromTheTrial,aboutamanfromthecountrywhoseeks
entrancethroughthegatesoftheLawwhetherheavenlyortemporalisnotclearonlytoberepeatedlydenied.Therearealsobrieftalesthatreimaginethebiblical
accountsoftheGardenofEden,theTowerofBabel,Abraham,MountSinai,andthebuildingoftheTempleinJerusalem.Theseparablesareremarkablysimilarto
thekindofrabbiniccommentaryontheBiblefoundintheMidrash,andassuchtheyconstituteanearlyandveryinfluentialexampleofmodernmidrash.
Ofcourse,thismovementtowardtheuseofparablehasnotbeenlimitedtoJewishauthorsbyanymeansitcrossestheentirespectrumofmodernmasterssuchas
JorgeLuisBorges,GabrielGarciaMarquez,andItaloCalvino.ButwhileBorgesdrawshisinspirationfromamultitudeoftraditions,S.Y.Agnonwasabletofocusall
hisenergiesintosustainingandrejuvenatingaliterarytraditionthatreachesbackalmostthreethousandyears.Veryfewmodernauthorshavehadtheopportunityto
workwithinsuchatradition,andvirtuallyallofthemodernJewishauthorsunderdiscussionfeelenhancedbytheirheritageandtheopportunitytoreceiveandtransmit
it.Incontrast,manymodernauthorsfeeloutsideofalltraditionandasaresulthaveevolvedbleakandnarrowworldvisions,suchasthatofSamuelBeckett.
Naturally,thereisawidevarietyofstylesandtechniquesthatareusedbythesemodernJewishauthors.Eachconceivesofhisrelationshiptotheancienttraditioninhis
orherowntermsandmayvaryhisorherapproachfromstorytostory.Buttheessentialfactisthatthesewritersdonotregardtheirtraditionasaburden,butasa
blessing.
Theadvantagesofworkingwithinatraditionhavebeenamplydemonstratedinthepast,notablybyDanteandMilton.Whileitistruethatthe

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modernenvironmentdoesnotofferthebroadlybasedsupportthatmedievalChristiancultureprovidedDante,theJewishliterarytradition,whichhasremained
unbroken,hasleftaremarkablydeepimprintonasubstantialnumberofmodernJewishauthors.Atthesametimetheseauthorshaveopenedthemselvestothe
varioustypesofmodernliteraturethathaveemergedinthiscentury,andhaveutilizedthesevariousapproachesinexploringandminingtheancienttradition.Theresult
isthatthisancient,essentiallymythologicalliterature,theAggadah,emergingoutofalegalisticelement,theHalakhah,haslentitselfperfectlytoaninfinitevarietyof
mythictransformations.
Tofullyappreciatethecreativeprocessofthemodernauthorinretellingtheancienttale,itisnecessarytoobservetheelementsofeachversionthatcoincideandthose
thatdiverge.Thepartsthataretraditionalserveastheframeonwhichthemodernauthorweaveshisretelling,andthepartsthatareoriginalconstitutethenew
directionsthetaletakes.3 Insomecasesthismodernmaterialissosimilartotheancientsourcesastobealmostindistinguishable,whiletherearealsostoriesinwhich
theinfluenceofthesourcesisfarmoreremoteandsometimesdisguised.ManytalesabouttheBaalShemTov,founderofhasidism,recountedbyIsraelZangwill,S.
Ansky,M.J.Berditchevsky,andMeyerLevin,forexample,arebaseddirectlyonthetalespublishedbytheBaalShemTov'shasidiminvolumessuchasShivheiha
Besht,althoughtheyhavebeenretoldinwellcraftednarratives,combiningthosetalesthatcanreadilybelinked.MartinBuber'sversionsofthesesamelegends,
however,inthevolumeTheLegendoftheBaalShem,takegreaterliberties.Inthiscase,andthatofBuber'sTheTalesofRabbiNachman,Buber'sprimary
impulsewasclearlyaliteraryone.Evenwhenheveersawayfromtheoriginal,heremainsamasterofstyleandexpression.Buber'slaterversionsofthesesamestories
inTalesoftheHasidim,ontheotherhand,aremuchclosertotheoriginalsources.Inbothcases,however,theearlyandthelater,Bubersoughtouttalesthat
confirmedhispurevisionofHasidismandavoidedthosethatdidnot.Thosehechosehethenrevisedtoconformtohisownliteraryviews,andallofthesebear
Buber'sdistinctimprint.4
WhilethesourcesforallofthesetalesoftheBaalShemareusuallynotdifficulttolocate,therearealsostoriessuchasCynthiaOzick's"ThePaganRabbi,"5 whichis
basedinasubtle,allusivewayontheprototypeofthetalmudichereticElishabenAbuyah,knownasAher.Likewise,PrimoLevi's"LilithintheLager"6 transportsthe
legendofLilithoutofitsfamiliarcontextandtransfersittoaconcentrationcamp,whichsooncomestoseemlikeanappropriateplace,afterall,fordemonstobe
loose.SotoodoesMarioSatz,in"TheNumberoftheName,''7 linkthenumbertattooedonaconcentrationcampinmateandtheesotericfourletterNameofGod,
knownastheTetragrammaton,subjectswhichonthesurfaceseemimpossiblydisparate.ThesestoriesofOzick,Levi,andSatzutilizetheancientsourcesin
unexpectedbuteffectiveways.

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ThecentralparadoxofthistypeofmodernJewishliteratureisthatitisessentiallyasecularliteraturethatmakesextensiveuseofsymbolsdrawnfromasacred
tradition.Thisraisesakeyquestionabouttheintentionsoftheauthorswhochoosetodrawuponthisrichtraditionaretheirobjectivesdirectedprimarilytowardthe
sacredortowardthesecular?ThisquestioniscomplicatedbytheawarenessthathadsomeauthorsworkinginthisgenreespeciallyS.Y.Agnonlivedathousand
yearsago,muchofwhattheywrotewouldundoubtedlyhavebeenacceptedintothesacredtradition.ThatAgnon'swritingsarenotregardedassacreddoesnot
necessarilyreflecthismostsecretdesiresabouthowtheyshouldbeperceived.Ontheotherhand,itislikelythathadDantelivedtodayhewouldhavefoundit
virtuallyimpossibletocreateamasterpiecesuchasTheDivineComedy.MissingtodayisthewideacceptanceofChristianprinciplesthatservedasthefoundationon
whichDantebuilthisliterarycathedral.
ThefactremainsthatcircumstanceshavemadeitnecessaryforJewishauthorsdrawntotheancienttraditiontorecognizethattheirwritingsarebynecessityablendof
thesacredandsecular.Ifweperceivethesacredelementasrepresentativeofanauthenticreligiousimpulse,drawingonapowerful,numinoussymbolism,weshould
beabletoacceptthattheprimarymotivationforbothancientandmodernauthorstowritehasnotchangedverymuchoverthecenturies.Whathaschangedisour
perspectivetowardtheliteraturethatisaproductofsuchexperience.Essentially,theclaimthatthisliteraturederivesfromasacredsource,orwashandeddownas
partoftheoraltradition,hasbeenrejected.Nevertheless,theprimaryimpulsebehindthesewritingshasremainedthesame,andforthisreasonthemostreasonable
waytoregardthemisasacontinuationoftheJewishliterarytradition,makingthattraditionbroadenoughtoincorporateboththesacredandthesecular.
ThemethodsbywhichmodernJewishauthorsareinspiredbyandmakeuseoftraditionalsourcesarediverse.Intermsoftheamountofancientmaterialincorporated
intothemodernwork,thisrangesfrommereallusionsandechoesofthesourcematerialtotheactualincorporationofthesourceintoanexpandedretelling.This
retellingitselfmayrangefromthereverenttotheironic,andmayinsomecasesbeliteralandinothersaradicalreworking.Thefollowingexamplesshouldclarifythese
possibilitiesandindicatethedegreetowhichthesourcematerialservesasastartingpointforthemodernauthor.
AgoodexampleofamoderntalethatisbuiltalmostentirelyonitssourcesisDavidShahar's"OntheLifeandDeathofAbbaye."8 Abbayewasaprominenttalmudic
sage,andinthemanneroftheTalmud,scatteredreferencestohislifearetobefoundthroughoutthetext,amonghishundredsoflegalcommentsanddecisions.
Shaharfirstlocatedthesetexts,andthenwovethemtogethertoformaconsistentvisionofAbbayethatatthesametimeincorporatesvirtuallyallofthesources.His
virtuosityinsmoothlyjugglingthevarioustextsresultsinahighlycoherenttale.Thisis

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farmoreofanaccomplishment,however,thanmayatfirstappeartobethecase.Abbayewasaneccentricamongthesageshebelievedsofullyintheworldofspirits
anddemonsthathewasafraidtobeleftaloneintheprivyandhadalambaccompanyhimthereasachild.Shaharistakenwithhispersonality,andbecauseof
Shahar'sskillinweavingtransitionsbetweenlegends,heisabletoaccomplishwhatarethenovelist'sfinestskillsbringingacharactertolifeandatthesametime
imprintingonthenarrativehisownvisionofAbbaye.
ToassistthisprocessoffleshingoutAbbaye'scharacter.Shahardoesnothesitatetoincorporatehisownexperiences,suchasthatofobservingagreatjuggler,into
thenarrative.Thisisthenaturalimpulseofthestorytellertoaddapartofhisownexperiencetothestory.Atthesametime,Shahardrawsonthetraditionalbeliefthat
demonsarebornfromeveryissueofsementhatgoestowaste.9 Toprotecthimselfinthathouseofdemons,theprivy,Abbayecomposedaprayer.AndShahar
makesuseofthisinformationtosuggest,accordingtothewayhehaslinkedtogetherthelegends,thatinthisactwegaininsightintotheroleofreligioninAbbaye'slife,
wheretheLordofferedhimprotectioninthisworld,protectionbeingsomethinghevaluedaboveallelse.10
SometimesamodernJewishauthorbasesafictionalcharacteronanancientmodel.SuchseemstobethecasewithCynthiaOzick's"ThePaganRabbi,"wherethe
characterofIsaacKornfeld,the"paganrabbi"ofthetitle,maywellhavebeenbasedonthatoftheancienttalmudicsageElishabenAbuyah,whobecameanapostate,
andwasthereafterreferredtoasAher,theOther.ThisstorypursuesthemysteryofIsaac'ssuicideintoarealmwherethemythandmetaphysicsmergeintoa
transcendentalreality.
Isaac,likeElisha,wasfamousforhisbrillianceandimagination:"Hisimaginationwassoremarkablehecouldconcoctholinessoutofthefinelineofaserif."Andlike
Elisha,IsaacreadnotonlysacredJewishtexts,butotherworksaswell:"NosoonerdidIcatchhisjoyinSaadiaGaonthanhehadalreadysprungaheadtoYehudah
Halevi.OnedayhewasweepingwithDostoyevskiandthenextleapingintheairofThomasMann.HeintroducedmetoHegelandNietzschewhileourfathers
wailed."Inafamousepisode,GreekbooksfellfrombeneathElisha'srobe:"ItistoldofAherthatwhenheusedtorisefromtheschoolhouse,manyhereticalbooks
usedtofallfromhislap."11Elisha'sattractiontoGreekthoughtincontrasttotherabbis'intenserejectionofitwaslegendary:"Greeksongdidnotceasefromhis
mouth.''12InIsaacKornfeld'snotebook,thereisfound"Greekwritingthathadtheshapeofverse."
TheparadoxaboutElishabenAbuyahisthathiscommentariesweresoaptthattheywereretainedintheTalmudevenafterhebecameanapostate.Likewise,Isaac
KornfeldpublishedtwobooksofresponsathatwerewidelyrecognizedfortheirbrillianceandmadehimfamousintheworldofJewishscholars.Elisha'sapostasy
was,itiswidelybelieved,inbecomingaGnostic,whileIsaacKornfeld'swasinbecomingapagan,writinginhis

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notebook:"GreatPanlives."ElishasawtheangelMetatronseatedinParadiseandproclaimed:"Therearetwopowersinheaven!"13andlikeElisha's,Isaac'sworld
viewisdistinctlydualistic:therearetwokindsofsouls,thefreeandtheindwelling.Objectsinnaturearepossessedoffreesouls,whilehumansarecursedwiththe
indwellingkind.14LikeElisha,Isaaccomestohisviewreluctantly,overaperiodoftime,acceptingitfinallyinthespiritofasearcherwhowillnotallowhimselftobe
deceived,nomatterhowunsatisfactorytheconclusionhehasreachedistohim:"Hisintentionwasnottoaccumulatemysterybuttodispelit."
Isaac'spaganismisverymuchassociatedwithGreekreligionandisparalleltoElisha'sattractiontoGreekthought.AndlikeElisha's,Isaac'sconclusionsbroughthim
isolationandalienation,fromwhichtherewasnoturningback.ElishatoldRabbiMeir,"IhavealreadyheardfrombehindthePargod:'Returnyebacksliding
children'(Jer.3:14)allexceptAher."15
Aftercouplingwiththedryad,Isaacloseshissoul:"Yourbodyisnowanemptypacket,thatiswhyitislight."ThetragedyofbothfiguresisbroughthomeinElisha's
implicitregret,andinIsaac'sdiscoveryfromthenymphthat"you,poorman,donotknowyourownsoul."Bothareatheartreverent,observantJewswhohave
somehowbeenledastrayfromtheirtruenature.Isaac'ssoultakestheformof"anuglyoldman...withamattedbeardandgreatfierceeyebrows,"who''readsashe
goes."Isaac'sinnerconflictisthusrepresentedintheepigramtothestoryfromPirkeAvot:16"Hewhoiswalkingalongandstudying,butbreaksofftoremark,'How
lovelyisthattree!'or'Howbeautifulisthatfallowfield!'Scriptureregardssuchaoneashavinghurthisownbeing."Isaac'ssoul,theoldman,"readstheLawand
breathesthedustanddoesn'tseetheflowers,"whileIsaac'sbodycannotputthebeautyoftheflowersoutofhissight.Inthiswaytheageoldconflictbetweenbody
andsoulisrepresented,asunresolvedasever,leadingIsaacKornfeld,inevitably,tohisdestruction.Asasuicide,Isaachadtobeburiedoutsidethefence,andAher,
itwasbelieved,wasdeniedtheworldtocomeuntilafterthedeathofRabbiMeir,whosaid:"Itisbetterthatheshouldbejudgedandthatheshouldentertheworldto
come.WhenIdieIshallcausesmoketorisefromhisgrave."AndwhenRabbiMeirdied,smokeroseupfromAher'sgrave.17
AdifferentkindofallusiontorabbinicliteratureisfoundinthewritingsofItzikManger.Mangerwasfirstandforemostapoethewoveaggadicthemesintoballadlike
poemsthatlaterbecamethewordstomanypopularYiddishsongs.ButMangeralsowroteanovel,TheBookofParadise,thatisacomicmasterpiece.Originally
intendedtobethefirstofthreenovels,ithadthemisfortunetobepublishedjustastheGermansinvadedWarsaw,andthestorehouseinwhichthecopieswerekept
wasburned.Onlyafewcopiessurvived.AfterthewarMangerfoundhewasnolongerabletoevokeacomicmood,andheabandonedtheothertwoplanned
volumes.Buttheexistingvolumeisaclassicsatire,drawingonafamousmidrashabouttheinfantinthewomb:18

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Whenthedestinedtimeforachildtobeconceivedarrives,GodsaystotheLailah,theAngelofConception:"Knowthatthisnightawomanshallconceive.Bringforthasperm."
Thistheangeldoes,andtheLordthendecreesifthechildwillbestrongorweak,maleorfemale,wickedorrighteous,richorpoor,beautifulorhomely,tallorshort.Godthen
makesasigntotheangelinchargeofthespiritstobringacertainspirithiddenintheGardenofEden,whosenameisgiven.ThisangelbringsforththisspiritbeforeGod,andat
thatmomentGodsays:"Enterintothissperm."Thespirit,however,alwayspleadswiththeHolyOne,blessedbeHe,nottobeforcedtoentertheimpureworldofbeing,foritis
holyandpure.ButGodexplainsthatHecreatedthespiritonlyforthispurposeandcompelsittoenterthespermagainstitswill.Theangelthencausesittoenterthewombofits
mother.
Duringpregnancy,twoangelswatchovertheembryo.Alightshinesupontheheadofthechild,bywhichitseesfromoneendoftheworldtotheother.Duringthedaytheangel
showsthechildtherewardsoftheGardenofEden,wheretherighteoussitinglorywithcrownsupontheirheads,whileatnightthepunishmentsofGehennaarerevealedtohim,
wherewickedangelsbeatsinnerswithfierystaves.
Attheendoftheninemonths,whenitistimeforthechildtobeborn,thesameangelcomesbackandtellsthechildtocomeforthintotheworld.Andthechildalwaysbegsto
remainintheplacewherehehasbecomeaccustomedtodwell.Theangelthentellsthechildthathewasformedagainsthiswillandthathewillgoforthintotheworldagainsthis
will.Theangelthenlightlystrikesthechildabovethelipwithitsfinger,causingthechildtoforgetwhateverithasseen.Thentheangelextinguishesthelightshiningathishead
andbringsthechildforthintotheworld.Andasitisbroughtforth,itcries.

Thislegendhasbeentakenasanexplanationforthepresenceoftheindentationabovethelip.Mangerhumorouslychangesthistoatugonthenose,providinga
mockingexplanationforthelargenosesassociatedwithJews.Manger'smidrashicsatirerecountsthatShmuelabba,anangel,hasdescendedtothisworld,rebornas
aninfant.Butratherthanlosehismemory,theindependentShmuelabbaputsapieceofclayonhisnose,andthengetstheangelbringinghimtotheworlddrunkon
Messiahwine(which,accordingtoamidrash,hasbeensavedfrombeforetheCreationforthecomingoftheMessiah).Thedrunkenangelonlytwiststheclay,and
Shmuelabbaisbornrememberingeverything,whichhebeginsatoncetotell.Thisservesastheframeworkforasatireaboutthepatriarchs,toldinamockmidrashic
fashion.InthistaleIsaac,whowasknowntohaveaweaknessforvenison,nowlivesinParadise,whereeverydayhetakesapieceofchalkand,althoughheisblind,
stillmarksoffthefinestpartoftheMessiahOxtheoxthatwillnotbeslaughteredandeatenuntiltheMessiahcomes,accordingtoanothermidrash.

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FarmoreallusiveinhisuseofsourcesisHughNissensoninhisstory"ForcingtheEnd."19SettinghisstoryinmodernIsrael,Nissensonretellsthetalmudicepisodeof
theescapeofRabbiYohananbenZakkaifromJerusalemduringtheRomansiege.Althoughtherewasafamine,theZealots,whocontrolledthecity,refusedtoletany
livingpersonleave.ThereforeYohananbenZakkaipretendedthathehaddied,andhewascarriedoutsideofthecityinacoffinbyhisdisciples,withwhomhelater
establishedamajoryeshivahatYavneh.ThestoryistoldintheTalmudasfollows:20
AbbaSikra,theheadoftheZealotsofJerusalem,wasthesonofRabbanYohananbenZakkai'ssister.Yohanansentforhim,saying,"Cometomeinsecret."Whenhecame,
Yohanansaidtohim,"Howlongwillyouactinthiswayandkilltheworldwithhunger?"AbbaSikrasaidtohim,"WhatshallIdo?IfIsayanythingtotheotherZealots,theywill
killme."ThenYohanansaidtohim,"Findawayformetoescapefromthecityperhapstherewillbesomesuccor.''AbbaSikrasaidtohim,"Pretendtobeill,andletalltheworld
cometoaskaboutyou.Andtakesomethingputridandputitnexttoyou,andtheywillsaythatyoudied,andletonlyyourdisciplescomeintoyou,andletnooneelsecomein,
lesttheynoticethatyouarelightofweight,fortheyknowalivingpersonislighterthanadeadone."
Sohedid.RabbiEliezerwalkedononesideofthe"body"ofYohananandRabbiYehoshuaontheotherside.Whentheycametothegate,theguardswantedtosticktheirlances
intoYohanan.ButAbbaSikrasaidtothem,"TheRomanswillsay,"Theypiercedtheirmaster!'"Theywantedtopushhim.ButAbbaSikrasaidtothem,"Theywillsay,'They
pushedtheirmaster!'"Thentheyopenedthegateforhimandhewastakenout.
WhenYohananreachedVespasian,hesaid:"Peacebeuntoyou,Oking."ButVespasiansaidtohim,"Youhaveincurredtwodeathsentences.One,becauseIamnotkingand
youhavecalledmekingandtheother,becauseifIamking,whydidyounotcometomebeforethis?"Yohanansaidtohim,"Asforyoursayingthatyouarenotking,youare
abouttobecomeking,forwereyounotking,Jerusalemwouldnotbedeliveredintoyourhands.AndasforyoursayingthatifyouarekingwhydidInotcometoyoubeforethis,
theZealotswhoareamongusdidnotletmecome."
InthemeantimeamessengercamefromRomeandsaidtoVespasian:"Rise,forCaesarhasdiedandthenotablesofRomehavedecidedtoelectyouasking."
thenVespasiansaidtohim,"Iamgoingawayandshallsendanothertotakemyplace.However,asksomethingofmeandIshallgiveittoyou."Hesaidtohim,"GivemeYavneh
anditssages,thedynastyofRabbanGamliel,andaphysiciantohealRabbiTzaddok."

In"ForcingtheEnd"Nissensonsetsthistalmudictaleinadifferentperiod,withanotherrabbiRabbiJacobi.Thiscreatesastrongsenseof

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continuitybetweenthegenerations.Sotoodoesitincreaseourunderstandingofthetalmudicepisode,towhichthereadercannowreturnwithanewperspective,
drawnfromthepresent.Nissensonemphasizesthiscontinuityinthisexchange:
Andtwistingthetuftofhairbelowhismouth,Jacobisays,"You'relookingattheHolyCitythroughmyeyes."
"Thepast?"
Heshrugs."Thefuture,too.What'sthedifference?They'reoneandthesame."

ThistimeitisRabbiJacobiwhofeelshemustescapefromJerusaleminordertoestablishayeshivahatYavneh.Andlikehispredecessor,YohananbenZakkai,he
hashimselfsmuggledoutofthecityinacoffin.Thereader,notingtheseparallels,cannothelpbeingcaughtup,aswell,intherealisticdetailsofpresentdayIsrael.And
itisthesethathavethefinalwordinthisretelling,inwhichhavingescapedinacoffin,RabbiJacobiissoondiscoveredtohavebeenmurderedinYavne.Thusarethe
parallelsanddifferencesbetweenthetwotimesclearlydrawn.Inthiscase,itissafetosay,thereaderunfamiliarwiththetalmudicepisodewillmissmuchofthepoint
ofNissenson'sstory,althoughthetaleitselfisarivetingone.
AnothertalethatexistsintwotimeperiodssimultaneouslyisAharonAppelfeld's"IntheWilderness."21AppelfeldtellsthestoryofvictimsoftheHolocausttraveling
fromonecitytoanother,whiledescribingtheirjourneyintermsoftheIsraeliteswanderinginthewildernessasdescribedintheBookofExodusandthesubsequent
midrashim.ClearlyAppelfeldintendstodemonstratethattheexperienceoftheJewsduringtheSecondWorldWar,whileunique,wasatthesametimeprefiguredby
thebiblicalepisodethatisofsuchcentralimportance.
ThesurvivorsinAppelfeld'sstoryencounteralandscapeparallelinmanywaystothatoftheIsraelitesintheEgyptianwilderness.Inacentralepisodethesurvivors
reachawidelake,whichclearlyrepresentstheRedSeainthebiblicaltale.Herethereisnopartingofthewaters,ashappenedinExodus,butinsteadthereisa
miracleofsorts,asthewatersinksintotheearth,makingpassagepossible:"Marvelousblossomssuddenlyspeckledthelandscape....Thelakecameintoitsown.
Birdshoveredoverhead....Itzikclimbeddownandsaid,'Thewaterissinking.'"
Theaccessibilityoffoodinthemidrashimaboutthecrossingatthesea"TheseayieldedtotheIsraeliteswhateachdesired.Ifachildcriedoutasitlayinthearmsof
itsmother,sheneededbutstretchoutherhandandpluckanappleorpomegranateandquietit"22istransferredinAppelfeld'sstoryintoanabundanceoffishthat
suddenlybecomeavailableasthewaterssink:"Startledfishwereseenintheirlastattempttodartawayfromtheshallowwater.Itzikwouldgrabahandfulandsay,
'Therearelotsoflittlefish.'"

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SotooisthereaparallelinAppelfeld'staleaboutthecentralepisodeoftheSongoftheSea.Inthemidrashicversionthesingingisanincrediblepaeanofunityamong
thepeople,anassertionofdeterminationtocontinue,inwhich"eventheembryosintheirmother'swombsopenedtheirmouthsandutteredsongbeforeGod."23This
assertionoftribalunityappearsaswellin"IntheWilderness":"Bodieswerethrobbing,mouthsletoutcries,questionswhichmergedintoachorusofincantations
rejoicingateverydiscovery."
SotoodoesAppelfeldemphasizethismythologicallinktothebiblicalepisodebyincludingastoryabouttheAngelofDeath,toldbyoneofthesurvivors:
Thefirewasblazingontheshohetmadeanofferingandtoldusastoryabouthisfatherwhohadstruggledwiththeangelofdeathformanyyears,untilhisstrugglehadbecome
wellknown.Attimeshehadplayedslytricksontheangel,andattimestheangelofdeathhadplayedtricksonhim.Theyhadwagedwarononeanotherforfortyyearsandatthe
ageofninetyfivetheangelhadgotthebetterofhim.

TherearealsonightmarishtorturestherefugeesexperienceinawastelandlikethatdescribedinExodus.Atonepoint,thehorsesinksintothemudasifitwere
quicksand.
AsforthepillarofflamethatguidedtheIsraelitesinthewilderness,Appelfeld'ssurvivorsidentifyitwiththehorsethatisfinallylosttothemforgood:"Onlynowdid
weknowthatalivingpillarhadwalkedbeforeus,protectingusalltheway."And,asintheEgyptianwilderness,itisaplacetransformedintoamythicallandscape:
"Everyobjectwasluminousasthoughseenforthefirsttime."
HeretheroleofMosesisplayedbyashohet,24aritualslaughterer,who,likeMoses,"fearedwewouldturntoidolatry,sincetherewasonewhosaid:astone."So
toodothepeopleinAppelfeld'sstorylosepatiencewiththeshohet,asdidtheIsraeliteswithMoses:"...theshohethadmisledus.Hepromisedusmiraclesfrom
GodinthewildernessandwhatdidHeshowus?"AndintheendofhistaleAppelfeldechoesthedeathofMoses,whoclimbedMountNeboattheendofhislifeand
whosebodywasneverfound,since,accordingtotheAggadah,hereceived"theKissoftheShekhinah"25andwastakenwhollyintotheDivinePresence:"Towards
morningtheshohetkissedourforeheadsandsaidhewasrequestedtoleaveearly.Weranbehindbutcouldn'tcatchupwithhim.''
Quiteoftenamodernauthorchoosestocontinueastorythatsomehowappearsunfinished.AgoodexampleofataleofthiskindisStefanZweig's"Legendofthe
ThirdDove,"26fromhisbookJewishLegends.ThisisthelastdovethatNoahreleased,whichsignaledthatthewatershadsignificantlysubsidedsothatthelandhad
reappeared.Zweigtellsthetaleof"thejourneyandthefateofthethirddove."Intheprocesshemakesuseof

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anothertradition,thatofthewandererwhohasnohome,whichfirstappearsinthebiblicaltaleofCain,andlaterintherabbinicembellishmentsofthewanderingsof
SerahbatAsher,aswellasintheChristianlegendoftheWanderingJew.Hereitisthisthirddove,thesymbolofpeace,whocanfindnorest:
Itwhirredupandflewoverourworld,inordertofindpeace,butnomatterwhereitflew,everywheretherewerethesestreaksoflightning,thisthunderingofmeneverywhere
therewaswar....Asyetthedovehasnotfoundrest,normankindpeace,andsoonerthanthatitmaynotreturnhome,itmaynotrestforalltime.

Thereaderwillmarvelathowwellthisallegorybuildsonitsthreeprimarysources:thebiblicalnarrative,themotifoftheeternalwanderer,andthetraditionthatthe
doveisasymbolofpeace.Zweig'snarrativealsoforgeslinksbetweenthebiblicalmotifoftheFloodasasymbolofdestruction,statingthat"aFloodhadagaincome."
ThusitindicatesthattheFloodcanserveasametaphorforthekindofchaosthatstillthreatenstheworld.Storiesofthisqualitycanonlyberegardedasthelogical
culminationoftheliterarytraditionbegunintheBibleandevidencethatthistraditionisstillaliveandflourishing.
Itisalsopossibleforastorytobebasedonatraditionalconceptratherthanalegend.HereprimarykabbalisticconceptssuchasthatofthePargod,thecurtainthat
hangsbeforetheThroneofGlory,27oroftzimtzum,thecontractionofGodthatmadepossibletheCreationoftheworld,serveasthestartingpointsfortalessuchas
RabbiNachman's"ThePortrait,"M.J.Berditchevsky's"Illusion,"DavidShahar's"TheDeathoftheLittleGod,"and"TheDisappearance''byEdmondJabs.
InthecaseofRabbiNachman'stale,aswellasothersofhissuchas"ALetter"and"TheRoyalMessenger,"GodisrepresentedbyakingandthePargodbythe
curtainthatconcealshim."ThePortrait"servestomakethesamepointasdoesthekabbalisticconceptofthePargodthatis,thatGod'struenatureisirrevocably
hiddenfromtheknowledgeofmen.Thereisalongtradition,ofcourse,ofallegoriesinwhichGodisrepresentedasaking.Anotherexampleis"Illusion"byM.J.
Berditchevsky.ThetitleofBerditchevsky'sstoryintheoriginalHebrewis"AhizatEinayim,"literally,"SeizingtheEyes,"whichtranslateswithsomedifficultyas
"illusion,""delusion,""mirage,""chimera,"orperhaps"sleightofhand."However,theclosestmeaningisatermusedinHinduteachings,maya.Theclassiclegend
definingmayatellsofaHinduprophetwhoapproachesoneofthegods,Arjuna,andaskstobetaughtthesecretsofmaya.Thegodagreesbutasksthattheprophet
firstbringhimaglassofwaterfromahouseatsomedistancefromtheminthedesert.Theprophethurriesofftothehouse.Whenhearrivesthereitisalmostevening.
Thepeopletakehimin,share

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theirdinner,andconvincehimtostayforthenight.Heremainsthatnight,nordoesheleavethenextday.Hebecomesenamoredofthedaughterofhishosts,andin
theendhestaysandmarriesher.Theyaremarriedfortwelveyearsandhavethreechildren.Onedayatidalwavepassesthroughthedesertanduprootstheirhouse,
carryingofftheman'swifeandinlaws.Hefightsthewaveswithtwochildreninonearmandoneintheother.Awavetearsawaythesinglechild,andashereaches
foritwithbotharmshelosesholdoftheothertwochildrenandiscarrieddownstreamagreatdistancebeforetheworldgrowsdark.Atlasthewakesuptofind
himselfcoveredbyashadow.ItisthegodArjuna,leaningoverhim.Thegodissaying:"Ihavebeenwaitingatleastfiveminuteshaveyoubroughtmywateryet?"28
Thisstoryservestodefinethetermmayaastheillusionoflifeinthisworld,whichseemssorealtous,yetisinfactonlyanillusioncreatedbythegods.Theconcept
ofahizateinayimdiffersslightlyfrommayainthatthemoralisnotthemeaninglessnessofexistence,butareminderthatallexistenceemanatesfromGodand
ultimatelyhasnoexistenceapartfromtheDivinity.
Berditchevsky'staleisclearlyanallegoryinwhichthekingrepresentsGod,andthecitiesthekingbuildsanddestroys,"inordertobuildbetterandmorebeautiful
ones,"areactuallyillusions.Theefforttogetpastthegateinordertodiscoverthetruth,onlytofindanothergatebehindit,reminiscentofKafka's"BeforetheLaw,"is
ametaphorintendedtoshowthatultimatetruthisbeyondtheunderstandingofmen.Finallythoseseekingentrancetothepalaceareremindedofthisfactbyaman
whotellsthem:''Thereisnopalacehere,nograndballrooms,nowallsorgates,nobuilding,nodoorsallofitisoneenormousillusion."Thenthemanisidentifiedas
theBaalShemTov,andinfacttheallegoryofthekingandhiskingdomisateachingoftheBaalShemTov.TheBaalShemTov'sparableaboutGodfollows:29
Amightykingbuiltagreatpalacewithmanychambers,onewithintheother.Manywallswereroundaboutit,eachsurroundedbytheother.Onlyonegatewasopen,and
oppositeitweremanydoors.Hewhoenteredsawmanybeautifulpicturesandcostlyvessels.Thekingdweltintheinnermostchamber,farremovedfromhimwhoentered.When
theyhadfinishedbuildingthepalace,theprincesoftherealmandthegreatmenofthelandwereinvitedtocometotheking.Butwhentheycametothepalacegate,theyfoundit
barredandthedoorslocked.Theynowaskedoneanotherinsurprise,"Howshallweenter,seeingthatsuchamultitudeofwallsseparateus?"Theylookedatthegateand
pondered.Theysawnothingbutwalluponwall.Thustheystoodalongtime,untilfinallytheking'ssoncameandspoketothem:"Knowyenotthatmyfatherisexceedinglywise
andpracticedandskilledintheartofconjuringupfalseimages?Behold,theentirepalaceis

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unreal.Thereisnowallhere,nogate,andnodooritisallanillusion.Itbearsthesemblanceofrealitytohimwholooksuponit.Butinverytruth,thespacehereisemptyit
stretchesunconfinedinalldirections."

DavidShahar'suseofthekabbalisticnotionoftzimtzumin"TheDeathoftheLittleGod"30istrulyastonishing.Inthefirstplace,tzimtzumisoneofthemostesoteric
conceptsofKabbalah,whichwasformulatedtoexplainhowGodcouldbeeverpresentandstillleaveaplacefortheexistenceoftheuniverse.Accordingtothis
concept,GodfirstcontractedHimselfinordertomakeroomfortheworld,anotionnotveryfarofffromtheastronomicaltheorythattheuniversewasonce
contractedallatonepointandthenproceededtoexpandandwillsomedayreverttotheprocessofcontraction.Shaharmakesaninspiredconnectionbetweenthe
kabbalisticconceptandthepresentdaytheologicalpositionthatGodisdead.ForGodtodie,inShahar'stale,isforHimtocontractandshrinkaway,asHedoesfor
themanwhoisobsessedwiththenotionthatGodisgrowingsmaller,andwhosedeathcomesafteradreaminwhichhediscusseswithhisfather,whoisnolonger
living,theimminentdeathofGod:
Hisfathersatonthetable,crossedhisarmsoverhischest,whichwascoveredonlybythethinvest,andsaid,"Nowtellmewhat'sgoingonintheworld."
"Theworldisgrowingbigger,Father,andGodisgrowingsmaller....Godisgrowingsmaller,Father,andnow,already,comparedtoanant,Godlookslikeafleacomparedtoan
elephant.Heisstillalive,wrigglingandwrithingundertheweightoftheworldHecreated,butitisonlyamatteroftimebeforeHisdeathagoniescease."
"AndhowlongwillittakebeforeHedisappears?"askedhisfather,hisfacebecomingserious.
"Twoorthreeweeks,perhapsless."
"Thenthisistheend."
"Yes,thisistheend."

Theimpactofthisstorycomeslargelybecausethereadercannothelpbutbefascinatedattheman'sbeliefthatGodisgrowingliterallysmaller,whichbecomes
ludicrouswhenpresentedinthisconcretefashion,whileitisfarmoreacceptableintheabstractconceptoftzimtzum.Atthesametime,themodernreadercannot
helpbutrecognizetheechoofthedeathofGoddebateinthisstoryandmarvelathowwellitisabletocreateanewperspectiveonthatissueaswell.Aboveall,the
storyisthemovingnarrativeofanisolatedmanwhosefeartooktheformofakabbalisticconceptmadeconcreteandwhoseaccidentaldeathshortlyafterthedream
oftheimminentdeathofGodseemstobeaconfirmationofhisobsession,ironicasthatmayseem.
EdmondJabs,ontheotherhand,echoestheoriginalkabbalisticusageofthetermtzimtzuminhisbriefnarrative"TheDisappearance."31Inaddi

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tion,Jabshintsataparallelbetweentzimtzumandhumanintrospectionwhenhedescribestheprocessas"God,withinhimself,"who"comestotermswiththeFace."
InmanywaysthewritingofJabsisinadirectlinewiththeTalmud,andatthesametimeobviouslyisanewdepartureinwhichhisfragmentedstylecreatesthe
impressionthathiswordsareanechoandresponsetoadialoguethathasalreadylastedfourthousandyears.32
AwiderangeofpotentialapproachestothesamesubjectisfoundinthreestoriesabouttheFallfromgrace.Oneofthese,"Paradise"33byFranzKafka,makesthe
remarkableassertionthattheexpulsionfromEdenwasablessingindisguise,sinceotherwiseitwouldhavebeennecessarytodestroytheGarden.ThusKafka
postulatesthecontinuedexistenceoftheGarden,evenintoourownage,asanidealofperfectionthatcanonlyservetoinspire.In"TheEdenAngel"34Nachman
RappretellsthestoryoftheFallandexpulsionfromEdenverymuchinthebiblicalmold.However,headdstothenarrativeanangelsympathetictoAdamandEve
whosharesintheirtemptationandexpulsion,losing,intheprocess,hisangelicnaturetobecomehumaninstead.AsforRabbiHaroldS.Kushner's"TheTreeof
Id,''35itproposesthatthenarrativeoftheFallbeviewedprimarilyinpsychologicaltermsandidentifiestheTreeofLifewiththesourceofinstinctivebehavior.
EachofthesenarrativesusesthemythoftheFallasitsstartingpoint,buteachleadstoadifferentconclusion,drawsadifferentlesson,andthusreflectstheoriginal
narrativefromadifferentperspective.Partofthepowerinthesetalescomesfromthefactthattheycompelreaderstoreconsidertheoldnarrativeatthesametime
theyarepresentedwiththenew.Thetensionofthedivergencesbetweentheoldandnew,alongwiththedelightthenewvisionbringstotheold,providea
considerablesatisfactioninthemselves.Offurtheredificationistherecognitionthateachofthesetalesisalsoamodernformofmidrashicinterpretationoftheoriginal
narrativeoftheFall.Togetherthesestoriesexpandtheboundariesofmeaningoftheoriginalmythandmakethatmeaningfarmorepersonalandpertinent.Finally,they
serveasproofoftheprofundityoftheoriginalandoftheattentionitcontinuestoattract.
OneofthemostpopularbiblicalepisodesthathasbeenthesubjectofnumerousretellingsisthatoftheAkedah,thebindingofIsaacbyAbraham.In"Abraham"36
FranzKafkaimaginesanAbraham"whowaspreparedtosatisfythedemandforasacrificeimmediately,withthepromptnessofawaiter,butwasunabletobringitoff
becausehecouldnotgetaway,beingindispensable."JakovLind's"TheNearMurder"37retellsthestoryoftheAkedahfromamodern,almostpsychiatric
perspectiveinwhichafatherhearsavoicecommandhimtokillhisonlyson,andheattemptstoobey.Thisdimensionofthetale,alwayspresentinthebiblical
narrativebutinamorelatentfashion,istrulyhorrifyingwhenmadeovertandrefashionsthereader'sviewoftheAkedahforalltime.RabbiMichaelStrassfeld's
"Isaac"38

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ispowerfullyidentifiedwithitssubjectandimpliesanunsuspectedlinkbetweenAbrahamandtheram,which,afteritisconsidered,providesavaluablenew
perspectiveontheancienttale."TheTaleoftheRam"39byRabbiTsviBlanchardalsosuggestsanewperspectivefromwhichtoregardtheAkedahasanactless
significantinitselfthanforthefactthatittookplaceattheverymomentthattheram,whichhadbeencreatedbeforetherestoftheworld,chosetogoretheMessiah,
delayingthetimeofhisarrival."RivkaonMountMoriah"40byLayaFirestonehasRivka(Rebecca),Isaac'swife,returntotheplaceoftheAkedahbeforegivingbirth
toJacobandEsau,implyingthatthestruggleofthetwinsinthewomb,whichisamplydescribedinthemidrashicliterature,wastheturningpointinherlife,asthe
bindingwasinthelifeofIsaac.
TheAkedahhaslongremainedoneofthemostcentralandperplexingepisodesintheBible,andtherangeoftheseinterpretationsstronglysuggeststhatithaslost
noneofitspower,norisitsessentialmeaninganymoreapparentatthistimethanwhenitwasfirstwrittendown.Andeachofthesestories,initsownway,refutesthe
simplisticinterpretationthattheAkedahshouldmerelyberegardedasatestbyGodofAbraham,orasaneventintendedtodemarktheeliminationofhumansacrifice
bytheJews.Fortheseauthors,certainly,theoriginaltalehasretaineditsmystery,whichgrowswitheachsubsequentinterpretationratherthanbeingdiminished.
Thechoiceoftheauthorswhohaveutilizedtraditionalsourcesinthewaysoutlinedheremustberecognized,aboveall,asanactofaffirmation.Ateverystageinthe
evolutionofJewishliteraturetherehavebeenthosepreparedandevenanxioustodeclarethattheBookwasclosedandthatallthatcameafterwardlacked
significance.ThesemodernJewishauthors,onthecontrary,insistthatthetraditionisstillaliveandthattheancienttalemaystillberetoldinnewways.Theirdesireis
clearly,asEdmondJabesputsit,"tobeinthebook...tobepartofit.Toberesponsibleforawordorasentence,astanzaorchapter."41
Astheseexamplesdemonstrate,manymodernJewishauthorshavesoughtouttheirownrolesandrelationshipswiththeirtradition,whileretainingtherightto
embellishastheyseefit.Theseembellishmentsarethelifebloodofthisparticulartypeofliterature,foritisunderstoodthatonceataleisfrozeninoneform,itbecomes
anobjectforanalysis,notalivingforcemuchofthepoweroftheretellingcomesfromthenewperspectivesbroughttotheoldtale,sothatitcanberelivedinanother
generation.

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NOTES
Chapter1ReimaginingtheBible
1.PirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.46.
2.TheTalmudwascodifiedaroundthe5thcenturyC.E.,butmanyofthelegendsinitgobackatleasttothebeginningoftherabbinicera,aroundthe1stcentury,and
manyarealmostcertainlyolderthanthat.
3.FromGen.Rabbah56.AlsoTargumJonathanonGen.22:19.AlsoPirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.31.AlsoHadarZekenin10binBeithaMidrash,editedby
A.Jellinek(Jerusalem,1967,V:157).AlsoCommentaryonSeferYetzirah,p.125.
4.PirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.31.
5.ItseemslikelythattheChristianaccountofthedeathofJesusandhisresurrectiononthethirddayarebeingechoedinthethreeyearsthatIsaacwassaidtohave
spentinParadise,beforehissoulreturnedandhewasreborn.ThisindicatesthattherewasChristianinfluenceonJewishlegends,aswellastheenormousimpactof
JewishlegendsontheformationoftheChristianlegendarytradition.SeeTheLastTrialbySholemSpiegelforathoroughdiscussionoftheBindingofIsaac.
6.Theterm"Aggadah"hasbothaspecificandamoregeneralmeaning.InthenarrowsensethetermreferstothebodyoflegendsthatappearwithintheTalmud
itself.(TheselegendsconstituteaboutaquarteroftheTalmud,andmostwerecollectedinthe16thcenturyanthologyEinYakov.)Inabroadersense,aggadahcan
refertoanypostbiblicalJewishlegendandisfrequentlyusedincontrasttotheterm"Halakhah,"meaningthelaw.Thisimpliesthattherearetwokindsofmajor
realmsoftraditionalstudy,thatofdefiningandexpoundingonthelaw(Halakhah)andalloftheremainingmaterial,whichmaybegroupedunderthecategoryof
Aggadahandconsistsprimarilyoflegends.Theterm"Midrash"(fromtherootdarash,meaningboth"tosearchout"and"toexpound'')likewisehasadouble

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usage.Inthenarrowsenseitreferstoallposttalmudiclegendsuptothekabbalisticperiod,whichbeginsinthe13thcentury.Butinthebroadersenseitis
interchangeablewiththetermaggadahtodenoteaJewishlegend(amidrash)orthebodyofJewishlegends(theMidrash).
7.Theterm"Torah"referstoboththeFiveBooksofMosesandalso,inabroadersense,tothewholeofJewishlawandlore.
8.TheprimarysourcesfortheEnochlegendarethethreeBooksofEnoch.TheBookofEnoch(1Enoch)andTheSlavonicBookEnoch(2Enoch)areincluded
inTheApocryphaandPseudepigraphaoftheOldTestament,vol.2,editedbyR.H.Charles.ThemostrecenttranslationsofthesebookscanbefoundinOld
TestamentPseudepigrapha,editedbyJamesCharlesworth.Enoch'stransformationintoMetatronisdescribedin3Enoch.
9.OnShavuot,manySephardiccommunitiesreadaketubah(Jewishweddingcontract)forthemarriageofGodandIsrael,whichwaswrittenbyIsraelNajarainthe
16thcenturyinSafed.Seep.87forapartialtranslationofthetext.
10.M.Avot.5:22.
11.From"MythinJudaism,"inOnJudaismbyMartinBuber,p.106.
12.S.S.Rab.onSongofSongs1:2.
13.TheTalmudconsistsoftwointerrelatedtexts.TheolderistheMishnah,whichwascomposedaround220C.E.,andthesecondisknownastheGemara,which
tookshapeinapproximately500C.E.andisacommentaryontheMishnah.Traditionally,thepagesoftheTalmudreflectthisrelationship:thetextoftheMishnah
appearsinboldtypeinthemiddleofthepage,surroundedbytheGemarainsmallertype,whilebotharesurroundedby,inevensmallertype,traditionalcommentaries
byRashi,theTosafists,HananelbenHashiel(died1055),andothers.TheMishnahisactuallyfarmorecomplexthanacommentaryorinterpretationoftheBible,in
thewaythatweunderstandtheterm"interpretation."Whenweattempttointerpretatext,ourgoalistounderstandwhattheauthorwastryingtosayatthetimehe
saidit.TheMishnah,ontheotherhand,findsanappropriatepassageonwhichtobaseitsinnovationsandthenelaboratesextensiverulesandregulationsthatoften
cometoseemremotefromtheirsource.Anentirelegalworldcanspringupfromabrief,seeminglysimplebiblicallaw.Thecomplexsystemoferuvim,forexample,
whichpermitsestablishingfictitiousboundaries,involvesthesymbolicmingling(eruvamixture)oftimeandspaceandallowsaJewtoengageinotherwiseforbidden
practicessuchascookingonaholidayfortheupcomingSabbathorcarryingthingswithinacityontheSabbath.Whileitsoriginisthebiblicalinjunctiontosanctifythe
Sabbath,itsapplicationgoesfarbeyondthisbasiccommandmentandtakesonalifeofitsown.
14.B.Hag.3.B.Avod.Zar.18aadds:"HewhosaysthattheTorahisnotfromheavenwillhavenoportionintheWorldtoCome."
15.Foranexampleofaliterarysecretconfession,see"EverythingandNothing"byJorgeLuisBorges.HereBorgessuggeststhatthesecretofShakespeare'sability
tocreateconvincingcharactersalongtheentiresocialspectrumcamefromhisownlackofidentityandthatShakespearehidasecretconfessionofthisinOthello,
whenOthellosays,"IamnotwhatIam."SeeLabyrinths,byJorgeLuisBorges,pp.248249.
16.B.Men.29b,drawingonB.Shab.88b89a.Thecrownsofthelettersarethetaggin,threesmallmarkswrittenontopofthelettersshin,ayin,tet,nun,zayin,
gimmel,andtzaddikintheformofacrown.

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17.DrashotBeithaLevi.ThismidrashgoesontosaythatMosesoriginallywroteeverythingdownonthefirsttabletsoftheLaw,butafterthesinofthegoldencalf
andthebreakingofthefirstsetofthetablets,GodtoldMosesnottowriteeverythingonthesecondsetoftablets.
18.Evenduringthetalmudicera,thisconstitutedagreatamountoflearningtomaster,asthispassagedemonstrates:"Ourrabbisweretaught,'Eightydisciplesdid
HillelhavethirtyofthemwereworthythattheShekhinahshouldrestuponthem,asitdiduponMoses,ourteacherthirtyofthemwereworthythatthesunshouldbe
stoppedfortheirsake,asitdidbeforeJoshuaandtwentywereordinary.ThesuperioramongthemwasYonatanbenUzieltheinferioramongthemwasRabbi
YohananbenZakkai.ItwasrelatedofRabbiYohananbenZakkaithathedidnotleaveunstudiedtheBible,theMishnah,theGemara,theHalakhot,theAggadot,
subtlepointsintheinterpretationofthebiblicallaws,thespecialpointsinrabbinicenactment,therestrictiveandnonrestrictiverules,rulesofanalogy,astronomy,
geometry,thewhisperofangels,thewhisperofevilspirits,andthewhisperofpalmtrees,foxes,fables,majoraffairsandminoraffairs.Andsincethemostinferiorof
allwassogreat,howmuchthemorewasthemostsuperiorofall?ItwassaidofYonatanbenUzielthatwhenhestudiedtheLaweverybirdthatflewoverheadwas
instantlyconsumedinflames'"(B.Suk.28).
19.ThefirstfourvolumesofTheLegendsoftheJewscontainGinzberg'scompilationandretellingoftheaggadicsources,thefifthandsixthvolumescontainvaluable
notes,andtheseventhvolumeisanextensiveindex.Asinglevolumecondensationofthefirstfourvolumes,LegendsoftheBible,isavailable.
Chapter2TheAggadicTradition
1.SeeR.H.Charles,TheApocryphaandPseudepigraphaoftheOldTestament,andJamesH.Charlesworth,OldTestamentPseudepigrapha.
2.Ezekiel'svisionofaMerkavah,adivinechariot,andacentraltalmudicpassage(B.Hag.14b)aboutfoursageswhoenteredParadiseandonlyone,RabbiAkiba,
whoemergedinpeace,serveasthemodelsfortheHekhalottextsofMerkavahmysticism,aparticularcategoryoftextsdatingfromthe1sttothe8thcenturiesthat
describejourneysintoParadise.
3."RabbiYohananwassittingandlecturing:'InthefuturetheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,willbringjewelsandpearlsthesizeofthirtycubitssquare,twentyellsinheight
andteninwidth,andwillplacethematthegatesofJerusalem.'Andonedisciplesneeredathim:'Wedonotevenfindajewelaslargeastheeggofaturtledoveand
yousayweshallfindjewelsofsuchsizes?'Thereafterithappenedthatthesamedisciplewasonaboatonthehighsea,andhesawangelswhosawedjewelsand
pearlsthesizeofthirtyellssquare,boringholesinthemtwentyellsinheightandteninwidth.Heaskedthem,'Forwhomisthis?'Andtheyanswered:'TheHolyOne,
blessedbeHe,willplacethematthegatesofJerusalem.'WhenhereturnedhesaidtoRabbiYohanan:'Lecture,Rabbi,forallyousaidistrue,asIhaveseenitfor
myself!'"(B.Bab.Bat.74).
4.InthecaseofPirkedeRabbiEliezer,forexample,ithasbeenvariouslydatedasoriginatingbetweenthe8thand12thcenturiesC.E.,butitisgenerallyrecognized
thatmuchofitsmaterialisbasedonearliersources.Todaymostestimatestendtowardtheearlierdate.

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5.B.Sot.6bforthelegendaboutLuzasacityofimmortals.B.Suk.53aforthelegendabouttheappointmentwithdeath.ThelikelyreasonthatLuzwasidentifiedas
acityofimmortalsisthatLuzalsoreferstotheonebone,atthebottomofthespine,thatisthelasttodecompose.
6.Gen.Rab.69:8.
7.See"DovidhaMelech'sMatoneh"inDosBuchfunNissyonot(Yiddish),editedbyIsraelOsman(LosAngeles,1926).Seealso"TheCaveofKingDavid"in
Gabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales,ed.HowardSchwartz,pp.139141.ThemodernHebrewauthorYakovHaCohenhaswrittenaplaybasedonthis
legend,TheCityofLuz.Seealso"TheCityofLuz"inElijah'sViolin&OtherJewishFairyTales,pp.279293.
8.B.Hag.12a.
9.Gen.Rab.24:2.
10.Gen.Rab.3:6,11:2RashionGenesis1:4.
11.DegelMahanehEphraim,Bereshit3c.
12.TheHolyScriptures,JewishPublicitySociety.
13.KingJamesversion.
14.TheAnchorBible,Doubleday.
15.MidrashTanhuma,Kedoshim9.
16.Gen.Rab.31:11.
17.B.Bab.Bat.16b.
18.ForamoredetailedretellingofthelegendoftheTzohar,see"TheTzohar"inGabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales,editedbyHowardSchwartz,pp.59
62,andtheaccompanyingnoteonpp.287288.
19.ThesourcesofthismythincludeB.Hag.12a,Gen.Rab.3:4,Mid.Teh.104:4Gen.Rab.3:6Ex.Rab.35:1Gen.Rab.42:3andZoharI:31b32a.
20.ThemidrashimtraceCain'sseeminglyinnateevilcharactertohisconception,whichtherabbisattributedtotheserpent,whoissaidtohavefatheredCainwith
Eve,whileAdamwasthefatherofAbel.Thus,allgenerationshavedescendedfromtheseedofCainorofAbelandhisbrothers,suchasShem(see1Chron.1:1).
TheseedofCainwasbelievedtohavemanifesteditselfinthepersonsofIshmaelandEsau,whileIsaacandJacobweredescendedfromtheseedofShem(Pirkede
RabbiEliezer,chap.21).
21.InthemidrashitisstatedthatCainandAbeleachwerebornwithtwinsisters,whoservedastheirwives,plusoneothersister,bornwithAbelashistwin."Rabbi
JoshuabenKarchansaid:'Onlytwo(AdamandEve)enteredthebed,andsevenleftit,includingCainandhistwinsister,andAbelandhistwotwinsisters'"(Gen.
Rab.22:2).
22.ThenatureoftheconflictisthusportrayedinGenesisRabbah:"Aboutwhatdidtheyquarrel?'Come,'theysaid,'letusdividetheworld.'Onetookthelandand
theotherthemovables.Theformersaid,"Thelandyoustandonismine,'whilethelatterretorted:'Whatyouarewearingismine.'Onesaid,'Strip'theotherretorted,
'Fly.'OutofthisquarrelCainroseupagainsthisbrotherAbelandslewhim(Gen.4:8)...JudahBerebbisaid:'TheirquarrelwasaboutthefirstEve(Lilith).'Said
RabbiAibu:'ThefirstEvehadreturnedtodust.Thenaboutwhatwastheirquarrel?'SaidRabbiHuna:'AnadditionaltwinwasbornwithAbel,andeachclaimedher.
Theoneclaimed:'Iwillhaveher,becauseIamthefirstborn'whiletheothermaintained:'Imusthaveherbecauseshewasbornwithme'"(Gen.Rab.22:7).

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23.TherewasgeneralagreementthatCainkilledAbelwithastonealthoughRabbiShimonsaidthathekilledhimwithastaff(Gen.Rab.22:8).
24.Sincenoonehadpreviouslydied,therewasnoprecedentforburial.Furthermore,thegroundwasreluctanttoacceptAbel'sbody.Insomeversionsitissaidthat
asparrow,buryingitsmate,demonstratedtheprincipleofburial,andinothersitissaidthatAbel'sbodyremainedunburieduntilafterthedeathofAdam.Itwas
possibletoburyAdambecause,accordingtoanothermidrash,thedustfromwhichhehadbeenformedhadbeengatheredfromthefourcornersoftheearth(Pirke
deRabbiEliezer,chap.21).
25.Alatemidrashiccollection,SeferhaZikhronot(Hebrew)byJerahmeelbenSolomon,compiledbyEleazarbenAsherhaLevi,translatedbyMosesGasteras
TheChroniclesofJerahmeel(London:1899),statesin24:2:"Cainwasthefirsttosurroundacitywithawall,forhewasafraidofhisenemies."
26.AsixthaccountappearsinPirkedeRabbiEliezer(chap.21):"'MasteroftheUniverse!'Cainpleaded,'Mysinistoogreattobeborne(Gen.4:13),foritwas
noatonement!'Thisconfessionwasaccountedtohimasrepentance.'Moreover,'hecontinued,'onewillariseandslaymebypronouncingThyGreatNameagainst
me!'WhatdidtheHolyOne,blessedHe,do?HetookoneofthetwentytwolettersoftheTorah,andsetituponCain'sarmlikeatattoothatheshouldnothe
killed."Anotherversionhasitthattheletterwasaffixedtohisforehead.TheunexpectednotionthatCain'sreplytoGodinGenesis4:13wasreckonedasrepentance
canbefoundinPesiktaRabbati(50:5),asfollows:"AdammetCainandasked:'Myson,howisitthatyourcaseturnedoutthisway?'Cainreplied:'Iresolved
repentanceandwasdelivered.'WhenAdamheardthis,hebegantostrikehisownface,saying,'Issuchthegreatpowerofrepentance(teshuvah)?Ididnotknow!'"
27.MidrashTanhumaYelammedenu,Ber.1:11.
28.Ibid.
29.NotehowthecontinuityoftheexistenceoftheAngelofDeathisprovidedforbyLamechtakingoverthatroleafterCain,althoughthislegenddoesnotsuggest
howlongLamechwascondemnedtothisincarnation,orwhosucceededhimintherole.
30.ItisinterestingtonotethatoneinterpretationtherabbisdidnotproposeisthatCain'scursetobe"afugitiveandawanderer"wasintendedtolastforalltime.
WhiletheseedofCainwereseenasaplaguetofuturegenerations,theMidrashdoesnotcarryCainbeyondthegenerationoftheFlood.Butthismotifoftheeternal
wandererthatissuggestedbythebiblicalcurseofCainisfullydevelopedintheChristianlegendoftheWanderingJew,anditseemspossiblethatthelegendofCain
servedasaprototypetothatoftheWanderingJew.Accordingtothislegend,asJesuswascarryingthecrossonthewaytoGolgotha,hestumbledandcametorest
againstthehouseofaJew,Ahasuerus,whoemergedfromitandorderedJesustoleave,perhapsoutoffearofbeingimplicatedasasympathizer.Jesusrepliedby
sayingthathewouldleave,butthatthemanwouldwanderuntilhecameback,thatis,untiltheSecondComing.ThisinitiatedthelegendoftheWanderingJew,who
subsequentlyappearedintalestoldineverygenerationandinmanyplaces.LikeCain,hewasamanmarkedforhissininthiscasethesignthatmarkedhimwashis
inabilitytodie.Hisrolecametobethatofonewhowitnessedallthatcametopass,andalsothatofamanobsessedwiththesearchforhisdeath.Thecontemporary
story,"TheWanderingJew,"byDavidSlabotsky,relateshowhefinallysucceededinthisquest.SeeGNC,pp.533534.

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31.InSeferhaZikhronot24:3,referenceismadeto"Lamech,whoslewCainintheseventhgeneration,afterCainhadconfessedhissin,repented,andhis
punishmenthadbeensuspendeduntiltheseventhgeneration."ThislateversioncombinesCain'srepentancewiththelegendoftheslayingofCainatthehandsof
Lamech.
32.Lev.24:1617.
33.SeferhaYashar(vaYigash)109b110a.
34.SeferhaYashar(vaYigash)AvariantisfoundinMidrashhaGadol,Vayigash45:26,whereSerahwaiteduntilJacobwaspraying,andthenhintedthenews
byasking,"IsJosephinEgypt?"
35.Ex.Rab.5:13.
36.B.Sot.13a,Ex.Rab.20:19,Deut.Rab.11:7(whereSerahisidentifiedbythenameSegulah)andMekiltadeRabbiIshmael,Beshallah24a24b.Seealso
ZoharII:46a.
37.PesiktadeRabKahana11:13.TherabbiwasprobablyRabbiYohananbenNappaha.
38.ThelegendthatSerahwasoneofthosewhoenteredheavenaliveisfoundinYalkutShimoniII,remezandDerekhEretzZuta1:18.ThelegendthatSerahlives
inaheavenlypalaceisfoundintheZoharIII:167b.OtherswhoenteredParadisealiveincludeEnoch,Elijah,theMessiah,andEliezer,servantofAbraham.
39.SeeHaroldHeifetz,ed.,ZenandHasidism.
40.InPraiseoftheBaalShemTov,translatedandeditedbyDanBenAmosandJeromeR.Mintz.
41.ShivheihaRam,editedbyRabbiNathanofNemirov(Ostrog:1816).
Chapter3ToolsofInterpretation
1.B.Yeb.13.
2.B.Ber.55a.
3.Gen.Rab.1:15.
4.B.Bat.Metz.59b.
5.B.Eruv.21b.
6.PerhapsbecauseoftheearlysplitswiththeSamaritans,whoinsistedthatonlythePentateuchwassacred,andnottherestoftheBible,andwiththeKaraites,who
deniedthevalidityoftheTalmud,therabbistookcaretocreateasystemofinterpretationthatavoidedthekindsofconflictassociatedwithvariousfundamentalsects,
whichpermitonlythenarrowest,mostliteralreadingoftheScriptures.
7.ThesevenrulesofHillelcanbefoundinAvotdeRabbiNatan37,aswellasinSifraintrod.1:7andB.San.7b.ThethirteenprinciplesofRabbiIshmaelarefound
inSifra,introd.5.InB.Git.67atherearereferencestorulesformulatedbyRabbiIshmael'srival,RabbiAkiba.AdiscussionoftheseprinciplesofHillelandRabbi
IshmaelandthoseofRabbiEliezerbenJose,includingtranslationsoftherules,canbefoundinIntroductiontotheTalmudandMidrash,byH.L.StrackandG.
Stemberger,pp.1934.
8.TargumPseudoJonathanonGen.11:4.
9.WisdomofSolomon10:10.
10.Philo,OntheMigrationofAbraham,chap.11.
11.B.San.69b.

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12.B.San.91ab.
13.M.Yad.3.5.
14.ThemarriagebetweenGodandIsraelthatRabbiAkibadiscernedintheSongofSongsisathemelaterfoundintheZohar(Prologue8a).Describingthe
forthcomingwedding,onShavuot,thedayoftheGivingoftheTorah,RabbiShimonbarYohaiisquotedassaying:"Omysons,happyisyourportion,foronthe
morrowthebridewillnotenterthebridalcanopyexceptinyourcompanyforallthosewhohelptoprepareheradornmentstonightwillberecordedinthebookof
remembrance,andtheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,willblessthemwithseventyblessingsandcrownthemwithcrownsofthecelestialword."Also,inmanySephardic
congregations,priortotheTorahreadingonthefirstdayofShavuot,aketubah(marriagecontract)isread,betrothingGodandIsrael.Themostwidelyusedtextof
suchaketubahisthatoftheSafedmysticandpoetIsraelNajara(c.15501625C.E).Forapartialtranslationofthistext,seechapter"TheMythologyofJudaism,"
pp.8599.
15.S.S.Rab.1:8.
16.PardeswasoriginallyaPersianwordmeaninganenclosedarea.IntheBibleitisusedtomean"orchard"(seeSongofSongs4:13).InrabbinicHebrewittakes
ontheadditionalmeaningof"Paradise,"aftertheGreekparadeisos,whichisusedintheSeptuaginttotranslateGanEden(theGardenofEden).
17.ThemethodofinterpretationknownasPardeswasmostlikelyinvented,oratleastcodified,byMoshedeLeon,authoroftheZohar,accordingtothewidely
acceptedfindingsofGershomScholem.AccordingtoScholem,MoshedeLeonwasalsotheauthorofatext,sincelost,entitledSeferPardes.Scholemspeculates
thatthistextwasatheoreticaltreatiseofPardesasamethodofexplication,aconceptthatinanycasedatesfromthesameperiod,the13thcentury.SeeMajor
TrendsinJewishMysticism,p.400,note15.
18.Foradiscussionofthislegend,seechapter"TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics,"pp.124128.
19.ProfessorMarcBregmanofHebrewUnionCollegehassuggestedthetheoreticalpossibilityofafifthlevelofPardes,whichhehasnamednitzraf,suggesting
purificationthroughunificationinwhichallfourotherlevelsofinterpretationmightbeforgedintoone,permittingthetexttobeperceivedsimultaneouslyinallits
levelsofmeaningasatotalunityandwholeness,notunlikethatwhichisthegoalofGestaltpsychology.
Chapter4OnJewishFairyTales
1.SeeElijah'sViolin&OtherJewishFairyTales(hereafterEV),selectedandretoldbyHowardSchwartz(NewYork:Harper&Row,1983),forthefolkand
fairytalesdiscussedinthischapter.
2.ForaJewishvariantofCinderella,see"TheExiledPrincess"inEV,pp.263269.FortheearliestJewishversionofRapunzel,see"ThePrincessintheTower"in
EV,pp.4752.Forvariantsof"TheGoldenBird,"see"TheGoldenFeather"inEV,pp.137147,and"TheGoldenBird''inEV,pp.247253.Foravariantof
"SleepingBeauty,"see"TheWonderChild"inTheWonderChild&OtherJewishFairyTales,editedbyHowardSchwartzandBarbaraRush,pp.18.Fora
versionof"SnowWhite,"see"Romana"inMiriam'sTambourine,ed.byHowardSchwartz,pp.6778.

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3.B.San.95a.
4.B.Git.68b.
5.Ibid.
6.Y.Hag.77d78a.
7.B.San.95a.
8.B.Git.68b.
9.Ibid.
10.Y.Hag.77d78a.
11.B.Git.68b.
12.MaasehhaNemalahinBeithamidrash,editedbyA.Jellinek(Jerusalem:1938).
13.B.Shab.30a.
14.B.Sot.2a.
15.B.Suk.53a.
16.B.Sot.46b.
17.SeeDosBukhfunNisyoynes,editedbyIsraelOsman(LosAngeles:1926).Alsosee"TheCityofLuz"inEV,pp.279293.
17.OxfordBodleianaOr134,publishedinZeferhaMa'asiyotinTheExemplaoftheRabbis,editedbyMosesGaster(NewYork:1968).Alaterversionisfound
intheMaasehBuch(Basel:1601).
19.OsehPele,compiledbyY.S.Farhi(Leghorn:1902).
20.Ma'asehYerushalmi,editedbyYehudaL.Zlotnik(Jerusalem:1946).
21.Deut.Rab.11:10."ThereuponGodkissedMosesandtookawayhissoulwithakissofthemouth,andGod,ifonemightsayso,wept."
22."PartnershipwithAsmodeus"isfoundinShiv'imSippurimveSippurmiPiYehudeyLuv,editedbyDovNoy(Jerusalem:1967).IFA3523,toldbyDavid
Hadad."TheMagicFluteofAsmodeus"isfoundinMinhaMabua,editedbyEliezerMarcus(Haifa:1966).IFA6053,collectedbyRivkaAshkenazifromher
father,SassonAshkenazi.
23.EretzhaHayim,collectedbyHayimLiebersohn(Przemysl,Poland:1926).AvariantcanbefoundinShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:
1905).
24.SeferSippure:Kedushim,editedbyGedalyahNigal(Jerusalem:1977),firstpublishedinWarsawin1866.
25.EretzhaHayim,collectedbyHayimLiebersohn(Przemysl,Poland:1926).
26.Sippure:Ma'asiyotbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanSternhartzofNemirov.
27.Ibid.
28.Ibid.
29.Ibid.
30.GenesisApocryphon,columnsxixxxii.FromGezaVermes,TheDeadSeaScrolls,2nded.,pp.215224.
31.YiddisheFolklor,editedbyYehudaL.Cahan(Vilna:1938).
32.YiddisheFolkmayses,editedbyYehudaL.Cahan(Vilna:1931).
33.JudeoSpanishBalladsfromNewYork,editedbySamuelG.ArmisteadandJosephH.Silverman(Berkeley:1981).
34.AggadtadiB'naiMoshefromBeithaMidrash,editedbyAdolfJellinek(Jerusalem:1938).
35.IFA6414,collectedbyYakovLaserifromhisfather,MachloufLaseri.

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36.HodeshHodeshveSippuro:19681969,editedbyEdnaHechal(Haifa:1969).CollectedbyIlanaZoharfromhermother,FloraCohen.
Chapter5MermaidandSiren:ThePolarRolesofLilithandEve
1.OhelElimelech,editedbyA.S.B.Michelson(Parmishla:1870).AvariantisfoundinSeferOrYesharim,storyno.199,editedbyMosheHayimKleinmannof
Brisk(Warsaw:1884).
2.InB.Ned.11aitisstatedthat"fromanegativeruleyoucanlearnapositiveone"thusbyknowingwhatisprohibitedyoucanderivewhatispermitted.
3.YalkutShimoni(Gen)44,compiledbyShimonAshkenazi.(Frankfurta.M.:1687).
4.B.Kid.80a.
5.Ibid.
6.ThelegenddoesnotexplainhowLilithlearnedthesecretofthepronunciationoftheName,butperhapsitwasnotsecretintheGardenofEden.
7.TheTestamentofSolomon,chap.17.ItisbelievedthatLilith'sroleasaseducerofmenwasbasedontheBabyloniannightdemonLilitu,asuccubuswho
seducesmenintheirsleep,whileLilith'sroleasachildslayercloselyresemblestheBabyloniandemonLamashtu.ItisinterestingtonotethattherolesofLilituand
Lamashtubecameblurredtogether,justasLilithtakesontherolesofbothseducerandchildslayer.
8.AlteYidisheZagenOderSipurim,editedbyAyzikMeyerDik,pp.3239(Vilna:1876).
9.KavhaYasharbyTzviHirshKaidanover(Frankfurt:1903).
10.Lilith:theFirstEve,HistoricalandPsychologicalAspectsoftheDarkFeminine,bySiegmundHurwitz(Einsiedeln,Switzerland:1992).
11.TheUsesofEnchantment:TheMeaningandImportanceofFairyTalesbyBrunoBettelheim(NewYork:1976).
12.Gen.Rab.19:3.SeealsoRashionGen.3:4.
13.PirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.13.
14.PirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.21.
15.Foreword,byDovNoy,inTheBookofJewishWomen'sTaleseditedbyBarbaraRush,pp.xiiixxiii.
16.IFA4563,collectedbyZalmanBarhavfromYakovChaprak.FromShishimSippureAm,editedbyZalmanBararav(Haifa:1964).
17."TheStoryofLilithandEve"fromTheStoveandOtherStoriesbyJakovLind(NewYork:1986),pp.5961.
Chapter6JewishTalesoftheSupernatural
1.Thestoryofthedemoninthetreeisfroma16thcenturyYiddishmanuscriptinCambridge(TrinityCollege)Hebrewmss.136#5.Notethatmostofthetales
referredtointhischaptercanbefoundinLilith'sCave:JewishTalesoftheSupernatural,originallypublishedbyHarper&Rowin1987andreprintedbyOxford
UniversityPress.(AbbreviatedafterthisasLC.)AversionofthischapterappearsastheIntroductiontothatbook.

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2.Y.San.7:13.See"RabbiJoshuaandtheWitch,"p.35,inMiriam'sTambourine:JewishFolktalesfromAroundtheWorld,selectedandretoldbyHoward
Schwartz.(AbbreviatedafterthisasMT).
3.See"TheRabbiandtheWitch"inLC,pp.6263,andtheaccompanyingnote.
4.B.San.67b.Thepassagereadsinfullasfollows:
Abayesaid:"Thelawsregardingsorcerersindicatethatcertainactionsarepunishedbystoning,othersareexemptfrompunishment,yetforbidden,whilestillothersare
entirelypermitted.Thusifoneactuallyperformsmagic,heisstonedifhemerelycreatesanillusion,heisexempt,yetitisforbidden.Whatisentirelypermitted?Suchaswas
performedbyRabbiHaninaandRabbiOshaia,whospenteverySabbathevestudyingtheLawsofCreation,bymeansofwhichtheycreatedacalfandateit.

NotethatthiscreationofacalfisnotonlyparalleltothecreationofAdambyGod,butalsoofthelatercreationoftheGolem,amanofclay,byRabbiJudah
Loew.
5.SeeShabbataiSevi:TheMysticalMessiah,byGershomScholem.
6.FortyyearsafteritwasfoundedbyProfessorDovNoyofHebrewUniversity,theIsraelFolktaleArchives(IFA),locatedinHaifa,hascollectedmorethantwenty
thousandtalesfromeveryJewishethnicgroupinIsraelandhaspublishedmorethansixtyvolumesofthesetales.
7."TheChronicleofEphraim"isfoundinSippureKedoshim(Leipzig:1866).ThestoryofMosesinthepitisfoundinSeferhaZikhronot(Hebrew)byJerahmeel
benSolomon,compiledbyEleazarbenAsherhaLevi,translatedbyMosesGasterasTheChroniclesofJerahmeel(London:1899),46:910.
8.AccordingtoastartlinglegendfoundintheZohar(III:69a),afterthedestructionoftheTempleandtheexileoftheShekhinah,theBrideofGod,Lilithoffered
herselftoGodinplaceofhisbride.AndsofallenwasthestateofexistencethatGodacceptedLilithasHisconsort.
9.ForTheTestamentofSolomon,seeTheOldTestamentPseudepigrapha,editedbyJamesH.Charlesworth,vol.1,pp.935988.ForTheBookofTobit,see
TheApocrypha:AnAmericanTranslationbyEdgarJ.Goodspeed,pp.107130.
10.B.Git.68b.
11.Althoughthemajorityoftalesportraythemarriageofhumansanddemons,afewvariantsdescribemarriagesbetweenhumansandghosts(suchataleisrecounted
byZipporahGreenfieldofYemen)orevenhumansandthedead(see"TheFinger"inLC,pp.5154).
12.MidrashTanhuma(Hebrew)1:20,editedbySolomonBuber(Vilna:1891).SeeGershomScholem,JewishGuosticism,MerkabahMysticismandTalmudic
Tradition,pp.7274.
13.Ma'asehYerushalmi(Hebrew),editedbyYehudaL.Zlotnik(Jerusalem:1946).See"TheDemonPrincess"inHowardSchwartz,Elijah'sViolin&Other
JewishFairyTales(hereafterEV)foraretellingofthistale.
14.MaasehNissim(Yiddish),compiledbyJepthaYozpabenNaftali(Amsterdam:1696).
15.Foranextendeddiscussionofthemidwifetaletype,see"IsThereaJewishFolkReligion?"byDovNoyinStudiesinJewishFolklore,editedbyFrank
Talmage,pp.273286.

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16.Notethattheaunt'sname,Shifra,isthesameasthatofthemidwifeinExodus1:15.
17.Whyisitthatolderwrittenversionsofthisstoryallconcernamanandtheprevalentoralversionsallconcernawoman?Onepossiblereasonisthattheversion
aboutthemidwifeservesasanidealstorytobetoldbywomentootherwomen,especiallygirls,asameansofteachingastrongfemininerolemodel.Itseemslikely
thatthemedievalwrittenversionreenteredtheoraltraditionandwastransformedintheprocessintoawoman'stale.
18.Eventhoughthistalestronglyappearstohavebeenshapedbyactualevents,thepatternitfollowsisfamiliarinworldfolkloreandisidentifiedinTheTypesofthe
FolktalebyAnttiAarneandStithThompsonastype926A,whereademontakesontheappearanceofamanorwoman.Interestingly,itismostoftenashepherdin
thesetalesthatrecognizesthedemonforwhatitis,justashappensinthisstory.Themostlikelyexplanationisthatthemystifyingeventssurroundingthewife's
madnesswerebestexplainedwithintheexistingframeworkofthistaletype.
19.ShivheihaAri,compiledbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).
20.MaasehBuch(Yiddish)#152,compiledbyJacobbenAbrahamofMezhirech(Basel:1601).
21.Bothofthesetextsemergedinthe16thcentury,showingthataccountsofdybbuksweretoldinbothPalestineandEasternEuropeataroundthesametime,
probablyduetotravelerswhobroughtsuchtalesbackandforth.Indeed,travelersfromtheHolyLandwhosoughtfundsinEuropewereparticularlywelcomed
becauseoftheirabilitytoregaletheirhostswithtales.
22."TheLostPrincess"inSippureiMa'asiyot(Hebrew)byRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanSternhartofNemirov(Ostrog:1816).Fora
retellingofthistale,see"TheLostPrincess"inEV,pp.210218.
23.Ansky'sTheDybbukwasfirstproducedinYiddishbytheVilnatroupein1920.
24.Theearliestaccountsofsuchpossessionsbydemons(ratherthandybbuks)appearmuchearlier,however,andarerecordedbothinthehistoryofJosephusandin
theTalmud.TheaccountofJosephus,intheAntiquities(8:2.5),isprobablytheearliestJewishreportofpossessionandexorcismtobefound,andthemethodof
exorcismisattributedtononeotherthanKingSolomonhimself:"Heputtothenoseofthepossessedmanaringthathadunderitssealoneoftherootsprescribedby
Solomon,andthen,asthemansmelledit,drewoutthedemonsthroughhisnostrils,and,whenthemanatoncefelldown,adjuredthedemonnevertocomebackto
him,speakingSolomon'snameandrecitingtheincantationsthathehadcomposed."IntheTalmud(B.Meil.17b)wefindthelegendofBenTemalion,ademonwho
agreestoassistRabbiShimonbarYohaibyenteringthebodyoftheemperor'sdaughterinaploytosavetheJews.
25.FirstSamuel28:15.Foramodernvariantofthistale,see"PartnershipwithAsmodeus"inEV,pp.102106.
26.B.Ber18a.AvariantlegendfoundinSeferHasidim(#266)tellsofthespiritofamanreluctanttojointheotherspiritsbecausehehadbeenburiedinashroud
withatornsleeve.Seenote28forafullcitationofSeferHasidim.
27.B.Bab.Mez.83b85a.
28.SeferHasidim(attributedtoRabbiJudahthePious).Parmaedition,HebrewmanuscriptDeRossi33,publishedbyYehudaWistynezki(Berlin:1891).
29.SeferHasidim#711.

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30.AnotheroneoftherareJewishvampiretalesisfoundinSeferHasidim#1465.HerethevampireisAstryiah,anoldwomanwhousesherhairtosucktheblood
fromhervictims.AnotherbrieftaleinSeferHasidimdescribeshowtobecertainthatawitchdoesnotcomebackfromthedeadtohauntherenemies.Thisis
reminiscentofthemethodofkillingvampireswithastakeintheheart:
Evenafterawitchdies,sheisdangerous.Onceawitchwascapturedandwhentheywereabouttoputhertodeathshesaid:"Evenaftermydeathyouwillnotbesafefrom
me."Andtheysaidtoher:"Tellus,howcanwebesafefromyouafteryoudie?"Shesaid,"Takeastickandpushitthroughmycheeksothatitenterstheearth,andthenI
willnotbeabletodoanymoredamage.''

Whythewitchrevealedthissecretisnotreported,butthesetalesareclearevidenceofthefearofvampiresandwitchesamongthepeopleandofthe
countermeasurestheywerepreparedtotake.AnotherexampleofwitchlorefoundintheSeferHasidim(#14651467)holdsthatthemouthofawitchmustbe
stoppedupwithdirtwhensheisburied:otherwiseshewillresumeherdestructiveactivities.
31.Y.San.6.9andY.Hag.2.2.See"TheWitchesofAshkelon"inEV,pp.2528.
32.B.Git.45a.
33.Forthetaleabouttheknife,see"TheKnife"inLC,p.88.ThetaleoftheblackcatisfoundinSeferHasidim#1466.
34.ThetaleaboutthewitchisfoundinShivheihaBesht(Hebrew)#98,editedbySamuelA.Horodezky(Berlin:1922).See"TheBoyIsraelandtheWitch"inEV
pp.203209.ThetaleaboutthewizardisincludedinLC.See"ACombatinMagic,"pp.181198,andtheaccompanyingnote.Jewishloreaboutwitcheshas
survivedevenintothepresent.OnefamousexampleisthewitchoftheIsraelicityofDovev,whohasbeensightedfrequentlyanddescribedashaving"evileyesand
talonlikefingernails"(TheJerusalemPost,April26,1986).
35.Ma'asehBuch#158183.
36.See"TheMagicMirrorofRabbiAdam"inEV,pp.187195,and"TheMagicLampofRabbiAdam"inMT,pp.230237.
37.NiflaotMaharal(Hebrew)byYudelRosenberg,firstpublishedin1909.
38.See"TheTalesAboutRabbiAdamBaalShemandTheirDifferentVersionsasFormulatedinShivheihaBesht"(Hebrew)inZion28,1963.Fortheversionof
thistaleaboutRabbiAdam,see"TheEnchantedPalace"inMT,pp.245249.
39.ShivheihaBesht#7.
40.ThismotifisparalleltothatinataleaboutRabbiSamuelthePiousfoundintheMa'asehBook#174.
Chapter7TheMythologyofJudaism
1.MidrashRibeshTov(Hebrew),editedbyLipotAbraham(Kecskemet:1927).AccordingtotheZohar(II:8a9aandIII:196b),theMessiahdwellsinaspecial
palaceknownastheBird'sNext.
2.KetubahleShavuotfromtheSephardiMachzor,theSephardicprayerbookforShavuot,writtenbyIsraelNajarainthe16thcentury.

Page215

3.PirkedeRabbiEliezer46:"RabbiJoshuabenKorchahsaid:'FortydayswasMosesonthemountain,readingtheWrittenLawbyday,andstudyingtheOralLaw
bynight.'"
4.B.Pes.6bandSifreNumbers,sec.64.
5.DivreShlomobyRabbiShlomobeBabbiYitzhakhaLevi,Venice:1596,68b.
6.ToseftaB.Sotah17a.
7.MekiltadeRabbiIshmael,ed.Horovitz(Frankfort:1931),MassekhtadePisha14:5152.
8.ZoharII:134a.
9.ZoharII:176b.
10.SeeMarcBregman,"PastandPresentinMidrashicLiterature"inHebrewAnnualReview,vol.2,1978,pp.4559.
11.ZoharI:202b203a.
12.See,forexample,ZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem,pp.165166.
13.GatestotheNewCity:ATreasuryofModernJewishTales,editedbyHowardSchwartz,pp.439444.PeninaVillenchikisapseudonymforPenina
Adelman,authorofMiriam'sWell.
14.B.Betz.16a.
15.ZoharII:133b134a.FormoreontheroleofallegoryintheZohar,seeParablesinMidrashbyDavidStern,pp.227233.
16.B.Shab.119aandB.BabaKama32b.AnotherearlyechooftheritualofKabbalatShabbatisalsofoundinthesepassages,whereitissaidthatRabbiYannai
attiredhimselfontheeveoftheSabbathandsaid,"Come,Obride,come,Obride."ItisinterestingtonotethatintheLawsofShabbatinMishnehTorah,
Maimonideschangedthispassagetoread"Comes,letusgoouttogreettheSabbathKing,"MishnehTorah,chap.30.
17.WalterF.Otto,DieGestaltunddasSeinAbhandlungenberdenMythosundseineBedeutungfrdieMenschheit(DsseldorfKoln:1955),pp.7378.
Chapter8TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics
1.ForexamplesofSufiandZentales,seeTalesoftheDervishes,editedbyIdriesShah,andZenFlesh,ZenBones,editedbyPaulReps.ForaccountsofChristian
mysticalexperience,seeTheLivesoftheSaintsbyAlbanButler.ThemysticaltalesreferredtothroughoutthisessaycanbefoundinGabriel'sPalace:Jewish
MysticalTales,editedbyHowardSchwartz,publishedbyOxfordUniversityPress,1993,hereafterreferredtoasGP.
2.ThislegendisfoundintwoversionsintheTalmud.B.Hag.14busesthephrasing"RabbiAkibaenteredanddepartedinpeace,"andB.Hag.15bandTosefta
Hag.23have"RabbiAkibaascendedinpeaceanddescendedinpeace."
3.InadditiontotheseprimarybiblicalrootsofKabbalah,otherbiblicalepisodesplayanimportantroleintheevolutionofaJewishmysticalconsciousness,including
thevisionsofIsaiahandDanielandtheGivingoftheTorah.
4.Theterm"kabbalistic"hasbothabroadandanarrowdefinition.Thedefinitionofferedonp.101isthebroadone.Thenarrowdefinitionrefersspecificallytothe
periodbetweentheappearanceoftheZoharinthe13thcenturyandthefailureofthemessianicmovementofShabbataiZeviinthe17thcentury.

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5.Infact,deLeongaveseveralaccountsofhowtheZoharwasfound:inacaveinPalestine,andlatersenttoSpainbyNachmanidesorbyanArabboydiggingfor
treasureorthatitwasdiscoveredamongtheplunderofalibrary.Alllaterevidence,includingtestimonybydeLeon'swifeafterhisdeath,indicatesthatitwasindeed
aworkofpseudepigraphy,ofdeLeon'sCreation,orthatitwastheCreationofthecircleofmysticstowhichMoshedeLeonbelonged.Formoreonthetheoryof
groupcreationoftheZohar,seeStudiesintheZoharbyYehudaLiebes,chap.2,"HowtheZoharWasWritten,"pp.85138.
6.SeeShabbataiZevi:TheMysticalMessiahbyGershomScholem.
7.TwonovelshavebeenwrittenabouttheMaidofLudomir.OneisHaBetulahmiLudomirbyYohananTwersky(TelAviv:1949),andtheotherisTheyCalled
HerRebbebyGershonWinkler(NewYork:1992).TheotherwomanrecognizedasarabbiisAsenathbatSamuelBarazaniofKurdistan.See"Asenath'sDove"in
GP,pp.148149.
8.See,forexample,"TheThreeTasksofElijah"inMiriam'sTambourine:JewishFolktalesfromAroundtheWorld,editedbyHowardSchwartz,pp.5663.
SeealsoTalesofElijahtheProphet,byPeninnahSchram(Northvale,N.J.:1991).
9.B.Shab.33b.
10.Eccles.Rab.10:10.Becauseoftheambiguityofthetext,itisnotcompletelyclearifitisRabbiShimonbarYohaihimself(orhisspirit)whocomestothedisciple,
orsimplythatthediscipleremembersthelesson.ButsinceBarYohaiclearlystatesinthedreamthathewillcometothedisciple,itisreasonabletoassumethatthisis
whattakesplace.Thisinterpretationisconfirmedbytheoralvariant"AKissfromtheMaster."SeeGP,pp.7980.
11.TheconceptoftheibburissuggestedintheZoharII:100b:"TheSupernalHolyKingdoesnotpermitanythingtoperish,noteventhebreathofthemouth,which
emergesintotheworldasanewcreation."Possessionbyaniburshouldbedistinguishedfromgilgul,thetransmigrationofsouls.Inthelatter,thesoulofaperson
whohasdiedisreincarnatedinthebodyofapersonbornlater.Inthecaseofanibur,thesoulofasagewhohasdiedfuseswiththesoulofonewhoisliving,andthis
kindofmetempsychosisisusuallytemporaryratherthanpermanent.
12.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).SeeSippureiDybbuk,editedbyGedalyaNigal(Jerusalem:1983),foracomprehensive
collectionofaccountsofpossessionbydybbuks.
13.IFA612,collectedbyS.Arnest.
14.AteretTiferet(Bilgorai:1910).AvariantcanbefoundinSeferhaMa'asyiot,editedbyMordecaibenYehezkel(TelAviv:1937),whoattributesittooral
tradition.Therearemanyothervariantsofthistale,includingSihotTzaddikim(Warsaw:1921)andEsserKedoshot(Piatrakov:1906).
15.ShivheihaAri,p.26,andShivheihaRabbiHayimVital,p.28a.
16.Thetraditionalbeliefisthatthereisonetzaddik,orrighteousone,whoisthegreatestinthatgeneration,andiftheconditionsareright,hecouldserveasthe
Messiah.SeeTheZaddikbySamuelH.Dresner(NewYork:1974).
17.SeeArthurGreen'sbiographyofRabbiNachman,TormentedMaster(NewYork:1982).
18.ShivheihaAri,p.37b.
19.Devet*Bran,byJiri*Langer(Prague:1937).See"AVision"inGP,pp.264265.

Page217

20.SeeHeinreichZimmer,MythsandSymbolsinIndianArtandCivilization,pp.3233.
21.Gen.Rab.77:2andMidrashTanhuma,Vayishlach1.
22.B.Git.68b.See"TheBeggarKing"inEV,pp.5966.(HereafterEV).
23.ForexamplesofRabbiAdam'suseofillusion,see"TheEnchantedJourney"and"TheKing'sDream"inEV,pp.181186and197202,respectively.
24.Ma'aysiotveShichotTzaddikim(Warsaw:1881).See"TheUndergroundForest"inGP,pp.214218.
25.DevarimArevim(Munkacs:1863).See"TheYoungMagician"inGP,pp.224225.
26.CollectedbyRabbiZalmanSchachterShalomifromRebAvrahamParis.See"TheTaleoftheKugel"inGP,pp.268271.
27.MidrashRibeshTov(Kecskemet:1927).See"TheLadderofPrayers"inGP,p.191.
28.CollectedbyMaxGrunwaldfromanunknownsoldierfromtheBalkans.FromSippureiam,Romanssot,ve'OrebothayimshelYehudeiSefardbyMax
Grunwald,editedbyDovNoy(Jerusalem:1982).See"RabbiShimon'sEscape"inGP,pp.126127.
29.ZoharI:216b217a.See"TheBookofFlyingLetters"inGP,pp.7778.
30.CollectedbyHowardSchwartzfromYehudaYaari.SeeGP,pp.156157.
31.ShivheiheBesht(Berlin:1922).See"TheCircleofFire,"pp.202203.
32.MeiBe'erYeshashya(Solvaki:1888).See"ThePrayerLeader"inGP,pp.254255.
33.ShivheiheBeshtbyRabbiDovBenSamuel,editedbySamuelA.Horodezky(Berlin:1922).See"UnlockingtheGatesofHeaven"inGP,pp.205207.
34.SeeChapter3,footnotes1617,foradiscussionofthesystemofinterpretationknownbytheacronymPaRDes.
35.ThemythoftheArioffers,forthefirsttimeinJewishhistory,arationaleandpurposeforthemitzvot.PriortotheAri,observingthemitzvotwassimplya
requirementofGodwhichcouldnotbequestionedorexplained.ButtheAri'smythsuggeststhatbyperformingtheseritualactsJewsareraisingupthefallensparks,
andthuscontributingtotherepairoftheworld.
36.IFA477,collectedbyS.ArenstfromanewimmigrantfromMorocco.
37.ToledotHakhmeiYerushalayimbyAryehLeibFrumkin(Vilna:1874).See"RedemptionoftheLostSouls"inGP,pp.115116.
38.IggeretSodhaGe'ullahbyAbrahambenEliezerhaLevi(Jerusalem:1519).See"TheTzaddikoftheForest"inGP,pp.109112.
39.MeiBe'erYeshashya(Solvaki:1888).See"ThePrayerLeader"inGP,pp.254255.
40.Y.Hag.77aandB.Hag.14b.See"MysteriesoftheChariot"inGP,pp.5051.
41.FromPesiktaRabbati26:7.ThislegendgrowsoutofthedrashofJeremiah'slamentationoverthedestructionoftheTempleinJerusalemandtheBabylonian
exile.MotherZionisthepersonificationofZion,whoisgrievingandinneedofcomfort.Atthesametime,MotherZionisanearlyincarnationoftheShekhinah,
whosehomewastheTempleinJerusalem.TheimageofMotherZionwasprobablyinspiredbyIs.66:8:ForassoonasZiontravailed,shebroughtfourthher
children.
42.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).See"AVisionattheWailingWall"inGP,pp.8789.

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43.SippureHasidim,editedbyShlomoYosefZevin(TelAviv:1964).See"AVisionoftheBride"inGP,pp.245250.
44.Torteneteka"KalloiCadit"roi(Hungarian)byAlbertNeumann(Nyiregyhaza,Hungary:1935).See"TheSabbathGuests"inGP,pp.250251.
45.SometraditionsviewbothMessiahbenJosephandMessiahbenDavidashumanfigures.TheseparatetraditionsofanearthlyandaheavenlyMessiahare
sometimesresolvedbyidentifyingtheheavenlyMessiahasthecelestialsouloftheearthlyMessiah,whosefusionwithhisearthlysoulwilltransformthehuman
Messiahandunleashhisdestiny.ThisisthepositiontakenbyJacobImmanuelSchochetandotherLubavitchhasidim.Formoreonthecomplextraditionslinkedto
theMessiah,seeTheMessiahTexts,editedbyRaphaelPatai(Detroit:1979).
46.IggeretSodhaGe'ullahbyAbrahambenEliezerhaLevi(Jerusalem:1519).See"TheChainsoftheMessiah"inGP,pp.106109.
47.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).See"TheJourneytoJerusalem"inGP,p.86.
48.Torteneteka"KalloiCadik"roiHungarianbyAlbertNeumann(Nyiregyhaza,Hungary:1935).See"TheSabbathGuests"inGP,pp.250251.
49.IFA6928,collectedinIsraelbyUriReslerfromhisuncle.
50.ForadditionalinformationabouttheseprayersofunificationseeTheHebrewGoddessbyRaphaelPatai,thirdedition,chap.8(NewYork:1991).
51.SippureiHasidim,editedbyShlomoYosefZevin(TelAviv:1964).See"AVisionoftheBride"inGP,pp.245250.
52.EmlaBinah,editedbyYekutielAryehKamelhar(Lemberg:1909).See"ABowlofSoup"inGP,p.222.
53.Itissometimesdifficulttodistinguishbetweenthekindofastralprojectionpracticedinthesetalesandsympatheticmagic.Theformerrequiressomeformofsoul
travel,whilethelatterdrawsuponthepowersofmagictomakeanactionthatisperformedinoneplacehaveeffectinanother."ABowlofSoup"isanexampleofa
taleinwhichitisparticularlydifficulttomakethisdistinction.
54.SippureiYa'akov,editedbyRabbiYakovSofer(Dobromill:1864).See"RabbiNaftali'sTrance"inGP,pp.152154.
55.HayeyMoharan,no.88,byRebNathanofNemirov(Jerusalem:1982).WhiletravelingtoUmanfromBratslav,RabbiNachmantoldastorytohisscribe,Reb
NathanofNemirov,abouttheBaalShemTovgoingtoacitywheresoulshadbeenwaitingforthreehundredyearstoascendonhigh(HayeyMoharan,no.87).This
taleabouthisgreatgrandfather,theBaalShemTov,probablyexplainsRebNachman'sdesiretobeburiedinUman,whereovertwentythousandJewswerekilledby
CossacksonJune19,1768.RebNachmanexplicitlyreferredtothisonthedaybeforehedied,saying:"'DoyourememberthestoryItoldyou?''Whichone?'Reb
Nathanasked."ThestoryoftheBaalShemTovwhichItoldyouonthewaytoUman.''Yes,'saidRebNathan.RebNachmansaid:'Foralongtimenowtheyhave
hadtheireyesonme,togetmehere.Therearenotjustthousandsofsoulshere,buthundredsuponhundredsuponhundredsofthousands'"(HayeyMoharan,no.
88).
RabbiNachmanissaidtohaveseenadeadsoulforthefirsttimewhenhewasachild.Heprayedtoseesuchasoul,andonedidindeedseekhimout,terrifying
him.Laterhewassaidtohaveseenmanysuchsoulsofthedead,andattheendofhislifehebecametheMasteroftheField,soughtoutbythousandsofsoulsfor
the

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tikkun,orrepair,hecoulddofortheirsouls(HayeyMoharan,no.7).Thephrase"MasteroftheField"comesfromoneofRebNachman'steachings(Hayey
Moharan,no.48)inwhichhespokeofafieldwheresoulsgrow,andhowtheyrequireamasterofthefieldtorepairthem.
56.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).See"TheFieldofSouls"inGP,pp.204206.
57.CollectedbyHowardSchwartzfromYehudaYaari.See"TheBoywhoBlewtheShofar"inGP,pp.127130.
58.ThereareavarietyofkabbalistictechniquesinwhichthelettersofthewordsoftheToraharemanipulated.Themostpopulartechniqueisgematria,wherethe
numericaltotalofawordisbelievedtolinkittoanyotherwordswiththatsametotal,makingitpossibletoinsertthealternatewordinthesamecontextasameansof
revealingsecretsconcealedintheTorah.TheuseofgematriawasespeciallypopularintryingtodeterminewhenthecomingoftheMessiahwastotakeplace.See
TheSpiceofTorahGematria,byGutmanG.Locks(NewYork:1985),whichlistsallthewordsoftheTorahaccordingtotheirnumericalvalue.
59.SippureiHasidim,editedbyShlomoYosefZevin(TelAviv:1964).See"TheFlamingLetters"inGP,pp.247248.
60."Figure/ground"referstotextsorillustrationsthatcanbereverseddependingonone'svisualperception.Thefigureisthecentralperception,whilethegroundis
thebackground.Whenthesearereversed,thefigurebecomestheground,andviceversa.Agoodexampleofthisisthediagramfoundinmanypsychologytextbooks
ofanillustrationofayoungwoman.Hiddeninherhairisanillustrationofanoldwoman,whichatfirstisdifficulttoperceive,butonceithasbeenseen,itbecomes
difficulttoseetheoriginalyoungwoman.
61.AnexampleofcombiningthelettersfromdifferentnamesofGodisfoundinHayimVital'sdiaryofhisvisions,SeferHezyonotV:32.HereVitaldescribes
prostratinghimselfonthegraveofthetalmudicsageAbbayeandattemptingaunificationinwhichhecombinedthelettersoftheTetragrammatonwiththoseofthe
nameAdonai.Inthiscasetheattemptfailed,ashisthoughtsbecameconfusedandhewasunabletocombinetheletters.
62.Thereareseveralrabbinicdepictionsoftheabodeofthesoulsoftheunborn.B.Hag.12bdescribesitastheseventhheaven,whileB.Yeb.62aandB.San.98a
speakoftheGuf,wherethesoulsoffuturegenerationsarestored,notingthattheMessiahwillnotcomeuntiltheGufisemptied:"TheMessiahwillnotcomeuntilall
thesoulsintheheavenlychamberofsouls(Guf)haveenteredbodiesandhavebeenbornintothisworld."ThefilmTheSeventhSignisbasedonthepremisethatthe
Gufisemptyandthatthefirstchildwithoutasoulisabouttobeborn.OthersourcesidentitytheGufwiththePargod,thecurtainthatseparatesGodfromtheangels,
onwhichallsoulsareportrayed.StillothersspeakofaQuarryofSouls.
63.B.Tamid32b.See"TheGatesofEden"inGP,p.62.
64.GanhaHasidut,editedbyEliezerSteinmann.See"ACrownofShoes"inGP,pp.195195.
65.ShivheiheBeshtbyRabbiDovBenSamuel,editedbySamuelA.Horodezky(Berlin:1922).See"TheTreeofLife"inGP,pp.192193.
66.MidrashAsseretHarugeiMalkhutinOtzarhaMidrashim.See"TheTzohar"inGP,pp.5962.Foradditionalsourcestothislegend,seeGP,note16,pp.
287288.

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67.TheLegendoftheTenMartyrs.VersionsofthislegendarefoundinHekhalotRabbatiandinMidrashElehEzkerahinA.Jellinek,BeithaMidrash
(Jerusalem:1967).See"RabbiIshmael'sAscent"inGP,pp.5253.Seenote101,p.222.
68.SeferhaMa'aysiot,editedbyMordecaibenYehezkel(TelAviv:1937).See"Gabriel'sPalace"inGP,pp.121123.
69.SipureiTzaddikim(Cracow:1886).See"TheEvilAngel"inGP,pp.143145.
70.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinstrel(Jerusalem:1905).Also,MaggidMesharim,byJosephKaro(Amsterdam:1704).See"TheAngeloftheMisnah"
inGP,pp.112113.SeealsoJosephKaro:LawyerandMysticbyR.J.ZwiWerblowsky(Philadelphia:1977).Herethepointismadethattherearesignificant
linksbetweenKabbalahandHalakhah,thebodyofJewishlaw.Indeed,mostofthegreatkabbalists,includingJosephKaroandtheAri,werealsomastersofthe
Halakhah.
71.Anumberofrabbiniclegendsstronglysuggesttheconceptofthearchetype.OnecommonlegendlistsanumberofthingsthatGodcreatedbeforetheCreationof
theworld:"Seventhingswerecreatedbeforetheworldwascreated.Theyare:TheTorah,Gehenna,theGardenofEden,theThroneofGlory,theTemple,
Repentance,andtheNameoftheMessiah"(PirkedeRabbiEliezer,no.3).InNum.Rab.15:10,GodshowsaheavenlymodelofacandlesticktoMosessothathe
willknowhowtofulfilltheinjunction,Andthoushaltmakeacandlestickofpuregold(Ex.25:31).
72.SippureiMa'asiyotbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanofNemirov(Warsaw:1881).See"TheLostPrincess"inEV,p.210.
73.B.Hag.15a.Thepassagegoesontosay:"Hecreatedmountainsandhills.Hecreatedseasandrivers....Hecreatedtherighteousandthewicked.Hecreated
theGardenofEdenandGehenna."
74.AdmoreiChernobyl,editedbyYisraelYakovKlapholtz(B'naiBrak:1971).See"TheBlindAngel"inGP,pp.259261.
75.SeferhaRazimwasanearlyworkofJewishmysticalliterature,consistingofmagicspells,witchcraft,incantations,andsupernaturalremedies.Ittookitsname
fromthelegendaryBookofRaziel,whichtheangelRazielwassaidtohavedeliveredtoAdam,andwhichlaterwassaidtohavereachedvirtuallyallofthepatriarchal
figuresuntilitwaslostwhentheTempleinJerusalemwasdestroyed.SeeSeferhaRazim,editedbyM.Margoliot(Jerusalem:1966).
76.IFA10200,collectedbyEdnaBalayfromRaphaelBalay,inTovaBa'alTovabyRafaelBabay,editedbyBatyaMazoz(Jerusalem:1980).See"TheVoicein
theTree"inGP,pp.177178.
77.SipureiTzaddikim(Cracow:1886).See"TheSabbathFish"inGP,pp.233234.
78.ForthelegendofJosephdellaReina,see"TheChainsoftheMessiah,"inGP,pp.106109.Thisistheclassictaleofattemptingtoforcethecomingofthe
Messiah.
79.EmethaMelekh,editedbyNaphtaliHirshbenEliezer(Amsterdam:1653).See"AStoneintheWall"inGP,p.97.
80.Devet*Bran(zech)byJir*Langer(Prague:1937).See"AWanderingSoul"inGP,pp.266267.
81.IFA7830,collectedbyZevulonQortfromBenZionAsherov.See"TheCottageofCandles"inGP,pp.124126.

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82.SihotMoharaninHayeyMoharanbyRabbiNathanofNemirov(Lemberg:1874).See"TheSoulsofTrees"inGP,p.236.
83.Ibid.
84.IFA487,collectedbyS.ArnestfromRebZaidelBuch.See"DiviningfromtheZohar"inGP,p.237.
85.TheLegendoftheTenMartyrs.VersionsofthislegendarefoundinHekhalotRabbatiandinMidrashElehEzkerahinA.Jellinek,BeithaMidrash
(Jerusalem:1967).See"RabbiIshmael'sAscent"inGP,pp.5253.
86.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).See"AVisionattheWailingWall"inGP,pp.8789.
87.SippureiHasidim,editedbyShlomoYosefZevin(TelAviv:1964).See"AVisionoftheBride"inGP,pp.245250.
88.B.Ber.7a.See"TheVisionoftheHighPriest"inGP,p.55.
89.SipureiTzaddikim(Cracow:1886).See"TheEnchantedIsland"inGP,pp.199201.
90.SuchmultipleinterpretationsofthesamepassagearecommonunderthesystemofinterpretationknownbytheacronymPaRDeS.
91.ThereisascholarlycontroversyoverthemeaningofthetermPardesinitsoriginalcontext,concerningwhetherithadalreadyacquiredamysticalmeaning.
GershomScholemheldthatitdidhavesuchameaning,whereasEphraimUrbachandDavidHalperinconcludedthatintheoriginallegendithadonlyaliteralmeaning
of"garden/orchard/park,"asitdoesinmostotherplacesinrabbinicliterature.Butittookonametaphorical/mysticalmeaningofParadisewhenitwasinsertedintoits
literarycontextintheTalmud.Forfurtherdiscussionofthisissue,seeDavidHalperin'sTheMerkavahinRabbinicLiterature,pp.86ff.Seenote2forthesources
ofthesevariantreadings.SeealsoMarcBregmen'sIntroductionandCommentaryinTheFourWhoEnteredParadisebyHowardSchwartz.
ThereisalsoconsiderablescholarlycontroversyoverthemeaningoftheaccountsofascentsintheHekhalottextsandotherapocalypses.Themostbasicdebate
iswhetherornottheancientrabbisengagedinmysticalpractices,asGershomScholemheldthattheydid(MajorTrendsinJewishMysticismandJewish
Gnosticism,MerkavahMysticism,andTalmudicTradition).Scholem'sviewwascriticizedbyEphraimE.Urbachin"TheTraditionsaboutMerkabah
MysticismintheTannaiticPeriod"inStudiesinMysticismandReligionPresentedtoGershomG.Scholem(Jerusalem:1967,pp.128)[Hebrew].Following
thispointofview,MarthaHimmelfarbarguesinAscenttoHeaveninJewishandChristianApocalypsesthattheascentsandothermysticalaccountsare
nothingmorethanaliteraryfiction(pp.95113).ArelatedviewpointisthatofDavidJ.Halperinin"HeavenlyAscensioninAncientJudaism:TheNatureofthe
Experience,"SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureSeminarPapers,1987,pp.218232.SeealsoHalperin'sTheMerkabahinRabbinicLiteratureandFacesofthe
Chariot:EarlyJewishResponsestoEzekiel'sVision.Morerecently,AlonGoshenGottsteinhassuggestedin"FourEnteredParadiseRevisited"(Harvard
TheologicalReview88,1995,pp.69133)thatalthoughthelegendofthefourwhoenteredPardesisnotanaccountofanactualmysticalexperience,itisa
polemicaldocumentthatreflectsarabbinicdebateabouttheappropriateroleofmysticisminJudaism.
92.B.Hag.15a.
93.ThusPardesmaybeunderstoodasametaphorinsideametaphor.TheorchardrepresentsParadise,whichinturnrepresentsmysticalcontemplation.This

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becomesclearerwhencastintermsofthesystemofinterpretationknownasPaRDeS,wheretheorchardrepresentstheliteralinterpretation,Paradisethe
allegoricalone,andthemysticalmeaningtakestheformofmysticalcontemplation.
94.B.Hag.13a.
95.MishnahHag.2:1.
96.B.Hag.15a
97.Ibid.
98.Ibid.
99.Theupperwatersandlowerwatersarepersonifiedinthemidrashasmaleandfemale,respectively.MidrashKonen25describesthemaleandfemalewatersas
lockedinapassionateembraceandthatGodhadtotearthemapartinordertoseparatethem.BenZomawasespeciallyinterestedinthedivisionoftheupperand
lowerwaters.InGen.Rab.4:6hedisputedtheverseAndGodmadethefirmament(Gen.1:7),saying:"Hemadehowremarkable!Surelyitcameintoexistence
atGod'sword,asitiswritten,BythewordoftheLordweretheheavensmade,andallthehostofthembythebreathofhismouth"(Ps.33:6).
100.RabbiAzrielofGerona'sCommentaryonTalmudicAggadot,p.40.Notethatbyanenigmatickabbalisticreversal,"descendingtotheMerkavah"meansthe
opposite,toascendonhigh.ThisstatementaboutBenAzzaiappearsinseveralvariations,includingLev.Rab.16:4:"BenAzzaiwassittingandexpoundingTorah,
andaflamewasburningaroundhim.Theysaidtohim:'AreyouperhapsengagedinthestudyoftheMerkavah?'Hereplied:'No,IambutfindingintheTorah
parallelstotheprophetsandintheProphetsparallelstotheAggadah.AndthewordsoftheToraharejoyfulevenastheywereonthedaytheywerebeinggivenat
Sinai,andtheywereoriginallygiveninfire,asitissaid,Andthemountainburnedwithfire'"(Deut.4:11).ForafurtherdiscussionofthesepassagesaboutBen
Azzai,seeKabbalah:NewPerspectivesbyMosheIdel,p.318,note99(NewHavenandLondon:1988).
101.ThereareseveralversionsofTheLegendoftheTenMartyrs.TheearliestoftheseisfoundinHekhalotRabbati,oneofthemostimportantoftheHekhalot
textsofMerkavahmysticism.ThebestknownversionisthatfoundinMidrashElehEzkerah.Seethenoteto"RabbiIshmael'sAscent"inGP,p.52.Forafurther
discussionofthebackgroundofthislegend,seeRabbinicFantasies,editedbyDavidSternandMarkJayMirsky(Philadelphia:1990),pp.143146.
102.Lev.Rab.16:4.
103.B.Hag.15aandGen.Rab.2:40.
104.Themidrashiccommentariesexplainthattherewereupperwatersthatweremaleandlowerwatersthatwerefemale.Theygreatlyresistedbeingtornapart,
whenGodsaid:Lettherebeafirmamentinthemidstofthewaters,andletitdividethewatersfromthewaters(Gen.1:6),andtheystilllongforeachother.
SeeMidrashKonen25Gen.Rab.3435SederRabbadiBereshit314MidashAserethaDibrot63MidrashTehillim414PirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.5.
105.HekhalotZutarti.SeePeterSchfer,TheHiddenandManifestGod:SomeMajorThemesinEarlyJewishMysticism(Albany,N.Y:1992),pp.5675.
106.SeferhaHezyonotbyRabbiHayimVital(Jerusalem:1914).See"TheHandwritingoftheMessiah"inGP,pp.103104.
107.SipureiTzaddikim(Cracow:1886).See"TheSwordoftheMessiah"inGP,pp.234236.
108.HagLa'am,editedbyEliezerMarcus(Jerusalem:1990).See"TheCaveofMattathias"inGP,pp.261262.

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109.See"TheTzohar"inGP,pp.5962.Fortheextensivesourcesofthislegend,seeGP,note16,pp.287288.
Chapter9TheQuestfortheLostPrincess:TransitionandChangeinJewishLore
1.ShivheihaAri,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).
2.SippureMa'asiyotbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanSternhartzofNemirov(Warsaw:1881).
3.Ibid.ParablesoftheTorahasaprincesssecludedinapalacearefoundinZoharII:94bandSederhaYom(Slavita:1793).Theseparablesarethelikelyinspiration
forRabbiNachman'stale,wheretheprincessisidentifiednotwiththeTorahbutwiththeShekhinah.SeeBeyondAppearances,ed.byAryehWineman,pp.1823.
4.Torteneteka"KalloiCadik"rol(Hungarian)byAlbertNeumann(Nyiregyhaza,Hungary:1935).
5.IFA612,collectedbyS.Arnest.
6.SeferSgulatMoshe.AlsofoundinToldotRabbenuHayimbenAttar,editedbyReuvenMargarliot(Lemberg:1904)andmanyothersources.
7.HagLa'am,editedbyEliezerMarcus(Jerusalem:1990).ToldbyShimonToder.TheoriginallegendaboutHanukkahisfoundinB.Shab.21b.
8.IFA7830,collectedbyZevulonQortfromBenZionAsherov.
9.Itisinterestingtonotethattheman'squestin"TheCottageofCandles"isinmanywaysparalleltothatofthemanfromthecountryinKafka'sfamousparable
"BeforetheLaw,"foundinhisnovelTheTrial,whocomesseekingjusticeatthegatesoftheLaw.Andinbothtalesthemanfailstofindthejusticeheisseeking.
10.B.Ber.55b.
11.B.Ta'anit25a.
12.B.Sukkah52abandY.Sanh.29b.AdditionallegendsabouttheEvenShetiyah(FoundationStone)arefoundintheM.Yoma5.2,inB.Yoma54ab,andin
ZoharII:222ab.
13.B.Gittin68b.
14.TheTestamentofSolomon(Greek),editedbyF.F.Fleck,inWissenschaftlicheReisedurchdassdlicheDeutschland,Italien,SicilienundFrankreich,
volume2,pp.113140(Leipzig:1837).SeealsothetranslationbyD.C.DulinginOldTestamentPseudepigrapha,ed.byJamesH.Charlesworth,vol1.,pp.
960987.
15.FromZevVilnay,AggadotEretzYisrael,4thedition(no.193)(Jerusalem:1953).CollectedbyZevVilnayfromaJewishyouthinJerusalemin1922.
16.B.Ber.7a.
17.TheearliestsourceseemstobeApocalypseofBaruch,78and80.ThelegendisalsofoundinY.Shekalim50aandB.,Ta'anit29a,andPesiktaRabbati26:6.
18.ShivheihaAri9b10a,editedbyShlomoMeinsterl(Jerusalem:1905).AnoralvariantisIFA16159,collectedbyShimonShababofromOrnaFadidaofIsrael.
19.CollectedbyHowardSchwartzfromRabbiShlomoCarlebach.Foravariantofthistale,seeS.Y.Zevin,ATreasuryofChassidicTalesontheFestivals,vol.
2,pp.461462(Brooklyn:1982).
20.IFA966,collectedbyNehamaZionfromMiriamTschernobilskiofPoland.SeeFolktalesofIsrael,editedbyDovNoy(Chicago:1963),pp.79.Theritual

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pouringwateroverKingDavid'shandsrecallstheritualofwashingofthehandsatthestartoftheSabbathmeal.
Chapter10RabbiNachmanofBratslav:ForerunnerofModernJewishLiterature
1.AlthoughRabbiNachmandidnotpubliclydeclaresuchamessianicroleforhimself,itappearsthathemayhaveviewedhimselfasthepossibletzaddikhadoror
potentialMessiahbenJosephofhisgeneration,whowouldpreparethewayforthecomingofMessiahbenDavid.SeeArthurGreen'sbiographyofNachman,
TormentedMaster,forafulldiscussionofNachman'smessianicaspirations.Formoreonthemessianictradition,seeTheMessiahTextsbyRaphaelPatai.For
moreonShabbataiZevi,seeGershomScholem'sShabbataiSevi:TheMysticalMessiah.
2.TheseareRabbiNachman'sStories,translatedandwithcommentariesbyRabbiAryehKaplanClassicHasidicTalesbyMeyerLevin(whichalsoincludes
versionsofthetalesoftheBaalShemTov)TheTalesofRabbiNachmanbyMartinBuberBeggarsandPrayersbyAdinSteinsaltzNachmanofBratslav:The
TalesbyArnoldJ.BandandTheThirteenStoriesofRebbeNachmanofBreslov,translatedbyEsterKoenig,editedbyMordechaiKramer.OtherNachmantales
canbefoundinYenneVelt:TheGreatWorksofJewishFantasyandtheOccultandinthefourcollectionsofJewishfolkloreeditedbyHowardSchwartz:
Elijah'sViolin&OtherJewishFairyTales,Miriam'sTambourine:JewishFolktalesfromAroundtheWorld,Lilith'sCave:JewishTalesofthe
Supernatural,andGabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales.SeetheBibliographyforadditionaldetailsofpublication.
3.FromFragmentsofaFutureScrollbyZalmanSchachter,p.99.ThisbookcontainsanextensivetranslationofNachman'sdreams,pp.95100.Additional
dreamsarereportedinArthurGreen'sTormentedMaster,pp.165166.Seealso''The'DreamTalks'ofNahmanofBratslav,"inRabbinicFantasies:
ImaginativeNarrativesfromClassicalHebrewLiterature,editedbyDavidSternandMarkJayMirsky,pp.333347,translatedbyArthurGreen.
4.SippureMa'asiyotbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanSternhartzofNemirov(Warsaw:1881).
5.Ibid.
6.FragmentsofaFutureScroll,pp.99100.
7.ComparethefollowingpassagefromanItalianfolktale,"TheEnchantedPalace,"whosethemeandsettingareinmanywaysidenticaltothatof"TheLostPrincess,"
withasimilarpassagefromthattale:
"Thequeenarrived.Withcries,embraces,slapsintheface,kissesandshakes,shedidherbesttoawakenFiordiando.Butrealizingshewouldnotsucceed,shebegan
weepingsoviolentlythatinsteadoftearsafewdropsofbloodtrickleddownhercheeks.Shewipedthebloodoffwithherhandkerchief,whichsheplacedoverFiordiando's
face.ThenshegotbackintohercarriageandspedstraighttoPeterborough"(ItalianFolktales,selectedandretoldbyItaloCalvino,p.235).
"Andafterthetroopshadpassed,acarriagecameby,andinthecarriagesatthedaughteroftheking.Shestoppednearhim,andleftthecarriage,andsatdownnexttohim,
andrecognizedhim.Andalthoughsheshookhimverystrongly,hedidnotwakeup,andshebegantolament....Notlongafter

Page225
wardhewokeupandaskedhisservant:'WhereamI?'Andtheservanttoldallthathadhappened....Thentheministersawthekerchiefandasked:'Fromwheredidthis
come?'Andtheservanttoldhimthatthelostprincesshadwrittenonitwithhertears,andhereadallthatshehadwritten"("TheLostPrincess,"retoldbyMeyerLevin,
ClassicHasidicTales,pp.190197).

8.BratslaverhasidimcanbefoundinpresentdayJerusalemandinB'naiBrak,outsideTelAviv.TherearealsoBratslavergroupstobefoundintheGalileeinIsrael
andinNewYorkCity.TheBratslaversinMe'ahShe'arimareledbyChaimKramer,whohasoverseentheextensivetranslationandpublicationofmanyofRabbi
Nachman'stextsandhimselfwroteanepicbiographyofRabbiNathan,ThroughFireandWater:TheLifeofRebNosonofBreslov.
9.SihothaRan180.
10.SippureiMa'asiyotbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanSternhartzofNemirov(Warsaw:1881).
11.Ibid.
12.SippureiMa'asiyotHadashim(Warsaw:1909).ThestoriesinthiscollectionareattributedtoRabbiNachman,althoughsomedoubthasbeenraisedabouttheir
authenticity.
13.Ibid.
14.Ma'asiyotU'MeshaliminKochavayOr(Jerusalem:1896).
15.SeeJung,TheArchetypesandtheCollectiveUnconscious,vol.9ofTheCollectedWorksofC.G.Jung.
16.SippureiMa'asiyotbyRabbiNachmanofBratslav,editedbyRabbiNathanSternhartzofNemirov(Warsaw:1881).
17.Ibid.
18.SippureiMa'aysiotHadashim(Warsaw:1909).
19.Ibid.
20.FranzKafka,CollectedStories,pp.45.
21.SippureiMa'aysiotHadashim(Warsaw:1909).ForaSufivariantofthistale,see"TheTaleoftheSands"inTalesoftheDervishes,editedbyIdriesShah,pp.
2324.
22.NewYork:Dutton,1967,p.21.
23.Ma'asiyotU'MeshaliminKochavayOr(Jerusalem:1896).
24.SippureiMa'aysiotHadashim(Warsaw:1909).
25.B.Kid.70a.
26.ReferencetotheoriginofthisprimordiallightisfoundinGen.Rab.3:4:"RabbiShimonbenJehozadakaskedRabbiSamuelbenNachman:'AsIhaveheardthat
youareamasterofAggadah,tellmefromwhattheprimordiallightwascreated?'Hereplied:'TheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,wrappedHimselfthereinasinarobe
andradiatedwiththelusterofHismajestyfromoneendoftheworldtotheother.'"ThismetaphorisdevelopedfurtherinPirkedeRabbiEliezer3:"Whencewere
theheavenscreated?FromthelightofthegarmentwithwhichHewasrobed.Hetookthislightandstretcheditasitiswritten,Whoconvertsthyselfwithlightas
withagarment,whostretchedouttheheavenslikeacurtain(Ps.104:2).
27."ThePoetryofHassidism"byKoppelS.Pinson,TheMenorahJournal,Autumn1941,p.304.
28.YemeyMaharnatbyRabbiNathanofNemirov(Lemberg:1876).TheparallelofthisepisodewithoneinvolvingFranzKafkaisremarkableandnoteworthy.

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OnhisdeathbedKafkadirectedhisfriendandmentorMaxBrodtoburnallhisunpublishedwritingsnovels,stories,journals,diaries,andletters.Brodgavehis
word,thenpromptlypublishedallofthismaterial,whichresultedinKafka'sbeingacclaimedasoneoftheseminalfiguresof20thcenturyliterature.HadBrod
followedKafka'sexpressedwish,asdidRabbiShimon,KafkamightbeknownasanobscureCzechwriterwhopublishedonlyahandfulofstoriesinhislifetime
andleftnootherlegacy.OneofthefirstarticlestobringattentiontotheparallelsbetweenKafkaandRabbiNachmanwas"FranzKafkaandRabbiNachman"by
RabbiJackRiemer,JewishFrontier,Fall1961,pp.1620.
29.ThereissomedisputeoverwhatRabbiNachmansaidordidn'tsayonhisdeathbed.InYemeyMaharnat43bRabbiNathanrecountsthatthosestandingaround
RabbiNachman'sdeathbedthoughtthathehaddied.RabbiNathanbegantocryout,"Rebbe!Rebbe!Towhomhaveyouleftus?"RabbiNachmanthenlifteduphis
headwithanexpressionthatsaid,"Iamnotleavingyou,Godforbid!"SoitappearsthattheBratslaverbeliefthatRabbiNachmanwouldalwaysbetheirrebbeis
basedonRabbiNathan'sinterpretationofanexpressiononRabbiNachman'sfacebeforehedied.
30.ToldYehudaYaaritoHowardSchwartz.
31.MikhtavmiRebbeNachmanbyRabbiYisraelBerOdesser(Jerusalem:1984).
32.RabbiNachmanhimselfmadeuseofthismethodofdivination,knownasSheilatSefer.Seethestories"TheSoulsofTrees"and"DiviningfromtheZohar"in
Gabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales,editedbyHowardSchwartz,pp.236237.
33.SincethedeathofRabbiMenachemMendelofLubavitch,theLubavitcherRebbe,whodiedwithoutasuccessor,therehavebeenindicationsthattheLubavitch
hasidimintendtobeguidedbytheirdepartedrebbewithoutappointingasuccessor,preciselyasdidtheBratslaverhasidim.
34.AllhislifeRabbiNachmanwasobsessedwiththeBaalShemTov,andasachildhespentmanyhoursprayingonthegraveoftheBaalSheminMedzhibozh.See
ArthurGreen,TormentedMaster,p.28.
35.Along,NachmanliketalebyDerNistercalled"ATaleofKings"canbefoundinYenneVelt:TheGreatWorksofJewishFantasyandtheOccult,editedand
translatedbyJoachimNeugroschel.
36.ArthurGreen,TormentedMaster,p.347.
Chapter11S.Y.Agnon,I.L.Peretz,andI.B.Singer:ModernMastersoftheAggadah
1.ThestoriesdiscussedinthischaptercanbefoundinGatestotheNewCity:ATreasuryofModernJewishTales(hereafterGNC),editedbyHowardSchwartz.
ThemajorityofthesestoriesderivefromthemodernHebrewandYiddishliterarytraditions.Thereisnootherfullydevelopedmoderntradition,althoughthereareto
befoundindividualswritinginatleastadozenlanguageswhohaveutilizedtraditionalsourcesandfoundinspirationinthem.
2.Whilethisistrueregardingtheirliteraryform,itshouldbenotedthatMendele'sstylewasfilledwithfolksayings,proverbs,talmudicphrases,etc.Inthisrespect
AgnonhasalwaysbeenviewedasanheirofMendele.
3.Agnon'spreeminencewas,however,notapparentfromthefirst.ForatimeM.J.Berditchevskywasregardedastheleadingfigure,andAgnonwasconsideredan
interesting,ifsomewhatesoteric,writerofhasidictales.

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4.AgnonalwaysinsistedthathehadneverreadKafka,butnoonebelievedhim,asKafka'sinfluenceisunmistakable,especiallyinAgnon'sTheBookofDeeds,
wheremanyofthestories,suchas"TotheDoctor"(withitsstrongechoofKafka's"ACountryDoctor"),aredreamlikeandsurreal.TheIsraeliwriterYehudaYaari,
aclosefriendofAgnon's,reportedthathewasoncesittinginAgnon'slivingroomwhenhenoticedKafka'scollectedwritingsononebookshelf.YaariaskedAgnon
whyheclaimedthathehadneverreadKafka,whentherewasclearevidencethathehad.''Ah,"Agnonissaidtohavereplied,"thosearemywife'sbooks."Itseems
thatAgnonpreferrednottoadmitbeinginfluencedbyacontemporarywriterbecauseitinterferedwiththeimageofa"simple"writersteepedintradition.Yetthetruth
isthathewasadeeplycomplexwriter,fullycognizantofmodernismandverymuchapartofit.
5.TwentyOneStoriesbyS.Y.Agnon(NewYork:1970),pp.3044.
6.ABookthatwasLostandOtherStoriesbyS.Y.Agnon(NewYork:1995),pp.136138.
7.TwentyOneStoriesbyS.Y.Agnon(NewYork:1970),pp.2629.
8.B.Bab.Bat.57b58aandPirkedeRabbiEliezer,chap.36.
9.ZoharI:57bandShivheihaBesht11,byRabbiDovBaerbenSamuel,editedbySamuelA.Horodezky(Berlin:1922).
10.MidrashTanhuma,ed.Buber,1:214.
11."AStorywithaGoat"fromTheHolyAmulet:TwelveJewishYemeniteFolktales,collectedbyRachelSeri,editedandannotatedbyAlizaShenhar,no.11,
pp.4447.TranslatedfromtheHebrewbyEvelynAbel.ForotherIFAvariantsofthisfolktale,see"TheCavetotheHolyLand"and"TheCaveofTemptations"in
Gabriel'sPalace:JewishMysticalTales,editedbyHowardSchwartz,pp.164168.
12.FormoreonPeretzandAnsky,see"HowI.L.PeretzWroteHisTales"byA.MukdoniinInThisWorldandtheNextbyI.L.Peretz,pp.352359.For"The
StoryoftheHeGoatWhoCouldn'tSayNo"seeTheBookofFirebyI.L.Peretz(NewYorkandLondon:1959),pp.7275.
13."TheSacredGoat"fromMartinBuber,TalesoftheHasidim:TheLaterMasters,pp.288289.
14.Ontheotherhand,PeretzfoundlesstoutilizeofthehalakhictraditionandwasaleaderoftheHaskalah.Thissplittingofthehalakhicandaggadicisa
developmentofthiscentury,butitmaynotnecessarilybeanegativeone,foritpermitstheAggadahtoretainitspowerevenamongthosewhodonotaccepttherule
oftheHalakhah.
15.GimpeltheFoolbyIsaacBashevisSinger(NewYork:1957),pp.321.
16.GNC,pp.185189.
17.FormoreonGehennaseeHellinJewishLiteraturebySamuelJ.Fox.
18.B.Hag.15a.
19.Y.San.29b.
20.ZoharII:221a.Thispassagelinksthedecayofthebodywiththecessationofthesufferingofthesoulaftertwelvemonths.Assuch,itexplainswhyJewishhell
differsfromtheChristianone,wherepunishmentiseternal.
21.SipureBeitDinshelMa'alah,editedbyYisroelYakovKlapholtz(B'naiBrak:1978).ThisstoryisattributedtoMiriamofMohilev,thesisterofRebShmelke,
whoissaidtohavetoldittoRebAbrahamYehoshuaHeschel,theApterRebbe.
22.ThesourceofSinger'sisolationfromtheYiddishwritingcommunityderivesfromthehostilereceptionhereceivedatthetimeofhisarrivalintheUnitedStates
when,astheyoungerbrotherofIsraelJoshuaSinger,whohadalreadyestablished

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himselfasmajorYiddishnovelist,SingerfoundthathehadimmediateaccesstothecrucialYiddishnewspaper,theJewishDailyForwardanditseditor,
AbrahamCahan.Virtuallysimultaneouswithhisarrival,theForwardbegantoserializeanovelofhis,afactthatquicklybroughthimintooppositionwithalarge
numberofjealousYiddishwriterswhohadalreadybeeninthiscountrymanyyearswithouthavingsomuchastheirpictureappearinthatnewspaper.Ashe
relatesinthethirdvolumeofhisautobiography,LostinAmerica,Singerwasthenbrokeanddesperateforthefiftydollarshereceivedforeachinstallment,
althoughheregardedthenandstillregardsthisnovelasacompletefailure(andleavesitunnamedand,ofcourse,untranslated).Thisfact,coupledwithhisearly
prominence,ledtohisimmediateisolationwithinthecommunityofYiddishwriters.ItisworthobservingthattheeffectsofSinger'sinitialisolationandrejectionby
theYiddishwriterswasprofound.AfterSinger'semergenceasaninternationalsuccess,hewasinapositiontodirecthisattentiontotherichYiddishliterary
tradition,butinvariablyhechosenotto.Instead,healwayssingledoutnonYiddishauthorssuchasTolstoyandBalzacashisprimaryinfluences,while
perpetuatingtheillusionthathiswritingswereuniqueinYiddish,wheninfacttheyaredeeplyinfluencedbythetraditionofMendeleMokherSeforim,I.L.Peretz,
and,ofcourse,hisbrother,I.J.Singer.Unfortunately,Singer'sclaimtouniquenesshasgoneessentiallyunquestioned,andtheresulthasbeenlittleimpetusto
exploreandtranslatemanyotherimportantYiddishfigures,suchasDerNister,DovidIgnatow,andY.Y.Trunk,whosubsequentlyhavefallenintoobscurity
becauseoftheinaccessibilityoftheYiddishlanguagetomostreaders.Inthiswayanentireliterarytraditionhassufferedgravedamagebecauseofajealousy
engenderedliteraryquarrel.
23.SeeInMyFather'sCourtbyI.B.SingerforanaccountofthetraditionshewasexposedtoasthesonofaprominentWarsawrabbi.
Chapter12ModernJewishLiteratureandtheAncientModels
1.ThestoriesdiscussedinthischaptercanbefoundinGatestotheNewCity:ATreasuryofModernJewishTales(hereafterGNC),editedbyHowardSchwartz
(NewYork:1983).
2.Forafurtherdiscussionoftheuseandinterpretationofallegory,seethechapter,"ToolsofInterpretation,pp.3437.
3.SeeModernMidrash:TheRetellingofTraditionalJewishNarrativesbyTwentiethCenturyHebrewWritersbyDavidC.Jacobson(NewYork:1987).
4.HayimNachmanBialiktookthesesamekindsoflibertiesinediting,withN.Ravnitsky,SeferhaAggadah,translatedintoEnglishbyWilliamBrande.
5.ThePaganRabbiandOtherStoriesbyCynthiaOzick(NewYork:1971),pp.137.
6.GNC,pp.512516.
7.Ibid.,pp.400403.
8.Ibid.,pp.263268.
9.MidrashTanhuma,ed.Buber,onBereshit,sect.27.
10.ThefollowingarejustafewofthemanypassagewhereAbbayebeginswith"thematriarchsaidtome":B.Shab.133b,B.Ket.50a,B.M.K.12a,B.M.K.18b,
andB.Yeb.25a.OnAbbaye'srejoicing,seeB.Ber.30b.ThestatementaboutAbbaye'sjugglingappearsinB.Suk.53a.Theepisodeoftheboyspointingtothe
roof

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appearsinB.Ber.48a.ThelambthataccompaniedAbbayetotheouthouseismentionedinB.Ber.48a:"ThemotherofAbbayetrainedalambforhimtogo
withhimintotheprivy."TheprayerintheprivyisbasedonB.Ber.60b:"Onenteringaprivyoneshouldsay:'Behonored,yehonoredandholyonesthatminister
totheMostHigh.GivehonortotheGodofIsrael.WaitformetillIenteranddomyneeds,andreturntoyou.'"Thisisbasedonthebeliefthatintheprivyaman
isabandonedbytheangelsandthusopentotheapproachofdemons.ThatcertainpriviesarethehomesofdemonsderivesfromB.Ber.62a:''Therewasa
certainprivyinTiberiaswhichiftwopersonsenteredtogether,evenbyday,theycametoharm."TheexorcismagainstdemonsappearsinB.Shab.67a.The
windowthroughwhichRava'swifeplacedherhandonhisheadismentionedinB.Ber.62a.ThetwoprevioushusbandsofAbbaye'swifearementionedinB.
Yeb.64b.TheoldmanwhoconsoledAbbayeabouthispassionforwomenismentionedinB.Suk.62a:"Acertainoldmancameuptohimandtaughthim:"The
greatertheman,thegreaterhisYetzerHara(EvilInclination).'"TraditionidentifiedtheanonymousmanwithElijah.ThelegendoftherocksoftheTigriskissing
eachotherafterthedeathofAbbayeappearsinB.M.K.25b.TheattackonAbbaye'swifeHomaisreportedinB.Ket.65a.Thisisbasedonthebeliefthatwhen
awifeoutlivesthreehusbandsthereisthepresumptionthatshewassomehowresponsiblefortheirdeaths(B.Yeb.64b).(Thisnotewaspreparedwiththe
assistanceofJeremyGarber.)
11.B.Hag.15b.
12.Ibid.
13.B.Hag.15a.
14.Incontrast,theZoharspeaksofthreeaspectsofthesoul,nefesh(life),ruah(spirit),andneshamah(soul),withtwoadditionalhigherlevels,haayahand
yehidah,whichonlytheelectcanobtain.Inaddition,thehumansoulhassparksofothersoulsinit.
15.B.Hag.15a.
16.PirkeAvot3:7.
17.B.Hag.15b.
18.FromMidrashTanhuma,Pekude3.AlsofoundinSeferhaZikhronot(TheChroniclesofJerahmeel)9:18.
19.FromIntheReignofPeacebyHughNissenson(NewYork:1972),pp.107117.
20.B.Git.56ab.
21.GNC,pp.160164.
22.Ex.Rab.21:10.
23.MekiltadeRabbiIshmaelonEx.15:1.
24.TheunlikelyassociationofMoseswithashohetisexplainedbythetraditionthatitwasMoseswhowastaughtthecorrectprocedureofslaughteringanimalsby
Godandinturntransmitteditorallytothepeople.Also,whiletheJewswerejourneyinginthedesert,theywerepermittedtoeatonlyofthemeatofthesacrificesthat
werebroughtintotheTabernacle(B.Men.29a).
25.B.Sot.13b.
26.JewishLegendsbyStefanZweig(NewYork:1987),pp.167171.
27.ForafurtherdiscussionofthePargod,seethechapter"TalesoftheGreatJewishMystics,"p.121.
28.HeinreichZimmer,MythsandSymbolsinIndianArtandCivilization,pp.3233.

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29.KeterShemTov,editedbyRabbiAharonb'RebZviHaCohenApta(Zolkova:1794).
30.GNC,pp.383390.
31.FromTheBookofQuestions:Yael,Elya,AelybyEdmondJabs(Middletown,Conn.:1983),pp.143144.
32.ThethemeoftzimtzumalsoplaysaprominentpartinJayNeugeboren'snovelTheStolenJew.
33.FromParablesandParadoxesbyFranzKafka(NewYork:1961),pp.2933.
34.GNC,pp.122126.
35.Ibid.,p.127.
36.FromParablesandParadoxesbyFranzKafka(NewYork:1961),pp.4145.
37.TheStoveandOtherStoriesbyJakovLind(NewYork:1986),pp.4547.
38.GNC,p.150.
39.Ibid.,p.152.
40.Ibid.,pp.152154.
41.TheBookofQuestionsbyEdmondJabs(HanoverandLondon:1991),pp.31.

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GLOSSARY
AllthefollowingtermsareinHebrewunlessotherwisenoted.
Aggadah(pl.Aggadot)thebodyofJewishlegendsspecificallythosefoundintheTalmudandMidrash.
AhizatEinayimlit."seizingtheeyes."Atermmeaningillusion,delusion,mirage,chimera,orsleightofhand.
AkedahthebindingofIsaacbyAbrahamonMountMoriah.
Aravotthehighestrealmofheaven.
BarMitzvahaceremonyrecognizingthetransitionintoadulthoodofathirteenyearoldJewishboy.
BeitDinarabbiniccourtconvenedtodecidemattersoftheLaw.
BeithaMidrashahouseofstudy.
Bereshitlit."inthebeginning."ThefirstwordoftheTorah.
BetthesecondletteroftheHebrewalphabetandthefirstletterofthefirstwordoftheTorah,Bereshit.
BirkathaMazontheblessingaftermeals.
Britlit"covenant."ThecircumcisiongiventoeverymaleJewishchildontheeighthdayafterbirth.Thecompletetermisbritmilah,or"covenantofthecircumcision."
DevekutcleavingtoGod,oftenofamysticalnature.
DrashaninterpretationofapassageoftheBible.
Dybbukthesoulofonewhohasdiedthatentersthebodyofonewhoislivingandremainsuntilexorcised.
EinSoflit."endless"or"infinite."Thehighest,unknowableaspectoftheDivinity.

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EinYakovacollectionoftheAggadahoftheTalmud,compiledinthe16thcenturybyRabbiJacobibnChabib.
GehennatheplacewherethesoulsofthewickedarepunishedandpurifiedtheJewishequivalentofhell.
GematriaatechniqueusedbyJewishmysticstodiscernsecretmeaningsintheTorah.InthissystemeachHebrewletterhasanumericalvalue,andthecommentator
seeksoutwordsorwordcombinationsthathavethesametotal,whicharethenregardedaslinked.
Gilgulthetransmigrationofsouls.Thekabbalisticequivalentofthebeliefinreincarnation.
GufthetreasuryofsoulsinParadise.
HaggadahthetextusedforthePassoverseder.
HagiyahatractateoftheTalmudthatcontainsmanyepisodesofamysticalnature.
HalakhahthecodeofJewishreligiouslaw,whichalsoincludesethical,civil,andcriminalmatters.
HanukkahfestivalcelebratedforeightdaystocommemoratethesuccessfulstruggleoftheJewsagainsttheGreeks,ledbyJudahMaccabee,andtherededicationof
theHolyTempleinJerusalem.
Hasid(pl.Hasidim)lit."apiousone."AfollowerofHasidism,aJewishsectfoundedbytheBaalShemTov.Hasidimareusuallyassociatedwithareligiousleader,
knownasa"rebbe,"asdisciples.
Haskalahlit."enlightenment."AmovementthatoriginatedincentralEuropeinthe18thcenturyitencouragedJewstobroadentheirknowledgeoftheworldthrough
secularstudies.
Havdalahlit."todistinguish"or"toseparate."TheceremonyperformedattheendoftheSabbath,denotingtheseparationoftheSabbathfromtherestoftheweek
thatfollows.
Hekhalotlit."palaces."ReferstothevisionsoftheJewishmysticsofthepalacesofheaven.ThetextsdescribingthesevisionaryjourneysintoParadiseareknownas
"Hekhalottexts."
Ibburthespiritofadeadsagethatfuseswithalivingpersonandstrengthenshisfaithandwisdom.Apositivekindofpossession,theoppositeofpossessionbya
dybbuk.
Kabbalahlit."toreceive."ThetermdesignatingthetextsofJewishmysticism.Akabbalistisonewhodevoteshimselftothestudyofthosetexts.
Kaddishanancientprayer,writteninAramaic,sanctifyingthenameofGod,whichisrecitedbymournersasaprayerforthedead.Asonisrequiredtosayitforhis
parentsthreetimesadayforelevenmonthsfollowingtheirdeaths.
Kavanahlit."intention."Thespiritorintensitythatisbroughttoprayerandotherrituals,withoutwhichprayerisanemptyform.
KfitzathaDerekhlit."leapingtheway."Akindofenchantedtravel,oftenassociatedwiththetalesoftheBaalShemTov,inwhichhiswagontraveled

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greatdistancesinashorttime,withoutthewheelsevertouchingtheground.
KotelWesternWall.AlsoknownastheWailingWall.
LagbaOmerfestivalthatfallsbetweenPassoverandShavuot.
LamedVavTzaddikimthethirtysixjustmenwho,accordingtolegend,existineverygeneration.Bytheirmerittheworldissustained.
LekhahDodiafamoushymnofthe16thcenturythatwelcomestheSabbathQueeneveryFridayeveningatthebeginningoftheSabbath.
Ma'aseh(pl.Ma'asiyot)ataleorstory,oftenafolktale.
Ma'asehBereshitlit."theworkofthecreation."Themysticaldoctrineofthemysteriesofcreation.
Ma'asehMerkavahlit."theworkofthechariot."ThemysticaldoctrineassociatedwiththevisionofEzekiel.
Maggid(pl.Maggidim)apreacherwhoconfinedhistalkstoeasilyunderstoodhomiletics,suchastheMaggidofDubno.Also,aspiritinvokedbythestudyofa
sacredtext.
Malkhutlit."kingdom."ThetenthSefirah,identifiedasKingdom,whichislinkedtotheShekhinah.
MatzahthetraditionalunleavenedbreadforPassover.
Mezzuzah(pl.Mezzuzot)lit."doorpost."Asmallcasecontainingapieceofparchmentonwhichiswrittentheprayerthatbegins"ShemaYisrael."Thiscaseisaffixed
totherightdoorpostofaJew'shomeinaccordancewiththebiblicalinjunction.
Middotlit."rules."TheMiddotisoneofthetractatesoftheMishnah,thedivisionKodashim,whichdealsprimarilywiththelawspertainingtotheTemple.
Midrashamethodofexegesisofthebiblicaltext.AlsoreferstoposttalmudicJewishlegendsasawhole.Amidrash(lowercased,withthepluralmidrashim)isan
individualrabbiniclegend.
Mikvehtheritualbathinwhichwomenimmersethemselvesaftermenstruationhasended.Itisalsousedoccasionallybymenforpurposesofritualpurification.
Mohelonewhoperformstheritualcircumcisionofthebrit.
NeshamahYeterahtheextrasoulthatissaidtobereceivedontheSabbath,whichdepartsaftertheceremonyofHavdalahisperformed.
Notarikonasystemofinterpretationinwhicheveryletterofawordistakenasaninitialorabbreviationofaword,usedprimarilyasakabbalistictechnique.
OlamHabatheworldtocome.Oftenusedasasynonymforheaven.
Pardes,PaRDeSlit."orchard"oftenlinkedtoParadise.Referstotheenticingbutdangerousrealmsofmysticalspeculationandcontemplationsymbolizedby
heavenlyascent.Also,anacronymforasystemoftexturalexegesisbasedonfourlevelsofinterpretation:peshat(literal),remez(symbolic),drash(allegorical),and
sod(mystical).

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Pargodlit."curtain."InJewishmysticismitreferstothecurtainthatissaidtohangbeforetheThroneofGloryinParadise,whichseparatesGodfromtheangels.
Peshataliteralkindoftexturalexegesis.AlsothefirstlevelofinterpretationinthesystemknownasPaRDeS.
Remezlit."ahint."ThesecondlevelofinterpretationinthesystemknownbytheacronymPaRDeS.Itimpliestheperceptionthatthemeaninghasmovedfromthe
literaltothesymbolic.
ResponsatherepliesoftherabbistoquestionsthatrelatetoJewishLaw.
RuahhaKodeshtheHolySpirit.
Sefirah(pl.Sefirot)kabbalisticconceptofemanations,teninall,throughwhichtheworldcameintobeing.
ShalomAleikhemlit."peacebetoyou."ThetraditionalJewishgreeting.Thetraditionalreplyis"AleikhemShalom,""toyou,peace."
SheilatHalomamethodofdivinationinwhichaquestionisaskedbeforegoingtosleep,inhopesthattheanswerwillbegiveninadream.
SheilatSeferamethodofdivinationinwhichtheBibleoranothersacredtextisopenedatrandomandapassageispointedto,whichisunderstoodtobethereply
tothequestion.
Shekhinahlit."todwell."TheDivinePresence,usuallyidentifiedasafeminineaspectoftheDivinity,whichevolvedintoanindependentmythicfigureinthe
kabbalisticperiod.AlsoidentifiedastheBrideofGodandtheSabbathQueen.
ShevaBerakhotthesevenbenedictionsofmarriage.Alsoreferstoaweeklongseriesofceremoniesafterawedding,inwhichthecelebrationcontinues.
Shivahthesevendayperiodofmourningobservedbycloserelativesofapersonwhohasdied.
Shloshimthethirtydayperiodofmourningafterapersondies.
Shohetaritualslaughterer.
SitraAhrathesideofevilinkabbalisticterminology.
Smikhahrabbinicordination,traditionallygiventoastudentwhohasdemonstratedhismasteryofJewishlaw.
SodthefourthlevelofthefourlevelsystemofbiblicalinterpretationknownasPaRDeS.Itreferstosecretormysticalinterpretations.
Soferascribe.Onewhowritesholytextsandalsorecords,astheyarespoken,theteachingsandtalesofhasidicrabbis.
TammuzthefourthmonthoftheJewishreligiouscalendar.
Targum(pl.Targumim)lit"translation"inAramaic.ThetranslationoftheBibleintoAramaic.
Temurahakabbalistictechniqueinwhichoneletterissubstitutedforanother.
TetragrammatonthefourletterineffableNameofGod:YHVH.Thetruepronunciationisbelievedtohavebeenlost,andtheknowledgeofitisbe

Page235

lievedtoconfergreatpower.Accordingtoonetradition,onlyonegreatsageineachgenerationknowsthetruepronunciationoftheTetragrammaton.
Tikkunlit."repair."Restorationandredemption.
Tzaddikanunusuallyrighteousandspirituallypureperson.Hasidimbelievetheirrebbestobetzaddikim.
TzaddikhaDortheleadingtzaddikofhisgeneration.
Tzerufakabbalistictechniqueinwhichawordisrearrangedintoanotheri.e.,ananagram.
TzimtzumthekabbalisticconceptofthecontractionofGodthattookplaceatthetimeofthecreationtomakespacefortheworldtoexist.
YahrzeitYiddishtermmeaningtheanniversaryofthedeathofacloserelative.
Yeshivahschoolfortalmudicandrabbinicstudies.
YetzerHaratheEvilInclination.
YetzerTovtheGoodInclination.

Page237

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Page273

INDEX

A
Aarne,Antti,44
Abbaye,69,22829n.10
"OntheLifeandDeathofAbbaye,"19192
Abel
burialof,19,207n.24
Cainand,19,62,65,2067nn.19,21,22,23
sistersof,206n.21
Abishai,45
Abraham,49,93,136
childhoodof,12,23
dreamsof,52
sacrificeofIsaac,4,71,2012
Tzoharand,18
wifeof,35,36
"Abraham"(Kafka),201
Absalom,181
Abulafia,112
AcademyofEber,4
AcademyofShem,4
Adam,16,17,18,54,62
burialof,207n.24
creationof,58
wivesof.SeeEveLilith
SeealsoGardenofEden
Adam(Rabbi),50,51,7980,110
"TheEnchantedJourney"and,50
"TheKing'sDream"and,50
"TheMagicMirrorofRabbiAdam"and,50
AdneSadeh,5
Aesop'sFables,10,27
Aggadah,1230,166,190,197
biblicalfiguresand,52
defined,4,8,231
evolutionof,6,8,910
halakhictraditionsplitwith,227n.14
meaningsof,2034n.6
modernJewishliteratureand,176
postbiblicaltalesof,43,45,108
purposeoftradition,1011
uniquenessof,9
Agnon,S.Y.,13,23,38,70,17681,189,191,226n.3
"Agunot"and,178
BookofDeedsand,227n.4
"FableoftheGoat"and,3839,17981
Kafkaand,177,227n.4
"OnOneStone"and,178
rabbinicsources,17879,181
works,17778
AgratbatMahalath,102
"Agunot"(Agnon),178
Ahasuerus(King),44
Aher,theOther.SeeElishabenAbuyah
"AhizatEinayim",198,199,231
Akedah(bindingofIsaac),4,231
"TheDevil'sFire"and,71

Page274

Akedah(continued)
"Isaac"and,2012
moderninterpretationsof,2012
"TheNearMurder"and,201
"RivkaonMountMoriah"and,202
"TheTaleoftheRam"and,202
AkibabenJoseph
ascentintoParadise,100,124,128
onLilithandSatan,64
asmodelforlaterrabbis,108
Mosesand,78
onnearnessofGod,92
roleinallegory,3637
SongofSongsand,3637,38
Talmudicsexualparableand,57
TalmudTorahschooland,127
Torahinterpretationand,35
Aleichem,Sholom,175,183
AlexandertheGreat,120
Allegory,3440
ofCreation,136,16667,172
ofdivinewedding,37,8788,136,19899
ofgenerationseparation,181
kabbalistic,35,39,167,17172
"LegendoftheThirdDove"and,19798
"TheLetter"and,167,198
TheLostPrincess"and,13438
ofMessiah,51,13738,181
"ThePortrait"and,167,198
roleof,36,215n.15
"TheRoyalMessenger"and,167,198
ofShekhinah,51,13637,168
ofSongofSongs,3637,38,87,209n.14
"TheTaleoftheMenorah"and,167
ofTzaddik'srole,171
ofZohartext,145,215n.15
AlphabetofBenSira,The,58
Amulets,useof,59,60,61,122
Angel(s),5,89,120,125,127,167,193
Esau'sguardianangel,110
"TheEvilAngel"and,121
goodandevil,121
Jacob'sstrugglewith,34
inJewishfolklore,75
inmysticaltales,108
namesof,111
punishmentby,77,125
secretnamesof,111
SeealsoDemon(s)specificangels
AngelofDeath,12,47,197
Cainand,2021
CityofLuzand,1415
creationof,21
Eve'svisionof,62
AngelofMercy,15
AngeloftheLord,4
"AngeloftheMishnah,The"(Karo),121
AngeloftheZohar,109
Anima,52,94,122,133,137,149,150,168
Ansky,S.,70
TheDybbuk,53,76
asPeretzsource,175,182
Apocrypha,12,70,72,97,120
Appelfeld,Aharon,19697
Aramaic,34,234
Aravot,119,231
Archetype(s),16566,169
ofCreation,220n.71
ofheavenlyjourney,113
ofJerusalem,152
mythicpatternsand,88,89,96,14950,168
ofpatriarchs,93,136
psychological,12122
Sefirotas,88,114,121
ofWiseOldMan,14449
Ari(IsaacLuriaofSafed),26,27,28
Elijahand,104
"TheFinger"and,7374
"GatheringtheSparks"mythand,54,98,114
Halakhahand,220n.70
onJewishrole,54
"TheJourneytoJerusalem"and,117,157
mysticaltalesand,103
mythof,9699,11415,14041
powerof,109,123
Shekhinahmythand,94
ShimonbarYohaiand,108,129
ShivheihaAriand,26,28,7375
"TheShatteringoftheVessels"and,54,9699,14041
"TheSouloftheAri"and,107
"AStoneintheWall"and,123
"AVisionattheWailingWall"and,13134,150
Zoharand,96
ArkoftheCovenant,29,37
Asch,Sholem,184
AsenathbatSamuelBarazani,216n.7
Asher,2324
Ashkelon,46
Ashmodai,155
Asmodeus,45,4950,70,72,117
"TheBeggarKing"and,4950

Page275

"TheDemonPrincess"and,49
"KingSolomonandAsmodeus"and,49
"MagicFluteofAsmodeus,The"and,50
"PartnershipwithAsmodeus"and,50
AvotdeRabbiNatan,98
Azazel,57

B
Baalam,45
BaalShemTov("theBesht"),50,51,86,96,103,126,163
Ariand,129
"TheCircleofFire"and,113
"ACrownofShoes"and,12021
hasidismand,2729
KfitzathaDerekhand,111,23233
"TheLadderofPrayers"and,8586,112
TheLegendoftheBaalShem(Buba)and,190
NachmanofBratislavand,129,226n.34
parableofGod,199200
powerof,109
primordiallightand,17
ShimonbarYohaiand,108
ShivheihaBeshtand,28
talesof,2829,70,80,85,179,190
"TheTreeofLife"and,121
"UnlockingtheGatesofHeaven"and,113
"TheWerewolf"and,77
SeealsoHasidim
BabylonianTalmud,3
Ballads,53
Barmitzvah,68,142,231
Batmitzvah,142
Bedouins,115
"BeforetheLaw"(Kafka),189,199
"BeggarKing,The,"45,46,4950
BeitDin,61,73,231
BeithaMidrash,231
Benaiah,45,46
BenAzzai,112,125,127,222n.100
BenTemalionlegend,213n.24
BenZoma,125,127
Berditchevsky,M.J.,13,19899
MimekorYisrael,27
Bershit,231
Beruchim,Abraham(Rabbi),13233,134,142,146
"Besht,the."SeeBaalShemTov
Bet,231
Bettelheim,Bruno,61
Bible
allegoricalreadingsof,3437
guidancefrom,56
interpretationsof,3140,231
asmythicsource,5,31,8687
symbolismin,31
SeealsoTorahspecificbiblicalfigures
BindingofIsaac.SeeAkedah
Bird'sNest,85,119,214n.1
Blanchard,Tsvi,202
"BlindAngel,The,"122
Bloodlibel,80
BookofDeeds,The(Agnon),227n.4
"BookofFlyingLetters,The,"112
BookofJubilees,The,10,20
BookofLife,109
BookofMysteries,50
BookofNumbers,23
BookofParadise,The(Manger),19394
BookofTobit,The,72
BooksoftheBible.Seekeyword,e.g.Genesis
Borges,JorgeLouis,177,189
"BowlofSoup,A,"118
"BoyWhoBlewtheShofar,The,"118
BratslaverHasidim,174175,225n.8(seealsoNachmanofBratslav)
"BrideofDemons,The,"70,74,76
BrideofGod.SeeShekhinah
Brit(circumcision),5960,74,142,231
BrothersAshkenazi,The(Singer),184
Buber,Martin,6,178,190

C
Cahan,Abraham,228n.22
Cahan,Y.L.,53,70
Cain,1823
Abeland,65,2067nn.19,21,22,23
deathof,1923
descendantsof,206n.20
evilnessof,62,206n.20
Lamechand,21,208n.31
asmarkedbyGod,20,21
punishmentbyGod,1920,21,207n.30
sistersof,206n.21
Calvino,Italo,177,189
Campbell,Joseph,89
Carlebach,Shlomo,157
"CauseofthePlague,The,"70
CaveofMachpelah,179
"CaveofMattathias,The,"128,14546
"Cellar,The,"6061,70
Ceremonies,142
"Chainmidrash,"18
"ChainsoftheMessiah,The,"117
Christianity,37,227n.20
"ChronicleofEphraim,The,"71

Page276

ChroniclesofJerahmeel,The,10
"CircleofFire,The,"113
Circumcision.SeeBrit
CityofLuz,1415,4748,206n.5
CloudofGlory,93
Collectiveunconscious,12122
Constantinople,129
ContemplativeKabbalah.SeeSpeculativeKabbalah
"CottageofCandles,The,"123,14749
Creation
allegoryof,136,16667,172
archetypesof,220n.71
Arimythand,9699
inHasidictales,16667
mythsof,9699,11315,127,222n.104
primordiallightand,1617,97
roleofJewsand,110
TreeofLifeand,114
Tzimtzumconceptand,97,200,235
SeealsoGardenofEdenGenesisMa'asehBereshitSefirot
"CrownofShoes,A,"12021

D
DanceofGenghisCohen,The(Gary),76
"DancingoftheAri,The,"104
Daniel,34,45
Dante,122,189,191
David(King),12
ondeathofson,181
folkloreandfairytalesabout,27,4445,47
FoundationStoneand,15355
JerusalemTempleand,15255
"KingDavidandtheGiant"and,45
talesofcontinuedpresenceof,16960
"DeadFiancee,The,"78
Death
Lilithaschildkillingwitch,5960
ritualsof,142,232,234
SeealsoAngelofDeathSouls
DeathofGoddebate,200
"DeathoftheLittleGod,The"(Shahar),198,200
dellaReina,Joseph.SeeJosephdellaReina
Demon(s),68,70,7377,75,22829n.10
apocryphaltextsand,72
"TheBrideofDemons"and,70,74,76
"TheCellar"and,70
"TheDemonintheTree"and,68,73
"TheDemonoftheWaters"and,7475
doublesof,59
exorcismof,213n.24
"TheFinger"and,7374
humanformsof,213n.18
"TheOtherSide"and,74,78
possessionby,76,213n.24
powersof,7273
"TheQueenofSheba"and,73
sourceof,192
themeofmarriagewith,7375,212n.11
"TheUnderwaterPalace"and,74
SeealsoAsmodeusLamashtuLilithSatan
"DemonintheTree,The,"68,73
"DemonoftheWaters,The,"7475
"DemonPrincess,The,"49
DerNister,175,183,228n.22
DestroyingAngel.SeeAngelofDeath
Devekut,112,231
"Devil'sFire,The,"71,77
Disciples,96,103,108,109,129,132,142
Divination,123,174,234
"DiviningfromtheZohar"and,123
"TheSoulsofTrees"and,123
DivineChariot.SeeMa'asehMerkavah
DivineComedy,The(Dante),191
Divinecommandments.SeeMitzvot
Divineemanations.SeeSefirot
Divineintervention,45
DivineName.SeeNameofGod
DivinePresence.SeeShekhinah
Divinerealm,118
Divinetests
"TheCottageofCandles"and,14749
DavidandtheFoundationStoneas,15354
examplesof,148
SeealsoAkedah
DivineThrone,112
Divineweddingallegory,37,8788,136,19899
"DiviningfromtheZohar,"123
"DoortoGehenna,The,"77
Dove,134,19798
Dovev,witchof,214n.34
"DovidMelekhYisrael,haihaivikayom"(song),160
Drash,37,38,39,46,231
DrashotBeithaLevi,205n.17
Dreams,128,14546,149
"TheCaveofMattathias"and,128,14546
"TheHandwritingoftheMessiah"and,128
interpretationof,32,149

Page277

ofNachmanofBratslav,16465
"TheSwordoftheMessiah"and,128
asvehiclesfortales,14547
SeealsoVisions
Dybbuk(s),68,69,72,213n.21
TheDanceofGenghisCohenand,76
defined,104,143,231
TheDybbukand,53,76
TheDykeandtheDybbukand,7677
exorcismof,75,76,1045
"TheFishhead"and,7576
TheMaasehBookand,75
moderntalesof,7677
originsof,77
possessionby,7576
"TheWidowofSafed"and,75,105
Dybbuk,The(Ansky),53,76,175,182
DykeandtheDybbuk,The(Galford),7677

E
Eber,4
EcclesiastesRabbah,150
Eden.SeeGardenofEden
"EdenAngel,The"(Rapp),201
Egypt,23,24,25
EinSof,38,167,169,231
EinYakov,232
EizekofKallo,103
"ThePrayerLeader,"113
"TheSabbathGuests,"117,13840
Elders,7
EliezerbenHyrcanos,32,79
EliezerbenJose,33
Eliezer,ServantofAbraham,208n.38
Elijah,26,27,79
appearancesof,5455,103,142
ascentof,86,208n.38
asheavenlymaster,1034
"Elijah'sViolin,"55
ElimelechofLizensk,56,57,103,110
"ABowlofSoup,"118
"TheYoungMagician,"110
ElishabenAbuyah,125,127
"ThePaganRabbi"and,190,19293
"EnchantedIsland,The,"124
"EnchantedJourney,The,"50
EndofDays,10,8586,99,138,140,179
Enoch,45,18,87,89,111,120,208n.38(seealsoMetatron)
Eruvim,204n.13
Esau,18,65,110,302
Esther,44
Eve,4,17,18,6267
Lilithaspolaropposite,6467
asrolemodelforwives,62
"TheStoryofLilithandEve,"6567
SeealsoGardenofEden
Evil
Cainpersonifying,62,206n.20
dybbukslinkedwith,105
inclinationtoward,43,57,58,64,149,235
kabbalisticsymbolsof,114
powerof,5758
understandingof,122
SeealsoDemon(s)
"EvilAngel,The,"121
EvilEye,79
Exegesis,3234,40
Exile,9899,134,137,156
"ExiledPrincess,The,"53
Exodus
Agnontalesand,178
exileasdominantJudaicthemeand,134
"IntheWilderness"and,19697
mythoftheAriand,98
Exorcism,119,213n.24
"ExorcismofWitchesfromaBoy'sBody,The,"76
Ezekiel,9798,124(seealsoMa'asehMerkavah)

F
"FableoftheGoat"(Agnon),3839,17981
Fairytales,4355
asallegories,5152
biblical,4445
inHasidicera,5153,16365
legendsand,46,48,55
oraltraditionand,47,5253
powerof,44
questsasfocusof,134(seealsoQuesttales)
roleof,4344,49,55
symbolismin,5152,55,165,166
inTalmud,4546
themesof,4345,54,134
universalityof,5455,165,168
SeealsoFolktalesLegends
Fall(cosmic),4,97,99
modernliteratureon,201
Falsemessiahs,117,163
FamilyMoskat,The(Singer),184
Fantasy,45,61,75
Femalerabbis,216n.7
FeminineaspectofGod.SeeShekhinah
Femininityofself,122
Feminists,64

Page278

"FieldofSouls,The,"118
"Figure/ground,"8788,219n.60
"Finger,The,"7374
Firestone,Laya,202
"Fishhead,The,"7576
"FlamingLetters,The,"119
"FlightoftheEagle,The,"49
Flood,198
"FlyingLetters,The,"112
Folktales
onAsmodeus,50,72
onCityofLuz,1516
collectorsof,26,53
creationof,75,12829
demonologyin,72
embellishmentof,4647
evolutionof,1314,213n.18
fantasyand,61,75
fearsand,75
asfemininerolemodel,213n.17
asfirstsecularJewishliterature,13
Hasidictalesand,2728
onKingSolomon,4647
onLilith,72,75
onmadnessandsanity,171
medieval,13,2627,4851,71
mystical,129
mythicbasis,86
preservationof,53
onquestforJerusalem,15060
questthemeand,134
supernatural,6881,212n.11
transitionandchangein,13042,147
variantson,17981
SeealsoFairytalesLegendsMythology
"ForcingtheEnd"(Nissenson),19596
FoundationStone,15354,223n.12
Foursages,legendof,12428
"FourWhoEnteredParadise,The,"100,12428

G
Gabriel,111,121
"Gabriel'sPalace,"121
Galford,Ellen,76
GarciaMarquez,Gabriel,189
GardenofEden,44,62,70,138,150
expulsionfrom,4,17,97,99,201
mysticaltaleson,12021
Gary,Romain,76
"GatesofEden,The,"120
GatesofHeaven,14,48,152
GatheringtheSparks,54,98,114,141
Gehenna,12,74,118,232
descriptionof,185
Jewishvs.Christian,227n.20
Paradiseand,185
Sabbathin,18586
talesof,77,18587
Gemara,204n.13
Gematria,34,219n.58,232
Genesis,5,13,23,35,57,63,72,113,127
GenesisRabbah,15,20,206n.22
Ghosts,68,75,7778,79
Gilgul,108,12223,232
ibburvs.,216n.11
"GimpeltheFool"(Singer),184
Ginzberg,Louis,10
Gnosticism,97,127,128,192
God
allegoryof,136,19899
brideof.SeeShekhinah
covenantwithIsrael,5,87,8990,98,209n.14
Creationand,16,97,99,200
deathof,200
"TheEnchantedIsland"and,124
feminineaspect.SeeShekhinah
"AnImperialMessage"and,170,198
legendofLilithasconsortof,212n.8
legendofrabbinicaloverrulingof,3233
parablesof,16771,199200
"ThePortrait"and,167,16869,170,198
powerofexorcismand,76
questsforexperienceof,115
asrenewinglife,4
"TheRoyalMessenger"and,167,169,170,198
testingby,15354,15759,202
Torahstemmingfrom,3
"VisionoftheHighPriest"and,124
SeealsoMonotheismNameofGod
Goethe,Johann,50
Goldencalf,98
Goldendove,134
Golem,39,51,80,163
Goliath,4445
Good,inclinationtoward,57,235
GreatAssembly,7
Green,Arthur,175
Guf(TreasuryofSouls),119,219n.62,232

H
HaBetulahmiLudomir(Twersky),216n.7
Haggadah,136,232
Hagigah,232

Page279

Haifa,103
"HairintheMilk,The,"63
Halakhah,8,10,190
aggadahmeaningvs.,203n.6
aggadictraditionsplitwith,227n.14
defined,232
linkstoKabbalah,220n.70
methodsofestablishing,3235
rabbinicalresponsa,8,134,192
SeealsoOralLaw
Haman,44
"HandwritingoftheMessiah,The,"128
HaninahbenDosa,95,15052
Hanukkah,128,146,232
"HarvestofMadness"(Nachman),171
Hasidim,9,2729,70,232
Bratslaver,17374,225n.8
Lubavitch,226n.33
mysticaltalesand,1023
rebbesof,28,103,108,109
TalesoftheHasidimand,190
SeealsoBaalShemTovNachmanofBratslav
Haskalah,227n.14,232
Havdalah,94,106,11617,232
HayimbenAttar(OrhaHayim)
"RepairingSouls"and,114
"TheTefillinoftheOrhaHayim"and,1056,144
Heaven.SeeParadise
Hebrewwriters,175,17677,178
Hekhalottexts,86,100,101,115,126,128,67
defined,232
"TheLegendoftheTenMartyrs"versionsand,222n.101
modelsfor,205n.2
"HelenofTroy,"70
Hell.SeeGehenna
Hermes,89
"HermitandtheBear,The"(Peretz),39
Hillel,32,33,208n.7
Hinduism,2930
Hirsch,Zevi,107
Holocaust,174,189,19697
Holynames,111,118,119,129
HolyofHolies,37,156
"HomunculusofMaimonides,The,"70
HouseofTreasures,119
"HouseofWitches,The,"70
Hurwitz,Siegmund,61

I
Ibbur,121,144,145
asblessing,104,106,107
defined,94,143,232
gilgulvs.,216n.11
Jungianperspectiveon,144
originationof,106
Sabbathvisitationof,11617
talesof,1045,107,109
IFA.SeeIsraelFolktaleArchives
Ignatow,Dovid,175,228n.22
"Illusion"(Berditchevsky),198
Immortals,cityof.SeeCityofLuz
"ImperialMessage,An"(Kafka),170,198
"ImprisonedPrincess,The,"53
Incarnation,109
Individuation,122,123,142,150
Infantmortality,5960
Inferno(Dante),122
Interpretation
ofEve'sfailings,62
ofLostPrincessmyth,13638
majorityopinionin,3233
ofsymbolism,31,133,141
techniquesof,3740,113
"InthePenalColony"(Kafka),189
"IntheWilderness"(Appelfeld),19697
Isaac,4,18,65,93,136
sacrificeof.SeeAkedah
Isaac(Rabbi),36
Isaac(Strassfeld),201
IsaacLuriaofSafed.SeeAri
Isaiah,16,87,153
Ishbi'benob,45
Ishmael(Rabbi),33,108,121
TheLegendoftheTenMartyrsand,126,222n.101
RebIshmael'sAscent"and,123
IsraelFolktaleArchives(IFA),53,70,117,142,159,179,212n.6
Israelites,29,9293,98
God'scovenantwith,5,87,90,98,209n.14
"IntheWilderness"(Appelfeld)and,19697
Shekhinahduringexileof,9293
IssacharDovofBelz,109

J
Jabs,Edmond,198,200201
Jacob,18,136,166
birthplace,202
dreamof.SeeJacob'sladder
Esauand,65,110
ongateofheaven,152
journeytoEgypt,2324
"MagicFlock,The"and,110
strugglewithangel,34

Page280

Jacob'sladder,14,15,35,48,86,152
Jeremiah,34,54,217n.41
Jerusalem
archetypeof,152
heavenly,11920,15052,15759
questfor,15060
SeealsoTempleinJerusalem
JerusalemTalmud,3
Jesus,4,203n.5,207n.30
JewishDailyForward,184,228n.22
JewishLegends(Zweig),197
Jonah,45
Joseph,23,24,25,29,71,166
"TheChronicleofEphraim"and,71
Tzoharand,18
JosephdellaReina,70,102,117,123
Josephus,35,213n.24
Joshua,7
JoshuabenHaninah,69,79
"JourneytoJerusalem,The,"117,157
JudahhaNasi,6
JudahthePious,78,79
Jungianthought,140,141
animaconcept,94,133
archetypesand,88,89,12122,144,14950,152,168
onLilith,61
Justice,2223

K
Kabbalah,9,12,37,102,232
allegoryand,35,39,167,17172
eraof,1013,215n.4
fairytalesand,52
Halakhahand,220n.70
Hasidismand,27
Jungianthoughtand,12122,168
legendoffoursagesand,12526
Lilithand,72
meaningoflettersandnumbersin,34,129,233,234,235
Messiahand,26,101,113,11718,13738
mythsand,86,99,11315
reversalofmeaningin,222n.100
Sefirotand,88,97,111,119,121,167
Shekhinahand,51,52,54,8788,94,114
studyof,94,96,126
twobranchesof,11113
Tzimtzumand,200
Zoharand,96,102,119,14445
SeealsoMysticaltalesMysticismMythology
KabbalatShabbat,95,116,215n.16
Kaddish,142,232
Kafka,Franz,109,170,199,22526n.28
"Abraham,"201
Agnonand,177,227n.4
parablesof,189
"Paradise,"201
Karaites,208n.6
Karo,Joseph,8,220n.70
ShulhanArukhand,106,121
Katz,Naftali,109
"RabbiNaftali'sTrance"and,118
Kavanah,27,95,119
KavhaYashar,60
Ketubah,87,204n.9,209n.14
KfitzathaDerekh("LeapingtheWay"),111,23233
"KingDavidandtheGiant,"45
KingoftheDemons.SeeAsmodeus
"King'sDream,The,"50
"KingSolomonandAsmodeus,"4547,4950
"KissfromtheMaster,A,"105,14244,216n.10
"KissofDeath,The,"79
Kook,AbrahamIsaac,109,144
Kotel(WesternWall),94,132,133,134,150,154,15556,233
"AVisionattheWailingWall"and,116,123,13134,150,157
KotzkerRebbe
"TheOceanofTears"and,15759
"TheSacredGoat"and,18283
Kramer,Chaim,225n.8
Kushner,HaroldS.,201

L
"LadderofPrayers,The,"8586,112
LagbaOmer,104,233
Lamashtu,58,59,211n.7
Lamech,18,20,21,208n.31(seealsoMidrashTanhuma)
LamentationsRabbah,156
Langer,Jiri,109
Law.SeeHalakhahOralLawTorah
"LeapingtheWay."SeeKfitzathaDerekh
LegendoftheBaalShem,The(Buber),190
"LegendoftheTenMartyrs,The,"126,222n.101
"LegendoftheThirdDove"(Zweig),19798
Legends
biblicalbasis,310,14,49,71
defined,46
embellishmentof,9,1314,4647
evolutionof,9,1314,48,71

Page281

fairytalesand,46,48,55
offoursages,12428
fusionwithfantasy,46
ofLilithandEve,5667
linkingof,10
mergingof,72
messianic,11718
Shekhinahand,92
ofsupernatural,7072,74
unfinished,19798
SeealsoAggadahFolktalesKabbalahMythology
LegendsoftheJews,The(Ginzberg),10,205n.19
LekhahDodi(hymn),116,233
Leon,Moshede.SeeMoshedeLeon
''Letter,The"(Nachman),167,16970,171,198
Levi,Primo,190
Leviathan,86
LeviYitzhakofBerditchev,28,103
Lezar(Rabbi),15
Lilith,5667
Adamand,5859
amuletsusedagainst,59,60,61
archetypeof,72
"TheBrideofDemons"and,70,74,76
"TheCellar"and,6061,70
characterizationof,57
Eveand,6163,6467
"TheHairintheMilk"and,63
asincarnationoflust,5861,63,71
asJewishfeministrolemodel,64
legendsof,5659,70,7173,212n.8
"LilithintheLager,"190
NameofGodand,58,211n.6
originoflegend,58
powerof,63
roleof,56,58,6364,72
"TheStoryofLilithandEve"and,6567
vampiresand,78
"LilithintheLager"(Levi),190
LilithMagazine,64
Lilitu,58,211n.7
Lind,Jakov
"TheNearMurder,"201
SoulofWood,65
"StoryofLilithandEve,The,"6567
Linkageofgenerations,18
"TheTzohar"and,129
Literature.SeeAggadahFolktales
MidrashModernliterature
MythologyOraltradition
Loew,Judah(RabbiofPraguetheMaharal),7980,163
"TheCauseofthePlague"and,70
Golemcycleand,39,51,80,163
"SummoningthePatriarchs"and,80
"LostPrincess,The"(Nachman),51,76,94,122,13438,165,16768,223n.3
textof,13536
LubavitcherRebbe.SeeMenachemMendelIofLubavitch
Luria,Isaac.SeeAri
Lust,5761,63,71
Luz.SeeCityofLuz

M
Ma'aseh,51,233
Ma'asehBereshit(MysteriesofCreation),87,97,113,125,127,166
"TheSevenBeggars"ascommentaryon,16667
MaasehBook,The,49,75,79,164
Ma'asehMerkavah(MysteriesoftheChariot),40,87,97,111,113,115,12527,233
MaasehNissim,73
Ma'asehYerushalmi(TheTaleofaJerusalemite),73
Ma'asiyot,43
Maccabees,128,232
Maggid,106,121,233
MaggidMesharim(Karo),106,121
"MagicFlock,The,"110
"MagicFluteofAsmodeus,The,"50
"MagicMirrorofRabbiAdam,The,"50
MaidofLudomir,103,216n.7
Maimonides,8,49
"TheHomunculusofMaimonides"and,70
Malamud,Bernard,70
Malemyths,63
Malkhut,233
Manger,Itzik,19394
Manna,98
"MasterofPrayer,The"(Nachman),165,171
Mattathias,146
Matzah,80,233
Maya,88,110,19899
Me'ahShe'arimBratslavers,225n.8
Meir(Rabbi),5758,64,193
MekitadeRabbiIshmael,92
MenachemMendelIofLubavitch,226n.33
"TheTaleoftheKugel,"110

Page282

MenachemMendelofKotzk.SeeKotzkerRebbe
Menorah,122,17172
Merkavahmysticism,40,97,115,126(seealsoMa'asehMerkavah)
Mermaids,62
Messiah,208n.38
allegoryof,51,13738,181
archetypalpatternsand,14950
dwellingplaceof,119,214n.1
false,117,163
inHasidictales,166
Jerusalemlinkedwith,157,15960
JosephdellaReinaandcomingof,70,102,117,123
Jungiansymbolismof,138
inkabbalisticmyths,26,52,101,113,11719,13738
longingfor,117
lostopportunityforcomingof,8586,157,15960,183,202
mysticismand,86
Shekhinahand,95,115,138,140
traditionslinkedwith,218n.45
tzaddikroleas,109,216n.16
MessiahbenDavid,117
MessiahbenJoseph,117
MessiahOx,194
Metatron(formerlyEnoch),5,89,120,125,127,167,193
Methuselah,18
Mezzuzah,76,105,233
Micah,153
Michael,153
Middot,32,33,233
Midlifecrisis,150
Midrash,3,4,5,8
onAdamandEve,62
onCainandAbel,1923,206n.21
onCityofLuz,1415
ondeathofCain,1923
defined,233
developmentof,13,1424
oninfantinwomb,19394
asliteraryinspiration,23,70,86
meanings,2034n.6
onprimordiallight,1619
rabbinicalexplanationofinconsistenciesin,1619,2425
onSerah,2326
watersdescribedin,222nn.99,104
SeealsoAggadah
MidrashRabbah,9,97
MidrashTanhuma,17,20,21,73
Mikveh,57,75,110,233
Milton,John,189
MimekorYisrael(Berditchevky),27
Miracles,101
MiriamofMohilev,227n.21
Mishnah,6,106,204n.13
Mitzvot,95,98,110,114,141,217n.41
Modernliterature,29,188202
ancientmodels,13,19293,19697,201
authorsandtradition,18990
HebrewandYiddishtraditions,175,17677,178,18384,22728n.22
useofunfinishedlegends,19798
Mohel,74,233
MokherSeforim,Mendele,175,176,183
writingsinYiddish,175,228n.22
Monotheism,9,88,8990,99
Mordecai,44
MordecaiofChernobyl,122
Moses,3,12,18,23,44,54,71
AkibabenJoseph'steachingsand,78
oncorrectanimalslaughterprocedure,229n.24
deathof,49,197
identityof,2425
asmagician,79
OralLawand,8
receiptofTorahby,3,6,9091
tabletsoflawand,97,98,205n.17
MosesMaimonides.SeeMaimonides
MoshedeLeon
Pardescodification,38,209n.17
Zoharauthorship,96,102,121,145
MotherZion,11516,217n.41
MountMoriah,71,93,231
MountofOlives,181
MountSinai,3,6,7,8,108
MysteriesofCreation.SeeMa'asehBereshit
MysteriesoftheChariot.SeeMa'asehMerkavah
"MysteriousPalace,The,"47
Mysticaltales,100130
cyclesof,103
ontheGardenofEden,12021
ofheavenlyascent,100,101,12428
Jungianperspectiveon,12122
kabbalisticmythsand,102,11317
onlevelsofHeaven,11920
levelsofmeaningin,113
linkageofgenerationsby,129
mastersand,103,10910,114,118,122

Page283

modelsfor,101,108
poweroflettersandnumbersin,11112,119,129
roleof,12930,149
themesof,101,10311,118,129
Mysticism,221n.91
dangersof,12426,128
evolutionofconsciousnessof,215n.3
gematriatechnique,34,219n.58,232
majorbranchesof,87,112
term"kabbalistic"vs.,102
SeealsoKabbalahMa'asehBereshitMa'asehMerkavah
Mythology,8599
archetypesand,89,96,14950,168
biblical,5,31,8687
categoriesofmajormyths,90
ofCreation,9699,11315,127,222n.104
definitionofJewishmyths,88
evolutionof,1214,1923,29,67,86,89,90,91,96,168
individuationand,150
Jungianperspectiveon,140,141,14950
kabbalisticinfluenceon,90,9192,94
ofMessiah,11718,13741
monotheistic,90
mythiccombinations,138,140,141
mythlinkageand,95,11517
OralLawand,19,9091
polarityin,6465
prebiblical,86
psychologicalstudiesand,89,168
roleof,88,149
sourcesof,31,8687
SeealsoQuesttalesShekhinah

N
Naamah,72
NachmanofBratslav,17,28,76,94,16375,218n.55
asAgnoninfluence,178
BaalShemTovand,129,226n.34
chairof,174
deathandspiritof,173,174,226n.29
dreamsof,16465
fairytalesand,5152,16364,168
"HarvestofMadness"and,171
impactofstories,17475
Kafka'sparableand,17071
Kook(Rav)and,144
"TheLetter,"167,16970,171,198
"TheLostPrincess"and,76,94,122,13438,165,16768,223n.3
asMasteroftheField,21819n.55
"TheMasterofPrayer"and,165,171
messianicaspirationsof,109,224n.1
mysticalpowersof,103,109
andoraltraditionand,172
"ThePortrait"and,167,16869,170,198
powerof,109,118
presentdayHasidimand,225n.8
"ThePrinceWhoThoughtHeWasaRooster"and,171
"TheRoyalMessenger"and,169,170,171,198
"TheSevenBeggars"and,165,16667
Shekhinahand,16768
"TheSoulsofTrees"and,123
spiritof,174
"TheSpiderandtheFly,"169
TalesofRabbiNachman,The(Buber)and,190
"TheTaleoftheMenorah"and,167,17172
writingsinYiddish,175
Najara,Israel,87,209n.14
NameofGod
Lilithand,58,211n.6
"TheNumberoftheName,"190
powerof,45,47,58,6869,111,154
talesfocusingon,129
Tetragrammaton,111,23334
NathanofNemirov,51,137,140
"NearMurder,The"(Lind),201
Nebuchadnezzar,14,156
Nehemiah(Rabbi),6
NerTamid,18
Neshamahyeterah,94,106,116,233
Neumann,Erich,89
NewYorker(magazine),184
"NightingaleandtheDove,The,"53
Nile(river),25
Nimrod,18
Nissenson,Hugh,19596
Nitzraf,209n.19
Noah,17,18,45,71
Notarikon,34,233
Noy,Dov,53,63,159
"NumberoftheName,The"(Satz),190

O
Obyzouth,59,72
"OceanofTears,The,"15759
Odesser,Yisrael,174
Olamhaba(WorldtoCome),120,233
Olsvanger,Immanuel,70
"OnOneStone"(Agnon),178

Page284

"OntheLifeandDeathofAbbaye"(Shahar),19192
OralLaw,3,69,12,14
inmedievalfolklore,27
mythicembellishmentand,19,9091
Torahinterpretationand,16
OralTorah,12,14
Oraltradition,4,14,47,5253,105,145,172,179,216n.14
OrhaHayin.SeeHayimbenAttar
Orpha,45
"OtherSide,The,"74,78
Otto,WalterF.,95
Ozick,Cynthia,23,70,190,192

P
"PaganRabbi,The"(Ozick),190,19293
"PalaceofPearls,The"(Villenchik),94
ParablesandParadoxes(Kafka),189
Parabolicliterature,17071,176,189,223n.3
Paradise,4,208n.38
ascentinto,40,86,12428,221n.91
GatesofHeavenand,14,48,152
Gehennaand,185
Jerusalemand,11920,15052,15759
levelsofheavenly,11920
primordiallightand,16
showntoIsaac,4
SeealsoGardenofEdenHekhalottextsJacob'sladderPardes
"Paradise"(Kafka),201
PaRDeS,38,113,233,234
Pardes
codificationand,38,209n.17
debateonmeaningof,221n.91
defined,37,12425,209n.16,233
examplesof,3840
"FableoftheGoat"and,3839,17981
fifthlevelof,209n.19
"TheHermitandtheBear"and,39
asinterpretivetool,38
Pargod,121,167,198,234
"PartnershipwithAsmodeus,"50
Passover,88,136
patriarchsasarchetypes,93,136(seealsoAbrahamIsaacJacob)
Peretz,I.L.,13,23,70
"TheHermitandtheBear"and,39
sourcesoftales,175,18183
"TheStoryoftheHeGoatWhoCouldn'tSayNo"and,18283
writingsinYiddish,175,176,181,183,228n.22
Peshat,33,37,38,234
PhiloofAlexandria,35,37
PhinehasbenMama,15
PinhasofKoretz
mysticalpowersof,103,109
"TheUndergroundForest"and,110
"PiratePrincess,The,"51
PirkeAvot,7
PirkedeRabbiEliezer,10,13,34,205n.4
Polarrolemodels,61,6465
"Portrait,The"(Nachman),167,16869,170,198
Poseidon,89
Possession.SeeDybbuk(s)ExorcismIbbur
PracticalKabbalah,111
"RabbiShimon'sEscape"and,112
"PrayerLeader,The,"113,115
Prayers
forthedead,142,232
intensityof,27,95,119,232
"TheLadderofPrayers"and,8586,112
tefillinand,144
ofunification(yihudim),110,112,114,118,119,121,122
Primordiallight,1617,19,97,226n.26
PrinceoftheTorah,119
"PrincessandtheSlave,The,"54
"PrincessintheTower,The,"47
"PrincesswithGoldenHair,The,"4849
"PrinceWhoThoughtHeWasaRooster,The"(Nachman),171
"PrinceWhoWasMadeofPreciousGems,The,"51
Prophets,7(seealsoElijahSamuel)
Psalms,16
Pseudepigrapha,12,43,70,72,120

Q
QueenofDemons,6162
QueenofSheba,102
"QueenofSheba,The,"73
Questtales,13160
continuityof,144
asinnersearch,134,136
forJerusalem,150160
forShekhinah,150

R
"RabbiandtheWitch,The,"79
"RabbiIshmael'sAscent,"121,123
"RabbiNaftali'sTrance,"118
RabbiofRiminov,14546
"RabbiShabaziandtheCruelGovernor,"70
"RabbiShimon'sEscape,"112

Page285

Rahab,89,111
Ram,93,119,202
Rapp,Nachman,201
Rashbi.SeeShimonbarYohai
Rashi,8,31,36
inMishnah,204n.13
onTzohar,1718
Raziel,18,54,89,111,220n.75
Realisticliterature,176,189
Rebecca,202
"RedemptionoftheLostSouls,"11415
RedSea,23,25,58,196
Reincarnation,123
Reisen,Abraham,176
Remez,37,38,39,234
"RepairingSouls,"114
Responsa,8,192,234
Retribution,2223
Revelation,113
Rituals,95,142,22324n.20
Rivka,202
"RivkaonMountMoriah"(Firestone),202
"RoyalMessenger,The"(Nachman),167,169,170,198
RuahhaKodesh,123,234

S
Sabbath,68
inGehenna,18586
Havdalahand,94,106,11617,232
lawsinvolving,204n.13
"SabbathFish,The,"123
"SabbathGuests,The,"116,117,13840
"SabbathinGehenna"(Singer),185
SabbathQueen.SeeShekhinah
"SacredGoat,The,"18283
Sacrifice,71,93,202(seealsoAkedah)
Safed,26,74,102,104,105,106,116,132,181
Sages,108,109
heavenlyacademyfor,120
taleofthefour,12428
Salonika,53
Samael,114
Samaritans,208n.6
Samsera,123
Samuel,78,79
SamuelthePiousofRegensburg,79
Sandalphon,111
Sansenoy,59
Satan,64,77,89
SataninGoray(Singer),184
Satz,Mario,190
Saul(King),69,70,78
Schachter,Zalman,172
Scholem,Gershom,102,145,178,209n.17
Schultz,Bruno,177
Scliar,Moacyr,23
Seder,156
SeferBahir,1012
SeferhaRazim,122,220n.75
SeferHasidim,78,79,214n.30
SeferhaYashar,10,13,22,34
SeferhaZikhronot,34
SeferMa'asiyot(Yehezkeled.),27
SeferPardes,209n.17
SeferYetzirah,10102
SefirahMalkhut,95
SefirahTiferet,95
Sefirot,111,167
archetypesand,88,114,121
Arimythand,97,114
defined,234
yihudimand,119
Semangeloff,59
Sennacherib,14
Senoy,59
SerahbatAsher,2326,198,208n.38
Serpent,62,70
Seth,18
"SevenBeggars,The"(Nachman),165,16667
Sexualfantasy,5658
Shabazi,Shalem,70
Shabbat.SeeSabbath
Shah,Idries,171
Shahar,David,19192,198,200
Shamans,103
Shamir,45
Shammai,32
Sharabi,Shalom,102
RedemptionoftheLostSouls"and,11415
ShatteringoftheVessels,54,9699,11415,14041
Shavuot,87,88,113,204n.9,209n.14
SheilatSefer,123,174,234
Shekhinah,27,49,9196
animaand,52,94,133,137
archetypalpatternsand,149,150
Ari'sCreationmythand,99
divineweddingallegoryand,37
KabbalatShabbatand,95,116,215n.16
kabbalisticconceptof,51,52,54,8788,94,114
Lilithaspolaroppositeof,61

Page286

"TheLostPrincess"and,51,94,13438,16768
meaningof,133,234
Messiahand,95,115,138,140
asMotherZion,11516,217n.41
mythofexileof,51,54,96,110,11517,133,137,140,212n.8
Pargodand,167
"ThePalaceofPearls"and,94
primordiallightand,16
questfor,150
rituallinkedwith,95
Sabbathand,106,11617
"TheSabbathGuests"and,116,13840
"AVisionattheWailingWall"and,116,123,13134,150,157
"AVisionoftheBride"and,116,118,13134
Shem,4,206n.20
Shemhazai,57
ShevaBerakhot,142,234
ShimonbarYohai(Rashbi),26,79,96,1024,129
asarchetypeofJewishmystics,108
"TheBookofFlyingLetters"and,112
"TheDancingoftheAri"and,104
"AKissfromtheMaster"and,105,14244,216n.10
onmarriageofGodandIsrael,209n.14
powerof,109
Zoharand,26,108,14445
ShimonbenLakish,20,94,116
Shivah,142,234
ShivheihaAri,26,28,73,75
ShivheihaBesht,28,77,80,190
ShlomoberabbiYitzhakhaLevi,91
Shloshim,142,234
ShmelkeofNicholsberg,186
Shmuelabba,194
Shneur,Zalman,177
Shohet,197,229n.24,234
ShulhanArukh,106,121
SichoshaRan,165
SimchatTorah,121
Simon(Rabbi),15
Sin,57,77,141
Singer,IsaacBashevis,176,18487
folkloricsources,13,70,187
midrashictraditionand,23
modernYiddishtraditionand,184,22728n.22
satiricviewofGehennaby,18587
Singer,IsraelJoshua,184,22728n.22
SippureMa'asiyot,137
Sirens,62
SitraAhra(theOtherSide),122,234
Skeptics,30
Smikhah,234
Sod,3738(seealsoEinSof)
Sofer,172,234
Solomon(King)
"TheBeggarKing"and,45,46,4950
exorcismofdemonsand,213n.24
infairytales,45,4647,78,110,155
"KingSolomonandAsmodeus,"4547,4950
inlegends,1415,27
"TheMysteriousPalace"and,47
"ThePrincessintheTower"and,47
assorcerer,45,46,47,50,72,79
Solomon'sTemple,152,15556
SongofSongs,3638,87,209n.14
SongoftheSea,197
Sorcery
byKingSolomon,45,46,47,50,72,79
byrabbis,50,69,7980,110
lawsregarding,212n.4
magicvs.,6970
Soulcandles,123,14849
SoulofAvyatar,The,76
"SouloftheAri,The,"107
SoulofWood(Lind),65
Souls
aspectsof,229n.14
"TheBoyWhoBlewtheShofar,"118
"TheCottageofCandles,"123,14749
deathand,118,227n.20
dreamsand,128
"TheFieldofSouls"and,118
heavenlyJerusalemand,152
punishmentof,122
ofrighteousinHeaven,120
Sabbathand,94,106,116
ofShimonBarYohai,104
"TheSouloftheAri"and,107
"TheSoulsofTrees"and,123
sparksof,1089
transmigrationof,1089,123
travelsof,111,118,126,218n.53
"AWanderingSoul"and,123
SeealsoDybbuk(s)GilgulGufIbburNeshamahyeterah
"SoulsofTrees,The"(Nachman),123
Spain,expulsionofJewsfrom,98,134,141
Sparksofsouls,1089
SpeculativeKabbalah,87,111,112
"SpiderandtheFly,The"(Nachman),169

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Spirits,77,103,104,118,143
Stern,Steve,23,188
"StoneintheWall,A,"123
"StoryofLilithandEve,The"(Lind),6567
"StoryoftheHeGoatWhoCouldn'tSayNo,The"(Peretz),18283
Strassfeld,Michael,201
Sufis,27,103,171,215n.1
"SummoningthePatriarchs,"80
Supernaturaltales,6881
biblicalimprinton,7172
demonologyand,7377
Jewishcontradictionson,69
rabbis'powersand,6970,79
roleof,6869
typesof,75,7778
SeealsoFairytalesMysticaltales
"SwordoftheMessiah,The,"128
Symbolism,31,133,141
modernliterary,189,191
SeealsoAllegory

T
Tabernacle,29,35
TabernacleoftheArk,18
Taggin,204n.16
"TaleoftheKugel,The,"110
"TaleoftheMenorah,The"(Nachman),167,17172
"TaleoftheOpal,The"(Schachter),172
"TaleoftheRam,The"(Blanchard),202
TalesoftheDervishes(Shah),171
TalesoftheHasidim(Buber),190
Tallit,16
Talmud
BabylonianandJerusalem,3
onCityofLuz,48
oncommentary,33
componentsof.SeeAggadahHalakah
ondestructionoftheTemple,156
fairytalesin,4546
ghoststoriesin,78
legendsofJerusalemand,15052,15354
Mishnahascoreof,6,106,204n.13
OralLawand,69
originof,67
sexualparablesin,5758
assourceofmyths,86
assourceofsupernaturaltales,70
witchstoriesin,78,79
TalmudTorah,12728
Targumim,34,234
Tefillin,1056,144
"TefillinoftheOrhaHayim,The,"1056,144
TempleinJerusalem,3,6,18
buildingof,15354,155
DavidandtheFoundationStone,15255
destructionof,15556
heavenly,119,15253
rebuildingof,95,97,157
Shekhinahand,133,138
visionsassociatedwith,152,156
SeealsoKotel
Temurah,34,234
TentofMeeting,98
Teshuvah,138
TestamentofSolomon,The,58,72,78,155
Tetragrammaton(YHVH).SeeNameofGod
TheyCalledHerRebbe(Winkler),216n.7
ThirtytwoPaths.SeeSefirot
Thompson,Stith,44
ThroughFireandWater:TheLifeofRebNosonofBreslov(Kramer),225n.8
TibetanBookoftheDead,The,100
Tikkun(restoration),114,14041,17172,235
Tikkunolam(repairoftheworld),114,140
Torah,37,90,204n.7
allegoryand,3440
figure/groundin,119,219n.60
firstletterandword,231
ibburtalesand,107
mysticalmeaningofwordsin,119
needforcommentaryon,33
parablesof,223n.3
primordiallightand,1718
rabbinicalinterpretationof,1619
roleof,88
assymbol,10
TalmudTorahschool,12728
toolsofinterpretationof,3140
Writtenvs.OralLawand,3,12,14,16,9091
SeealsoMidrashTalmudTreeofLife
TormentedMaster(Green),175
Tosafists,8,204n.13
TowerofBabel,12,34
TreasuryofSouls.SeeGuf
"TreeofId,The"(Kushner),201
TreeofLife,10,88,114,136,201
"TreeofLife,The,"121
Trial,The(Kafka),189
TubalCain,21,22
Twersky,Yohanan,216n.7

Page288

TypesoftheFolkTale,The(AarneandThompson),44
Tzaddik,137,163
allegoricalroleof,171
defined,51,235
asMessiah,109,216n.16
primaryroleof,141
astherapist,142
Tzaddikhador,109,235
"TzaddikoftheForest,The,"115
Tze'enahURe'enah,164
Tzeruf,34,235
Tzimtzum,97,198,200201,235
"TheDeathoftheLittleGod"and,198,200
"TheDisappearance"and,198,200201
Tzohar,1718
"Tzohar,The,"121

U
Uman,118,174
Unconscious(psychological),61,12122
"UndergroundForest,The,"110
"UnderwaterPalace,The,"74
"UnlockingtheGatesofHeaven,"113
UsesofEnchantment,The(Bettelheim),61

V
Vampires,68,75,7879,155
"TheKissofDeath"and,79
SeferHasidimtalesand,214n.30
TheTestamentofSolomonand,78,155
Villenchik,Penina,215n.13
"PalaceofPearls,The,"94
Vilna,103,213n.23
Vilnay,Zev,155
Vishnu,110
"VisionattheWailingWall,A,"116,123,13134,150,157
"VisionoftheBride,A,"116,118,13134
"VisionoftheHighPriest,The,"124
Visions,101,112,12324,142,153,156(seealsoDreams)
Vital,Hayim,70,103,109
"TheHandwritingoftheMessiah"and,128
"TheWidowofSafed"and,75,105
"VoiceintheTree,The,"123

W
WailingWall.SeeKotel
WanderingJew,legendof,198,207n.30
"WanderingSoul,A,"123
WarofGogandMagog,157
WatchNight,5960
"WaterPalace,The,"51
Waters,upperandlower,125,127,222nn.99,104
"Werewolf,The,"77
Werewolves,68,70,75,77
WesternWall.SeeKotel
"WhentheWatersWereChanged,"171
"WidowofSafed,The,"75,105
Winkler,Gershon,216n.7
WiseOldMan,14449
Witches
contemporary,214n.34
"TheExorcismofWitchesfromaBoy'sBody"and,76
"TheHouseofWitches"and,70
Lilithas,5960,63
possessionby,76
"TheRabbiandtheWitch"and,79
inSeferHasidim,79,214n.30
inTalmud,69
"WitchesofAshkelon,The,"4546
WitchofDovev,214n.34
WitchofEndor,69,70,78,79
Wizards,80
"Wizard'sApprentice,The,"8081
Women'smyths,63
WorldtoCome(olamhaba),120,233

Y
Yaari,Yehuda,174,227n.4
Yahrzeit,173,235
Yannai(Rabbi),69,79
Yavneh,5,195,196
Yehezkel,Mordecaiben,27
Yemen,52
YenneVelt,49,74
Yeshivah,195,196,235
YetzerHara(EvilInclination),43,57,58,64,149,235
YetzerTov(GoodInclination),57,235
YHVH.SeeNameofGod
Yiddishwriters,76,175,17677,181,18384,22728n.22
Yihudim,110,114,119,121
YIVOarchives,103
YoelBaalShem,60,61
YohananbenNappah,25,208n.37
YohananbenZakkai,7,108
"ForcingtheEnd"and,19596
greatnessof,205n.18
YomKippur,68,109,141,156
YoskeKalb(Singer),184
"YoungMagician,The,"110

Z
Zalman,Shneur,119
ZenBuddhism,27,103,215n.1

Page289

Zevi,Shabbatai,70,102,118,163
SataninGorayand,184
Zion.SeeMotherZion
Zipporah,71
Ziz,86
Zohar,15
allegoryin,145,215n.15
Ariand,96
authorshipof,96,102,121,145
barrierstostudyof,96
creationof,104,216n.5
descriptionofcelestialTorahin,119
difficultyoftext,14445
andmythsofShekhinah,93,95,96,133
Pardesandcodificationof,38
ShimonbarYohaiand,26,108,14445
Zweig,Stefan,19798