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Neuropsychological Bases
Basic Neuropsychology
Nerve Cells and Nervous System
I.

Neuroanatomy Structure of nerve cells (nerve cells also called

Neurons). See text. Do exercise with hand and forearm.
a. Dendrites accept/pull in neurotransmitters form other neurons
b. Cell body (also known as Soma) Processes energy from
neurotransmitters that were pulled in from dendrites.
c. Axon Carries the neural impulse.
d. Myelin Covers/protects the axon. Hardens (not necessarily
increases) as we mature and, as a result, facilitates more
efficient transmission of impulses and increases the speed.
i. Schwann Cells - makes up myelin of PNS
ii. Oligodendrocytes makes up myelin of CNS
iii. BOTH Schwann and Oligodendrocytes are known as Glial
Cells.
iv. Some neurons that transmit dull pain are not myelinated
because that would increase the speed, which is not
necessary and would be counterproductive. Also, some
short axons in the CNS are not myelinated because it
would take up space in the CNS but would not increase the
speed, thus, myelination for those particular neurons are
not necessary.
e. Terminal Knobs (also called Terminal Buttons or Axon Terminals)
is at the end of the neuron and hold neurotransmitters.
f. Cell Nucleus Contains the genetic (DNA and RNA) material that
makes the cell what it is.
g. Nodes of Ranvier Spaces along the axon.
h. Glial Cells NOT NEURONS. However, they support, protect, and
nourish neurons. Makes the myelin. We have most of the myelin
by late adolescence but it still hardens into early adulthood,
which makes synaptic transmission more efficient.
i. Gray matter Bundles of nerve cell bodies in the brain. Does
major processing. See link below.
j. White matter Myelinated axons. Facilitates communication.
See link below

II.

Neural Communication

a. Action Potential The neural impulse that fires down the axon. Is
fueled by the passing of positively charged Sodium (NA) and
Potassium (K) ions in and out of a semi-permeable membrane
filled with negatively charged proteins ions that cannot pass
outside the membrane. For every two Potassium ions that go in,
three Sodium ions must come out of the membrane.
b. Threshold the minimum amount of a stimulus to cause the
neural impulse to happen. This does not change if a stimulus is
increased.
c. Synapse the space between the terminal knob of a neuron and
the dendrite of another neuron.
d. Neurotransmitters chemical messengers stored in the terminal
knobs that jump across the synapse when triggered by an
action potential impulse.

III.

The Nervous System - The bodys entire neural communication

system. See text.
a. Central Nervous System Brain, brain stem, and spinal cord.
b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Carries messages to (using
sensory or also called afferent neurons) and from (using motor or
also called efferent neurons) the CNS.
i. Autonomic PNS Not under voluntary control (e.g., glands
and organs).
1. Sympathetic component arousing
2. Parasympathetic component calming
3. Note: both of the above work in an opponent
process fashion.
ii. Somatic PNS Under voluntary control (e.g., movement of
muscles).

Nervous
system

Peripheral

Central
(brain and
spinal cord)

Autonomic (controls
self-regulated action of
internal organs and glands)

Skeletal or Somatic (controls

voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles)

Sympathetic
(arousing)

Parasympathetic
(calming)

IV.

Nerves Cable-like bunches of neurons (nerves cells get into nerve

bundles; collections of nerve bundles for the nerve cable or the
nerve).
a. In the PNS
i. Sensory (or afferent) Impulses to CNS.
ii. Motor (or efferent) Impulses away from CNS.
Nerves Entering/Leaving Spinal Cord
(spinal nerves)
8 Cervical Upper to upper-middle back
12 Thoracic Middle back
5 Lumbar Lower Back
5 Sacral Base bone of back
b. In the CNS
i. Interneurons (spinal) Intervenes with sensory and motor
neurons to spin the sensation and motor response very
quickly and independent from the brains conscious
functioning. Located in spinal cord. This is why we have
motor reflexes. Also play a role in the continuous
adjustments made for balance and coordination. See
overhead.
ii. Tracts, bundles, and neuropathways the CNS has other
nerves in the spinal cord, brain stem and brain. However,
these structures are typically referred to by its specific part

(e.g., spinal cord, reticular formation, etc.) or simply as

tract, bundle, or pathway.
Note: Nerves in the CNS (that is the brain and spinal cord) DO NOT
regenerate for the most part. There is some research that suggests that
some very limited neurogenesis (re-growth) of nerves in the lower forebrain,
particularly the hippocampus , may be able to regenerateit is still under
debate. Nerves in the PNS, however, actually CAN regenerate. Damaged
nerves can spontaneously re-grow depending on extent of damage and even
completely severed nerves can re-grow IF repaired in a timely manner.

The Brain
V.

The Brain 100 billion neurons, 100 billion X 10 (trillion) glial cells
(supporting structures).

The Brain: Forebrain

VI.

Cerebral Cortex Outer, large part of the brain. Part of the

Forebrain. See page 38.
i. Frontal lobes planning, judgment, movement, speaking.
Prefrontal implicated in ADHD.
ii. Parietal lobes sensation and perception of stimuli. Also
language processing and hemispheric integration.
iii. Occipital lobes processes visual stimuli
iv. Temporal lobes Both process auditory. Left processes
language (Brocas is expressive and Wrenickes is receptive).
Right processes visual/spatial.
v. Motor strip -- back part of frontal. Contralateral.
vi. Sensory strip front part of parietal. Contralateral.

VII.

Limbic System Associated with emotions and driven behavior

(e.g., sex, hunger, etc.). Sort of wraps around the thalamus. See
overhead. It includes:
a. Amygdala Strong emotions, particularly anger but also
implicated in extreme fear and pleasure. Large body of research
on anger. Actually are two almond-shaped clusters.
b. Hippocampus Consolidates long-term memory for later
retrieval.
c. Septum- inhibits emotions.
Note: Some other pieces mentioned in other literature (e.g., fornex
helps to route sensory and is above thalamus and below limbic
cortex, thalamus is a general sensory relay station often considered
part of the limbic system and caps off brain stem, and the limbic

cortex or cingulated cortex wraps around the upper part of limbic

system and assists regulation of emotions to the upper cortex -there are other structures sometimes mentioned depending on the
source you use) but the above three are essentially the main
components that actively govern emotions, motivations, drive, etc.
Deep in brain and is in both hemispheres.

VIII.

Basal Ganglia Lies just in front of thalamus. It codes and relays

information involved in movement. Involved with Tourettes,
Huntingtons, Parkinsons, depression, OCD, and mania.
Note: consists of caudate nucleus (voluntary movement), putamen
(regulate movement and influence learning), globus (voluntary
movement), nucleus accumbens (also involved with pleasure and
learning), and subthalamic nucleus (unknown function but

stimulation helps treat Parkinsons) and all work together with the
thalamus (a switchboard above brainstem) and the striatum (on
outside of basal ganglia that works to communicate with the
cerebral cortex, most notably to coordinate motivation with
movement)
IX.

Thalamus Caps off the brain stem. Is a sensory switchboard except

for olfactory (smell).

X.

Hypothalamus Just below thalamus. Regulates internal states

(temperature, metabolism), pituritary gland hormones, feelings into
physical responses (fear, rage) , some motivated behaviors
(drinking, feeding, sex, aggression)
Note: the above three are sometimes also considered as part of the
larger limbic system -- depends on the source you use.

The Brain: Midbrain

XI.

Tectum -- Reef of midbrain. Responsible for regulating visual and

auditory systems via governing those signals to thalamus. Basically,
it is what gives us visual and auditory reflexes.

XII.

Tegmentum -- Base of midbrain. Regulates sleep, arousal, muscle

tone, attention, and reflexes.

XIII.

Cerebral Aqueduct -- Holds CSF and connects the 3rd and 4th
ventricles.

The Brain: Hindbrain

XIV.

Brain Stem connects brain to spinal cord. Governs much

autonomic functions.
a. Pons Top of brain stem. Regulates states of arousal and
sleep/wake cycles. Implicated in sleep disorders, and narcolepsy.
b. Medulla Oblongata Base, controls heartbeat and breathing and
digestion. Damage is fatal.

XV.

Cerebellum Sits on top and behind of brain stem. Voluntary

movement and balance Damage lead to ataxia (tremors, slurred
speech, loss of balance).

The Brain: Other Areas

XVI. Association Areas Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher
functioning such as remembering, thinking, and speaking
(forebrain) as opposed to automatic or reflexive functioning (mid
and hind brain).

XVII. Corpus Callosum A bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two
hemispheres of the brain and facilitates sharing information. Lies in
the middle of brain. Agenesis of the corpus callosum can cause
problems with hemispheric integration. A surgery for severe
seizures is to split the corpus callosum, which will reduce or
eliminate the seizure but cause problems with integration. Rehab
for remediating integration is promising because it can teach other
areas of the brain to facilitate integration. This ability is known as
Brain Plasticity. We will discuss more on plasticity and split brain
research later.

XVIII. Cingulate Gyrus - An area above the corpus callosum that assists in
regulating sensation distribution, particularly with respect to
emotions, pain and aggression.

XIX. Reticular Formation Throughout hindbrain in brain stem. Includes

network of nerves that extend from spinal cord, through hindbrain
and into the midbrain. Regulates sleep, arousal, pain and touch,
respiration, reflexes. Part of this is the RAS, which filters irrelevant
stimuli and is implicated in ADHD and PTSD.

XX.

Extrapyramidal System -- In reticular formation (in pons and

medula) and influences movement without innervating motor
neurons. Hence, extra pyramidal.

XXI. Substantia Nigra Part of basal ganglia. Helps coordinate

movement. Implicated in Parkinsons.
XXII. Ventricles -- Four, hold cerebrospinal fluid so brain can have some
flexibility and protection.
XXIII. Pia, Arachnoid, and Dura Matter (PAD) The layers of padding of the
brain. Dura on the outside just below skull like a tough skin,
arachnoid is next and looks like a web, pia is last and is soft. Called
meninges. Cerebrospinal fluid is between arachnoid and pia.

XXIV. The Cranium and Skull

Cranium -- is upper part if skull without mandible (lower jaw).
Skull -- is the cranium AND the mandible is skull.

Divisions of the Brain

Subdivision
Structures
Neocortex; Basal Ganglia; Amygdala;
Telencephalon
Prosencephalon
Hippocampus; Lateral Ventricles
(Forebrain)
Thalamus; Hypothalamus; Epithalamus; Third
Diencephalon
Ventricle
Mesencephalon Mesencephalo
Tectum; Tegmentum; Cerebral Aqueduct
(Midbrain)
n
Major Division

Metencephalo
Rhombencephal
n
on
Myelencephalo
(Hindbrain)
n

Cerebellum; Pons; Fourth Ventricle

Medulla Oblongata; Fourth Ventricle

Brain Development

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/09/15/health/20080915-braindevelopment.html
Conception 10 Days Germinal period. Teratogens can do little harm or
can do great harm.
2 8 Weeks Embryonic period. Organs and CNS are most affected by
teratogens.
9 Weeks to Birth Fetal period Organs not as affected by teratogens.
Genitalia and brain are susceptible.
0 2 Years -- Newborns brain is about 25 percent of its approximate adult
weight. Most of the neurons ever needed are present, but the glial cells,
mylenation, and increased connections (not increase in number of neurons)
is what accounts for increase in weight and development over time. Birth
trough age one entails much basic sensorimotor development (sensori and
motor strips).
2 -- Two up to beginning of age 3 entails more development of sensorimotor
as well as association areas (entire cerebral cortex grows rapidly, although
still very immature).
3 Brain has grown dramatically by producing billions of cells and hundreds
of trillions of connections, or synapses, between these cells. Language
begins to develop rapidly. While we know that the development of a young
childs brain takes years to complete, we also know there are many things
parents and caregivers can do to help children get off to a good start and
establish healthy patterns for life-long learning.
4 primary senses and motor skills are very developed almost fully. Vision
(occipital) is fully developed. Sensation (sensory strip in parietal) is almost
fully developed. Great strides in language, although still very immature.
5 Basic motor skills very well developed (areas of motor strip in back of
frontal lobe). Brain starts degenerating neural links (not neurons) to make
way for more used areas or functioning.
6 Language continues to exponentially develop and become more complex,
but still not fully developed (left brain still forming). Reasoning skills very
immature (frontal lobe, particularly prefrontal, not fully developed).

8-9 Fine motor skills exponentially increase. See strides in writing,

manipulating etc. (maturation of frontal lobe and the motor strip).
9- Parietal lobe matures greatly at this point. The Angular Gyri and other
components of the parietal lobe allow for greater cooperation with left
(language in left temporal is developing very rapidly at this point) and right
temporal lobes to facilitate symbolic processing required for math skills. Can
facilitate gains by incorporating flash cards and math drills because the brain
is now hardwired to take this on.
13 The frontal and prefrontal areas are maturing but are still not fully
mature. The limbic system (governs emotions) is quite mature but it is not
commensurate with the frontal and prefrontal areas. Thus, emotional
instability exists because it is not under strong executive functions. The
parietal lobes are quite mature and allow for very good analytical reasoning.
The discrepancies in development account for why adolescents are weird at
this stage.
15 Brain begins to become very specialized. This is because unused neural
connections die off and the areas used more begin to flourish due to
increased use and thus increased connectivity.
17 Frontal lobes and prefrontal come becoming more mature but not totally
(frontal last area to mature). More planning and self-control possible.
21 Frontal lobe nearly fully developed. Hugh gains in executive function
(planning, control, emotional regulation) happen between 17 and 21.
21- 30 The frontal lobe still continues to develop during this time. Full
mylenation may not happen until 30 or so.

Neurotransmitters and Hormones

Key Neurotransmitters and Associated Functions/Issues

Note: Neurotransmitters (the FAST communication system) will be
discussed in more detail when we discuss psychopharmacology.
However, some major ones to keep in mind for now include:
Serotonin mood
Acetylcholine memory, movement, arousal
GABA parasympathetic (calming)
Dopamine emotion and movement. A catecholamine
Epinephrine Adrenalin. Sympathetic (stimulant). Fight or flight.
Stimulant on heart rate and vasoconstriction. A neurotransmitter
and a hormone. Synthesized form norepinepherine. More direct
on heart. A catecholamine
Norepinephrine Noradrenaline. Sympathetic (stimulant).
Converts sugar to energy. Not as much fight or flight as
adrenaline in terms of direct stimulus to heart but does play role
with respect to peripheral circulation. A neurotransmitter and a
hormone. A catecholamine

Note: Dopamine, Epinephrine, and norepinephrine are known as

catecholamine s due to their commonality of containing the same
organic compound.

Serotonin Brain Pathway

http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/teaching-packets/neurobiologyecstasy/section-ii/1-how-does-ecstasy-work-serotonin-pathways-in-brain
Note: Neurotransmitters are manufactured in the cell body (e.g.,
serotonin) or terminal knobs (e.g., Acetylcholine) or in a cell body of a
type of nerve cell from one area and transported to other cells and their
terminals along a pathway (e.g., dopamine). If manufactured in the cell
body (e.g., serotonin) it is transported down the axon and then stored in
the terminal knobs by a type of vesicular transport process. If
manufactured in one type of cell from one area and transported to
other cells along a pathway (e.g., dopamine), then the neurotransmitter
travels to and is stored in the terminal knobs via a type of vesicular
transport/absorption process. Neurotransmitters can go to other parts
of the body in addition to the brain. Serotonin, for instance, also travels
down the body to aid in movement. Most neurotransmitters are
manufactured in the CNS but can be in CNS and PNS. All of this
manufacturing is fueled by the proteins we eat.
Note: Some neurotransmitters are found more in the CNS than PNS but
many are found in both components of the nervous system.

Hormones: Endocrine System

Endocrine System -- Bodys SLOW chemical communication network (as
opposed to the fast chemical network, which are the neurotransmitters to be
discussed later) that secretes hormones. Hormones are chemicals
manufactured by the endocrine system that are secreted into the blood and
affect functions such as sex, hunger, aggression, and growth. The major
parts of the endocrine system are as follows (upper to lower):
1. Peneal Glad Melatonin -- Sleep/wake cycle, circadian rhythm.
FYI - melatonin is still frequently referred to as a hormone but it
has been referred to both a hormone and neurotransmitter (a
neuromodulator of sorts) but is more recently being referred to
as ubiquitous natural neurotransmitter-like compound.
2. Pituritary gland secretes many different hormones. Controls
onset of puberty as well as various internal states and drives. Is
governed by the hypothalamus.
3. Thyroid Metabolism
4. Parathyroid (toward back of thyroid embedded around)
Regulates levels of calcium in blood.
5. Thymus (below thyroid and sits above heart) produces T-cells
that help immune system. Keeps foreign invaders out but
regulates autoimmunity so the body will fight invaders but not
destroy itself (autoimmune disease).
6. Adrenal glands Triggers fight or flight response. Releases
epinephrine or adrenaline, which is derived from noradrenaline or
norepinephrine. Both act on sympathetic system. Epinepherine
more directly with heart while norepinepherine more with
peripheral circulation.
7. Pancreas regulates levels of sugar in blood.
8. Ovaries female sex hormones.
9. Testes Male sex hormones.
Other can be considered as endocrine, such as:
Kidney
Hypothalamus
Others too.

Reading
Brain Processes Involved in Reading
1. After the stimulus is picked up by the retina, the visual cortex in
occipital lobe processes the letters with facilitation from the
midbrain (visual stimulus coding) and the thalamus (routing), with
transfers the stimulus to
2. Visual-spatial centers of the right hemisphere (which are quite
diffuse and include the right angular gyrus in the parietal lobe
and short term memory function in frontal lobe) transfer the
stimulus to the left hemisphere mainly via the
3. Corpus Callosum in the midbrain, which has about 200 million
nerve fibers ( although there are a few less dense right-left
pathways that play less of a role than the Corpus Callosum), to
the
4. Angular gyrus of the left brain, which is in the middle of the
parietal lobe, and transforms the visual stimuli from the right
hemisphere into auditory code. However, how well coded is only
as good as what is in the reservior of codes. Thus, the left
angular gyrus can actually be working fine but can still cause
problems because reservoir of codes is not well-developed. From
the angular gyrus the stimulus goes to the
5. Wernickes area of the left hemisphere that processes the
auditory code in to discernable sounds, also known as receptive
language. . (Note: this area can cause problems with
comprehension alone and/or with problems with sound
discrimination. Also, reading problems are typically problems with
interply between the the angular gyrus and the Wernickes area or
by either area alone). After being processded by Wernickes, the
processing goes to the
6. Brocas area is where expressive language happens. Brocas
allows one to mentally form our expressions and to articulate
verbally by connection to the motor cortex. (Note: How well
someone does or does not articulate while reading aloud does not
translate into how well one does or does not comprehend
reading).

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Attention

Problems
Definitions
Hyperactive/Impulsive
Inattentive Type
Combined Type
NOS
Recent Conceptualizations are Changing Better for treatment
Social
Behavioral
Cognitive
Combinations
Frontal Lobe Theories

A general theory that is generally accepted.

Predicated on the concept of executive functions.

According to NCLB (2014), executive functions are a set
of mental processes that helps connect past experience
with present action (source: http://www.ncld.org/typeslearning-disabilities/executive-function-disorders/what-isexecutive-function).

We use our executive functions to plan, judge, reason,

organize, strategize, pay attention, and remember details,
including making effective use of working memory
(source: http://www.ncld.org/types-learningdisabilities/executive-function-disorders/what-isexecutive-function .

Executive functions are largely governed by the frontal

lobes.

Phineas Gage case showed this.

Question: What might explain what is specifically causing

problems with the executive functions in otherwise healthy
individuals?
Answer: We must turn to additional theories.

Dopamine Pathway Theories

RAS Theories

Sleep and Sleep Disorders and Problems through the Lifespan

Sleep

Periodic, natural, reversible

loss of consciousness

Stages

Aroused Beta waves. Rapid.

Stage 1 While we are asleep, our brains are on a bit of a "rollercoaster" through different stages of sleep. As we drift off to sleep
(alpha), we first enter stage 1 sleep (alpha, theta). High amplitude but
low frequency. Not as rapid.

Stage 2 - After a few minutes, the EEG changes to stage 2 sleep

(theta, sleep spindles). Slower with some beta-like bursts known as
sleep spindles (thalamus reacts with cortex). Can have some K-complex
that are brief awakenings of a few secs.

Stage 3 -- Stage 3 sleep (delta, theta), Slow waves. Can have

some spindles and K-complex because some leftover theta waves can
still happen in this stage.

State 4 -- Ten stage 4 sleep (delta, theta). Very slow waves.

Then it's back up again: stage 3, stage 2, then a period of REM

sleep (beta)

..then it's back down again, and back up again, and down
again...you get the picture. As shown in the figure below, in an 8 hour
period of sleep, the brain cycles through these stages about 4-5 times
for an adult.

Children spend more time in REM and stage 4 and the overall
time for each cycle is less time -- is a bit more rapid from cycle to cycle.
Electroencephalogram (EGG) Patterns Associated with Sleep (average
adult)

Sleep Hours Across the Lifespan

Source: National Sleep Foundation (2014)

Note: Times include naps (includes naps)
0-2 months
12-18 hours
3-11 months
14-15 hours
1-3 years 12-14 hours
3-5 years 11-13 hours
5-10 years
10-11 hours
17+
7-9 hours
Color Coded Hypnogram to Illustrate Average Adult Sleep
Pattern (approx 25 to 60 yrs.)

Comparison of Sleep Across the Lifespan

Note: For comparison purposes, each hypnogram below for
each developmental period shows 8 hours of sleep, but each
period of development has a typical shorter or longer period
depending on age as indicated below.
Childhood through young Adolescence
(note the deeper cycles than adults)

10

11
Can continue
for another 2 to
3 hours with
another REM
period,
particularly at
younger ages.
More time in
deeper sleep
makes more
opportunity for
some sleep
disorders to
occur than in
adults.
Older Adolescence through Mid Adulthood
(note how the cycles become more shallow)

Time can be
more or less
than 8 hours.
Average is 7 - 9.
REM periods
can be 4 or 5.

Older Adulthood
(note the awakenings but keep in mind that this is in large
part due to other issues of older age that briefly disturb sleep,
which is fine because sleep is designed to be periodically
disturbed)

Typical NIGHT TIME sleep for older adults is actually in the 6

hour range but can be more or less depending on the
individual. In this hypnogram, the person could have woken up
just after 6 hours and probably would have been fine. The
actual awakening appears to be in progress at about 7 hours.
3 or 4 REM periods are typical during older adulthood.

Be careful about thinking of older adult sleep as light sleep.

Older adults do not have suracce sleep in theta. In fact, very
deep sleep happens often but is more likely to be disturbed due
to psyiological issues in older adulthood. Remember, humans
are made to handle disturbances during sleep and you see that
in this hpnogram -- the disturbances are very brief and then
person goes right back into deep sleep.
Also factor naps in older adulthood that are longer in duration
and more frequent. Overall sleep in older adults is not much
different than younger adults if you factor in naps. In older
adulthood, it is typical to have 1 or even 2 naps in the
afternoon totaling an hour or more. Although HGH is produced
less in older age there is still the need to recover and
reenergize like anyone else. Deep sleep, including REM, can
happen during naps.
We (younger adults) would have the same pattern if disturbed.
For example, parents with new kids are often disturbed but go
right back to sleep and take naps later to catch up.
Older adult sleep you could say is more fragmented.

Sleep Disorders
Note: Sleep disorders and sleep problems that are not full-blown sleep
disorders are often confused for ADHD and other behavior problems. Sleep
issues should always be ruled out. This can sometimes be difficult to do in
school settings.

Dysomnias -- Difficulty sleeping

Parasomnias -- Movements during sleep

Common with Adults an d Young Adults:

Sleep Apnea

characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep

and consequent momentary reawakenings

Exercise

Weight loss

Therapy

Reducing alcohol and pills

CPAP device

Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
True insomnia requires medical intervention.

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks

sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune

times.

Onset in adolescence and young adulthood but can happen when

younger or older.

Happens because of various problems related to releasing

norepinepherine which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and
low levels of the neurotransmitter hypocretin, which promotes
wakefulness.

Research suggests that problems in the brainstem, autoimmune

response, and genetic mutations cause this.

Treatment -- Medial intervention, often includes stimulants.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11739821for more
information

Common with Children:

Nightmare Disorder
Occurs during REM
Awake with vivid recollection of a dream
Causes -- stress, anxiety, medical issue


Treatment -- First line is to simply reduce stress and anxiety,
particularly at home where the person sleeps. Can require therapy and
possibly medication.

Sleepwalking Disorder

High motor arousal.

In stages 3 and 4. Non-REM

Most persons do not need specific treatment for sleepwalking.

In some cases, short-acting tranquilizers have been helpful in

reducing sleepwalking episodes.

Some people mistakenly believe that a sleepwalker should not be

awakened. It is not dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker, although it is
common for the person to be confused or disoriented for a short time
when they wake up.

Another misconception is that a person cannot be injured while

sleepwalking. Sleepwalkers are commonly injured when they trip and
lose their balance.

Safety measures may be needed to prevent injury. This may

include moving objects such as electrical cords or furniture to reduce
the chance of tripping and falling. Stairways may need to be blocked
with a gate.

Cause unknown. Could be stress, fatigue, lack of sleep.

Treatment typically not necessary for typical sleepwalking (see

information from Mayo Clinic at http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/sleepwalking/basics/definition/con-20031795 and NIH at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001811/)

Night Terrors

high autonomic physiological arousal (sweats, neurotransmitters

firing, etc.) but less actual motor arousal. appearance of being terrified

usually in Stage 3 or 4, within 2-3 hours of falling asleep.

No real dream is remembered.

Cause unknown. Could be stress, fatigue, lack of sleep.

Treatment is to simply comfort the child (see information from NIH

at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001812/ and mayo
Clinic at http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/nightterrors/basics/definition/con-20032552)

Depression

Anxiety
Fight or flight response, a combination of epinephrine and norepinephrine,
become too intense for too long and during times when not needed. The
GABA neurotransmitter, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, does not act to
inhibit the response.

Bipolar
Limbic System problem resulting from enlarged ventricles and or
nueurotransmitters or other disregulation.
Amygadala
Septum
Hippocampus
Lateral ventricles (other ventricles toothe third had been discussed)

Prefrontal cortex problem resulting from enlarged ventricles and or

problems with nueurotransmitter regulation
Neurotransmitters(too much or too little) in one or more of the
following:
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Hereditary link
Autism
No truly known etiology
Lack of hemispheric specialization
Lack of brain integration
Too many neurons and/or synaptic connections (Cornell research)
Declarative vs Nondeclarative memory use (Klingers research at UA)
In 2014 approx 1 in 64 with autism, which is up from 1 in approximatley
86 just a few years earlier.
Genetic link becoming more substantiated and possibly related to the
increase.
In crease may represent more than mere recognoition and may also
reflect a true increase in the incidence and prevalence of the disaorder.
Brain chemistry may play a role in eventual cure (e.g., benzos)
Schizophrenia
Lateral ventricles http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray734.png
Dopamine
Genetics
Language Disorders
Problems in left hemisphere. Wernickes area in left temporal lobe
implicated in receptive language problems and Brocas area in left
frontal lobe implicated in expressive language problems.

Language Development: Roughly 0 to 3

How We Learn Language

No other animal seems to be able to acquire and develop language ability as humans do

Children in different cultures learn to speak very different languages, but they all seem to go
through the same sequence of stages

Language Stages

Infants communicate through crying, with different cries for hunger and for pain, and through
movement and facial expressions

Prefer baby talk (or motherese) the different format of speech that adults use when talking with
babies that involves the use of shorter sentences with a higher, more melodious pitch than normal
speech

Language Stages

Cooing at 1 to 2 months. Vowel-like sounds

At about 4 to 6 months, babbling, the rhythmic repetition of various syllables, including both
consonants and vowels, begins

At about 1 year of age, the infant begins to speak a few words, which usually refer to their
caregivers and objects in their daily environment

First Words 10 to 16 months -- bye-bye, mama, more, etc

Infants use holophrases (or holophrastic speech), at 12 18 months by combining one or two
words with intonation and gestures to form a general idea.

Language Stages

Vocabulary grows slowly until about 18 months, and then infants learn about 100 words or more
per month

Overextension: The application of a newly learned word to objects that are not included in the
meaning of the word (e.g., calling any female person mama)

Underextension: The failure to apply the new word more generally to objects that are included
within the meaning of the new word (e.g., not extending the category of dog to include dogs that
are not the family pet)

Language Stages

Between 18 and 24 months, children experience a vocabulary-acquisition spurt and words are
combined into sentences

Telegraphic speech is the use of multiple 2-word sentences with mainly nouns and verbs (e.g.,
Dada eat for Dad is having dinner and go by-by for then has to go to work). These multiple 2word statements form more complete ideas and begin to be expanded.

Between the ages of 2 and 5 years, the child implicitly acquires grammar of the native language
Rapid Language Growth 30 36 months By age three, average child has about a 1,000 word
vocabulary and use three-word sentences.

Complex Grammar 3 to 6 years Make gains in constructing phrases, asking questions, putting
together thoughs, etc.

Language Stages

Language development is a genetically programmed ability; however, this ability is not developed
without exposure to human speech (phonemic awareness studies with infants

Thus, both nature and nurture are vital to language development.

Cognitive Development Ages 2 - 7

Cognitive Development based on Multiple Factors

Parallels the growth of the brain

Increased levels of myelinization

Continued pruning
Elaboration based on experience

Enhanced by the broader range of experience

Expanding peer networks

Greater diversity in interactions with adults
The childs own increased mobility

Brain/Neural Development

3 Brain has grown dramatically by producing billions of cells and hundreds of trillions of
connections, or synapses, between these cells. Language begins to develop rapidly. 4 primary
senses and motor skills are very developed almost fully. Vision (occipital) is fully developed.
Sensation (sensory strip in parietal) is almost fully developed. Great strides in language, although
still very immature.

5 Basic motor skills very well developed (areas of motor strip in back of frontal lobe). Brain starts
degenerating neural links (not neurons) to make way for more used areas or functioning. Gross
motor becomes very sophisticated by about age 5.

6 Language continues to exponentially develop and become more complex, but still not fully
developed (left brain still forming). Reasoning skills much more advanced but still immature
(frontal lobe, particularly prefrontal, not fully developedbut is getting there).

While we know that the development of a young childs brain takes years to complete, we also
know there are many things parents and caregivers can do to help children get off to a good start
and establish healthy patterns for life-long learning!!!!


Three Theoretical Perspectives

Piaget We will elaborate

Vygotsky We will elaborate

Information Processing This is new!

Schema Theory (from Piaget)

Piaget did not conduct formal experiments, but rather loosely structured interviews in which he
posed problems for children to solve, observed their actions carefully, and questioned them about
their solutions. Happens from birth.

Was particularly interested in childrens error, which would provide insights into childrens thought
processes

Assumed that a child is an active

seeker of knowledge and gains an understanding of the world by operating on it

Schema Theory

Organized units of knowledge about objects, events, and actions

Cognitive adaptation

involves two processes

Assimilation is the interpretation of new experiences in terms of present schemes

Accommodation is the modification of present
schemes to fit with new experiences

Equilibrium = Gets it! (in terms of available knowledge)

Schema Theory

For example, a child may call all four-legged creatures doggie

The child learns he needs to accommodate (i.e., change) his schemes, as only one type of fourlegged creature is dog

It is through accommodation that the number and complexity of a childs schemes increase and
learning
occurs

It is when the schema is satisfied with the knowledge(this can and does change over time)

With that said

Piagets Perspectives: Application to Moving into Preoperational Thought

Transition from Sensorimotor into Preoperational Thought

Capable of using symbolic thought to perform mental tasks

Mental operations may not be available for reflective consideration

Piagets Perspectives: Application of Cognitive Representations

Progression of mental capabilities

Use of language to represent symbols

Recognizes when stories are told out of order

Explanations are more complex

Use of art to represent symbols

Drawings tend to be more realistic as the child progresses across the early childhood years

Use of play to model roles and objects

Can use one object to represent other objects

Piagets Perspectives: Application of Preoperational Thought to Learning

Intuitive thought

Based on personal experiences

Logic based on unanalyzed personal experiences (e.g. flag theory of wind and air conditioner
theory of summer)

Egocentrism

Failure to take others perspectives

Sees others as having ones own perspective

Animistic thought

Attributes animate qualities to inanimate objects

Artificialism

Attributes natural phenomena (sunsets, tides) to direct human action

Knowing this helps us interact with children in multiple contexts!

Vygotsky

Socio-Cultural Theory

Agreed with Piaget that children are active learners, but their knowledge is socially constructed.

Cultural values and customs dictate what is important to learn.

Children learn from more expert members of the society.

Vygotsky described the "zone of proximal development", where learning occurs.

Vygotskys Perspective: Application to Classroom Learning

required the presence of a more competent other

required the more competent other to mediate the process of learning and development

Vygotskys Perspective: Concepts for Application in the Classroom

Concepts for Application:

Zone of Proximal Development: more competent other assists the child in moving from what the
child can do independently to that which the child can do only with support

Scaffolding: the process of supporting the child across the zone of proximal development
Impacts on educational practices:

Teacher as a coach or facilitator

Emphasis on cooperative learning with mixed ability groups


Vygotskys Perspective (and Piagets): Applications to Development of Gender Norms (and other
socially constructed knowledge)

Girls left brain develops sooner and boys right brain develops sooner. Both start to equal out
around age 6 8 and or completely equal before puberty (thats the Piaget part).

However, socialization, particularly in Western culture, reinforces gender language roles (thats the
Vygotsky part).

Norms and other socially constructed knowledge happen in similar ways and are strongly shaped
in this period of development. What are your experiences with this?

*Information Processing Theory

Uses the model of the computer to describe how the brain works.

Focuses on how information is perceived, how information is stored in memory, how memories are
retrieved and then used to solve problems.

*Information Processing Theory

Encodinginitial input of information from environment (sense organs; perception; attention)

Transformationprocesses operating on that information (strategiesdepth of processing)

Storageretention of the information (network modelsschema structures)

Retrievalrecall or recognition of the information from memory (strategiessearch of memory)

Executive functionmanagement, monitoring, and control of cognitive domain (metacognition;

cognitive monitoring; selection and use of strategies;

Developmental Considerations for Interventions

Capacity increasesamount of information one can process

Maturation of the CNS (central nervous system)

Increased practice at particular tasks (using naming, answering questions, other similar strategies)
pays off

Rehearsal strategies (e.g., what is meaningful as opposed to rote) pay off

Making leaning meaningful and engaging the entire brain (e.g., what mentioned above, multimodal
strategies, etc.

Developmental Considerations for Interventions

Efficiency increasesamount and /or complexity of processing by unit time

Maturation of the CNS

Acquisition of more efficient strategies (e.g., recency/primacy, SQ3R, connecting to meaning)

Transition from controlled to automatic processing

Developmental Considerations
for Interventions

Controlled Processes

Conscious (child is aware of the steps)

Each step is monitored (child knows outcomes)

 Requires additional processing resources (limited capability for parallel tasksmultitasking)

Examples:

Early reading behavior

Early mathematics computation

Learning to drive a manual transmission

Developmental Considerations for Interventions

Automatic Processes

Steps largely outside of awareness (Child is not aware of discrete processes)

Overall progress is monitored (outcomes of each step likely not monitored but overall task success
is monitored)

Requires fewer conscious processing resources (multi-tasking is possible)

Examples:

Reading familiar texts

Simple arithmetic computations

Driving a manual transmission car after practice

Developmental Considerations
for Interventions

Transition from controlled to automatic processes occurs through

Practice
Acquisition of knowledge base
Acquisition of more efficient strategies

o Note: Example is tying shoes, riding a bike, learning to rad effortlessly. This is part of
moving from declarative to nondeclarative memory that we will discuss when we discuss
memory specifically.

Developmental Considerations
for Interventions

Fostering Controlled Attentionability to sustain focus of mental resources

Early on, young children typically require an adult or more competent individual to help sustain
attention (Vygotsky)

As CNS matures and more effective strategies are acquired, child is able to manage own focus
(natural = pruning, myelination; nurture = scafolding, teaching and rehearsing strategies)

Early Childhood Education

Educational issues around Readiness Levels

Many of those who test as not ready for kindergarten can be accommodated in regular
kindergarten classes

Old-for-grade tends to be more predictive of problems than movement into kindergarten with some
additional support.

Therefore, schools might be reconstrued as being ready for children vs. children as being ready for
schools.

Preschool programs helpful but problems still exist.

Class Exercise

Get into groups.

Using what we covered today and earlier in the course along with your readings and other
assignments, discuss among your group what you can to improve the school experience for
children in PK-2 grades (this should include academic as well as social).

Note: State/Federal IDEIA regs define educational

outcomes.

outcomes to include social

Cognitive Development: Very Young Children (0 to roughly 2)

Apgar Scale

Brain/Neural Development Milestones During Infancy

Infant Reflexes Automatic responses to stimulation. Happens during first 6 months and is not as
much controlled via cortex at this point. Cortex takes over more after 6 months because dendrite
connections and myelination increase. By 1, brain is about 60% of adult weight.

Tonic Neck Reflex -- Arms extend when head is turned to side.

Palmar Grasp Reflex Grabs someone elses finger when the persons finger is pressed against
the babys palm.

Babinski Reflex Big toe extends and little toe spreads when bottom of foot is stroked.
Moro Reflex When head is suddenly dropped while body is supported or when there is a loud
sound, baby arches back and extends legs and arm looking like grabbing for support.

Sensory Ability

Vision

Vision is 20/600 at birth

Within days prefer facial images to other images

Full color at 2 -3 months

Some depth perception by 6 months; vision improves to about 20/100 by 6 month

Hearing

Quite sensitive, close to adult

Within a few days, prefer human sounds to other sounds and have some voice recognition.

Immediate sound localization (turn toward sound) at birth. This disappears for a few months during
the first year but then reappears and becomes sophisticated by 1 year. This is due to the brains
pruning and generating of connections and myelination.

Taste

Bitter, sweet, sour, and salty (all taste sensation) can be distinguished at birth.

Preference for sweets (attracts to mothers milk and detracts from toxins).

Smell

React to and discriminate smells after a few days.

Neural/Brain Development

0 2 Years -- Newborns brain is about 25 percent of its approximate adult weight. Most of the
neurons ever needed are present, but the glial cells, mylenation, and increased connections (not
increase in number of neurons) is what accounts for increase in weight and development over time.
Birth trough age one entails much basic sensorimotor development (sensori and motor strips).

2 -- Two up to beginning of age 3 entails more development of sensorimotor as well as association

areas (entire cerebral cortex grows rapidly, although still very immature).

Language Development

Cooing -- Begins at 1 to 2 months. Vowel-like sounds.

Babbling Begins at 4 to 6 months consonant-vowel combinations like bababa. Sounds

resemble primary language by about 9 months.

First Words 10 to 16 months -- bye-bye, mama, more, etc.

Holophrastic Speech 12 to 18 months Combines word with intonation and gestures.

Telegraphic Speech 18 to 24 months Two word sentences. such as Hi Daddy or My car, etc.

Rapid Language Growth 30 36 months By age three, average child has about a 1,000 word
vocabulary and use three-word sentences.

Complex Grammar 3 to 6 years Make gains in constructing phrases, asking questions, putting
together thoughs, etc.

Cognitive Development: Adolescent and Pre-Adolescent Considerations: Roughly Ages 9-18

Brain/Neural Development

8-9 Fine motor skills exponentially increase. Strides in writing, manipulating etc. (maturation of
frontal lobe and the motor strip).

9- Parietal lobe matures greatly at this point. The Angular Gyri and other components of the
parietal lobe allow for greater cooperation with left (language in left temporal is developing very
rapidly at this point) and right temporal lobes to facilitate symbolic processing required for math
skills. Can facilitate gains by incorporating flash cards and math drills because the brain is now
hardwired to take this on.

13 The frontal and prefrontal areas are maturing but are still not fully mature. The limbic system
(governs emotions) is quite mature but it is not commensurate with the frontal and prefrontal areas.
Thus, emotional instability exists because it is not under strong executive functions. The parietal
lobes are quite mature and allow for very good analytical reasoning. The discrepancies in
development account for why adolescents are weird at this stage.

15 Brain begins to become very specialized. This is because unused neural connections die off
and the areas used more begin to flourish due to increased use and thus increased connectivity.

17 Fontal lobes and prefrontal come becoming more mature but not totally (frontal last area to
mature). More planning and self-control possible.

21 Frontal lobe nearly fully developed. Hugh gains in executive function (planning, control,
emotional regulation) happen between 17 and 21.

21- 30 The frontal lobe still continues to develop during this time. Full myelination may not
happen until 30 or so.

Important Considerations

Frontal lobe

Limbic system

Should have an active say in learning and psychological interventions

Learning and psychological interventions must connect.

Active listening is important in learning and psychological interventions

Have mental and physical abilities to be creative on in a variety of contexts.

Semantic memory increases (peaks between 18-25)

Reading/Language window, however, falls off.

Language Development across Early Childhood (roughly ages 3 and up)

Language Development across Early Childhood (roughly ages 3 and up)

Vocabulary Development occurs through:

Exposure and reinforcement

Repetition
Childs own analysis and construction of rules and structures (remember schema theory and
symbolic representation)

Language Development across Early Childhood

Syntactic Development (rules for language)

Syntactic structure learned through exposure & attempts

Telegraphic speech is an early syntactic form

Noun (agent) verb (predicate); object implied

Verb (predicate) noun (object); agent implied

Noun (agent) noun (object); predicate implied

Language Development across Early Childhood

Syntactic Development

Rules can be overregularized

Child recognizes a rule should be applied

Application of a rule is syntactically appropriate but incorrect (e.g. runrunned instead of ran)

Indicates the child is constructing rules and structures

Errors typically reflect syntactic rather than semantic errors (errors in structure, not meaning)

Language Development across Early Childhood

Bilingual Children

Three models

Simultaneous

Both languages learned simultaneously

Most effective if each parent consistently uses one language

Tend to be more fluent in both

Additive

One language is learned first

Second language is learned following some fluency in first language

Most common in the USA culture

Subtractive

First language is learned to some fluency

Second language is learned as a preferential language or as a replacement for the first language

Language Development across Early Childhood

Bilingual Children

Cultural norms and bilingualism

Cultures that value bi or multilingualism tend to have either simultaneous or additive bilingualism

Cultures that devalue one of the two languages tend to have subtractive bilingualism

True bilingualism (simultaneous or additive) tends to be related to more astute language users

Learning Languages Later in Life

Languages are exponentially harder to learn as one grows older. Becomes much harder in later
childhood and very hard in adolescence and adulthood.

The sense of phonemic awareness begins to decline after being very acute in earlier years.

Research on Bilingualism and Language and Cognition

Infant studies on phonemic awareness

Whorfs Linguistic Hypothesis Language shapes cognition, based on Hopi language study of
time.

Brain research on language

Personality testing and language

Intelligence testing and language

Back translation of psychological measures

Class Discussion

What is your personal experience with language as it related to Whorfs Linguistic Hypothesis?

Memory Systems
1. Sensory Memory -- This actually happens very briefly for everything we see and hear.
Although it is a very brief phenomenon, the information is actually available in sensory
memory for a few seconds (auditory lingers a bit longer than visual).
Iconic STM -- visual
Echo STM -- auditory

Note: Also STM for touch and taste but it works a bit differently residual is different.
Smell is routed straight to olfactory bulb in the limbic system area (emotion) and can be a
potential very powerful LTM.
If sensory memory is the focus of attention, THEN it goes to STM.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM; sometimes referred to as primary STM) Where
information is held before processed. Very raw. STM holds 7 +-2 elements up to 30
seconds. Must hold for 20 30 seconds if the information is to be processed farther -otherwise, the STM will simply fade.

Short-Term Working Memory (WM) -- Ability to use information in STM to

perform action with it (e.g., dial a number, repeat something backwards, use
directions, rehearse a line, etc.) . This gets the information to hold in STM. IF held
for 20-30 seconds, the information has a better chance to move on to LTM but it is
not guaranteed to do so. The transfer from STM to LTM is not fully understood
(see information on forgetting).

Note: One may have a problem with one or the other, cog tests pick this up and can help
plan interventions, which can be quite different depending if STM, STWM, or both.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) Subsystems - All the learning that stays with us is
organized into the following systems. LTM impacts everything we perceive and how we
respond.
Types of
long-term
memories

Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(semantic
memory)

Personally
experienced
events
(episodic
memory)

Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall

Skills-motor
and cognitive

Once in LTM the memory is basically there for life.

Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects

Better organized declarative LTMs are typically easier to access than haphazardly
organized ones.

LTMs that traverse multiple brain regions are typically better organized than ones
that are not.

LTMS that are BOTH well organized AND traverse multiple regions are almost
always going to be very solid and accessible LTMs.

LTMs that becomes non-declarative are accessible without having to consciously

recall it. See above and keep in mind flashbulb memories that are linked to
limbic system.

Forgetting
o

Forgetting is generally something that never actually became a LTM -- either

stayed in STM and then faded or never got passed sensory memory (so it never got
attended to in the first place or it did not get a chance to process through the
hippocampus).

Disease or injury, however, can take away LTM.

Memory decay is theory that suggests some memory traces that become less
active or inactive can actually fade. This has some debate as to what actually
causes the decay and is it actually decay (see below).

Interference is when memories compete with one another and may not
necessarily wipe away an LTM but can make a less accessible while making
another more accessible. Two types of interference :

Retroactive (backwards interference) -- New experience interferes with an

earlier one. For example, learning Spanish in college interferes with the
French you learned French in high school, You end up answering anything
said in French with Spanish. The new learning is interfering with the old.

Proactive (forward interference) -- Old experience interferes with new.

Opposite of above. The French you learned in high school interferes with
the Spanish you are trying to learn in college. This happened to me!!!

Recency and Primacy (serial position) -- Beginning has gone to LTM and end is
still in STM but middle is neither. Example, children have more difficulty with
letters in the middle of alphabet. Students have more trouble recalling what is in
the middle of a lecture. You see this on IQ and memory subtests (e.g., digits and/or
letters forward or backwards). How you structure lessons/studying can impact the
effect and maximize (or minimize) memory.

Order of Presentation and Attitude-- This is a social psychology concept predicated

on the serial position effect and interference..
o ALL OTHER THINGS EQUAL, when both sides of an argument
(typically argument but can be also sometimes apply to a message or
statement) are presented, the side presented FIRST will have a greater
impact if the second argument follows IMMEDIATELY after the first and a
measure of attitude is done at a later time. This is the primacy effect at
work because the first has had the opportunity to process into LTM while
the second is still processing somewhere in STM and is competing with the
forward interference from the first.
o

Conversely, if a period of time comes between the two and an attitude

measure is taken IMMEDIATELY after the second, then it is the SECOND
one that will have the greater impact. This is the recency effect at work
because the second become a sharper memory than the first, even if still in
whole or in part a STM, and, because of the position and time laps, creates
backwards interference that competes with the first.

No discernible difference in impact from either a first or second one if the

second immediately follows the first AND an assessment of attitude takes
place immediately after the second. Likewise, no discernible difference in
impact if there is a period of time between both arguments AND the
attitude measure is done at a later time.
Source: Any social psych text that covers attitude change and order of
presentation. Also see Johnson, 1991.

Repression -- an unconscious, Freudian mechanism (this is an issue in crisis

response).