OS ch2

Chapter 2: Operating-System
Structures
Operating System Concepts 9th Edition
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013
Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

Operating System Services
User Operating System Interface
System Programs
Operating System Design and Implementation
Operating System Structure
Operating System Debugging
Operating System Generation
System Boot
2.2
Operating System Services

Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and
services to programs and users

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the
user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI).
!
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI),

Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into

memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a
file or an I/O device
File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.

Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete
them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
2.3
Operating System Services (Cont.)
Communications Processes may exchange information, on the

same computer or between computers over a network
! Communications
may be via shared memory or through

message passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection OS needs to be constantly aware of possible

errors
! May
occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in

user program
! For
each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to

ensure correct and consistent computing
! Debugging
facilities can greatly enhance the user s and

programmer s abilities to efficiently use the system
Debugging: is the process of locating and fixing bugs or errors by

breaking its source code, and to isolate each part so that address
errors easily and fix them accordingly.
2.4
Operating System Services (Cont.)

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing

Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
! Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory,
and file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O
devices) may have general request and release code
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds
of computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser
or networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
! Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts
! If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be
instituted throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
!
2.5
A View of Operating System Services
2.6
User Operating System Interface - CLI

CLI or command interpreter allows direct command entry
! Sometimes
implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems
program
! Sometimes
multiple flavors implemented shells : a shell is

another term of CLI which makes the interaction with a
program easier. It might be a menu-driven to add new
features.
! Primarily
fetches a command from user and executes it
Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of

programs
If the latter, adding new features doesnt require shell

modification
2.7
System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++), and it
represents requests that ask for a service from the kernel of the OS to
be executed.
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use

API is a set of routines, protocols and tools for building software and
applications.
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, and Java API
for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

Why use APIs rather than system calls?
2.8
Examples of Windows and

Unix System Calls
2.9
Standard C Library Example

C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call
The library is as an intermediary between a program and OS.
2.10
Operating System s Structures

Simple Structure or Monolithic Structure
Beyond Simple Structure but not fully layered.
Layered Structure
2.11
Example: MS-DOS
Single-tasking
Shell invoked when system
booted
Simple method to run
program
No process created
Single memory space

Loads program into memory,
overwriting all but the kernel

Program exit -> shell
reloaded
(a) At system startup (b) running a program
2.12
Simple Structure
I.e. MS-DOS written to provide
the most functionality in the least

space
Not divided into modules
Although MS-DOS has some

structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated
2.13
UNIX
UNIX limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating
system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two

separable parts
Systems programs
The kernel
! Consists
of everything below the system-call interface and

above the physical hardware
! Provides
the file system, CPU scheduling, memory

management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level
2.14
Traditional UNIX System Structure

Beyond simple but not fully layered
2.15
Layered Approach
The operating system is
divided into a number of

layers (levels), each built
on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer 0),
is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the
user interface.
With modularity, layers are
selected such that each

uses functions
(operations) and services
of only lower-level layers
2.16
Microkernel System Structure

A minimal computer OS which in its purest form, provides no
OS services at all.
Other functions that should be executed by OS as in the other
OS structures are shifted to the User interface.

Mach example of microkernel
Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
Benefits:
Easier to extend a microkernel
Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
More secure
Disadvantages:
Performance overhead of user space to kernel space

communication
2.17
Microkernel System Structure
Application
Program
File
System
messages
Interprocess
Communication
Device
Driver
user
mode
messages
memory
managment
CPU
scheduling
kernel
mode
microkernel
hardware
2.18
Modules
Most modern operating systems implement loadable kernel modules
Uses object-oriented approach
Each core component is separate
Each talks to the others over known interfaces
Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
Linux, Solaris, etc
2.19
Solaris Modular Approach
2.20
System Boot
When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory
location
Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
Small piece of code bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or

EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from
multiple disks, versions, kernel options

Kernel loads and system is then running
GRUB= Boot Interface
OS>Kernel>ROM>Bootstrap
1- Determine bootstrap loader in ROM

2- Kernal will load OS
3- System in running
2.21
End of Chapter 2

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Chapter 2: Operating-System

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Operating System Services

services to programs and users

Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI),

Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into

File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Operating System Services (Cont.)

Communications Processes may exchange information, on the

may be via shared memory or through

Error detection OS needs to be constantly aware of possible

occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in

each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to

facilities can greatly enhance the user s and

Debugging: is the process of locating and fixing bugs or errors by

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Operating System Services (Cont.)

system itself via resource sharing

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

User Operating System Interface - CLI

implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems

multiple flavors implemented shells : a shell is

fetches a command from user and executes it

Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of

If the latter, adding new features doesnt require shell

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use

for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Examples of Windows and

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Standard C Library Example

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Operating System s Structures

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Single memory space

overwriting all but the kernel

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

the most functionality in the least

Not divided into modules

Although MS-DOS has some

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two

of everything below the system-call interface and

the file system, CPU scheduling, memory

Operating System Concepts 9th Edition