INTRODUCTION:

It is the branch of engineering which deals with the measurement, monitoring, display
etc. of the several of energy exchanges which take place during process operations. "In
short Instrumentation is the study of Instrument."
INSTRUMENT:
Instrument is a device which is used to measure, monitor, display etc. of a process
variable.
1. What are the processes Variables?
The process Variables are:
Flow.
Pressure.
Temperature.
Level.
Quality i.e. % O2, CO2, pH etc.
2. Define all the process Variable and state their unit of measurement. ?
Flow: Any fluids or liquids flowing from one place to another place is called flow and it
is defined as volume per unit of time at specified temperature and pressure
Conditions, is generally measured by positive-displacement or rate meters.
Units: kg / hr, litter / min, gallon / min, m3 / hr, Nm3 / hr. (Gases)
Pressure: It is defined as Force per unit Area. P = F/A
Units
: bar, Pascal, kg / cm2, lb / in2.
Level: The height of the water column, liquid and powder etc., at the desired
measurement of height between minimum level points to maximum level point is called
level. The measurement principle is, head pressure method.
Units: Meters, mm, cm, percentage.
Temperature: It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.
Units
: Degree Centigrade, Degree Fahrenheit, Degree Kelvin, Degree Rankin.
Quality: It deals with analysis.( pH, % CO2, % 02, Conductivity, Viscosity )
3. What are the primary elements used for flow measurement?
The primary elements used for flow measurement are:
Orifice Plate.
Venturi tube.
Pitot tube.
Annubars.
Flow Nozzle.

Weir & Flumes.

4. What are the different types of orifice plates and state their uses?
The different types of orifice plates are:
Concentric.
Segmental.
Eccentric.
Quadrant Edge.
Concentric:
The concentric orifice plate is used for ideal liquid as well as gases and steam service.
This orifice plate beta ratio fall between of 0.15 to 0.75 for liquids and 0.20 to 0.70 for
gases, and steam. Best results occur between value of 0.4 and 0.6. Beta ratio means ratio
of the orifice bore to the internal pipe diameters.

(45 beveled edges are often used to minimize

Friction resistance to flowing fluid)

Flow
d

( Fig 1)
Eccentric :
The eccentric orifice plate has a hole eccentric. Use full for measuring containing solids,
oil containing water and wet steam. Eccentric plates can be used either flange or vena
contracta taps, but the tap must be at 180 or 90 to the eccentric opening.

( Fig 2 )
Eccentric orifices have the bore offset from center to
Minimize problems in services of solids-containing
materials.
Segmental:
The segmental orifice place has the hole in the form segment of a circle. This is used for
colloidal and slurry flow measurement. For best accuracy, the tap location should be 180
from the center of tangency.

Segmental orifices provide another version of plates

Useful for solids containing materials.

( Fig 3 )
Quadrant Edge:
It common use in Europe and are particularly useful for pipe sizes less than 2 inchs.

Quadrant edge orifices produce a relatively constant

Coefficient of discharge for services with low
Reynolds numbers in the range from 100,000 down
to 5,000.
( Fig 4 )
5. How do you identify an orifice in the pipe line?
An orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate which extends outer of the line giving an
indication of the orifice plate.
6. Why is the orifice tab provided?
The orifice tab is provided due to the following reasons.
Indication of an orifice plate in a line.
The orifice diameter is marked on it.
The material of the orifice plate.
The tag no. of the orifice plate.
The mark the inlet of an orifice.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Orifice Plates
Advantages of orifice plates include:
High differential pressure generated
Exhaustive data available
Low purchase price and installation cost
Easy replacement
7. What is Bernoulli's theorem and where it is applicable?
Bernoulli's theorem states the "total energy of a liquid flowing from one point to other
remains constant." It is applicable for non compressible liquids.
8. How do you identify the H. P. side or inlet of an orifice plate in line?
The marking is always done H. P. side of the orifice tab which gives an indication of the
H. P. side.
9. How do you calibrate a D. P. transmitter?
The following steps are to be taken which calibrating:
1. Adjust zero of the Txr.

2. Static pressure test : Give equal pressure on both sides of the transmitter. Zero should
not shift. If it is shifting carry out static alignment.
3. Vacuum test: Apply equal vacuum to both the sides. The zero should not shift.
4. Calibration Procedure:
Give 20 psi air or 24Vdc supply to the transmitter.
Vent the L.P. side to atmosphere.
Connect output of the Instrument to a standard test gauge or Multimeter and adjust
zero.
5. Apply required pressure to high pressure side of the transmitter and adjust the span.
6. Adjust zero again if necessary.
10. What is the seal liquid used for filling impulse lines on crude and viscous liquid?
Glycol.
11. How do you carry out piping for a Different pressure flow transmitter on
liquids, Gas and steam services Why ?
Liquid lines: On liquid lines the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate because
liquids have a property of self draining.
Orifice plate
Flow direction

Primary isolation valve

( LIQUID SERVICE )
3 way manifold valve

Flow transmitter

Gas Service: On gas service the transmitter is mounted above the orifice plate because
Gases have a property of self venting and secondly condensate formation.
+

Flow transmitter

3 way manifold valve

(GAS SERVICES)

Primary isolation valve

Flow direction
Orifice plate
Steam Service: On steam service the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate with
condensate pots. The pots should be at the same level.
Orifice plate
Flow direction
Primary isolation valve

Condensate pot

3 way manifold valve

+
12. Draw and explain any flow control loop?

Flow transmitter

C/v
Positioner
Orifice plate

Primary isolation valve

AIR SUPPLY
3 way manifold valve
Flow transmitter
AIR SUPPLY

FRC

13. an operator tells you that flow indication is more, how would you start checking?

First flushing the transmitter. Flush both the impulse lines. Adjust the zero by
equalizing if necessary. If still the indication is more then.
Check L.P. side for choke. If that is clean then.
Check the leaks on L.P. side. If not.
Calibrate the transmitter.

14. How do you do a zero checks on a D.P. transmitter?

Close one of the valve either H.P. or L.P. open the equalizing valve. The O/P should read
zero.
15. How would you do Glycol filling or fill seal liquids in seal pots 7 Draw and
explain.
The procedure for glycol filling is :
Close the primary isolation valves.
Open the vent on the seal pots.
Drain the used glycol if present.
Connect a hand pump on L.P. side while filling the H.P. side with glycol.
Keep the equalizer valve open.
Keep the L.P. side valve closed.
Start pumping and fill glycol.
Same repeat for L.P. side by connecting pump to H.P. side, keeping equalizer open
and H.P. side isolation valve closed.
Close the seal pot vent valves.
Close equalizer valve.
Open both the primary isolation valves.
16. How do you calculate new factor from new range using old factor and old range?
Q1

P1
=

Q2

P2

Q2 P1 =

Q1 = Old flow
Q2 = New flow
P1 = Old DP
P2 = New DP
Q1 P2
Q1 P2

Q2 =
P1
Old flow new DP
New flow =
Old DP

O/P % = Flow, I/P % = P

F = P

x 10 (or) O/P % = I/P% X 10

17. How will you vent air in the D.P. cell? What if seal pots are used?
Air is vented by opening the vent plugs on a liquid service transmitter.
On services where seal pots are used isolate the primary isolation valves and
open the vent valves. Fill the line from the transmitter drain plug with a pump.
18. Why flow is measured in square root?
Flow varies directly as the square root of different pressure F = K square root of D/P.
Since this flow varies as the square root of differential pressure the pen does not directly
indicate flow. The flow can be determined by taking the square root of the pen. Say the
pen reads 50% of chart.
19. What is absolute pressure?
Absolute pressure is the total pressure present in the system
Abs. pressure = Gauge pressure + Atm. pressure.
20. What is absolute zero pressure?
Absolute zero = 760 mm Hg. Vacuum.
21. What is the maximum Vacuum?
The maximum Vacuum = 760 mm Hg.
22. What is Vacuum?
Any pressure below atmospheric pressure is vacuum.
Atm = 760 mm

Zero Vacuum
Zero Gauges

Zero absolute

Max.vaccum = 760mmHg

23. What are the primary elements for measuring pressure?

The primary elements used for measuring pressure are:
Bourdon tube.
Diaphragm.
Capsule.
Bellows.
Pressure Springs.
The above are known as elastic deformation pressure elements.
Type of Bourdon tubes.
'C ' type.
Spiral.

Helix.

Diaphragm: The diaphragm is best suited for low pressure measurement.

Capsules : Two circular diaphragms are welded together to form a pressure capsule.
Material Used: phosphor bronze, Ni-spanc stainless steel.
Bellows
: Bellows is a one - piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with deep folds
Formed from very tin walled tubing.
Material used: Brass, phosphor bronze, stainless steel. Used for high
Pressure.
Pre.spring: Pressure springs of helical or spiral shape used for measuring high pressures.

24. How will you calibrate an absolute pressure transmitter using vacuum
manometer. Range 0-400mmHg abs?
The procedure for calibration is as follows:
Connect air supply to the transmitter.
Connect a test gauge of 0-1.4 Kg/cm2 to the output.
Connect Vacuum pump with tee off to the manometer.
Apply 760 mmHg Vacuum (or nearest) and adjust zero.
Apply 360 mmHg Vacuum adjust span. (760 - 360 = 400 mmHg abs. )
25. You are given a mercury manometer range 0 -760 mmHg? A vacuum gauge
reads 60 mmHg vacuum. The test manometer reads 50 vacuums? Which of the two
in correct?
The transmitter is correct because 760 - 50 = 710 mmHg abs.
26. Why is an inclined manometer used ?
It is used to extend the scale of the instrument. Because the manometer is at an angle to
the vertical.
27. What is the principle of a pressure gauge?
Pressure works on Hooks law.
Principle: "Measuring the stress in an elastic medium"
28. Draw and explain a pressure gauge? What is the used of a Hair spring?
The parts of a pressure gauge are:
1. 'C' type Bourdon tube.
2. Connecting link.
3. Sector gear.
4. Pinion gear.
5. Hair Spring.
6. Pointer.
7. Dial.
Uses of Hair Spring: Hair spring serves two purposes namely
To avoid backlash error (eliminate any play into linkages).

It serves as a controlling torque.

LEVE L
29. Briefly explain the different methods of level measurement?
There are two ways of measuring level:
1. Direct
2. Indirect.
TAPE MEASURE
1. Direct level measurement:
(a) Bob and tape:
TANK
Highest point reached by
liquid

A bob weight and measuring

Tape provide the most simple
And direct method of
Measuring liquid level.
LIQUID

Distance to be measured
after tape is taken out of
Tank.
Bob (weight)

(b) Sight glass:

This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the vessel. As the level of
the liquid in the vessel change, so does the level of the liquid in the glass tube.
Indirect level measurement:
(A) Pressure gauge:
This is the simplest method, for pressure gauge is located at the zero level of the liquid in
the vessel. Any rise in level causes an increase of pressure which can be measured by a
gauge.

(b) Purge system:

In this method a pipe is installed vertically with the open and at zero level. The other end
of the pipe is connected to a regulated air r supply and to a pressure gauge. To make a
level measurement the air supply is adjusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the
pressure due to height of the liquid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure
until bubbles cab be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe.
Pressure gauge
As level gauge
Air regulator
Air supply

N2 purge
Rota meter

The air pressure to the bubbler pipe is minutely in

Excess of the liquid pressure in the vessel, so that
Air pressure indicated is a measure of the level in
The tank.

The method above is suitable for open tank applications. When a liquid is in a pressure
vessel, the liquid column pressure can't be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced out.
This is done through the use of different pressure meters.
(c) Differential pressure meter:
Connections are made at the vessel top and bottom, and to the two columns of the D.P.
meter. The top connection is made to the L.P. column of the transmitter and the bottom to
H.P. column of the transmitter. The difference in pressure in the vessel is balanced out,
since it is fed to both the column of the meter. The difference in pressure deducted by the
meter will be due only to the changing, level of the liquid.
(d) Displacer type level measurement:
The leveltrol is one of the most common instruments used measuring level in closed
tanks. This instrument works of Archimedes principle. The displacer in immersed in the
liquid due to which there is loss of weight depending on the specified gravity of the
liquid. This displacer hangs freely on a knife transmitted to the pneumatic or electronic
counterpart at the other end.

30. Explain how you will measure level with a different pressure transmitter.
The bottom connection of the vessel is connected to high pressure side of the transmitter.
Different Pressure = H X D

H
D
HP LP
+ D / P TRANSMITTER

This difference pressure is applied to H.P. side of the transmitted and calibrated.
31. How is D.P. transmitter applied to a close tank?
In close tank the bottom of the tank is connected to the high pressure side of the
transmitter and top of the tank in connected to L.P. side of the transmitter. In this way the
vessel pressure is balanced.
32. How is D.P. transmitter applied to an open tank?
On an open tank level measurement the L.P. side is vented to atmosphere. Whatever
pressure acts is on the H.P. side which is a measure of level.
SPAN = (X) (Sp. Graf)
ZERO SUPPRESSION = (Y) (Sp.Grav)

X
Y

HP LP
+ -

33. How is D.P transmitter applied to a close tank & open tank with Dry leg?
Span = (X) (GL)
HW at minimum level = ( Z ) ( GS ) + ( Y ) ( GL )
HW at maximum level = ( Z ) ( GS ) + ( X + Y ) ( GL )

Where:
GL = Specific gravity of tank liquid.
GS = Specific gravity of seal liquid.
HW = Equivalent head of water.
X, Y & Z are shown in fig (1.1)

Open tank

Close tank with dry leg

MAX.LEVEL
MAX
LEVEL
X
X
MIN.LEVEL
Y

Y
MIN
LEVEL

Example:
Open tank with X = 300 inches
Y = 50 inches
Z = 10 inches
GL = 0.8
GS = 0.9
Span = (300) (0.8) = 240 inches
HW at minimum level = ( 10 ) ( 0.9 ) + ( 50 ) ( 0.8 ) = 49 inches
HW at maximum level = (10 ) ( 0.9 ) + ( 50 + 300 ) ( 0.8 ) = 289 inches
Calibrated range = 49 to 289 inches head of water
2.3

DEFINITION OF INSTRUMENT RANGE AND SPAN

Legend:
Range

Span

Defined in IEC 60902 as follows: The region of

values between the lower and upper limits of the
quantity under consideration.
It is expressed by stating the lower and upper limits
(e.g. minus 1 to 10 bars (ga)).
Defined in IEC 60902 as follows: The algebraic
difference between the upper and lower limit
values of a given range.

LRL
URL
Instrument range

Instrument minimum span

Instrument maximum span
LRV
URV
Adjusted range
Adjusted span

Example:

It is expressed as a figure and unit of measurement

(e.g. 8 bars).
Lower Range Limit; the lowest quantity that a
device is designed to measure.
Upper Range Limit; the highest quantity that a
device is designed to measure.
the region in which the instrument is designed to
operate. It is a physical capability of the device.
The region limits are expressed by stating the LRL
and URL.
the minimum distance between the URV and LRV
for which the instrument is designed. It is a
physical limitation of the device.
The maximum distance between the URV and LRV
for which the instrument is designed. It is a
physical limitation of the device.
Lower Range Value; the lowest quantity that a
device is adjusted to measure.
Upper Range Value; the highest quantity that a
device is adjusted to measure.
The measurement region. It is expressed by stating
the LRV and URV.
The distance between the URV and LRV.

A differential pressure transmitter is used to measure the level in a vessel, using a wet reference
leg. 0% level corresponds with a differential pressure of -800 mbar and 100% level with - 100
mbar. The catalogue of the selected transmitter lists -1800/+1800 mbar for LRL/URL respectively
and span limits of 300 to 1800 mbar, so:

Instrument range
Instrument minimum/maximum span
LRV / URV
Adjusted range
Adjusted span
NOTE:

2.4

=
=
=
=
=

-1800 to +1800 mbar

300 / 1800 mbar respectively;
-800 / -100 mbar respectively;
-800 to -100 mbar.
700 mbar.

Adjusted range and adjusted span are frequently referred to as calibrated range and
calibrated span. This term is however only correct, if a calibration facility is used to set the LRV
and URV. For intelligent measuring devices, the supplier is usually calibrating the device at the
LRL/URL and the user is setting the required LRV and URV by remote communication.

SELECTION OF RANGES

The accuracy (2.8) and adjusted range of an instrument should be selected to cover the
operating window (2.1), which includes applicable abnormal operation and alternative
operating modes. Unless otherwise stated, the normal design value should lie between
50% and 75% of the adjusted range
NOTE:

For certain applications it might not be possible to combine all normal and abnormal operating
conditions in one measurement at the required accuracy. In such cases, a case-by-case analysis
should disclose whether additional instruments are required or the accuracy requirements and/or
operating window may be relaxed. It might be acceptable to present measured values during
some of the abnormal operating cases at a lower accuracy or it might be justifiable for the

measurement not to produce a sensible signal under some of the abnormal process conditions
during start-up, commissioning, regeneration, emergency conditions and the like.

IPF transmitters should have the same instrument range, adjusted range and accuracy as
corresponding process transmitters in order to facilitate measurement comparison. For
details and exceptions, see DEP 32.80.10.10-Gen. Trip settings should lie between 10%
and 90% of the adjusted range.
The LRV should be selected so that the displayed result represents the zero or sub-zero
value of the process variable (e.g. 0-150 tons/day, 0-100% level, 0-10 bar (ga), -1/+3 bar
(ga), 0-500 C, -50/+50 C etc.). Elevated zeros (100-300 tons/day, 100-200 C) should
be avoided.

Close tank with wet leg:

Span = (X) (GL)
HW at minimum level = ( Y ) ( GL ) ( d )( GS )
HW at maximum level = ( X + Y ) ( GL ) ( d ) ( GS )
Where: GL = Specific gravity of tank liquid
GS = Specific gravity of tank liquid
HW = Equivalent head of water
X, Y and Z are shown in fig.
MAX
LEVEL

MIN
LEVEL
Y

Example:
X = 300 inches
Y = 50 inches
d = 500 inches
GL = 0.8
GS = 0.9
Span = (300) (0.8) = 240 inches
HW minimum level = ( 50 ) ( 0.8 ) - ( 500 ) ( 0.9 ) = - 410 inches
HW maximum level = ( 300 + 50 ) ( 0.8 ) ( 500 ) ( 0.9 ) = - 170 inches
Calibrated range = - 410 to 170 inches head of water.
(Minus sings indicate that the higher pressure is applied to the low pressure side of the
transmitter)

34. What is purge level system?

This method is also known as bubbler method of level measurement. A pipe is installed
vertically with its open end at the zero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a
regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge or to ^P transmitter. To make a level
measurement the air supply is adjusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the pressure
due to the height of the liquid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until
bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. The gage then measures the
air pressure needed to over come the pressure of the liquid.
/\ P = H X D
USE: On for corrosive liquids where the transmitter cannot be directly connected to
process eg... Acids, Some organic liquids.

35. Explain the working of a leveltrol.

The leveltrol is used for measuring level of liquids in a closed vessel.
1. PRINCIPLE. : It works on Archimedes principle "The loss in weight of a body
immersed in a liquid is equal to amount of liquid displaced by the body". The
leveltrol basically consists of the following :
2. DISPLACER: It is consists of a cylindrical shape pipe sealed and filled inside with
sand or some weight. The purpose of this is to convert change in level to primary
motion. The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in liquid level varies the
net weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the torque arm. This
change is directly proportional to change in level and specific gravity of the liquid.
3. RELAY: Amplifies pressure variations at the nozzles.
4. REVERSING ARC: It is used for the following purposes.
Motions take of from Torque tube.
Means of reverse control action.
Adjustment for specific gravity.
5. PROPERTIONAL UNIT. : Converts primary motion to a proportional output air
pressure.
6. CONTROL SETTING UNIT: Provides motions of varying the set point.
36. Explain the working an electronic leveltrol.
REG
+
RVDT

DC MOD

OSC
+
_

OP
A
MP

+
- DC AMPLIFIER
SPAN

ZERO

The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in liquid level, varies the net weight of
the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the torque arm. This change is directly
proportional to the change in level and specific gravity of the liquid. The resulting torque
tube movement varies the angular motion of the rotor in the RVDT (Rotary Variable
Differential. Transformer) providing a voltage change proportional to the rotor
displacement, which is converted and amplified to a D.C. current.
37. How will you reverse an action of the leveltrol?
The reversing are serves as motion take off arm from the torque tube. It is provided with
a slot on each side of the center so that link can be connected either for reverse or direct
action.

38. What is interface level? How do you calculate it?

When a vessel is filled with two liquids of two different specific gravities the level
measurement refers to as interface level.
DP = H (D - d)

DENSITY d

DENSITY D
HP
LP
On a level set the difference of two specific gravities.
39. How will you calibrate a leveltrol in the field?
Displacer chamber
Level transmitter.

Transparent P.V.C tube

Calculation # 1 If the calibrating liquid is water: Process Liquid Density / 1* Displacer

height = mm of H2O.
Calculation # 2 If the calibrating liquid is other liquid: Process Liquid Density /
Calibrating liquid density * Displacer height = mm of H2O. (Calibrating liquid height in
mm).
1. First close both the primary isolation valves and drain the liquid inside the chamber.

2. Adjust the zero to get 0% output.

3. Connect a transparent PVC tube to the drain point as shown in hook up.
4. Fill it to the center of the top flange.
5. Adjust the specific gravity or span adjustment (Electronic Level).
6. Fill it up to 50 %, check linearity.
40. How will you calibrate on interface level control. ?
On an interface leveltrol there are two liquid of two different specific gravities.
1. The level will be zero when it is full of lighter liquid.
Zero % level = H X d.
H = Displacer length
d = Specific gravity of lighter liquid.
2 The level will be 100 % when it is full of heavier liquid.
100 % level = H X D.
D = Specific gravity of heavier liquid.
Calibration with water:
1. Fill H X d level with water adjust zero.
2. Fill H X D level with water adjust Sp. gravity or span.
3. Check linearity.
Displacer length: L in mm
Density Low
: dl in Kg / 1
Density High
: DH in Kg / 1
Alarm / Trip point %: X
HH Trip Point: Y in mm

Y= L* (DH X + (1100
100

X
) * dl)

41. How will you apply wt. lest calibration to a leveltrol.

Wt. test calibration method:
1. Remove the displacer from the torque arm.
2. Apply equivalent weight on the torque arm that is equal to the wt. of the displacer.
Adjust zero % output.
3. For Span : V = r2h
Loss in weight = Wt. of float - wt. of the float immersed in liquid
Loss in weight = [ wt. of float - Vol. x d ]
Span wt. = (wt. of float - Loss in wt.)
r = radius of the displacer.
h = ht. of displacer.
4. Apply equivalent wt. equal to the (Wt. of float - Loss in weight). Adjust Span to
get 100 % out put.
5. To check linearity applies average of the two weights.
42. What will happen if the displacer has fallen down while in line?
The output will be a maximum.
43. What will happen if the displacer has a hole in it while in line?
The output will be a minimum.

44. What is the used of Suppression and elevation?

Suppression and elevation are used on Level applications where (1) transmitters are not
mounted on some level (2) Wet leg. I.e. condensable vapors are present.
45. What are the limitations of leveltrol?
The limitations of a level control that it cannot be used for lengths more than 72 inches.
46. How will you commission D.P. transmitter in field in pressurized vessel.
1. Close both the isolation valves, Vent the H.P. side.
2. Fill it with the sealing liquid.
3. Open the L.P. side vent valve.
4. Adjust zero with suppression spring.
5. Close the L.P. side vent valve.
6. Open both the isolation valves.

47. How will you check zero of a level D.P. transmitter while is line?
1. Close both the isolation valves.
2. Open the vent valve on L.P. leg and H.P. leg drain.
3. Check and adjust zero if necessary.
48. Explain the working of an Enraf level gauge?
The Enraf precise level gauge are based on servo powered null-balance technique. A
displacer serves as a continuous level sensing element.
Principle:
A displacer with a relative density higher than that of the product to be measured, is
suspended from a stainless steel wire B, that is attached to a measuring drum. A two
phase servo meter controlled by a capacitive balance system winds or unwinds the
measuring wire until the tension in the weighing springs is in balance with the weight of
the displacer partly immersed in the liquid. The sensing system in principle measures the
two capacitance formed by the moving center sensing rod E provided with two capacitor
plates and the side plates. In balance position the capacitances are of equal value. A level
variation will a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move
in the direction of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes a difference in value of
these capacitances. By an electronic circuit this change is detected and integrated. During
the rotation of the servo motor the cam driven transmitter continuously change the
voltage pattern to a remote indicator of which the receiver motor drives a counter
indicating level variation.

TEMPRETURE
49. What are the different methods of temperature measurement? Explain.
The different methods of temperature measurement are:
1. Mechanical 2. Electrical.
Mechanical methods:
1. Mercury in glass thermometers: This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore joined
to a reservoir at the bottom and sealed at the top. A measured quantity of mercury is the
enclosed. When the thermometer is heated the mercury expands much more than the
glass and is therefore forced to rise up in the tubing A scale is fixed at the side.
2. Bimetallic Thermometer : Two metals whose coefficient of linear expansion is
different are welded and rolled together to the desire thickness. The actual movement of a
bimetal is its flexivity with one end fixed, a straight bimetal strip deflects in proportion to
its temperature, to the square of its length and inversely with its thickens.
3. Pressure Spring Thermometers: There are four classes of pressure spring
thermometers.
1. Liquid filled
= class 1
2. Vapor pressure = class 2
3. Gas filled
= class 3
4. Mercury filled = class 4
Liquid filled & Mercury filled:
Both type; operate on the principle of thermal expansion. Where the bulb is immersed in
a heated substance. The liquid expands causing the pressure spring to unwind. The
indicating, recording or controlling mechanisms are attached to pressure spring.
Compensated Thermometer System:
Compensations are provided in order to nullify the effect of changes in ambient
temperature. The compensation in liquid filled expansions thermal system consists of the
second tubing and helical element, both liquid filled. The two elements are so constructed
that the measuring helical floats on a movable base the position of which is governed by
the compensating helical. The two tubing and helical are matched in volume so that
variation in temperature at the instrument case and along the capillary tubing produces
equal motion from both helical. Such motion nullity each other so that only motion
produced by varying the bulb temperature actuates the recorder pen.
Gas filled Thermometers:
This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confirm gas (constant volume) due
to temp. Increase. The relate between temp. And pressure in this kind of system follow
Charles law and may be expressed.
P1 T1
P2 T2
The system is filled under high pressure. The increase pressure for each degree of
temperature rise is therefore greater than if the filling pressure were low. Nitrogen the gas
most after used for such systems, because it chemically insert and possesses a favorable
coefficient thermal expansion.

Vapor - Pressure Thermometers:

Vapor pressure thermometers depend upon vapor pressure of liquid which only partially
fills the system. At low temperatures the vapor pressure increase for each unit
temperature charge is small; at higher temperature the vapor pressure change is much
greater.

Electrical method of temperature measurement:

1. Thermocouples: It is temperature measurement device .its works on principal of SEE
BACK EFFECT. According this when two dissimilar metal wires joined at their ends.
Between the two junction the electromotive force is produced.
Cold or reference
Junction
Hot or measuring
Junction
Thermocouples Types and Range:
Type T/C
(J)
(K)
(E)
(T)
(R)
(S)

Positive wire & color

Iron & White
Chromel & Yellow
Chromel & Purple
Copper & Blue
Platinum and 10%Rhodium & Black
Platinum and 13%Rhodium & Black

Negative wire & color

Constantan & Red
Alumel & Red
Constantan & Red
Constantan & Red
Platinum & Red
Platinum & Red

Range F
-300 to1400
-300 to2300
-300 to1600
-300 to 650
32 to 2700
32 to 2700

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD):

RTD's are generally used for precise temperature measurement. It consists of a five wire
wrapped around an insulator and enclosed in a metal. The most sheath of a resistance
thermometer resembles that of bimetallic thermometer bulb.
PRINCIPLE: "Resistance increases as temperature increase"
Rt. = Ro (1 + t)
Rt. = Resistance of Temperature to measured.
Ro. = Resistance of zero temperature.
= Co. off of thermal (expansion).
t = Temperature to be measured.
These metals have a positive temperature co-efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
Types of material used: (1) Platinum (2) Nickel
These metals have a positive temperature co-efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance
increases as the temp. Increases.

Calculation of Resistance or Pt100.

Ro. = 100
X for platinum = 0.00385 /c.
To calculate Resistance at 100'c.
R100 = 100 [1+ (38.5 x 10 4 x 100)]
= 100 + (100 x 0.385)
R100 = 138.5
Resistance at 100'c = 138.5
50. What is Pt 100 mean?
Pt100 means 100 OHMS at 0'C for a platinum resistance bulb.
51. What is two wire and three wire R.T.D. system?
Two wire R .T .D. system:
Two wire RTD system use for short distance like a compressor field local panel.
Three wire System:
Three wire systems use for long distance coke a field to control Run.
The third wire is used for compensation of lead wire resistance.
Two-wire R.T.D

+ R1

+ R2

G
al

R1 R2

G
al
R3

R.T.D R.T.D

Three-wire R.T.D

R3

52. Draw a potentiometer temp. Measuring circuits and explain its?

Thermo
Couple
Two different signal

AMP

UN know
Signal
Servo balancing motor
Meas.
Circuit

Constant voltage Known

signal
signal

OPERATION:
The input to the instrument is a measurement of some in the processes using a sensing
element (such as thermocouple) or a device to produce direct voltage, which is the
voltage (signal). This voltage is subtracted from a voltage developed by a known constant
voltage in a potentiometer measuring circuit. The subtraction occurs by connecting two
voltages in series with the opposing polarity, difference between these two voltages
produces signal, the voltage going to the amplifier. The error will positive or negative
depending on which of the two voltages greater. When amplified, the error signal will
drive servo balancing motor in appropriate direction to adjust circuit (actually drive the
slide wire) until the difference between the feedback voltage and the input voltage is
balance out. An error signal equal to zero results (null point) the balancing (servo motor
is be longer driven)
53. What is the constant voltage unit?
R2=29.4
RM
Rc
Cr1

R1
2k

+
Cr4

C1
764

R3
Resistance lead of

Cr3

CRT = 343.33

The constant voltage circuit consists of a rectifier, CR, a filter capacitor C1, followed by
two stages of zener regulation. Abridge configuration is provided to 1amp line voltage
regulation zener CR3, R1 and R2 combine provide relatively constant current to zener
CR4, Thus variations. Resisters R2 and R3 form a bridge that any remoment line voltage
effects.
54. Explain the working of a balancing motor.
Signal in control winding appears as
due tank circuit formed by winding
and capacitor of amp. board.
RED

Control signal
winding
from
amplifier

GREEN
+ve signal : It lags 90' from due to line phase capacitor amp. board.
-ve signal : Leads 90' from line due to line phase capacitor of amp. Board.
The servo (balancing) motor is an induction motor that functions by creating a rotating
magnetic field in the stator.
The rotor (armature) turns by following this field. The field is developed by the use of
two windings in the stator.
It has got two windings, one of which is continuously energized by the line voltage. The
other winding is energized by the power amplifier, with a current whose phase with
respect to line current determines the direction of rotation of motor.
55. What is burnout feature? Explain.
Burnout provides the warning feature of driving indicator the end of scale if the input
circuit should open.
A burnout resistor is provided which develops a voltage drop between the measuring
circuit and the amplifier. The polarity of the signal determines the direction of the servo
drive upon an open circuit in the input.
Upscale burnout
: R value 10 M
Downscale burnout : R value 2.2 M
56. Explain the block diagram of an amplifier in a temp. recorder.
57. Why is a converter used in a temp? Recorder?
The converter is designed to convert D. C. input voltage into an A. C. input voltage
proportional in amplitude to the input.
58. Why are Thermowells used?
In numerous applications it is neither desirable nor practical to expose a temperature
sensor directly to a process material. Wells are therefore used to protect against damage
corrosion, erosion, abrasion and high pressure processes. A thermowell is also useful in
protecting a sensor from physical damage during handling and normal operation.
Selecting a Thermowell :
The significant properties considered in selecting a material for the well are as follows :
1. Resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
2. Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
3. Low permeability (Resistance to gas leakage).
4. Mechanical strength.
5. Thermal conductivity.

Material for Wells :

1. Stainless steal.
2. Inconel.
3. Monel.
4. Alloy steal.
5. Hastelloy 'C'.
59. How will you calibrate a temp? Recorder using a potentiometer?
Connect the potentiometer output to the input of temp. Recorder.
1. Connect the ( +ve ) to the ( +ve ) and ( -ve ) to the ( -ve ).
2. If ambient compensation is provided in potentiometer set it to the correct ambient
temp.
3. If no ambient compensation is provided take a thermometer and measure the correct
ambient temp.. Find out the corresponding mV s for that temp. for the given input type of
thermocouple.
4. While feeding subtract the ambient temp. m v s from the corresponding temp. every
time.
5. Adjust the necessary adjustments.
Measuring Temperature With a Potentiometer:
1.Connect the input of the potentiometer to the thermocouple.
2.If no ambient compensation is provided find out the corresponding millvolts for that
ambient temp. for the type of thermocouple used.
3.Add the ambient temp. millvolts to the corr. input millvolts measured. Find out from the
chart for the corresponding temperature.
60. What type of sensing element would you use to measure very low temperature ?
The sensing element used for measuring very low temperature is R. T. D.
( Resistance Temperature Detector )

61. What are skin temperature thermocouples ?

Skin thermocouples are those which are directly connected to the process without any
thermowell. Used for measuring the skin temperature of heaters furnaces, flue gas etc.
62. What is the specialty of thermocouples lead wires ?
They should be of the same material as the thermocouple.
63. What is the difference the a wheatstone bridge and a potentiometer ?
The difference between a potentiometer and a wheatstone bridge measuring instrument is
that potentiometer is a voltage measuring instrument and wheatstone bridge is a current
measuring instrument.
64. Explain the continuous balance potentiometer system using R. T. D.'s.

Voltage
amplifier

Converter

Power
amplifier

Energizing coil
Slide wire
Balancing motor
R.T.D
In a balance wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer a resistance bulb is connected into
one branch of a d.c. bridge circuit; in another branch is a variable resistance in the form
of a calibrated slidewire. Variations in temp. of the measured medium cause a change in
resistance of the bulb and a consequent unbalance of the bridge circuit. A self balancing
wheatstone bridge recognizes the condition of unbalance, determines its direction and
magnitude and position the slidewire contractor to rebalance the bridge and indicate the
temp. on the scale.
The D. C. potential appearing at AA is converted by the converting stage to an A. C.
voltage appearing at BB and is multiplied by the voltage amplifier to a large value at cc.
It is then used to control the power amplifier output DD which drives the balancing motor
in the proper direction to balance the bridge.
The polarity of the signal at AA determines the phase of the alternating voltage at BB
which in turn determines the direction of rotation of the balancing motor.

65. How is automatic Reference junction compensation carried out in temp?

Recorders?
Rheostat
+ Scale
Variable
Resistor

Reference
Junction

Hot
junction

For automatic reference junction compensation a variable nickel resister is used. As the
temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference junction compensatory is
located, so that it will be at the temperature of the reference junction. The reference
junction is at the position where the dissimilar wire of the thermocouple is rejoined,
which invariably is at the terminal strip of the instrument.

CONTROL SYSTEMS
66. Explain the application of proportional integral and derivative action?
Proportional control only :
Proportional control only attempts to return a measurement to the set point after a load
upset has occurred. How ever it is impossible for a proportional controller to return the
measurement exactly to the set point.
Use : It is normally used for level controls. It reduces the effect of a load change but it
can not eliminate it.
Proportional plus reset control:
Reset action is introduced to eliminate offset. It will integrate any difference between
measurement and setpoint and cause the controller's output to change until the difference
between the measurement and set point is zero. Reset will act as long as the error exists.
Use: Proportional + Reset controllers are by far the common types used in industrial
process control and where predominate dead times occur.
Proportional plus reset plus derivative:

Derivative or rate action helps the controller overcome system inertia and result in faster,
more precise control. Derivative action occurs whenever the measurement signal
changes. Under study conditions the rate action does not act. Derivative allows the
controller to inject more corrective action.
Use : On temperature controls.
67. What is difference gap control?
Differential gap control is similar to on off control except that a band or gap exists around
the control point.
Use: In industry differential gap control is often found in non critical level control
applications where it is desirable only to prevent a tank from flooding or drying. When a
measured variable exceeds the upper gap the control valve will open fully or be closed
fully. Similarly when it exceeds the lower gap it will open or close fully.
68. Where is on off control used?
On off control is used when
1. Precise control is not needed.
2. Processes that have sufficient capacity to allow the final operator to keep up with the
measurement cycle.
3. It is mainly used in refrigeration and are conditioning systems.
69. What is reset-wind up?
When reset action is applied in controllers Where the measurement is away from the set
point for long periods the rest may drive the output to its maximum resulting in rest wind
up. When the process starts again the output will no come off its maximum until the
measurement crosses the so point causing large overshoots. This problem can be avoid by
including anti-reset wind up circuit which eliminates the problem of output saturation.
70. Why is reset called integral and Rate derivative ?
Reset is called integral because of the mathematical relationship to the output.
Rate is called derivative because
t=i

Oi = f e (dt) + O0

Oi = r (de / dt) + O0

t=o

r = is the rate time

Oi = is the Output at any given time
O0 = is the out put at time zero or zero error.
e = is the error signal
t = is time.
f = is the reset rate in respects per minute.
71. Explain tuning of controllers.
Tuning basically involves adjustment of proportional. Integral and derivative parameters
to achieve good control. The gain, time constants, and dead times around the loop will
dictate the settings of various parameters of the controller.
Tuning methods are broadly classified into two:
1. Closed Loop Method: e.g. Ultimate Gain Method.
2. Open Loop Method: e.g. process Reaction curve.

Ultimate gain method:

The term ultimate gain was attached to this method because its use requires the
determination of the ultimate gain (sensitivity) and ultimate period. The ultimate
sensitivity Ku is the maximum allowable value of gain (for a controller with only
Proportional mode) for which the system is stable. The ultimate period is the period of
the response with the gain set at its ultimate value.
Process reaction curve:
To deter mine the process reaction curve, the following steps are recommended. :
1. Let the system come to steady state at the normal load level.
2. Place the controller on manual.
3. Manually set the output of the controller at the value at which it was operating in the
automatic mode.
4. Allow the system to reach the steady state.
5. With controller on manual, impose a step changes in the output of controller, which is
an signal to value.
6. Record the response of controlled variable.
7. Return the controller output to its previous value and return the controller to auto
operation.
72. Explain the working of an electronic P.I.D. controller.
Input from the measurement transmitter is compared with the set point voltage to produce
a deviation signal. The deviation signal is combined with a characterized feed back signal
to provide the input for the function generator amplifier. This amplifiers output is
delivered to the feed back network, and to the final output which is a 10-50m.a. do signal
for actuation of final operators.
Set
Manual
Measurement

Deviation

Amplifier

Manual
Automatic

Gain

To final operator

Proportional action: It is a obtained by adjusting the magnitude of feed back signal. An

increase in negative feed back means less effective gain and thus a broader proportional
band.
Reset actions: It is obtained by charging the reset capacitor at a rate determined by the
value of reset resister. The reset resister is variable, and constitutes reset adjustment.
Derivative action: The connection of a derivative capacitor across the feedback circuit
delays feedback until the capacitor is charged to a value approaching amplifier output.
This delay is controlled by value of derivative resister. This resister is variable and
constitutes derivative adjustment.

73. What is an analogue integrator and an analogue differentiator ?

Analog integrator:
RC
Vin
+
AV
-1
V0 =
Vindt
RC

Vout

Analog differentiator:
R
C
d
V0 = - RC

+
Vin

Vin

AV

dt

Vout

74. What is an anti reset wind up?

If the limit acts in the feed back section of the control amplifiers integral circuit, the
controller output will immediately begin to drive in the opposite direction as soon as the
process signal crosses the set point. This approach is referred to as antireset wind up.
75. What are De-saturators?
When, in some processes, e.g. batch process, long transient responses are expected during
which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continuously drives
the output to a minimum or maximum value. This phenomenon is called "integral
saturation of the control unit". When this condition.
76.What is the effect of weep hole on calculation of orifice bore?
(dm)2
d = dm { 1 + 0.55

}
dh

where: dm = Measured diameter of orifice.

dh = Drain hole diameter.
d = Corrected diameter orifice size.

77. Explain the working of Rotameter?

OUT LET

Tapered glass tube

Scale

IN LET

The flow rate varies directly

as the float rises and falls in
the tapered tube.

Variable area meters are special form of head meters. Where in the area of flow restrictor
is varied. So as to hold the differential pressure constant. The rotameters consists of a
vertical tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in upward direction. A "float"
either spherical or cone shaped, actually more dense than the fluid being measured,
creates an annular passage between its maximum circumference and the weight of the
tapered tube. As the flow varies the "float" rises or falls to vary the area of the passage so
that the differential across it just balances the gravitational force on the "float" i.e. the
differential pressure is maintained constant. The position of the "float" is the measured of
the rate of flow.
78. Explain the working of a magnetic meter.
An electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic field.
In most electrical machinery the conductor is a "wire"; the principle is equally applicable
to a moving, electrically conductive liquid. The primary device of commercial magnetic
meters consists of a straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a pair of
electrodes nearly flush with the tube wall and located at opposite ends of a tube diameter.
A uniform a.c. magnetic field is provided at right angles to electrode diameter and to the
axis of the tube. The a.c. voltage developed at the electrodes is proportional to the volume
flow rate of fluid, and to a magnetic field strength. This device is limited to electrically
conducting liquids. The magnetic meter is particularly suited to measurement of slurries
and dirty fluids, since there are no location for solids to collect except the walls of the
tube itself.
79. Explain the working of a turbine meter.
Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free to
rotate, about its axis which is fixed along the center line of the tube. Straightening vanes
upstream of the turbine minimizes possible rotational components of fluid flow. In most
units a magnetic pick-up system senses the rotation of the rotor through the tube wall.
The turbine meter is a flow rate device, since the rotor speed is directly proportional to
flow rate. The output is usually in the form of electrical pulses from the magnetic pick-up
with a frequency proportional to flow rate. Turbine meter are primarily applied to
measurement of clean and non-corrosive hydrocarbons.
80. Explain the working of a Pitot tube.
The pitot tube measures the velocity at point in the conduct. If quantity rate measurement
is desired, it must be calculated from the ratio of average velocity to the velocity at the
point of measurement.
Principle : If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid, then the
fluid impinging on the open end will be brought to rest, and the kinetic energy converted
to pressure energy. This the pressure built up in the tube will be greater than that in the
free stream by the impact pressure or pressure produced by loss of kinetic energy. The
increase in pressure will depend upon the square of the velocity of the stream. The
difference is measured between the pressure in the tube and static pressure of the stream.
The static pressure is measured by a tapping in the wall of the main or by a tapping
incorporated in the pitot static tube itself. The difference between the pressure in the tube
and static pressure will be a measure of the impact pressure and therefore of the velocity
of the stream oil.

81. Where is the integral orifice used ?

Integral orifice is used to measure small flow rates. It is mounted directly on the
secondary device. The integral orifice diameter varies between 0.020 inch and 0.250 inch
diameter. The integral orifice finds considerable use in laboratory and pitot plants.
Calculation of flow rate :
Qn / Fc = Ks x Cwi x Fa x Fm x
Gp / Ge ,
hw
82. Explain the working of a target meter.
The target meter combines in a single unit both a primary element and a force balance
flow rate transmitter. A circular disc (or target) supported concentrically in the pipe
carrying the flowing fluid results in an annular orifice configuration. Pressure difference
developed by the fluid flow through this annular orifice produces a force on target
proportional to the square of the flow rate. This force is carried out of the pipe through a
rod passing through a diaphragm seal, and is measured by a pneumatic or electronic force
balance system identical with the mechanism of the force balance D.P. cell. The
advantages of the target meter lies primarily in its single unit construction the primary
device and responsive mechanism in a single structure. This eliminates the diff. pressure
fluid connections in most heads meters. This is particularly used for sticky and dirty
material which may plug up differential connections and for liquids which require
elevated temperatures to avoid solidification, this elimination of liquid connection is
useful.
Wm
2
F=
Cst Fa Fm Fc rf
83. Where is a quadrant orifice used ?
If the fluid is viscous and the operating Reynolds number is low quadrant orifice is
preferred
84. What are types of taps used for orifices ?

1. Flange taps:

This are most commonly used on pipe sizes of 2 inches or larger. They are located in the
orifice flange 2 inch from upstream and 1 inch downstream from the faces 0 orifice plate.

2. Corner taps:

On pipe sizes less than 2 inches corner taps located directly at the face of the orifice plate.

3. Vena contracta and radius taps:

Vena contracta taps located at 1 pipe diameter upstream and at point of minimum
pressure downstream. There are mostly widely used for measurement of steam.
Radius taps are located 1 pipe diameter upstream and pipe diameter downstream for
the inlet face of the orifice are a close approximation to vena contracta taps upto 0.72
d / D.
4. Full flow taps:
Face flow taps are located at 2 pipe diameter upstream and B pipe diameter
downstream. Full flow taps at 2 and B pipe diameter have the same advantage as vena
contracta or radius taps.
Venturi Tubes
For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a venturi tube
(Figure 6) can be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet cones, almost no
permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also minimizes wear and plugging by
allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids through without obstruction.

However a Venturi tube does have disadvantages:

Calculated calibration figures are less accurate than for orifice plates. For greater
accuracy, each individual Venturi tube has to be flow calibrated by passing known
flows through the Venturi and recording the resulting differential pressures.
The differential pressure generated by a venturi tube is lower than for an orifice
plate and, therefore, a high sensitivity flow transmitter is needed.
It is more bulky and more expensive.

As a side note; one application of the Venturi tube is the measurement of flow in the
primary heat transport system. Together with the temperature change across these fuel
channels, thermal power of the reactor can be calculated.
85. What is Reynolds number ?
Dynamic similarity implies a correspondence of fluid forces in two systems. In general
situation there are many classes of forces that influence the behavior of fluids. Some of
these are inertial viscous, gravitational, compressibility, pressure and elastic forces.
Certain dimensionless ratio are developed based on fluid properties. Velocities and
dimension, which are essentially force ratio.
The more important of these are Reynolds number
V = velocity
vD
D = inside diameter of pipe
R=
= fluid density

= viscosity
For most applications in practical flow measurement the Reynolds number is taken to be
sufficient criterion of dynamic similarly. The magnitude of Reynolds number not only
indicates whether the flow is laminar or turbulent but also furnishes the probable shape of
velocity profile. Due to the strong role it plays as an indicator of varying flow
characteristics, many of the deviation from the theoretical equations are called Reynaldo
number effects.
86. How would you choose differential range ?
The most common diff. range for liquid measurement is 0-100" H 2O. This range is high
enough to minimize the errors caused by unequal heads in the seal chambers, differences
in temps. of load lines etc. The 100" range permits an increase in capacity up to 400" and
a decrease down up to 20" by merely changing range tubes or range adjustments.
87. What is positive Displacement meters ?
principle: The principle of measurement is that as the liquid flows through the meter it
moves a measuring element which seals off the measuring chamber into a series of
measuring compartments each holding a definite volume. As the measuring element
moves, these compartments are successively filled and emptied. Thus for each complete
of the measuring element a fixed quantity of liquid is permitted to pass from the inlet to
the outlet of the meter. The seal between measuring element and the measuring chamber
is provided by a film of measured liquid. The number of cycle of the measuring element
is indicated by means of a pointer moving over the dial, a digital totalizer or some other
form of register, driven from the measuring element through an adjustable gearing.
The most common forms of positive displacement meters are :
1. Reciprocating Piston type.
2. Rotating or Oscillating Piston type.
3. Nutating Disc type.
4. Fluted Spiral Rotor type.
5. Sliding vane type.
6. Rotating vane type.
7. Oval Gear type.
88. Why are two plugs provided on a D.P transmitter?

1.The top plug is a vent plug for venting the air entrapped inside the cell.
2.The bottom plug is a drain plug for draining the liquid accumulated inside the cell.

CONTROL VALVES
89. What is a control valves ?
A control valve is the final control element, which directly changes the valve of the
manipulated variable by changing the rate of flow of control agent.
A control valve consists of an operator and valve body. The operator provides the power
to vary the position of the valve plug inside the body. The plug is connected to the
operator by a stem, which slides through a stuffing box. The air signal from the controller
is applied above the diaphragm. The increasing air signal from the controller is applied
above the diaphragm. An increasing air signal will push the operator stem downwards
against the force exerted by the spring on the diaphragm plate. The valve is adjusted in
such a way that the plug starts moving when 3 psi is applied to the diaphragm and
touches the seat when 15 psi is applied to the diaphragm. Thus an increase in air pressure
will close the valve. Hence the home "Air to Close". Another type is "Air to open", such
that 3 psi on the diaphragm the value is closed and 15 psi air signal it in fully open.
90. What are the different types of control valves ?
The commonly used control valves can be divided as follows.
1. Depending on Action.
2. Depending on the Body.
1. Depending on action:
Depending on action there are two types of control valves, (1) Air to close, (2) Air to
open.
2. Depending on body:
1. Globe valves single or double seated.
2. Angle valves.
3. Butterfly valves.
4. Three way valves.
91. What is the use of single seated valve ?
The single seated valve is used on smaller sizes, and in valve of larger sizes, where an
absolute shut off is required. The use of single seated valve is limited by pressure drop
across the valve in the closed or almost closed position.
92. What is the use of double seated valve ?
In double seated valves the upward and downward forces on the plug due to reduction of
fluid pressure are nearly equalized. It is generally used on bigger size valves and high
pressure systems. Actuator forces required are less i.e. A small size actuator.
93. What is Cv of a valve ?
Cv is the capacity of a valve and is defined as :
"No of gallons per minute of water which passes through a fully open valve at a pressure
drop of 1 psi.

CV = q ( P / G )
Where: Cv = Valve co-efficient
q = Volumetric flow rate ( gallons minute )
P = Pressure drop across the valve in psi.
G = Specific gravity of flowing fluid.
The valve coefficient Cv is proportional to the area 'A' between the plug and valve seat
measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow.
94. What are the different types of actuators ?
The different types of actuators are :
1. Diaphragm Operated.
2. Piston Operated.

95. What types of bonnets would you use of high temp. and very low temp. ?
High temperature: Bonnets are provided with radiation fins to prevent glad packing
from getting damaged.
On very low temperature: Extended bonnets are used to prevent gland packing from
getting freezed.
96. How will you work on a control valve while it is line ?
While the control valve is in line or in service, it has to be by passed and secondly the
line to be depressurized and drained.

97. What is the use of a valve positioner ?

The valve positioner is used for following reasons :
1. Quick Action control valve.
2. Valve hysteresis.
3. Valves used on viscous liquids.
4. Split Range.
5. Line pressure changes on valve.
6. Valve Bench set not standard.
7. Reversing valve operation.
98. When can a by pass be not used on a positioner ?
A by pass on a positioner cannot be used when :
1. Split Range operation.
2. Reverse Acting Positioner.
3. Valve bench set not standard.
99. What is the use of butterfly valves ?

Butterfly valves are used only in systems where a small pressure drop across the valve is
allowed. The butterfly is fully open when the disc rotates by 90. A drawback of this
valve is that even a very small angular displacement produces a big change in flow.

100. What is the use of three way valves?

Three way control valves are only used on special systems, where a dividing or mixture
of flows according to a controlled ratio is required.

101. What are the different types of plugs ?

The different types of plugs are generally used are :
( 1 ) V. port plug
( 2 ) Contoured plug
V-port plug:
Ported plug are generally used on double seated valves. This is because ported plugs,
have a more constant off balance area.
Contoured plug:
Contoured plugs are generally used on single seated valve with small trim sizes.
102. What is a cage valve ?
A cage valve uses a piston with piston ring seal attached to the single seated valve "plug".
Here the hydrostatic forces acting on the top or the piston or below the valve plug tend to
cancel out. The seat ring is clamped in by a cage. Cage valves are generally used for
noise reduction.
103. What are the advantages of Camflex valves ?
Camflex valves are intermediates between globe valve and butterfly valve. The plug
rotates 60' for full opening.
Advantages:
1. Actuator forces required are very less.
2.Extended bonnet and hence can be used on any service i.e. on high temp. and very low
Temperature.
3. Variations in flow.
4. Light weight.
104. What is the use of link connected to the valve positioner ?
The link serves as the feed back to the value. Ant valve movement is sensed by this link.
Sometimes due to line pressure changes on H.P. service the valve position may be
changed, the link in turn senses this change and the positioner will produce an output
which will operate the valve to the original position.
105. What is the use of booster relays?
Booster relays are essentially air load, self contained pressure regulators. They are
classified into three broad groups:
1. Volume Boosters : These are used to multiply the available volume of air signal.
2. Ratio Relays
: Use to multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal.
3. Reversing Relays: This produces a decreasing output signal for an increasing input
Signal.
106. What is the use of Angle valves?
Angle valves are used where very high pressure drops are required and under very severe
conditions. Where the conventional type of valve would be damaged by erosion.
107. What are the different valves characteristic?
The different types of valve characteristic are:
1. Linear
2. Equal Percentage
3. Quick Opening.

1.Linear: The valve opening to flow rate is a linear curve

2.Equal percentage: For equal increments of valve opening it will give equal increment
in flow rate range. At small opening the flow will also be small.
3.Quick opening: At small opening the increments in flow rate is more. At higher
opening the flow rate becomes steady.
108. What is a solenoid valve ? Where it is used ?

A solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consist of a solenoid ( coil ) in which a

magnetic plunger moves which is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the
value. There are two types of solenoid valves :
1. Normally open
2. Normally closed
USE : It is used for safety purpose.
109. How will you change the valve characteristics with positioner ?
The positioner contains different types of came in it. selection of the proper cams in it.By
selection of the proper cam the valve opening characteristics can be changed.

110.How will you change the action of a control valve ?

1. If the control valve is without bottom cap. The actual needs to be changed.
2. If bottom cap is provided.
a) Disconnect the stem from the actuator stem.
b) Separate the body from the bonnet.
c) Remove the bottom cap and the plug from body.
d) Detach the plug from the stem by removing the pin.
e) Fix the stem at the other end of the plug and fix the pin back.
f) Turn the body upside down. Connect it to the bonnet after inserting the plug and stem.
g) Connect back the stem to the actuator stem.
h) Fix back the bottom cap.
i) Calibrate the valve.
111. How will you select the control valve characteristics ?
The graphic display of flow various lift shows then the Desired or inherent characteristic
is changed by variations pressure drop. This occurs as the process changes from condition
where most of pressure drop takes place at the control valve is a condition where most of
the pressure drop is generally distributed through rest of the system.
% Flow: This variation in where most of the total drop take place is one of the most
important aspects is choosing the proper valve characteristics for give process.
Flow control: Normally Equal percentage valve is used.
Pressure Control: Normally linear valve is used to maintain a constant pressure drop.
Temp. Control: Normally equal percentage valve is used.
Liquid Level Control: Normally linear valve is used.
Basically in selecting a valve characteristic two important points have to be taken into
account.
a) There should be a linear relationship between the position of the plug and the flow
through the valve in a wide range of change in the pressure drop across the valve.
b) The pressure drop across a valve should be as low as possible.
Control valve sizing
112. What is the effect of pipe reducers on valve capacity?
When control valves are mounted between pipe reducers, there is a decrease in the actual
valve capacity. The reducers create an additional pressure drop in the system by acting as
contractions of enlargements in series with the valve.
Metric formula: for inlet and outlet reduces.
2
d2
R =

1 1.5

Cv2

1-

D2
0.04d2
For outlet reducer only or inlet reducer with entrance angle less than 40 inches.
2
d2
R2

1 1.5

1-

Cv2

D2

0.04d2

d = valve size mm. D = line size mm. Cv = required valve co-efficient.

To compensate for reducer losses at sub-critical flow, divide Cv calculated by R.
113. An operator tells you that a control valve in a stuck? How will you start
checking?
1. First of all get the control valve is passed from operation.
2. Check the lingual to the diaphragm of the control valve.
3. Disconnect it possible the actuator stem from the control valve stem.
4. Stroke the actuator and see whether the actuator operates or not. It not then the
diaphragm may be punctured.
5. If the actuator operates connect it back to the plug stem stroke the control valve. If it
does not operate loosen the gland nuts a bit and see if it operates. If it does not then
the control valve has to be removed from the line to w/shop.
114. Where is an Air to close and Air to open control valves used ?
Air to close:
1. Reflux lines.
2. Cooling water lines.
3. Safety Relief services.
Air to open:
1. Feed lines.
2. Steam Service.
115. Why does control valve operate at IS psi?
On higher pressure the actuator sizes becomes bigger in area. The actual force produced
by the actuator.
Force = Pressure x Area.
= 15 psi x Area, If Area = 15"
Force produced = 15 psi x 25 in2 = 375 pounds.
Actual force acting on a control valve = 375 pounds.

GENERAL QUESTIONS
116. Explain Cascade Control system with a diagram. What would happier if a
single controller were used ?

TT

TIC
Master controller

Slave or
Se Condary
Controller

Steam
PT
Feed water

Fuel gas
PV
Cascade means two controllers is series. One of them is the Master or Primary and the
second is the secondary of slave controller. The output of the secondary controller
operates the final control element, that is the valve.
Loop explanation:
The output of the temp. transmitter goes as measurement signal to the TIC which is the
master controller. Similarly the output of pressure transmitter goes as measurement signal
to the PIC which is the secondary controller.
The output of TIC comes at set point to PIC which is turn operates the valve. The reqd.
temp. is set on the TIC.
Use of cascade system:
Cascade loops are invariably installed to prevent outside disturbances from entering the
process. The conventional single controller as shown in the diagram cannot responds to a
change in the fuel gas pressure until its effect is felt by the process temp. sensor. In other
words an error in the detected temperature has to develop before corrective action can be
taken. The cascade loop in contrast responds immediately correcting for the effect of

pressure change, before it could influence the process temperature. The improvement in
control quality due to cascading is a function of relative speeds and time lags. A slow
primary (Master) variable and a secondary (Slave) variable which responds quickly to
disturbances represent a desirable combination for this type of control. If the slave can
respond quickly to fast disturbances then these will not be allowed to enter the process
and thereby will not upset the control of primary (master) variable. It can be said that use
of cascade control on heat transfer equipment contributes to fast recovery from load
changes or other disturbances.

117. Explain ratio control system.

Un controlled flow
( A)
FT

Ratio controller
F1 + F2
Secondary controller

(B)
FT
Controlled flow

FV

A ratio control system is characterized by the fact that variations in the secondary
variable do not reflect back on the primary variable. In the above diagram 0 a ratio
control system the secondary flow is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable
flow.
If we assume that the output of primary transmitter is A, and the output of the secondary
transmitter is B, And that multiplication factor of the ratio relay is K, then for equilibrium
conditions which means set valve is equal to measured valve, we find the following
relation :
KA - B = 0
or B/A = K, where 'K' is the ratio setting of the relay.

118. Explain fuel to air ratio control of furnaces.

Air
FRC

Master steam
FRC

FT

FC

FRC
RSP

primary

secondary
FV

RR

FT

Ratio controller
Fuel gas

119. What is Furnace Draft control ?

Balanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. When both forced
draft and induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure will be
the same as that of atmosphere. Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to
prevent hot gas leakage. Excessive vacuum in the furnace however produces heat losses
through air infiltration. The most desirable condition is that the one have is a very slight
(about 0.1" H20 ) negative pressure of the top of furnace.
120. What is feed back control ? What is feed forward control ? Discuss its
application ?
Feed back control:
Controller(FIC)
Measuring element
Set point
Transmitter

PROCESS
Control valve
Orifice plate
Feed back control involves the detection of the controlled variable and counteracting of
charges its its value relative to set point, by adjustment of a manipulated variable. This
mode of control necessities that the disturbance variable must affect the controlled
variable itself before correction can take place. Hence the term 'feedback' can imply a
correction 'back' in terms of time, a correction that should have taken place earlier when
the disturbance occurred.
Feed forward control :
Orifice
PROCESS

Output

FT
Controller

Additive regulator

Feed forward control system is a system in which corrective action is based on

measurement of disturbances inputs into the process. This mode of control responds to a
disturbance such that is instantly compensates for that error which the disturbance would
have otherwise caused in the controlled variable letter in time.
Feed forward control relies on a prediction. As can be seen from the figure of feed
forward control a necessary amount of input goes to the process. This measurement goes
to the controller which gives output to the control valve. The control valve regulates the
flow.

Feed back control :

In feed forward control no difference between the desired result and actual result need
exist before corrective action is taken in feed back control a difference must exist. Hence,
open loop or feed forward control is capable of perfect control, but feed back is not. Due

to economic impartibility of precision , predicting the amount of correction necessary to

achieve satisfactory results with feed forward control, feed back control is most often
used. In order to properly choose the type of feed back controller for a particular process
application, two factors time and gain must be considered.

121. Explain three element feed water control system?

Feed water control
Drum level control
Steam control
P2
P1
Square root
Extractor

P4
Square root extractor
P3

Computing equation:
P3 = R ( P2 - P1 - K ) + P4 + K0
P3 = Output.
P1, P2 & P4 = Input
K1 = Adjustable suppression.
K0 = Adj.Bias.
122. Explain Anti-surge control?
Compressor

M
PDT
Pinlet

Poutlet
Ratio
FT
FY
FRC
( Flow converter)

By-Pass valve
This method of surge control uses the ratio of compressor pressure rise to inlet flow rate
to set the flow in by-bass loop. When the suction pressure drops and discharge shoots up,

the compressor starts surging. The pdt senses this and gives the signal to the FRC which
will open the by-pass valve.

What is Surge?
Surge occurs in a turbo compressor when discharge head cannot be sustained at the
available suction flow. Surge occurs at specific combinations of head and flow, as defined
by the compressor manufacturer's performance curves. One or more of the following can
result from surge:
Unstable operation
Partial or total flow reversal through the compressor
Disrupted process
Mechanical damage to the compressor
Surge is usually accompanied by the following:
Increase in discharge temperature
Reduction in discharge pressure
Increase in vibration
Sharp rise in inlet temperature dependent on the volume flow at the suction.

Avoiding Surge
In the gas compressor section (Figure 4), surge can be avoided by recycling a controlled
portion of the discharge flow back to the suction through a recycle valve. Recycling
raises the suction pressure and lowers the discharge pressure, which increases flow and
moves the operation away from surge. Raising speed also moves the compressor away
from surge. This is a temporary solution because it also raises Pd and lowers Ps, which
tends to drive the machine back towards surge. In the air compressor section (Figure5), a
blow off valve is used to vent the compressor discharge to atmosphere. This does not
affect the suction conditions, but it reduces discharge pressure and increases flow, which
moves the operating point away from surge.

GENERAL QUESTION - II
Que.: Draw an electronic two wire system control loop.
Ans.:

Que. : What are Intrinsically safe system ?

Ans. : Intrinsic safety is a technique for designing electrical equipment for safe use in
locations made hazardous by the presence of flammable gas or vapors in air.
"Defn. :" Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any spark or thermal effect produce
either normally or under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ignition of a
specified gas or vapor in air mixture at the most easily ignited concentration.
HAZARDOUS AREAS :
The specification of products or systems sold as intrinsically safe must state in what
hazardous areas they are infect intrinsically safe. Universal cooling of hazardous areas
has not, unfortunately, been adopted in all countries. However two sets of codes in
common use are.
Que. : What does a transmitter output start from 3-15 psi or (0.2 - 1 Kg/Cm2) or 4 20 ma. etc. ?
Ans. : The transmitter output stance from what is known as "live zero". This system has
specific advantages:
1. The systems automatically alarms when the signal system becomes inoperative.
2. The output areas is linear (Ratio of 1: 5).
DEAD ZERO SIGNAL :
The advantage is that it does not have to be biased to true zero. A "Live zero" gives the
computer additional information, so that it can takes appropriate alarm action in case of a
measurement failure, because it can discriminate between a transmitter operating, but
transmitting a zero measurement and a failure, in the signal system.

Que.: What is force balance and motions balance principle ?

Ans. :
FORCE BALANCE PRINCIPLE :
"A controller which generates and output signal by opposing torques".
The input force is applied on the input bellows which novas the beam. This crackles
nozzle back pressure. The nozzle back pressure is sensed by the balancing bellows which
brings the beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about 0.002" for full scale
output.
MOTION BALANCE PRINCIPLE :
"A controller which generates an output signal by motion of its parts".
The increase in input signal will cause the baffle to move towards the nozzle. The nozzle
back pressure will increase. This increase in back pressure acting on the balancing

bellows, will expands the bellows, there by moving the nozzle upward. The nozzle will
move untill motion (almost) equals the input (baffle) motion.
Advantages of force Balance :
1. Moving parts are fever.
2. Baffle movement is negligible.
3. Frictional losses are less.
AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER :
It is a device which measured the value of variable quantity or condition and operates to
correct or lie it deviation of this measured value from a selected reference.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM :
It is any operable arrangement of one or more automatic controllers in closed loops with
one or more processes.
SELF OPERATED CONTROLLER :
It is one in which all the energy needed to operate the final control element is derived
from the controlled medium through the primary element.
RELAY OPERATED CONTROLLER :
It is one in which the energy transmitted through the primary element is either
supplemented or amplified for operating the final control element by employing energy
from another sources.
PROCESS :
A process comprises the collective function performed in and by the equipment in which
a variable is to be controlled.
SELF REGULATION :
It is an inherent characteristic of the process which aids in limiting the deviation of the
controlled variable.
CONTROLLED VARIABLE :
The controlled variable is that quantity and condition which is measured and controlled.

CONTROLLED MIDIUM :
It is that process energy or material in which a variable is controlled. The controlled
variable is a condition or characteristic of the controlled medium. For e.g. where
temperature of water in a tank is automatically controlled, the controlled variable is
temperature and controlled medium is water.
MANIPULATED VARIABLE :
It is that quantity or condition which is varied by the automatic controller so as to affect
the value of the controlled variable.

CONTROL AGENT :
It is that process energy or material of which the manipulated variation is a condition or
characteristic. The manipulated variable is a condition or characteristic of the control
agent. For e.g. when a final control element changes the fuel gas flow to burner the
manipulated variable is flow the control agent is fuel gas.
ACTUATING SIGNAL :
The actuating signal is the difference at anytime between the reference input and a signal
related to the controlled variable. This basically known as error signal.
DEVIATION :It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and
the value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point.
OFFSET :
It is the steady state difference between the control point and the value of the controlled
variable corresponding with set point
CORRECTIVE ACTION :
It is the variation of the manipulated variable produced by the controlling means. The
controlling means operates the final control element ( control value ) which in turn varies
the manipulated variable.
REFERENCE INPUT :
It is the reference signal in an automatic controller.
SET POINT :
It is the position to which the control point setting mechanism is set.
CONTROL POINT :
It is the value of the controlled variable which under any fixed set of conditions the
automatic controller operates to maintain.

D E F I N A T I O N.
ACCURACY :
A number or quantity which defines the limit of error under reference conditions.

ATTENUATION :
A decrease in signal magnitude between two points, or between two frequencies.
DEAD TIME :
The interval of time between initiation of an impact change or stimulus and the start of
the resulting response.
DRIFT :
As undesired change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input,
operating conditions, or load.
ERROR :
The difference between the indication and the true value of the measured signal.
SPAN ERROR :
It is the difference between the actual span and the specified span and is expressed as the
percent of specified span.
ZERO ERROR :
It is the error of device operating under the specified conditions of use when the input is
at the lower range value.
STATIC GAIN :
It is the ratio of the output change to an input been change after the steady state has been
reached.
HYSTERESIS :
The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured
signal during a full range traverse for the same input.
INTERFERENCE :
Interference is any spurious voltage or current arising from external sources and
appearing in the circuits of a device.
COMMON MODE INTERFERENCE :

It is the form of interference which appears between the measuring circuit terminals and
ground.
NORMAL MODE INTERFERENCE :
It is the form of interference which appears between measuring circuit terminals.
LINEARITY :
The closeness to which a curve approximate a straight line.
RANGE :
The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured received or
transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range values.
REPEATABILITY :
The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output
for the same value of the measured signal under the same operating conditions.
REPRODUCIBILITY :
The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same
value of the input made under the same operating conditions.
RESPONSE :
It is the general behavior of the output of a device as a function of input both with respect
to time.
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO :
Ratio of signal amplitude to noise.
TIME CONSTANT :
The time required for the output to complete 63.2 % of the total rise or decay.
SPAN :
The algebraic difference between upper and lower range values.
ZERO SHIFT :
Any parallel shift of the input output curve.

Explanation of Terms used in Computerized Data Acquisition

Alternating Current Abbreviation ac. Electric current whose flow alternates in
direction. The number of times the current changes direction in one second is called the
frequency. The normal waveform of ac is sinusoidal.
Alumel Trade name for an alloy of nickel with up to 5% aluminium, manganese and
silicon, used with chromel in K-type thermocouples.
Ampere Abbreviation A. SI unit of electric current.
Amplifier A circuit that produces a larger output power, voltage or current than was
applied at its input.
Amplitude The size or magnitude of a signal.
Analogue-to-Digital (A/D) Converter converts an analogue signal (such as a voltage
signal from a temperature sensor) into a digital signal suitable for input to a computer.
Anti-Alias Filter An anti-alias (or anti-aliasing) filter allows through the lower
frequency components of a signal but stops higher frequencies, in either the signal or
noise, from introducing distortion. Anti-alias filters are specified according to the
sampling rate of the system and there must be one filter per input signal.
Backbone The major multi-channel link in a network, from which smaller links branch
off.
Background Noise Extraneous signals that might be confused with the required
measurement.
Baud The rate of data transmission in serial data communications, approximately equal
to one bit per second.
Chromel An alloy of nickel with about 10% chromium, used with Alumel in K-type
thermocouples.
Constantan An alloy of 40% nickel and 60% copper, with a high volume receptivity and
almost negligible temperature coefficient. Used with copper in T-type thermocouples.
Current Current is often used to transmit signals in noisy environments because it is
much less affected by environmental noise pick-up. Before A/D conversion the current
signals are usually turned into voltage signals by a current-sensing resistor.
Differential Inputs Reduce noise picked up by the signal leads. For each input signal
there are two signal wires. A third connector allows the signals to be referenced to

ground. The measurement is the difference in voltage between the two wires: any voltage
common to both wires is removed.
Digital-to-Analogue (D/A) Converter Used to produce analogue output signals. These
may be control signals or synthesised waveforms.
Electromotive Force (emf) Difference of potential produced by sources of electrical
energy which can be used to drive currents through external circuits. Unit is the volt.
Endurance limit In fatigue testing, the number of cycles which may be withstood
without failure at a particular level of stress.
EIA Electronic Industries Association.
Ethernet A local area network to which you can connect data acquisition devices.
E-Type Thermocouple Chromel-constantan thermocouple with a temperature range of
0-800 oC.
FIFO buffers A first in, first out, store. The first value placed in the buffer (queue) is the
first value subsequently read.
Filtering Attenuates components of a signal that are undesired: reduces noise errors in a
signal.
Frequency Measured in hertz (cycles per second), rate of repetition of changes.
Frequency Counter Counts digital pulses over a defined gate time. A typical gate time is
between 0.1 and 10 seconds.
Front panel The front surface of a unit, generally containing switches and indicator
lights.
Gain Amplification of a circuit.
GPIB General Purpose Interface Bus. Also known as IEEE-488 bus. The GPIB standard
was designed to connect several instruments to computers for data acquisition and
control. Data can be transferred over GPIB at 200 000 bytes per second, over distances of
2 meters.
Ground See earth.
Hertz (Hz) Cycles per second unit of frequency.
Human machine interface (hmi) Also known as man machine interface. The
communication between the computer system and the people who use it.
IEEE-488 Bus See GPIB

Integration Time An integrating A/D converter measures an input voltage by allowing it

to charge a capacitor for a defined period. The integration averages the input signal over
the integration time, which if chosen appropriately will average over a complete mains
cycle thereby helping to reduce mains frequency interference.
Isolation Two circuits are isolated when there is no direct electrical connection between
them.
Isolation to Earth or System A high transient voltage at one input may damage not only
the input circuit, but the rest of the data acquisition hardware, and, by propagating
through the signal conditioning and A/D circuits, eventually damage the computer system
as well. You can prevent this type of damage by isolating the input from the earth of the
data acquisition and computer hardware.
Isolation Between Inputs A transient at an input can also propagate to other equipment
connected to that input. This is prevented by providing isolation between inputs.
J-Type Thermocouple Iron-constantan thermocouple with a temperature range of 0 to
750 oC.
K-Type Thermocouple Chromel-Alumel thermocouple with a temperature range of -200
to 1200 oC.
N-Type Thermocouple Nicrosil-Nisil thermocouple with a temperature range of -200 to
1200 oC.
Resolution The resolution of an A/D or D/A converter is the number of steps the range of
the converter is divided into. The resolution is usually expressed as bits (n) and the
number of steps is 2n (2 to the power n), so a converter with a 12-bit resolution divides its
range into 212 or 4096 steps. In this case a 0-10 volt range will be resolved to 0.25
millivolts.
Rms Root mean square. The square root of the sum of the squares of a set of quantities
divided by the total number of quantities. Used when monitoring ac (alternating current)
signals. Many power supplies, for example, issue an ac signal. This needs to be converted
to a dc (direct current) signal for the PC interface. The solution is a signal conditioning
input that produces a dc signal proportional to the rms of the amplitude of the input
signal. The rms operation means the reading will always be positive.
Settling Time When an output voltage swings full-scale through the range of the D/A
converter, the settling time tells how long it will take for the output to settle to its new
value.
Signal Conditioning Makes a signal suitable for input to an analogue-to-digital
converter. For example, a signal may be filtered to remove noise, or amplified to meet the
range of the A/D converter.

Simultaneous Sampling When all analogue signals are read simultaneously. This is
achieved by providing each input with its own A/D converter, and initiating sampling
from a single clock. It ensures that there is no reduction in sampling rate when more
signals are connected.
Slew Rate The maximum rate of change of an output signal.
Strain Gauge A device which experiences a change in resistance when it is stretched or
strained.
Thermistor A temperature sensor. The name comes from thermal resistor. It comprises a
mixture of certain oxides with finely divided copper, of which the resistance is very
sensitive to change of temperature. Thermocouple Popular temperature sensor because
of its low cost, versatility and ruggedness. Consists of two different metals joined
together, making a continuous circuit. When one junction has a different temperature
from the other an electromotive force (voltage) occurs. There are several types of
thermocouples, constructed from different metals and with differing temperature ranges
and accuracies.
Transducer A device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical signal.
Examples include thermocouples and photocells.
Transient A short surge of current or voltage, often occurring before steady-state
conditions have become established.
T-Type Thermocouple Copper-constantan thermocouple with a temperature range of
-200 to 400 oC.

P R E S S U R E.
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS :
1psi =
1 Kg/cm2 =
1 Bar =
1 Kpa =
1 Kg/cm2 =

27.74 " H2O

14.223 psi
14.504 psi
0.145 psi
10.000mm of
H20
1.0197 Kg/cm2
0.98 Bar
1 mm of Hg.

1 Bar =
Que. : Explain the 1 Kg/cm2 =
working of an Enraf level
gauge ?
1 Torr =
Ans. : The
Enraf
level precise level gauges are
based on servo powered null balance technique. A displacer serves as continues level
sensing element.
Principle :
A displacer A with a relative density higher than that of a product to be measured, is
suspended from a stainless steal wire B tat is attached to a measuring drum. A two phase
servo motor controlled by a capacitive balance system winds unwinds the measuring wire
until the tension on the weight springs is in balance with the wt. of the displace part
immersed in the liquid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance
formed by the moving central sensing rod E provided with two capacitor plates and the si
plates. In balance position the capacitance are of equip value. A level variation will cause
a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in to direction
of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes difference in value of this capacitance. By
an electrolyte rotation of the servo motors the can driven transmitter continuously change
the voltage pattern to remote indicate of which the receiver motor drives a counter
indicating low variation.

PRIMARY FEEDBACK :
It
is
the
signal
which
is
related
to
the
bJNtrJH3d@_____H__M_ith the reference input to
obtain the actuating signal. Simply stated primary feedback is the actual measurement of
the controlled variable which when compared with the desired measurement of the
controlled variable produces the actuating signal.
POSITIONING ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the value of the controlled
variable and the position of the final control element.
PROPORTIONAL ACTION :
It is that in which there is a continuous linear relationship between the value of the actual
measurement of the controlled variable and the value position.
FLOATING ACTION :

It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the deviation and speed of
final control element.
DERIVATIVE ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between a time derivative of the
controlled variable and position of final control element.
REST ACTION :
It is the value movement at a speed proportional to the magnitude of deviation.

RATE ACTION :
It is that in which there is a continues linear relation between the rate of change of
controlled variable and position of final control element. Rate action produces value
motion proportional to the rate of change of actual measurement.
PROPORTIONAL BAND :
It is the range of values of the controlled variable which correspond to the full operating
range of the final control element.
RESET RATE :
It is the number of times/minute that the effect of proportional position action upon the
final control element is repeated by proportional speed floating action.
There are two ways of expressing reset action :
1. Reset time and 2. Reset Rate
1. Reset Rate : It is commonly expressed as a number of "repeats" per minute. It is
determined by dividing.
a) Travel of final control element (Value stroke) in one minute as a result of the effect of
proportional speed floating action.
b) The travel as a result of the effect of proportional position action with the same
deviation in both cases.
2. Reset Time : It is the time interval by which the rate is commonly expressed in
minutes. It is determined by subtracting.
a) The time required for a selected motion of the final control element resulting from
combined effect of the proportional position plus rate action.
b) The time required for the same motion as a result of the effect of proportional position
action alone with the same rate of change of controlled variable in both cases or
expressed in another way. It is the time lead in terms of air pressure on the control value
produced by rate action compared with proportional position action for the same rate of
change of actual measurement in both cases.
ELECTRONICS

Que. : What is a diode?

Ans. : A diode consists of two electrodes (1) Anode (2) Cathode. The current flow is
only in one direction.
A diode is the most basic solid state (semi conductor) device. The above figure shows a
P.N. junction. The P. material has holes and the N. material has electrons.
FORWARD BIAS :
REVERSE BIAS :
( 1 ) Where the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential (the p side is more
positive than the n side) the current produce is large because majority carriers cross the
junction in large numbers. This condition is called forward bias.
( 2 ) When the applied voltage aids the barrier potential (n side + ve than p side) the
current in small. This state is known as Reverse Bias.
Que. : What is a half wave, full wave and bridge rectifier ?
Ans. :
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER :
BRIDGE RECTIFIER :
PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE : Maximum Reverse voltage across the diode during the
cycle.
Que. : What is a filter used for ?
Ans. : The half wave and full wave signals are pulsating D . C. voltages. The use of such
voltages is limited to charging batteries, running D. C. motors, and a few other
applications. What we really have is a D.C. voltage that is constant in valve, similar to the
voltage from a battery. To get a constant voltage from this, we can use a capacitor input
filter.
Que. : What is Zener Diode ? What is a voltage Regulator?
Ans. : The breakdown region of a p n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical
Diodes with almost vertical breakdown region are known as Zever Diodes.
A Zener diodes operating in the breakdown region is equivalent to a battery. Because of
this current through Zener diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this
constant voltage that has made the zever diode an important device in voltage regulation.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR :
The output remains constant despite changes in input voltage due to Zever effect.
Que. : What is transistor ? What are the different types ?
Ans. : A transistor is a three lagged semi conductor device. Basically a transistor means
(transfer - resister).
Whether the transistor is pnp or npn it resembles two diodes (back to back). The one of
the left is called emitter diodes, and the one on the right is the collector diode. Since two
types of charges are involved transistor: are classified as bipolar devices.
Biasing the transistor :
Emitter
- Base - Forward Bias.
Collector - Base
- Reverse Bias.
Que.: What is CB, CE and CC configuration ?
Ans.:
Buffer: A device or a circuit used to isolate two pt'ne circuits or stages. The emitter
follows is a example of buffer.
Alpha = IC / IE
Beta = IC / IB
Que.: How will you test a transistor with a multimeter. ?
Ans.:
1. Emitter +ve of meter and Base -ve output = Low resistance
2. Emitter -ve of meter and base +ve output = High resistance.
3. Collector +ve and Base -ve output = Low.
4. Collector -ve and base +ve output = High.
Emitter: Collector = High Resistance.
PNP : Opposite Results.
Que. : What is a thyristor ? What are its uses?
Ans. : A thyristor is a special kind of semi conductor device that uses internal feedback
to produce latching action.
Use : Used for controlling large amounts of load power in motors, heaters, lighting
systems etc.
Explanation : Because of the unusual connection we have a +ve feedback also called
regeneration. A change in current at any point in the loop is amplified and returned to the
starting point with the same phase. For instance if the 02 base current increases, the 02
collector current increases. This force base current through 01. In turn this produces a
large 01 collector current which drives the 02 base harder. This build up in currents will
continue until both transistors are driven in saturation. In this case the latch acts like a
closed switch.
On the other hand, if something causes the 02 base current to decrease, the 02 collector
current will decrease. This reduces the 01 base current. In turn, there is less 01 collector
current, which reduces the 01 base current even more. This regeneration continues until

both transistors are driven into cut off. At this time the latches like a open switch. This
latch will always stay in open or close position.

Que. : What are logic gates ? Explain with truth table.

Ans. :
GATE : A gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more inputs . An output signal
occurs only for control combination of input signals.
1. OR - GATE :
SYMBOL :
TRUTH A
TABLE :
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1

Define : An OR Gate has one output if any or all of its input are 1's.
2. AND GATE :
Define : An AND Gate has output when all inputs are present.
SYMBOL :
TRUTH A
B
Y
TABLE :
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
3. NOT GATE :
A not gate is also known as an inverter. This circuit has one input and one out put . All it
does is invert the input signal; if the input is high, the output is low and vice versa.
TRUTH
TABLE :

Input

Output

0
1

1
0

Buffer : This is a non inverting gate, used to drive low impedance loads.

NOR GATE : This is an OR GATE followed by an inverter.

SYMBOL :
TRUTH
TABLE :

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

1
0
0
0

Exclusive A
OR
GATE
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
1
1
0

NAND GATE : This is an AND GATE followed by an inverter.

TRUTH
TABLE :

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

1
1
1
0

.
Que. : Explain the working of TIL - NAND GATE.

DCS ARCHITECTURE
Evolution of DCS:

Pneumatic Control System - Single Loop Controllers, More

Hardware, Less Accurate, Cumbersome Maintenance.
SLPC - Electronic Controllers, Single/multi Loop, More Hardware
DCS - Introduced in the 80s, Microprocessor Based, Graphic User
Interface, Interface With Other Devices, Availability of Reports &
Diagnostics, User Friendly.

I/O Block Diagram

I/O Block Diagram

Field (Hazardous Area)

JB

Control Room (Non-Hazardous Area)

Marshalling

Rack

DCS

Transmitters
C/Vs etc.

Process Control - Components

HARDWARE

Transmitter, Control Valves etc.

Cables, Junction Box.
Barriers, Converters etc.
Power Supply Modules
I/O Cards & Processor
Communication Modules
System Communication Bus / Network
Graphic Display Station CRT
Operator Interface Keyboard/ Touch screen / Mouse etc.

SOFTWARE DCS

System Configuration Database Builder, Control Configuration

Etc.
Graphic Builder
History Builder & Report Writer
Diagnostic Tools
Logic Editor
Control Language User Programmable Software

DCS ARCHITECTURE
Supervisory
Computer

MIS
Computer
INFORMATION NETWORK

Operator
Consoles

ENGG.
Station

DCS COMMUNICATION BUS

COMM
N.
I/F

Field
I/Os
Marshalling
Rack

I/O,
Processor
Rack

COMM
N.
I/F

PLC / Other
SYSTEMS

Honeywell DCS