Preliminary Physics Module 4: The

Cosmic Engine
Our sun is just one star in the galaxy and ours is just one
galaxy in the Universe
1.1

Outline the historical development of models of the

Universe from the time of Aristotle to the time of
Newton:

Ancient Greeks (~300BC) Geocentric (Aristotle) vs

Heliocentric (Aristarchus), Ptolemy (2nd Century)
geocentric
Copernicus (1473-1542) Heliocentric
Brahe (1546-1601) plotted night sky, Heliocentric but
Sun revolves around Earth
Kepler (1571-1630) mathematically defined orbits of
planets
Galileo (1564-1642) Heliocentric, developed telescope;
Newton (1643-1727) mathematically defined gravity
Einstein (1879-1955): planet orbits precess, light is
affected by gravity, time is slower near larger objects
Friedmann (1888-1925): Big Crunch vs Steady State vs
Constant expansion
Hubble (1889-1953): measured speed that galaxies are
moving away from us

The first minutes of the Universe released energy that

changed to matter, forming stars and galaxies
2.1

Outline the discovery of the expansion of the Universe

by Hubble, following its earlier prediction by
Friedmann:

What Hubble had discovered is that the universe is

expanding, just as Friedmann had predicted five years
earlier. Moreover, Hubbles expansion was very much like
an exploding bomb, with the parts furthest out travelling
the fastest. This implied at some stage in the past all of
the matter in our expanding universe, like an exploding
bomb, was concentrated at a single place, called a
singularity. From this singularity our universe exploded, an
event that has become known as the big bang

2.2

Describe the transformation of radiation into matter

that followed the Big Bang:

The moment of the big bang marked the beginning of

space and time. All that was present was energy; the
universe was smaller than the size of a proton. Initially,
the energy was transformed into fundamental particles
called leptons and quarks. Quarks are the building blocks
of protons and neutrons, and leptons the building blocks
of electrons. Quarks combined to form protons and
neutrons. After approximately 300 000 years, known as
the time of recombination, the universe cooled sufficiently
(to a few thousand Kelvin) for the electrons to combine
with protons and neutrons to form atoms. The atoms
found in the young universe were mainly hydrogen,
helium and traces of lithium. At this time, a large amount
of radiation is released and dispersed throughout the
universe. As the universe expanded and cooled, the
radiation filling the universe also cooled down and still
exists today (also known as cosmic background radiation).

2.3 Identify that Einstein described the equivalence of

energy and mass:

2.4

Einstein discovered that energy and mass are

interchangeable
E=mc2, where E is energy, m is mass and c is the speed
of light

Outline how the accretion of galaxies and stars

occurred through: expansion and cooling of the
Universe, subsequent loss of particle kinetic energy,
gravitational attraction between particles, lumpiness
of the gas cloud that then allows gravitational collapse:

Accretion is the process by which stars and planets are

formed; it involves gravity pulling together cosmic
background radiation that can build up to become stars
with nuclear fusion, or otherwise planets
As the radiation from the Big Bang expanded to make our
universe, some of it was transformed into matter. The
universe had to cool down as no matter can be formed at
such a high temperature. Fundamental particles (leptons
and quarks) electrons and neutrinos all essential

matter particles forms plasma (highly ionised state of

matter) helium and some lithium gravity pulls the
gases together to form nebulae as the radiation
pressures gradually reduces, the particles get more
strongly attracted together the core forms first as
gravity is extremely strong there the whole star is
formed

Stars have a limited life span and may explode to form

supernovas
3.1

Define the relationship between the temperature of a

body and the dominant wavelength of the radiation
emitted from that body:

A hypothetical black body is one that absorbs all radiation

falling upon it and radiates electromagnetic energy
(black-body radiation) of its own when it is hotter than its
surroundings
Black-body radiation is distributed continuously but not
evenly across the wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The way that it is distributed depends on the
temperature of the black body and the wavelength of
maximum output or dominant wavelength determines the
colour of the body
A stars radiation output closely matches the theoretical
black-body radiation curves
The relationship between temperature and dominant
wavelength is known as Wiens Law: max T =W , where
is dominant wavelength (m), T is temperature (K)
and W is a constant (2.9 x 10-3) m K
Hotter stars emit more low wavelength radiation and
therefore look bluer, cooler stars emit more high
wavelength radiation and therefore look redder

3.2

Identify that the surface temperature of a star is

related to its colour:

3.3

Due to Wiens law, as temperature of a star increases, the

dominant wavelength produced decreases, producing a
bluer coloured star
Hotter stars emit more low wavelength radiation and
therefore look bluer, cooler stars emit more high
wavelength radiation and therefore look redder

Describe a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram as the graph

of a stars luminosity against its colour or surface
temperature:

To sketch a H-R diagram, luminosity is the y-axis

increasing and temperature is the x-axis decreasing

3.4

Identify energy sources characteristic of each star

group, including Main Sequence, red giants and white
dwarfs:

Main sequence stars are the most common types of stars and are
in the diagonal band from the upper left to lower right corners of a
H-R diagram. Main sequence stars produce energy through the
process of nuclear fusion of H to He in core
Red giants are larger and cooler stars than the main sequence
stars. Red giants produce energy through the process of nuclear
fusion of He to C in core, and H to He fusion continuing in the
shells. The large size of the star gives it a high luminosity and its
low temperature is due to the
heat spreading out over a
greater volume, giving the
star an overall lower
temperature
White dwarfs are hotter and
smaller stars than the main
sequence stars. White dwarfs
do not have any energyproducing reactions occurring.
The small size of the star
gives it a low luminosity and
the high temperature is due to
the closeness of the core of
the star to its surface

The Sun is a typical star, emitting electromagnetic radiation

and particles that influence the Earth
4.1 Identify that energy may be released from the nuclei of
atoms:

4.2

Energy may be released from the nuclei of atoms during

nuclear fusion (combination of lighter elements into
heavier elements) and nuclear fission (splitting of heavier
elements into lighter elements) as radiation

Describe the nature of emissions from the nuclei of

atoms as radiation of alpha and beta particles and
gamma rays in terms of: ionising power, penetrating
power, effect of magnetic field, effect of electric field:

4.3 Identify the nature of emissions reaching the Earth

from the Sun:

4.4

The energy from the Sun that reaches the Earth includes:
a range of electromagnetic radiation, interplanetary
magnetic field and solar wind - consisting of ionised
particles (plasma)

Describe the particulate nature of solar wind:

Solar wind is an outflow of low-density plasma from the

corona of the Sun
Solar winds and interplanetary magnetic field: the
difference in pressure between the corona and
interplanetary space causes an outflow of material from
the corona. The low-density, hot plasma of the corona
streams almost directly outward from the Sun, eventually
reaching each of the planets. Solar winds are particulate
in nature and contain Helium and other ions. The wind
takes 3-4 days to reach Earth. Because the solar wind
carries moving charges, it is able to generate a magnetic
field. The magnetic field lines of the solar winds interact
with the Suns magnetic field. The result is that the Suns
magnetic field becomes frozen in the plasma of the solar
wind. This means that the solar wind effectively carries
the magnetic field of the Sun with it, as it travels. This
forms the interplanteary field. Although the magnetic
field lines remain anchored in the Sun, it nevertheless

forms a kind of spiral as the Sun rotates. At Earth, the

field lines are around 45 degress to the direction of the
Sun.

4.5

Outline the cyclic nature of sunspot activity and its

impact on Earth through solar winds:

Sunspots are dark spots on the surface of the Sun,

representing a region of intense magnetic activity and
low temperature
The sunspot cycle is a cyclical pattern of increasing and
decreasing numbers of sunspots
The number of sunspots varies with a period of 11 years.
When the sunspot cycle is at its peak, about 100
sunspots are visible, and when the cycle is at its
minimum, only about a few sunspots are visible at any
time. It was found that when the sunspots were at its
peak, solar flares are produced. A solar flare is an
explosion of hot material that bursts thousands of
kilometres upwards from the surface of the Sun. Solar
forces can emit huge amounts of X-rays, UV and visible

radiation (Aurora Borealis) as well as bursts of high speed

protons and electrons. The high speed charged particles
reach the Earth as powerful blasts of solar winds known
as a magnetic storm. Such blasts can damage satellites
and its communication. The blasts also affect the Earths
magnetic field; causing compasses to malfunction and
producing large induced current which can disrupt the
power grids on Earth
4.6

Describe sunspots as representing regions of strong

magnetic activity and lower temperature:

Sunspots are dark, cool areas on the Suns surface with a

very powerful magnetic field. It is thought that sunspots
are locations of disturbances in the magnetic field lines
within the surface of the Sun, where they have become
sufficiently buckled to loop out and then back into the
surface. The intense field activity within a sunspot
prevents the convection of heat to the surface, thereby
reducing its temperature.

Other: Luminosity is the total energy radiated by an object

whereas brightness is the intensity of light as seen from a
Luminosity
distance, Brightness=
, where r is the distance from
4 r2
the observer to the object