There are two different kinds of mobility:

1. User mobility
2. Device portability
User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar
telecommunication services at different places, i.e., the user can be
mobile, and the services will follow him or her. Examples for mechanisms
supporting user mobility are simple call-forwarding solutions
Device portability refers to the communication device moves (with or
without a user). Many mechanisms in the network and inside the device
have to make sure that communication is still possible while the device is
moving. A typical example for systems supporting device portability is the
mobile phone system, where the system itself hands the device from one
radio transmitter (also called a base station) to the next if the signal
becomes too weak.
The term wireless is used with reference to device which means way of
accessing the network or other communication device without wire. The
wire is replaced by the transmission of electromagnetic wave through the
air.
Thus communication device thus can be:1. Fixed and wired: example of this configuration is desktop device.
The power consumption and the weight of devices do not allow for
mobile usages.
2. Mobile and wired: Device like laptops fall in this category where
the device is mobile and it can be connected to companys network
or network via telephone network and a modem.
3. Fixed and wireless: This configuration is used for installing the
networks. For example in historical buildings to avoid the damage
by installing wires.
4. Mobile and wireless: In this, a mobile device uses the wireless
network. Examples are mobiles, tablets etc.

Application of wireless networks:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.

Vehicles
Business
Emergencies
Replacement of wired network
Infotainment
Vehicle : for music, GPS etc.
Business: A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the
companys database: to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the
current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of
their travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. with wireless
access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient and

powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure data

consistency.
3. Emergencies: Wireless networks are the only means of communication in
the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes.
4. Replacement of wired network: historical buildings, remote sensing
etc.
5. Infotainment : using internet everywhere by wireless networks.

Simple network reference model

1. This PDA communicates with a base station in the middle of the

picture. The base station consists of a radio transceiver (sender and
receiver) and an interworking unit connecting the wireless link with
the fixed link.
2. Underneath each network element the protocol stack implemented
in the system according to the reference model. End-systems, such
as the PDA and computer in the example, need a full protocol stack.
3. Function of each layer:
a. Physical layer:
i. Conversion of stream into signal and at receiving end again
to bit from signal
ii. Frequency generation
iii. Signal detection
iv. Generation of carrier frequencies
v. Modulation of data on to carrier frequency
vi. Encryption/decryption
b. Data link layer:
i. Accessing the medium
ii. Multiplexing of different data stream
iii. Correction of transmission errors
iv. Synchronization

c. Network layer:

i. Routing of packets
ii. Addressing and device location
2

iii. Handover between different networks

d. Transport layer:
i. End to end connection
ii. Quality of service
iii. Flow of congestion control
e. Application layer:

i. Service location
ii. Support for multimedia location
iii. Wireless access to WWW

Frequencies for radio transmission:

The figure above illustrates the frequency spectrum can be used for the
data transmission. Frequencies are:1. Very Low Frequencies
2. Low Frequencies: used in the submarines, because this can
penetrate the water and can follow the earth surface. Some radio
station still use this frequency between 148.5 kHz to283.5kHz.
3. Medium Frequencies and High Frequencies: used for
transmission of the hundred of radio station, either as the
Amplitude modulation b/w 520kHz and 1605.5kHz,as short wave
between 5.9 MHz and 26.1 MHz, or as (FM)between 87.5 MHz and
108 MHz frequency modulation.
4. Very High Frequencies and Ultra High Frequencies: used
by the TV stations, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
5. Super High Frequencies : typically used for directed
microwave links (approx. 240 GHz) and fixed satellite services in
the C-band (4 and 6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14 GHz), or Ka-band
(19 and 29 GHz).
6. Extremely High Frequencies
7. Infrared: used for direct links for example to connect two
buildings with laser links.

Signals
1. Signals are the physical representation of data.
2. Users of a communication system can only exchange data through
the transmission of signals.
3. Layer 1 (physical layer) of the ISO/OSI basic reference model is
responsible for the conversion of data, i.e., bits, into signals and vice
versa.
4. An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a
smooth fashion over time. In other words, there are no breaks or
discontinuities in the signal.
5. A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then changes to another
constant level.
6. The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the same
signal pattern repeats over time.
7. Signals are functions of time and location. A general function for the
sine wave which is a periodic signal is:
g ( t )= A t sin ( t +t )

where
phase shift.

=2 f t

, A is amplitude and f is frequency and

is

Antennas
1. An antenna can be defined as an electrical conductor or system of
conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic energy or for
collecting electromagnetic energy.
2. For transmission of a signal, radio-frequency electrical energy
from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by
the antenna and radiated into the surrounding environment
(atmosphere, space, water).
3. For reception of a signal, electromagnetic energy contact on the
antenna is converted into radiofrequency electrical energy and
fed into the receiver.
4. A theoretical reference antenna is the isotropic radiator, a point in
space radiating equal power in all directions, i.e., all points with
equal power are located on a sphere with the antenna as its center.
The radiation pattern is symmetric in all directions.
6

such type of antenna does not exist in real world.

5. Real

antennas all exhibit directive effects, i.e., the intensity of

radiation is not the same in all directions from the antenna. The
simplest real antenna is a thin, center-fed
dipole, also called Hertzian dipole. The
dipole consists of two collinear conductors
of equal length, separated by a small feeding
gap. The length of the dipole is not arbitrary,
but, for example, half the wavelength of
the signal to transmit results in a very
efficient radiation of the energy. If mounted on the roof of a car, the
length of /4 is efficient. This is also known as Marconi antenna.
6. /2 dipole has a uniform or Omni-directional radiation pattern in
one plane and a figure eight pattern in the other two planes as
shown in Figure. This type of antenna can only overcome
environmental challenges by boosting the power level of the signal.
Challenges could be mountains, valleys, buildings etc.

7. Directional antennas used certain fixed preferential transmission

and reception direction. Figure below shows the radiation pattern of
directional antennas.

Directed antennas are typically applied in cellular systems. Several

directed antennas can be combined on a single pole to construct a
sectorized antenna. A cell can be sectorized into, for example,
three or six sectors, thus enabling frequency reuse. The radiation
patterns of this sectorized antenna shown below:

8. Smart antennas combines multiple antenna elements (also called

antenna array) with signal processing to optimize the
radiation/reception pattern in response to the signal environment.
These antennas can adapt to changes in reception power,
transmission conditions and many signal propagation. Antenna
arrays can also be used for beam forming.

Signal Propagation
1. In wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the
direction of propagation, whereas signals in wired networks only
travel along the wire.
2. In wired network signal exhibits the same characteristics at each
point as long as the wire is not damaged.
3. For wireless transmission, this predictable behaviour is only valid in
a vacuum.
4. The situation would be as follows:
Transmission range: Within a certain radius of the sender
transmission is possible, i.e., a receiver receives the signals
with low error rate to establish the communication between
sender and receiver.
Detection range: Within a second
radius, detection of the transmission
is possible, i.e., the transmitted power
is large enough to differ from
background noise. However, the error
rate is too high to establish
communication.
Interference range: Within a third
even larger radius, the sender may
interfere with other transmission by
adding to the background noise. A
receiver will not be able to detect the signals, but the signals
may disturb other signals.

Path loss of radio signal

1. In free space radio signals propagate as light does i.e., they follow a
straight line (besides gravitational effects).
2. If such a straight line exists between a sender and a receiver it is
called line-of-sight (LOS).
3. Even if no matter (thing) exists between the sender and the receiver
(i.e. if there is vacuum), the signal still experience the free space
loss.
4. Most radio transmission takes place through the atmosphere
signals travel through air, rain, snow, fog, dust particles, smog etc.
5. While the path loss or attenuation1 does not cause too much
trouble for short distances, e.g., for LANs.
6. The atmosphere heavily influences transmission over long
distances, e.g., satellite transmission. Even mobile phone systems
are influenced by weather conditions such as heavy rain.
7. Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviours
depending on their frequency:
Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves with low frequencies
follow the earths surface and can propagate long distances.
These waves are used for, e.g. submarine communication or
AM radio.
Sky wave (230 MHz): Many international broadcasts and
amateur radio use these short waves that are reflected at the
ionosphere. This way the waves can bounce back and forth
between the ionosphere and the earths surface, travelling
around the world.
Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Mobile phone systems, satellite
systems, cordless telephones etc. use even higher
frequencies. The emitted waves follow a (moreor less) straight
line of sight. This enables direct communication with satellites
(no reflection at the ionosphere) or microwave links on the
ground.

1 Loss of strength of signal in transmission.

9

Spread spectrum
1. The spread spectrum technique was developed initially for in
military and intelligence requirements.
2. The spread spectrum means to spread the information signal over a
wider bandwidth to make jamming and interception more difficult.
3. Figure below highlights the key characteristics of any spread
spectrum system.
a. Input is fed into a channel encoder that produces an analog
signal with a relatively narrow bandwidth around some center
frequency.
b. This signal is further modulated using a sequence of digits
known as a spreading code or spreading sequence.
c. Typically, but not always, the spreading code is generated by
a pseudonoise, or pseudorandom number, generator. The
effect of this modulation is to increase significantly the
bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of the signal to be
transmitted.
d. On the receiving end, the same digit sequence is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal.
e. Finally, the signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover the
data.

4. The following advantage can be gained by the spectrum:

a. We can gain the immunity from various kinds of noise and
distortion.
b. It can also be used for hiding and encrypting the signal. Only
the recipient who knows the spreading code can recover the
encoded information.
c. Several users can simultaneously use the same frequency
with little interference.
5. The spread spectrum can be achieved by two ways:
a. Direct sequence spread spectrum
10

b. Frequency hopping spread spectrum.

Direct sequencing spread spectrum

1. For direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), each bit in the original
signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using
a spreading code.
2. One technique for direct sequence spread spectrum is to combine
the digital information stream with the spreading code bit stream
using an exclusive-OR (XOR).
3. XOR obeys the following rules
4. The spreading code bit stream sometimes may refer as chipped
sequence.
5. The following figure shows example of direct sequencing spread
spectrum.

6. Each user bit has a duration tb. The chipping sequence consists of
the smaller pulse called chips, with a duration tc.
7. If the chipping sequence generated properly than it appears as a
random noise. This sequence sometimes also code pseudo noise.
8. The spreading factor s=tb/tc determine the bandwidth of the
resulting signal.
9. If original signal need the bandwidth w, the resulting signal will
need s.w bandwidth after the spreading.
10.
Civil applications need the spreading factor between 10 to 100
and military applications need up to 10,000.
11.
DSSS need additional components for transmitting and
receiving.
12.
The DSSS transmitter spread the user data with the
chipping sequence (digital modulation). The spread signal then
modulates with radio carrier.

11

13.

At the receiver end

a. Additional mechanism is carried out due to multipath

propagation or noise, to construct the original data.
b. In the first step, the receiver demodulated the signal with the
same carrier frequency used in transmitting.
c. In the next step, the receiver has to know the original chipping
sequence
d. Chipping sequences at the sender and receiver have to be
precisely synchronized because the receiver calculates the
product of a chip with the incoming signal. This comprises
another XOR operation.
e. During a bit period, which also has to be derived via
synchronization, an integrator adds all these products.
f. Calculating the products of chips and signal, and adding the
products in an integrator are also called correlation, the
device a correlator.
g. Finally, in each bit period a decision unit samples the sums
generated by the integrator and decides if this sum represents
a binary 1 or a 0.

Frequency hopping spread spectrum

1. In frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) systems, the total
available bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller
bandwidth plus guard spaces between the channels.
2. Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for a certain
time and then hop (jump lightly) to another channel.
3. This system implements FDM and TDM.
4. The pattern of channel usage is called the hopping sequence, the
time spend on a channel with a certain frequency is called the dwell
time.
5. FHSS comes in two variants, slow and fast hopping.
6. In slow hopping
a. The transmitter uses one frequency for several bit periods.
b. Figure below shows five user bits with a bit period tb.0
c. Performing slow hopping, the transmitter uses the frequency f 2
for transmitting the first three bits during the dwell time td.
d. Then, the transmitter hops to the next frequency f3.
12

e. Slow hopping systems are typically cheaper and have relaxed

tolerances, but they are not as immune to narrowband

interference as fast hopping systems.
7. For fast hopping systems
a. The transmitter changes the frequency several times during
the transmission of a single bit.
b. In following figure, the transmitter hops three times during a
bit period.
c. Fast hopping systems are more complex to implement
because the transmitter and receiver have to stay
synchronized within smaller tolerances to perform hopping at
more or less the same points in time.
d. However, these systems are much better at overcoming the
effects of narrowband interference and frequency selective
fading as they only stick to one frequency for a very short
time.

8. The FSS transmitter

a. The first step in an FHSS transmitter is the modulation of user
data according to one of the digital-to-analog modulation
schemes, e.g., FSK or BPSK, as. This results in a narrowband
signal, if FSK is used with a frequency f 0 for a binary 0 and f 1
for a binary 1.
b. In the next step, frequency hopping is performed, based on a
hopping sequence. The hopping sequence is fed into a
frequency synthesizer generating the carrier frequencies fi.
c. A second modulation uses the modulated narrowband signal
and the carrier frequency to generate a new spread signal
with frequency of fi+f0 for a binary 0 and fi+f1 for a 1
respectively.
d. If different FHSS transmitters use hopping sequences that
never overlap, i.e., if two transmitters never use the same
frequency fi at the same time, then these two transmissions
do not interfere. This requires the coordination of all
transmitters and their hopping sequences.
9. The FSS receiver
13

a. The receiver of an FHSS

system has to know the
hopping sequence and
must
stay
synchronized.
b. It then performs the
inverse operations of
the
modulation
to
reconstruct user data. Several filters are also needed.

Comparison between the DSSS and FSS:

Numb
er
1
2
3

DSSS

FSSS

Spreading is complex
Use total bandwidth
available.
More resistant to fading
and the multipath
propagation.
DSSS signal are much
harder to detect

Spreading is simpler
Use a portion of band
at any time.
Less resistant to
fading and multipath
propagation.
FSS signal can easily
be detected.

IEEE802.11
1. The IEEE standard 802.11 (IEEE, 1999) specifies the most famous
family of WLANs in which many products are available.
2. As the standards number indicates, this standard belongs to the
group of 802.x LAN standards, e.g., 802.3 Ethernet or 802.5 Token
Ring.
3. This means that the standard specifies the physical and medium
access layer adapted to the special requirements of wireless LANs,
but offers the same interface as the others to higher layers to
maintain interoperability.
4. The primary goal of the standard was the specification of a simple
and robust WLAN which offers time-bounded and asynchronous
services.
5. Additional features of the WLAN should include:
a. The support of power management to save battery power
b. The handling of hidden nodes.
c. The ability to operate worldwide.

14

System architecture

1. Figure illustrates the model developed by the 802.11 working group.

2. The smallest building block of a wireless LAN is a basic service set
(BSS), which consists of some number of stations (STA) executing
the same MAC protocol and competing for access to the same
shared wireless medium.
3. A BSS may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone
distribution system (DS) through an access point (AP).
4. The AP functions as a bridge and a relay point.
5. In a BSS, client stations do not communicate directly with one
another. Rather, if one station in the BSS wants to communicate
with another station in the same BSS, the MAC frame is first sent
from the originating station to the AP, and then from the AP to the
destination station.
6. Similarly, a MAC frame from a station in the BSS to a remote station
is sent from the local station to the AP and then relayed by the AP
over the DS on its way to the destination station.
7. The DS can be a switch, a wired network, or a wireless network.
8. When all the stations in the BSS are mobile stations, with no
connection to other BSSs, the BSS is called an independent BSS
(IBSS).
9. An IBSS is typically an adhoc network. In an IBSS, the stations all
communicate directly, and no AP is involved.
10.
A simple
configuration is shown in Figure, in which each station belongs to a
single BSS; that is, each station is within wireless range only of other
stations within the same BSS.
11.
It is also
possible for two BSSs to overlap geographically, so that a single
station could participate in more than one BSS.
15

12.
The
association between a station and a BSS is dynamic. Stations may
turn off, come within range, and go out of range.
13.
An
extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic service
sets interconnected by a distribution system.
14.
Typically,
the distribution system is a wired backbone LAN but can be any
communications network.
15.
The
extended service set appears as a single logical LAN to the logical
link control (LLC) level.
16.
Figure
indicates that an access point (AP) is implemented as part of a
station; the AP is the logic within a station that provides access to
the DS by providing DS services in addition to acting as a station.
17.
To
integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a traditional wired LAN,
a portal is used. The portal logic is implemented in a device, such
as a bridge or router, that is part of the wired LAN and that is
attached to the DS.

Protocol architecture
Figure shows the most common scenario:

16

1. An IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN connected to a switched IEEE 802.3

Ethernet via a bridge.
2. Applications should not notice any difference apart from the lower
bandwidth and perhaps higher access time from the wireless LAN.
3. The WLAN behaves like a slow wired LAN. Consequently, the higher
layers (application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless nodes as for
wired nodes.
4. The upper part of the data link control layer, the logical link control
(LLC), covers the differences of the medium access control layers
needed for the different media.
5. The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and
medium access layer MAC like the
other 802.x LANs do.
6. The physical layer is subdivided into
the physical
layer convergence
protocol (PLCP) and the physical
medium
dependent
sublayer
(PMD).
7. The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise
a. medium access
b. fragmentation of user data
c. and encryption.
8. PLCP sublayer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear
channel assessment (CCA), and provides a common PHY service
access point (SAP) independent of the transmission technology.
9. The PMD sublayer handles modulation and encoding/decoding of
signals.
10.
The MAC management supports
a. association and re-association of a station to an access point
b. roaming between different access points.
17

c. Controls
authentication
mechanisms,
encryption,
synchronization of a station with regard to an access point,
d. Power management to save battery power.
e. MAC management also maintains the MAC management
information base (MIB).
11.
The main tasks of the PHY management include channel
tuning and PHY MIB maintenance.
12.
Station management interacts with both management
layers and is responsible for additional higher layer functions (e.g.,
control of bridging and interaction with the distribution system in
the case of an access point).

Bluetooth
The concept behind Bluetooth is to provide a universal short-range
wireless capability. Using the 2.4-GHz band, available globally for
unlicensed low-power uses, two Bluetooth devices within 10 m of each
other can share up to 720 kbps of capacity.
Bluetooth is intended to support an open-ended list of applications,
including data (e.g., schedules and telephone numbers), audio, graphics,
and even video. For example, audio devices can include headsets,
cordless and standard I hones, home stereos, and digital MP3 players. The
following are examples of some the capability Bluetooth can provide
consumers:
1. Make calls from a wireless headset connected remotely to a cell
phone.
2. Eliminate cables linking computers to printers, keyboards, and the
mouse.
3. Hook up MP3 players wirelessly to other machines to download
music.
4. Set up home networks so that a couch potato can remotely monitor
air conditioning, the oven, and childrens' Internet surfing.
5. Call home from a remote location to turn appliances on and off, set
the alarm, and monitor activity.
Bluetooth provides support for three general application areas using shortrange wireless connectivity:
Data and voice access points: Bluetooth facilitates real-time
voice and data transmissions by providing effortless wireless
connection of portable and stationary communications devices.
Cable replacement: Bluetooth eliminates the need for numerous,
often proprietary, cable attachments for connection of practically
any kind of communication device. Connections are instant and are
maintained even when devices are not within line of sight. The
range of each radio is approximately 10m but can be extended to
100 m with an optional amplifier.

18

 Ad hoc networking: A device equipped with a Bluetooth radio can

establish instant connection to another Bluetooth radio as soon as it
comes into range.

Protocol architecture
1. Bluetooth is defined as a layered protocol architecture consisting of
core protocols, cable replacement and telephony control protocol, and
adopted protocols. The core protocols form a five-layer stack consisting
of the following elements:
a. Radio: Specifies details of the air interface, including frequency,
the use of frequency hopping, modulation scheme, and transmit
power.
b. Baseband: Concerned with connection establishment within a
piconet (WPAN), addressing, packet format, timing, and power
control.
c. Link manager protocol (LMP): Responsible for Iink setup
between Bluetooth devices and ongoing link management. This
includes security aspects such as authentication and encryption,
plus the control and negotiation of baseband packet sizes.
d. Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP):
Adapts upper-layer protocols to the baseband layer. L2CAP
provides both connectionless and connection-oriented services.
e. Service discovery protocol (SDP): Device information,
services, and the characteristics of the services can be queried
to enable the establishment of a connection between two or
more Bluetooth devices.
2. RFCOMM is the cable replacement protocol included in the
Bluetooth specification. RFCOMM presents a virtual serial port that is
designed to make replacement of cable technologies as transparent as
possible.

19

3. Bluetooth specifies a telephony control protocol. TCS BIN

(telephony control specification-binary) is a bit-oriented protocol that
defines the call control signalling for the establishment of speech and
data calls between Bluetooth devices.
4. The adopted protocols are defined in specifications issued by other
standards making organizations and incorporated into the overall
Bluetooth architecture. The Bluetooth strategy is to invent only
necessary protocols and use existing standards whenever possible.
The adopted protocols include the following:
a. PPP: The point-to-point protocol is an Internet standard
protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point-to-point link.
b. TCP/UDP/IP: These are the foundation protocols of the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
c. OBEX: The object exchange protocol is a session-Level
protocol developed by the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) for
the exchange of objects. OBEX provides functionality similar to
that of HTTP, but in a simpler fashion. It also provides a model
for representing objects and operations. Examples of content
formats transferred by OBEX are vCard and vCalendar, which
provide the format of an electronic business card and personal
calendar entries and scheduling information, respectively.
d. WAE/WAP: Bluetooth incorporates the wireless application
environment and the wireless application protocol into its
architecture

20