CELL BIOLOGY

CYTOLOGY
The study of the structure, composition and functions of the cell
Cell

The basic structural and functional unit of all living things consisting of a mass of
protoplasm with a usually centrally-located nucleus.

Functions of the Cell

1. Basic unit of life
o The cell is the smallest part to which an organism can be reduced that still retains
the characteristics of life.
2. Protection and support
o Cells produce and secrete various molecules that provide protection and support
of the body. Example: bone cells produce mineralized material, making bone a
hard tissue that protects vital organs
3. Movement
o Movements of the body occur because molecules located within specific cells
such as muscle cells.
4. Communication
o Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another. Example: nerve cells communicate with each
other and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
5. Cell metabolism and energy release
o The chemical reactions that occur within cells are referred to collectively as cell
metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as
the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production, which
helps maintain body temperature.
6. Inheritance
o Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual. Specialized
cells, sperm cells and oocytes, transmit that genetic information to the next
generation.
History of Cell Biology
1. Robert Hooke
o An Englishman, coined the term cell and was responsible for the beginnings of
cytology as a discipline in biology
o Observed thin slices of cork with magnifying glass, saw outer boundaries or walls
and called the hollow spaces as cell
2. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
o Dutch, naturalist, discovered bacteria and other microscopic organisms in
rainwater and studied the structure of plant and animal cells.
3. Francesco Redi and Lazarro Spallanzani
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4.

5.
6.
7.
8.

o Disproved the theory of spontaneous generation

Robert Brown
o Observed cells with a central part, the nucleus.
o Described the streaming movement of the cytoplasm as brownian movement.
Felix Dujardin
o Noted that all living things contain a thick jelly fluid which he called sarcode
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
o Introduced the concept that all plants and animals are made up of cells.
Johannes Purkinje
o Coined the term protoplasm to refer to the living matter of the cell.
Rudolf Virchow
o Found out that cells divide to form a new cells. He concluded that cells come
from preexisting cells.

Modern Cell Theory

scientific theory which describes the properties of cells.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
1.

All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

2.

The cell is the most basic unit of life.

3.
All cells arise from pre-existing, living cells.
In 1839, Theodor Schwannstates that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or
the product of cells in their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology
since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these
conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.
Types of Cell
1. Prokaryotic Cells cells without a true nucleus
a. genetic material is not enclosed in membrane and is not complexed with proteins
b. lack a well-defined nucleus and most cell organelles
c. enzymes for cellular respiration are attached to the plasma membrane
d. ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm but some are attached to messenger RNC
(mRNA)
2. Eukaryotic Cells cells with true nucleus
a. genetic material is enclosed in a membrane, the nuclear membrane
b. with a definite nucleus as well as a cell organelles
c. mitochondria contain the respiratory enzymes.
i. tricarboxyclic acid (Krebs cycle) reside in the interstitial space of
mitochondria.

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ii. enzymes for electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation are
found in the cristal membrane itself.
d. ribosomes are found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) while some are
soluble in the cytoplasm.
Table of Comparison

Cell Structure and Function

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Three Fundamental Parts of the Cell

1. Cell Membrane protectively surrounds the cytoplasm
2. Cytoplasm the region where the main metabolic life activities take place
3. Nucleus region of the cell where the genetic material is located
1. Cell Membrane
Characteristics of the Cell Membrane
a. It is a cytoplasmic boundary or limiting membrane condensed into a peripheral film.
b. It is a selectively permeable or semi-permeable membrane that may or may not allow
certain ions and molecules to enter or leave the cell. Lipid-soluble substances can easily
pass through the cell membrane.
Function of the Cell Membrane
a. Holds and protects the contents of the cell.
b. Serves as a limiting membrane that separates the cell from the surrounding
environment.
c. Regulates the internal environment of the cell by regulating incoming and
outgoing materials, accommodates changes in cell volume due to the elasticity
of the cell membrane.
d. Transports substances in and out of the cell like nutrients, gases, hormones
and waste products.

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e. Allows transmission of impulses for excitability thru depolarization of charges

along membranes.
f. Responsible for specificity
a. Site of antigens determines histocompatibility
Structures Associated with the Cell Membrane
a. Microvilli
structural unit of brush border.
dense, cytoplasmic, slender processes or outpouchings (without
specialized internal structure) covered by the plasma membrane.
its function is to increase the effective surface for absorption.
b. Claveoli
infoldings and invaginations of the cell membrane, like the pinocytic and
phagocytic vesicles.
Increases the surface are of the cell, thus increasing correspondingly the
absorptive capacity of the cell.
present in cells that take up and transport large amounts of fluid and
electrolyte for eventual secretion.
c. Junctional Complexes
structural modification of the cell membrane
made up of an adhesive intercellular cement that joins or holds together
loosely-arranged (connective tissue) or tightly-connected cells (epithelial
tissue) to form a functional unit.
d. Glycocalyx
component of the cell surface that is attached wholly or in part to its outer
surface.
exerts selective influences on the substances in the extracellular medium,
thus regulating entrance of materials that come in contact with the cell
membrane.
Example: Mucin glycoprotein that covers and protects the cell surface of
the stomach
2. Cytoplasm
Characteristics of the Cytoplasm
a. Cytoplasm is the fluid substance that fills the space between the cell membrane
and the cellular organelles.
b. It is heterogenous mixture of opaque granules and organic compounds which
gives it its colloidal nature.
c. The physical nature of cytoplasm is colloidal. It has a high percentage of water
and particles of various shapes and sizes are suspended in it.
Functions of the Cytoplasm
a. Cytoplasm is the site of many biochemical reactions that are vital and crucial for
maintaining life.
b. The cytoplasm is the place where the cell expands and growth of the cell takes
place.
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c. The cytoplasm provides a medium for the organelles to remain suspended.

d. It also aids in the movement of the different cellular elements.
e. The cytoplasm acts as a buffer and protects the genetic material of the cell and
also the cellular organelles from damage caused due to movement and collision
with other cells.
Cytoplasmic Structure
a. Cytosol
Cytosol makes up about 70% of the volume of the cell. It is composed of
water, salts and organic molecules.
b. Organelles
Organelles mean "little organs", that are membrane bound. They are
present inside the cell and perform specific functions that are necessary for
the survival of the cell.
c. Cytoplasmic Inclusions
The cytoplasmic inclusions are tiny particles suspended in the cytosol.
Organelles in the Cytoplasm
a. Endoplasmic Retitculum
A network of fine, tube-like, unit membrane microtunnels that traverse the
cytoplasm between the nuclear envelope and the outer plasma membrane.
Forms a loose network of canals connecting a complex set of saccules and
vesicles.
Two Types:
d. Rough or Granular ER (RER)
With ribosomes attached to its membrane surface
Site for protein synthesis
e. Smooth or Agranular ER (SER)
Tubular in appearance and without ribosomes attached to its
membrane surface
Site for lipid, fat and steroid synthesis
b. Ribosomes
Tiny rounded bodies or spherical granules which are either attached to the
ER and synthesize hormone or free-floating in the cytoplasm and
synthesize cytoplasmic proteins like hemoglobin.
Composed of 65% RNA and 35% protein and enzymes necessary for
protein synthesis
It is primarily the site for protein synthesis
c. Golgi Complex or Golgi Apparatus
Consists of several flattened tubular membranes stacked upon each other
termed cisternae, and dilated terminal areas at either end of the cisternae
called vacuoles.
Usually appear as droplet complexes or irregular filamentous networks
consisting of four or five hollow disks with swollen or bulbous edges
which are piled one above the other like saucers.
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Located between the nucleus and the cell surface and often connected to
the endoplasmic reticulum.
It is involved in modifying, sorting and packaging macro-molecules for
secretion or for delivery to other organelles.
d. Mitochondria or Chondrisomes
Spherical, rod-shaped, cigar or sausage-shaped, somewhat hollow
structures.
Double-walled, water-filled membrane consisting of:
o An outer membrane which is smooth, tightly stretched and
completely surrounds the mitochondria
o An inner membrane which is extensively invaginated into folds,
forming shelves called cristae which increase the surface for
energy production and enzyme activity. The inner membrane is the
location for energy production and krebs cycle
Known as the powerhouse of the cell.
o Responsible for the production of energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) that supports mechanical and chemical
work performed by cells.
e. Lysosomes
Pre-formed, membrane-bound, dense-appearing structures or packages of
hydrolytic enzymes collectively known as acid hydrolases.
Enzymes within the lysosomes can digest and therefore destroy all
components of the cell, hence are also called suiced bags.
It is involved in intracellular digestion break down intracellular
molecules and digest foreign organisms like bacteria which may enter the
cell.
f. Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes in that they are membrane-bound sacs which contain
enzymes.
Involved in the production of hydrogen peroxide or the destruction of
hydrogen peroxide to water.
It is also concerned with active internal metabolism of the cell such as
purine metabolism, breakdown of nucleic acids and conversion of fat to
glucose.

Cytoplasmic Inclusions
a. Centrosome and Centriole
Granular structure located just outside the nucleus and found in all animal
cells (neurons, etc.) and primitive plants; a self-duplicating organelle.
Within the centrosome is a pair of small rod-like structures called
centrioles.
Centrioles are minute cylinders and in cross-section, their walls are made
up of triplets of 9 evenly-spaced microtubules.
Involves in the process of cell division (mitosis) and in the formation of
cilia.
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b. Microfilament
Long, thin, tiny cylindrical fibrils or tubules made up predominantly of
protein tubulin.
It forms spindle fibers (mitotic and meiotic division)
Form skeletal elements of motile organelles like cilia, flagella and
components of centriole.
c. Microtubules
Smaller than microfilaments
Involves in the maintenance of cell shape and movement of inclusions and
organelles within the cell.
d. Vacuoles
Empty spaces with a single membrane and serve as repository of
substances like granules and serves as vehicles for transporting:
o Raw materials from the cell surface to interior processing centers
Ex. Food Vacuole
o Finished products like secretion products Ex. Secretory Vacuole
o Storage materials like starch granules, fat droplets and water Ex
storage vacuole
o Waste materials to points of elimination Ex. Excretory Vacuole
3. Nucleus
Characteristics
o Rounded, darkly-stained structure separated from the cytoplasm by a double-walled
nuclear envelope, the nuclear membrane
i. Outer nuclear membrane continuous with membrane system of the ER
o Perforated with pores which facilitate passage of large organic
molecules between the nucleus and the rest of the cell.
ii. Inner nuclear membrane
Functions
a. Control Center directs cell division since it contains all hereditary information in the
form of genes
b. Controls protein synthesis
c. Controls many metabolic activities of the cell.
Parts of the Nucleus
1. Nuclear Membrane
Double-walled, perforated (outer wall) membrane, the pores of which allow
materials to pass either from the cytoplasm to the nucleus or vice-versa.
2. Nucleoplasm or Nuclear Sap or Karyolymph
Gel-like nuclear sap in which are suspended the chromosomes and one or
more nucleoli.
3. Chromatin
Clumps of a dense granular thread-like network which is transformed into
chromosomes during mitosis
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Combination of protein, DNA and some RNA.

Contains genes which carry the genetic information necessary for replication
and synthesis of protein.
4. Nucleolus
Dense spherical object which is largest in the interphase and disappear in
mitosis.
Consists of specialized areas of certain chromosomes called nuclear organizer,
ribosomal RNA and protein, and is the probable precursor of ribosomes.
Functions in the construction of ribosomes (control protein synthesis) which
ultimately leave the nucleus and become organized in the ER.

MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANE

Ability of cells to exist and maintain their life-sustaining activities is largely dependent
upon their ability to take in and get rid of certain substances.
The exchange of materials between cells or within the cell is usually through two main
processes:
a. Active transport needs energy from within the cell
b. Passive transport with no need for energy from within the cell, but mainly
achieved through diffusion.
Concentration gradient
the flow of materials, whether solvent or solute, from greater to lesser
concentration. The flow of materials is usually in this manner, but there are cases
wherein the flow is against the concentration gradient, and this is attributed to
what we call as active transport as differentiated from passive transport.
The difference of concentration between the two areas is often termed as
the concentration gradient, and diffusion will continue until this gradient has been
eliminated.
Passive Transport
Movement of molecules DOWN the concentration gradient. It goes from high to
low concentration, in order to maintain equilibrium in the cells. Does not require
cellular energy.
1. Diffusion
The tendency for solutes, such as ions or molecules to move from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of that solute in solution.
Since diffusion moves materials from an area of higher concentration to the lower,
it is described as moving solutes "down the concentration gradient".
Simple diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration to a
lower concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout
and reaches equilibrium.
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Example: smoke or perfume to distribute throughout a room in which

there are no air currents, or that of a dye throughout a beaker of still
water.
2. Osmosis
Is the diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane, such
as the cell membrane, from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower
water concentration.

The greater the concentration of a solution, the greater its osmotic pressure, and
the greater the tendency for water to move into the solution. This occurs because
water moves from less concentrated solutions (less solute, more water) into more
concentrated solutions (more solute, less water).

Osmosis in Living Cells

1. Hypotonic solution
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o Contains lower concentration of dissolved materials (solute) than in the

cell. Thus, the concentration of water in the solution is greater than in the
cell.
o Water then moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
2. Hypertonic solution
o The solution usually has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower
concentration of water than inside the cell.
o Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic solution,
resulting in cell shrinkage.
3. Isotonic solution
o The concentrations of various solutes and water are the same on both sides
of the cell membrane.
o The cell neither shrinks nor swells.

3. Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport that allows substances to cross
membranes with the assistance of special transport proteins.
Many large molecules, such as glucose, are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit
through the membrane pores. Therefore, it will bind with its specific carrier
proteins, and the complex will then be bonded to a receptor site and moved
through the cellular membrane. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process: The
solutes move down the concentration gradient and don't use extra cellular energy
to move.

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Active
A
process

Transport
carrier-mediated
that moves
substances
the cell
membrane from
of lower
concentration to
higher
concentration
a concentration

across
regions
those of

against
gradient
Active
transport
requires energy in the form of ATP, and if ATP is not available, active transport
stops.

1. Endocytosis
Uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of a
membrane-bound sac called a vesicle.
The cell membrane invaginates to form a vesicle containing the material to
be taken into the cell.
a. Phagocytosis process by which a cell engulfs or takes in solid
particles that are too large to enter the cell by diffusion.
b. Pinocytosis process of taking in fluids by cells.
2. Exocytosis
The reverse of endocytosis. Is the process by which a cell expels large
molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides.
Factors that affect the Degree of Membrane Permeability
a. Size of the Molecules The bigger the molecule, the slower will it able to
permeate through the pore; the smaller the molecule, the faster the permeation.
b. Size of the Pores The smaller the pore; the less permeable the membrane; the
bigger the pore, the more permeable it is.
c. Solubility lipid and fat solvent substances are capable of dissolving fat
molecules, thus these could pass through the membrane freely.
d. Electrical charges a membrane that is positively charged would repel positively
charged molecules but would attract negatively charged molecules.
Table of Comparison
Active Transport
Definition Active Transport uses ATP to pump
molecules AGAINST/UP the
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Passive Transport
Movement of molecules DOWN the
concentration gradient. It goes from

Types of
Transport
Types of
Particles
Transported

concentration gradient. Transport

occurs from a low concentration of
solute to high concentration of solute.
Requires cellular energy.
Endocytosis, cell membrane/sodiumpotassium pump & exocytosis
proteins, ions, large cells, complex
sugars.

high to low concentration, in order

to maintain equilibrium in the cells.
Does not require cellular energy.

Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and

osmosis.
Anything soluble (meaning able to
dissolve) in lipids, small
monosaccharides, water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, sex hormones, etc.
Examples phagocytosis, pinocytosis,
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
sodium/potassium pump, secretion of a diffusion.
substance into the bloodstream
(process is opposite of phagocytosis &
pinocytosis)
Importance In eukaryotic cells, amino acids,
It maintains equilibrium in the cell.
sugars and lipids need to enter the cell Wastes (carbon dioxide, water, etc.)
by protein pumps, which require active diffuse out and are excreted;
transport.These items either cannot
nutrients and oxygen diffuse in to
diffuse or diffuse too slowly for
be used by the cell.
survival.
Functions Transports molecules through the cell
Maintains dynamic equilibrium of
membrane against the concentration
water, gases, nutrients, wastes, etc.
gradient so more of the substance is
between cells and extracellular
inside the cell (i.e. a nutrient) or
fluid; allows for small nutrients and
outside the cell (i.e. a waste) than
gases to enter/exit. No NET
normal. Disrupts equilibrium
diffusion/osmosis after equilibrium
established by diffusion.
is established.

CELL CYCLE
The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication
(replication) that produces two daughter cells.
The cell cycle can be divided in three periods: interphaseduring which the cell grows,
accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis preparing it for cell division and duplicating its
DNAand the mitotic (M) phase, during which the cell splits itself into two distinct
cells, often called "daughter cells" and the final phase, cytokinesis, where the new cell is
completely divided.

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Interphase
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations
are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly
formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again.
It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage
because there is no apparent activity related to cell division.
Typically interphase lasts for at least 90% of the total time required for the cell cycle.
Stages of Interphase
1. Gap 1 (G1)
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until
the beginning of DNA synthesis
It is also called the growth phase.
During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are
considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate.
This phase is marked by the use of 20 amino acids to form millions of proteins
and later on enzymes that are required in S phase, mainly those needed for
DNA replication.
Cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such
as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size.
2. Synthesis (S Phase)
Starts when DNA replication commences; when it is complete, all of
the chromosomes have been replicated.
Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively
doubled, though the the number of chromosomes of the cell remains the same.
During this phase, synthesis is completed as quickly as possible.
3. Gap 2 (G2)
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Period when the cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and increase in
size.
The mitotic spindle formed from the cytokinetic fibers start forming and the
cell ensures the number of chromosomes and the organelles present, which
further leads the cell cycle from the interphase to the mitotic phase.

MITOSIS
Is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell
nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei.
During the process of mitosis the pairs ofchromosomes condense and attach to fibers that
pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other
and to their parent cell.
This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.
The 4 Phases of Mitosis
1. Prophase (the stage of preparation)
During the prophase the nucleoli in the nucleus disappear.
The chromatin fibers become tightly coiled and condense into chromosomes.
Chromosomes line up in pairs and are joined at the centromere.
In the cytoplasm, the spindle fibers begin to form and are made of
microtubules.
The centrosomes move away from each other, propelled by the lengthening
microtubules, or spindle fibers, between them.
2. Metaphase (stage of separation)
The centromeres are at opposite ends of the cell poles.
The chromosomes are lined up at the 'metaphase plate', an imaginary line
equidistant between the two poles. T
he centromeres of the chromosomes are all aligned with one another.
The chromatids are of each chromosomes are attached to a microtubule which
form the spindle.
3. Anaphase (stage of migration)
The paired chromosomes separate.
They move along the microtubules toward opposite poles of the cell.
The poles move farther apart. By the end of anaphase, the two poles of the cell
each have a complete set of chromosomes.
4. Telophase (stage of nuclear reconstruction and cytosome division)
The microtubules become even longer, and daughter nuclei begin to form at
the two poles of the cell.
Nuclear envelopes are formed, the nucleoli reappear, the chromatin of the
chromosomes uncoils.
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Mitosis is now complete: one nucleus has divided into two genetically
identical nuclei.
Cytokinesis follows and involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, which
pinches the cells in two

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent
cell by half and produces four gamete cells.
This process is required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual reproduction.
Meiosis begins with one diploid cell (2N, 46 chromosomes) containing two copies of
each chromosomeone from the organism's mother and one from its father. The cell
divides twice, potentially producing up to four haploid cells (N, 23 chromosomes)
containing one copy of each chromosome.

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Phases of Meiosis
Stage I. First Meiotic Division (Reduction Division)
Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, producing two haploid cells (N
chromosomes, 23 in humans), and thus meiosis it is referred to as a reductional
division.

1. Prophase I
The longest phase of meiosis.

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DNA is exchanged between homologous chromosomes in a process

called homologous recombination.
Subdivided into five stages.

a. Leptotene
The diploid chromosomes appear long, thin threads resembling
strings of beads because of chromomeres.
DNA of the nucleus is doubled and each chromosome is
composed of two chromatids.
b. Zygotene
Homologous chromosomes undergo pairing, synapsis along
their entire length, forming bivalent units.
Chromosomes continue to coil and thicken.
c. Pachytene
The paired chromosomes contract; hence each chromosome
becomes shorter and thicker.
Homologous chromosomes of each bivalent twist around each
other.
d. Diplotene
Homologous chromosomes become visibly double or paired.
Each bivalent shows four chromatids or tetrad formation.
Exchange of chromatid segments or crossing-over forms
chiasma between each homologous pair.
A chiasma is the point of contact (crossing over) between
chromatids.
e. Diakenesis
Homologous chromosomes separate longitudinally although
chiasmata between chromatids remain.
The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane undergoes
dissolution
2. Metaphase I
The nuclear membrane has disappeared and the spindle is formed
between the centrioles in opposite poles.
The centromere of each homologous chromosome remains undivided.
Bivalent chromosomes which are in bundles of four component
chromatids align on the equatorial plate with their centromeres
attached to the spindle and directed towards the poles.
3. Anaphase I
The chiasma lose their adhering influence.
The homologous chromosomes of each pair separate and move to their
respective poles.
The chromatids of each homologous chromosomes are still held by a
common centromere.
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4. Telophase I
Each pole has a haploid number of chromosomes.
A nuclear membrane may or may not be reformed around each group
of chromosomes.
Stage II. Second Meiotic Division (Equational Division)
Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are
fundamentally different. The end result is production of four haploid cells (23
chromosomes, N in humans) from the two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N * each of
the chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I.

1. Prophase II
Centrioles divide and new spindles are formed.
The chromatids shorten and the nuclear envelope disappears.
2. Metaphase II
The chromosomes (haploid sets), arranged in bundles of two
chromatids, align along the equatorial plate.
The centromeres divide and the chromatids of each chromosome
separate longitudinally and move towards the pole.
3. Anaphase II
The sister chromatids, now called chromosomes, migrate to their
respective poles.
4. Telophase II
Chromosomes become longer, thinner and less visible.
Cytosome divides and a nuclear membrane forms around the haploid
set of chromosomes in each daughter nucleus or cell.
All other cell parts are reestablished.
At the end, four daughter nuclei or cells are formed each with a
haploid set of chromosomes.

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