Communicative English

Unit I
Communication:
Communication (from Latin commnicre, meaning "to share"[1]) is the act of conveying intended meaning to another entity through the use of mutually
understoodsigns and semiotic rules. The basic steps of communication are the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding,
transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally interpretation of the message by the recipient.

The study of communication can be divided into communication studies, which concerns only human communication, and biosemiotics, which examines the
communication of organisms in general. Communication is usually visual, auditory, or biochemical, while human communication is unique for its extensive use
oflanguage.

Communication process

Communication is a process, and if the process breaks down, communication will fail. In this
lesson, you'll learn about the communication process. We'll also discuss how the concept of noise
can disrupt this process.
Communication Defined
Lindsey is the supervisor of a team of employees in a research and development department for a small tech company that focuses its research on new
apps. Her boss wants Lindsey to work on a new project. But Lindsey can't successfully manage her team in order to complete the project unless she is able
to effectively communicate with them. Communication is the process of conveying information between two or more people. The communication
process is the steps we take in order to achieve a successful communication.

Communication
The communication process consists of several components. Let's take a look.
A sender is the party that sends a message. Lindsey, of course, will be the sender. She'll also need themessage, which is the information to be conveyed.
Lindsey will also need to encode her message, which is transforming her thoughts of the information to be conveyed into a form that can be sent, such as
words.
A channel of communication must also be selected, which is the manner in which the message is sent. Channels of communication include speaking,
writing, video transmission, audio transmission, electronic transmission through emails, text messages and faxes and even nonverbal communication,
such as body language. Lindsey also needs to know the target of her communication. This party is called the receiver.
The receiver must be able to decode the message, which means mentally processing the message into understanding. If you can't decode, the message
fails. For example, sending a message in a foreign language that is not understood by the receiver probably will result in decoding failure.
Sometimes, a receiver will give the sender feedback, which is a message sent by the receiver back to the sender. For example, a member of Lindsey's
team may provide feedback in the form a question to clarify some information received in Lindsey's message.

Verbal communication
Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as nonverbal communication, listening skills and clarification. Human language can be defined as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and
the grammars(rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally
occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable
communication with others around them. Languages tend to share certain properties, although there are exceptions. There is no defined line between a language
and a dialect.Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted to the
properties shared by human languages. Communication is two-way process not merely one-way.

An Effective Communication Process*:

Use standard terminology when communicating information. Request and provide clarification when needed. Ensure statements are direct and unambiguous.
Inform the appropriate individuals when the mission or plans change. Communicate all information needed by those individuals or teams external to the team.
Use nonverbal communication appropriately. Use proper order when communicating information. * for formal English-speaking groups

Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Examples of nonverbal communication include haptic
communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expression, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates
to intent of a message. Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. [2] Speech
also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm, intonation, tempo, and stress. There may even be a pheromone component. Research
has shown that up to 55% of human communication may occur through non-verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through para-language. [3] It affects
communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial
arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.
Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawick's laws: you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin
interpreting any signals received.[4] Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to
replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.
Pros & Cons of communication:

Pros and Cons of Communication in the Workplace

Oct 23, 2015

Have you ever noticed how certain employees or teams within the workplace seem to isolate themselves from everyone else? There
is always that one person or group that no one seems to know very well. This makes it difficult to know where their production
levels happen to be, what the quality of their work is, or to determine if their actions are beneficial to the overall company mission.
A transparent system of communication can help to solve these problems

What Are the Pros of Communication in the Workplace?

1. It opens up additional avenues for creativity to drive down.
Humans are intricate beings who have amazing stories to tell. The experiences that we each have are unique to ourselves. There
really is no one in this world who is exactly like us. It is this level of individuality that inspires creativity in a wide variety of ways.
When there is adequate communication in the workplace, this creativity can be sent to where it needs to go so a job can get done.
2. It closes the distance that exists between two people or groups.
Communication ultimately allows one person or group to step into the shoes of someone else, even if it is only for a brief period of
time. This allows each party to the communication to experience a perspective that is outside of their own. The information that is
gathered from such an experience can then deepen a personal perspective while it draws people together.
3. Workplace communication can inspire innovation.
What is unique about human communication is that it conveys information. Humans are like sponges, absorbing little bits of data
and influence from those who are around them every day. This information can be passed along not only from person to person, but
from generation to generation. Communication in the workplace can inspire innovation because a fresh set of eyes can see gaps in
the information that others might not have been able to see.
4. It happens quickly and requires little in the way of time investment.
In the past, it was almost a necessity for remote teams to work independently of one another because of communication
limitations. Those limitations no longer exist. If it is possible to speak in real-time with an office that is half a world away, then it is
possible to speak with the employee who sits three desks down to get their perspective on things. Many of the limitations that get
placed on communication today are self-imposed.

What Are the Cons of Communication in the Workplace?

1. Sometimes communication is more about deception.
One of the harsh truths about the workplace is that there are always politics in play. What makes us all different can make us
stronger when we can come together, but it can also cause people to gather in groups where they feel most comfortable. If one
group wants to gain an advantage over another group, then the communication in the workplace may be deceptive in nature so that
edge can be obtained.
2. It can tear people apart.
Communication can be helpful in bringing people together, but it can also drive a wedge between them as well. There is such a
thing as too much honesty. Telling someone that they are a lousy, unproductive worker might be a description of the truth, but it
doesnt help to build that person up to become productive. If we are not careful about the words that we choose to say in the
workplace, then people can be driven apart.
3. It creates too much connectivity at times.
Some communication in the workplace is a good thing. With modern technology, however, many workers are hyper-connected to
each other. There is no place where someone can escape unless they decide to unplug themselves from their network. When that
happens, they may find peace, but theyll also lose out on the communication that happens while theyre on the outside, creating a
future disadvantage. In some ways, hyper-connectivity is a no-win situation.
4. Communication can be difficult to decipher at times.
Communication can happen quickly today, but that doesnt mean a complete understanding has been conveyed through that quick
burst of data. Workplace communications today can be limited and fast, making it difficult to figure out what is being said or what
the purpose of the intentions happen to be. This makes miscommunication more likely simply because there are so many efforts to
communicate with one another today.
The pros and cons of communication in the workplace show that sometimes there can be too much of a good thing. Communication
should be effective, precise, and meaningful. When that happens, there is no limit to the stories that can be told.
Communicative English Exercises:
One mark Questions:
Fill ups using only definite and Indefinite articles:1. Meet ______________ Man in blue dress. (the)
2. He is ______________ Manager. (the)
3. The police booked _____ F.I.R. (an)
4. He is __________ M.Sc., graduate. (an)
5. Each one should have _________ dictionary. (a)
6. I have _____________ car. (a)
7. One day _________ old man came to my village. (an)
8. __________ hour before it had happened. (an)
9. I waited for ___________ hour. (an)
10. ___________ Ravi phoned you yesterday. (A)
11. Shall we have __________ race this evening. (a)
12. He is _____________ member of __________ comittee. (a1, the2)
13. Brutus was ____________ honourable man. (an)
14. Hercules __________ novels of H.G. walls. (the)
15. I read ______ Indian Express. (the)
16. It is __________ x-ray room. (an)
17. __________ jasmine is the sweetest flower. (The)
18. Put __________ sugar in my cup of tea. (some)
19. Give me __________ apple (some)
20. Kuala lumpur is _________ big city (a)
21. I saw __________ woman under ___________ tree. (a1, a2)
22. She held ___________ baby in her arms. (a)
23. _____________ heiress. (an)
24. _____________ honorary secretary. (An)
25. ________ Godavari (the)
26. ________ Atlantic ocean. (The)
27. ________ more _______ merries. (the1, the2)
28. Hercules is
_______ bhima of Greek mythology. ( the)
29. Please give me _________ milk, I won't drink tea. (a)
30. _________ sincere student is never late to the class unless there ______ emergy. (a, is)
31. It is believed that __________ apple _______ day keeps the doctor away. (an, a)
32. My father loves __________ western music, whereas my younger brother loves _________ classical music. (a, a)
33. There ________ dirt on this plate and _________ dirty mark on _________ table cloth. (a, a, the)
34. Suresh, would you like to have an omelette for your breakfast or an only bread and Jam?
35. Latha : I would like to have ________ fruits (some)
36. ______ house which is made of _________ marble, looks beautiful. (a, a)
37. ________ Australian sheep gives us very good wool. (an)
38. You can write the message on ________ piece of paper or in _________ notebook. (a, a)
39. Italy is _________ European country. (a)

40.
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58.
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If one wants to come up in his carrier, _________ intelligence alone is not enough but ________ luck also should favour him. (a, a)
______ honorary secretary is one who is not paid for her services. (an)
The question of how old _______ earth is remained un
Answered for many hundreds of years. (the)
There are many kinds of theories handed down since ancient times. __________ (the) sky is __________ (the) limit for such theories.
About 400 years ago it was proved that _________ (the) Earth was part of _______ (the) solar system.
It served as ________ (a) clue to know _______ age of _______ earth. (the2, the3)
Much later _______ scientists started ________ studying about _______ moon. (the, the, the)
What _______ beautiful shirt! is it made of ___________ silk? or _______ terry - cotton? (a, a, a)
No it is not made of ________ cotton. (a)
I got it stitched near ________ Gandhi Road (the)
Very nice. I'm going to ________ hospital to visit my cousin, who is injured in _______ accident. (the, an)
Meena is _______ spirited nine years old girl who has stolen the hearts of ________ Bangladesh is through her dance recitals. (a, the)
She is travelling through ______India ________ Pakistan and ________ Nepal (the, the, the)
Next year she pl
Ans to visit __________ USA and _______ UK to give dance recitals. (the, the)
____________ feather in one's cap (a)
Birds of __________ feather flock together (a)
__________ pill to swallow. (a)
What ________ fun we have today. (a)
There is _______ little powder left in the tin. (a)
_______ Penthouse is ______ kind of house built on __________ roof. (a, a, a)
I never experienced such ________ summer. (a)
___________ Queen Mary. (The)
___________ Indian ocean. (The)
I met___________ old woman at Alankar theatre (an)
The old woman had ___________ dog. (a)
___________Unilateral decision. (a)
She is ________ nice girl. (a)
He is _________ Indian. (an)
Put ______ sugar. (some)
Put ________ hand full of salt. (a)
__________ you think English is easy
Ans: Do
77. __________ you taken any tablets for it
Ans: Have
78. It is right to say _________ you please help me.
Ans: could
79. The roof of the mouth is called__________
Ans: Plate
80. The study of sound is called __________
Ans: Phonetics
81. Vowels are __________ in number
Ans: 12
82. Consonants are __________ in number
Ans: 24
83. Noun is a __________
Ans: Naming Word
84. Pronouns are used instead of __________
Ans: nouns
85. I __________ done my work
Ans: Had
86. Verb is an __________
Ans: action word
87. I saw a beggar near __________ bus stop.
Ans: the
88. __________ lotus is lovely flowers.
Ans: The
89. Iron & Steel __________ controlled commodities.
Ans: are
90. By next july we __________ living here for four years.
Ans: shall have been
91. The Chinese __________ attacked the Russi
Ans.
Ans: Have
92. I __________ not found such enquires useful.
Ans: Have
93. The patient __________ slept.
Ans: Has
94. The case __________ the lawyer famous.
Ans: made
95. The aeroplane took __________ at six o clock
Ans: off
96. Let the door __________ opened.
Ans: be
97. You __________ loved me.
Ans: Had
98. Anil __________ not complete the work this year
Ans: will
99. Wilson __________ the tallest in our class.
Ans: is
100. _________ then trained to break the lock.
Ans: found

Unit II
Phonetics
Phonetics (pronounced /fntks/, from the Greek: , phn, 'sound, voice') is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of
human speech, orin the case of sign languagesthe equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs
(phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with
the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs.
The field of phonetics is a multilayered subject of linguistics that focuses on speech. In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:

Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker.

Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener.

Auditory phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener.

These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude, and harmonics.
Organs of speech:

Speech organs produce the sounds of language. Organs used include the lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum (soft palate), uvula and glottis.

Speech organsor articulatorsare of two types: passive articulators and active articulators. Passive articulators remain static during the articulation of sound.
[1]

Upper lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvula, and pharynx wall are passive articulators. Active articulators move relative to these passive

articulators to produce various speech sounds, in different manners. The most important active articulator is the tongue as it is involved in the production of the
majority of sounds. The lower lip is other active articulator. But glottis is not active articulator because it is only a space between vocal folds.

Vowels:

In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. In the more common phonetic definition, a vowel is a sound pronounced with
an open vocal tract, so that the tongue does not touch the lips, teeth, or roof of the mouth, such as the English "ah" // or "oh" /o/. There is no build-up of air
pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as the English "sh" [], which have a constriction or closure at some point along the
vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as syllabic, the sound that forms the peak of a syllable. A phonetically equivalent but nonsyllabic sound is a semivowel.

In oral languages, phonetic vowels normally form the peak (nucleus) of many to all syllables, whereasconsonants form the onset and (in languages that have
them) coda. Some languages allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, such as the syllabic l in the English word table [teb.l] (when not considered to
have a weak vowel sound: [teb.l]) or the syllabic r in Serbo-Croatian word vrt [vrt]"garden".

The word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning "vocal" ("relating to voice").[1] In English, the word vowel is commonly used to mean both vowel
sounds and the written symbols that represent them.

Definition of "vowel"
The phonetic definition of "vowel" (a sound produced with no constriction in the vocal tract) does not always match the phonological definition (a sound that forms
the peak of a syllable).[2] The approximants [j] and [w] illustrate this: both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract (so phonetically they seem
to be vowel-like), but they occur at the onset of syllables (e.g. in "yet" and "wet") (which suggests that phonologically they are consonants). A similar debate arises
over whether a word like bird in a rhotic dialect has an r-colored vowel // or a syllabic consonant //. The American linguist Kenneth Pike (1943) suggested the
terms "vocoid" for a phonetic vowel and "vowel" for a phonological vowel,[3] so using this terminology, [j] and [w] are classified as vocoids but not vowels. However,
Maddieson and Emmory (1985) demonstrated from a range of languages that semivowels are produced with a narrower constriction of the vocal tract than vowels,
and so may be considered consonants on that basis.[4] Nonetheless, the phonetic and phonemic definitions would still conflict for the syllabic el in table, or the
syllabic nasals in button and rhythm.

Spelling Areas:

Spelling is the writing of a word or words with the necessary letters and diacritics present in an accepted standard order, "the conventions which determine how
the graphemes of a writing system are used to write a language".[1] It is one of the elements of orthography and a prescriptive element of language.

Spellings attempt to transcribe the sounds of the language according to the alphabetic principle, but fully phoneticspellings are exceptions in many languages for
various reasons. Pronunciation changes over time in all languages, yet spelling is irregular in most languages and rare in some. In addition, words from other
languages may be adopted without being adapted to the spelling system, non-standard spellings are often adopted after extensive common usage, and different
meanings of a word or homophones may be deliberately spelled in different ways to differentiate them visually.

Dipthongs:

dipthong (/df/ DIF-thong or /dp/ DIP-thong;[1] from Greek: , diphthongos, literally "two sounds" or "two tones"), also known as a gliding vowel,
is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or
other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most dialects of English, the phrase no highway cowboys/
no hawe kabz/ has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable.

Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance,
in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong //, while the word ow is spoken as a diphthong /a/. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different
syllablesfor example, in the English wordre-electthe result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong.

Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English
examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes).

Consonants:

In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are [p], pronounced with
the lips; [t], pronounced with the front of the tongue; [k], pronounced with the back of the tongue; [h], pronounced in the throat; [f] and [s], pronounced by forcing air
through a narrow channel (fricatives); and [m] and [n], which have air flowing through the nose (nasals). Contrasting with consonants are vowels.

Since the number of possible sounds in all of the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet,linguists have devised systems
such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant. In fact, the English alphabet has fewer
consonant letters than English has consonant sounds, so digraphs like "ch", "sh", "th", and "zh" are used to extend the alphabet, and some letters and digraphs
represent more than one consonant. For example, the sound spelled "th" in "this" is a different consonant than the "th" sound in "thin". (In the IPA they are
transcribed [] and [], respectively.)

The word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a consonant sound. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet
are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y. The letter Y stands for the consonant /j/ inyoke, the vowel // in myth, the
vowel /i/ in funny, and the diphthong /a/ in my. W always represents a consonant except in combination with a vowel letter, as in growth, raw, and how, and in a
few loanwords from Welsh, like crwth or cwm.

In some other languages, such as Finnish, y only represents a vowel sound.

Stress:

In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. Stress is typically
signaled by such properties as increased loudness and vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and changes in pitch. The terms stress and accent are often
used synonymously, but they are sometimes distinguished, with certain specific kinds of prominence (such as pitch accent, variously defined) being considered to
fall under accent but not under stress. In this case, stress specifically may be called stress accent or dynamic accent.

The stress placed on syllables within words is called word stress or lexical stress. Some languages have fixed stress, meaning that the stress on virtually any
multisyllable word falls on a particular syllable, such as the first or the penultimate. Other languages, like English, have variable stress, where the position of stress
in a word is not predictable in that way. Sometimes more than one level of stress, such as primary stress and secondary stress, may be identified. However, some
languages are considered to lack lexical stress entirely.

The stress placed on words within sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress. This is one of the three components of prosody, along
with rhythm and intonation. It includes phrasal stress (the default emphasis of certain words within phrases or clauses), and contrastive stress (used to highlight
an item a word, or occasionally just part of a word that is given particular focus).

Word Accent:

Accent (/k.snt, k.snt/) is the phonetic prominence given to a particular syllable in a word, or to a particular word within a phrase. When this prominence is
produced through greater dynamic force, typically signaled by a combination of amplitude (volume), syllable or vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and a
non-distinctive change in pitch, the result is called stress accent, dynamic accent, or simply stress. When it is produced through pitch alone, it is called pitch
accent(although this term is often used with a somewhat different meaning; see below). When it is produced through length alone, it is called quantitative accent.
[1]

Englishhas stress accent.

A prominent syllable or word is said to be accented or tonic; the latter term does not imply that it carries phonemic tone. Other syllables or words are said to
beunaccented or atonic. Syllables are frequently said to be in pretonic or post-tonic position; certain phonological rules apply specifically to such positions. For
instance, in American English, /t/ and /d/ are flapped in post-tonic position.

In some languages, accented syllables have the typical features of stress accent as listed above, except that the change in pitch on such syllables may be
distinctive; that is, an accented syllable may carry more than one possible tone (and differences in tone sometimes distinguish words), whereas unaccented
syllables do not carry tone. An example of this is Serbo-Croatian accent. The term pitch accent is frequently used to denote accent systems of this type (in spite of
inconsistency with the definition of this term given above)

The parts of Speech in English:

The parts of speech explain how a word is used in a sentence.
There are eight main parts of speech (also know as word classes): nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions and interjections.
Most parts of speech can be divided into sub-classes.Prepositions can be divided into prepositions of time, prepositions of place etc. Nouns can be divided into
proper nouns, common nouns, concrete nouns etc.
It is important to know that a word can sometimes be in more than one part of speech. For example with the wordincrease.
Increase can be a verb e.g. Prices increased
and increase can also be a noun e.g. There was an increase in the number of followers.

The eight main parts of speech in English are:

NOUN - (Naming word)

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea.
Examples of nouns: Daniel, London, table, dog, teacher, pen, city, happiness, hope
Example sentences: Steve lives in Sydney. Mary uses pen and paper to write letters.
Learn more about the different types of nouns.

PRONOUN - (Replaces a Noun)

A pronoun is used in place of a noun or noun phrase to avoid repetition.
Examples of pronouns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it, me, us, them, him, her, this, those
Example sentences: Mary is tired. She wants to sleep. I want her to dance with me.

ADJECTIVE - (Describing word)

An adjective describes, modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun.
Examples: big, happy, green, young, fun, crazy, three
Example sentences: The little girl had a pink hat.

VERB - (Action Word)

A verb shows an action or state of being. A verb shows what someone or something is doing.
Examples: go, speak, run, eat, play, live, walk, have, like, are, is
Example sentences: I like Woodward English. I study their charts and play their games.

ADVERB - (Describes a verb)

An adverb describes/modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It tells how, where, when, how often or to what extent. Many adverbs end in -LY
Examples: slowly, quietly, very, always, never, too, well, tomorrow, here
Example sentences: I am usually busy. Yesterday, I ate my lunch quickly.

PREPOSITION - (Shows relationship)

A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. They can indicate time, place, or relationship.
Examples: at, on, in, from, with, near, between, about, under
Example sentences: I left my keys on the table for you.

CONJUNCTION - (Joining word)

A conjunction joins two words, ideas, phrases or clauses together in a sentence and shows how they are connected.
Examples: and, or, but, because, so, yet, unless, since, if.

Example sentences: I was hot and exhausted but I still finished the marathon.

INTERJECTION - (Expressive word)

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or emotion. It is a short exclamation.
Examples: Ouch! Wow! Great! Help! Oh! Hey! Hi!
Example sentences: Wow! I passed my English test. Great! Ouch! That hurt.

UNIT III

Communicative grammer

Classification of Nouns and their functions

Types of Nouns
There are several different types of nouns used to name people, animals, places, things, and ideas. Here, well take a quick look at various types of nouns so you
can recognize them when you see them and use them appropriately in sentences.

Types of Nouns in English

Nouns are among the most important words in the English language without them, wed have a difficult time speaking and writing about anything. This guide to
noun types is intended as a basic overview. Every type of noun comes with its own rules, so be sure to read more in our pages about specific types of nouns.

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are those referring to ideas, concepts, emotions, and other things you cant physically interact with. You cant see, taste, touch, smell, or hear
something named with an abstract noun. Some abstract noun examples are included in the following sentences.

Success seems to come easily to certain people.

His hatred of people smoking indoors is legendary.

She has an incredible love for nature.

This is of great importance.

He received an award for his bravery.

Collective Nouns
When talking about types of noun, its important to remember collective nouns. A collective noun is a word that refers to a group. It can be either singular or plural,
but is usually used in the singular. Some collective noun examples are included in the following sentences.

Our team is enjoying an unbroken winning streak.

Theres a pack of hyenas outside.

Watch out for that swarm of bees.

You havent lived until youve seen a herd of wild horses.

Our class graduates two years from now.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are used to refer to general things rather than specific examples. Common nouns are not normally capitalized unless they are used as part of a
proper name or are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some common noun examples are included in the following sentences.

Be sure to pick a top university.

Stack those boxes carefully.

Would you like a cookie with your coffee?

People are strange.

My dog wont stop barking.

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are words used for actual things you can touch, see, taste, feel, and hear things you interact with every day. Notice that concrete nouns can also
be countable, uncountable, common, proper, and collective nouns. Some concrete noun examples are included in the following sentences.

Please remember to buy oranges.

Have a seat in that chair.

Verbs
Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about the action or the state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the subject is doing or what is the
state or situation of the subject.

For example:

- He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject he

- She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the auxiliary verb is shows the state of the subject she as being creative.

There are different types and classifications of Verbs; some of the most important ones are listed below:

Action Verbs

These verbs talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence. Action Verbs are one of the most easily identifiable types of verbs. To recognize them, you simply have to look for the word in
the sentence that answers the question What is the subject doing? e.g. -

- Rose is painting the kitchen walls.

The subject here is Rose, and what is Rose doing? Rose is painting. Hence painting is our action verb.

- My dog is sleeping on the sofa.

The subject here is dog, and what is the dog doing? The dog is sleeping. So sleepingis our action verb.

There are two types of Action Verbs which describe the Verb and the Subject doing the action and the Object on which the action is done, they are -

Transitive Verbs -

These Action Verbs have a definite object on which, or for which the action is being performed. That means that the action has a definite recipient or object. To identify them you can ask the
question what is the/did the subject -verb-?

- Rose is painting the kitchen walls.

Here the verb is painting and the subject is Rose.

If we form the question - what is Rose painting?

The answer is- The kitchen walls.

Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the action of painting was being done.

- Hannah gave him a big hug.

Here we see that the action gave is being performed by the subject Hannah. So the question is what did Hannah give? And the answer is - A big hug.

Here, we also have a indirect object as him. This indirect object would be the answer to the question-

Who did the subject (Hannah) - verb - (give) the object (hug) to?

Intransitive Verbs -

These verbs also show an action but here there is no specific object on which the action is being done. To recognize these verbs, we ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb- ? If there
is no answer present, then the verb in the sentence is an Intransitive Verb.

- Rose is painting right now.

Here, if we ask the question what is Rose painting? There is no answer which means that in this sentence painting is an Intransitive Verb.

It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no specific object for the action.

- Hannah sneezed repeatedly.

Here, the verb is sneezed. If we ask the question what did Hannah sneeze? There is no answer present for it making sneezed a intransitive verb.

Dynamic and Stative Verbs

This category of verbs deals with the verb words themselves; and whether they indicate an action or a state of the subject. This category is not concerned with the object in particular.

Dynamic Verbs

These verbs denote an actual action or expression or process done by the subject. They mean an action which can be seen or physically felt or the result of which is seen or physically felt by the
object or an indirect object.

- She buys new clothes every week.

Here the verb is buys which is an action done by the subject she, hence it is a dynamic verb.

- He is swimming at the beach.

Here again we have the definite action swimming done by the subject he, makingswimming a dynamic verb in this sentence.

Stative Verbs

These verbs refer to the state of the subject or the situation of the subject. Stative Verbs tell us about the state of mind of the subject, or the relation between the subject and the object.

- She prefers strawberry jam.

Here the Stative Verb is prefers which shows the thinking of the subject She towards the object, which is jam.

- The cupboard requires a new coat of paint.

Here the subject is cupboard and the stative verb is requires which is telling about the relation between the subject cupboard and the object paint.

Linking Verbs

These verbs are unlike other verbs as they do not tell anything about a subject themselves, instead Linking Verbs connect the subject to a noun or adjective that helps in describing or providing
additional information about the subject. Those nouns or adjectives are called the subject complements.

- Lisa is fussy about food.

Here we see the subject is Lisa and the linking verb is is which is connecting Lisa to the subject complement fussy about food which is giving additional information about Lisas preferences.

- They are stubborn children.

Here the linking verb is are which is combining the subject They to the subject complement of stubborn which is an adjective.

The best to recognize linking words in a sentence is to see whether the verb can be replaced by is, am or are. If the sentence still sounds logical you know you have a linking verb.

The students felt relieved. - The students are relieved.

Hence felt was a linking verb and not an action verb. As felt here is simply connecting the subject to the adjective.

Every student felt the relief. - Every student is/am/are the relief.

Hence in this sentence felt is action verb as it is the action of feeling an emotion.

Using Verbs in Sentences -

To use verbs correctly in sentences you need to learn more about the construction and use of the various verbs. And how they change form according to tenses and use in a sentence. For correct
application verbs in written text you will need to know about -

Regular and Irregular Verbs - These are the two different ways in which verbs change to form different tenses. Whether to simply add -ed at the end of a verb or does it take a different form
altogether.

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs - These are verbs which can be either the main verb of a sentence or just one that is used as an adjective or noun as well.

Modal Verbs - These verbs tell us whether something is probable or about the skills of a noun etc. There are 10 modal verbs in total and each have an important part in sentence formation.

List of Verbs, Verb Examples

Accept

Catch

Expand Lie

Select

Achieve

Challen
Explain Like
ge

Sell

Add

Change Fear

Listen

Send

Admire

Cheat

Feel

Lose

Sing

Admit

Chew

Fight

Love

Snore

Adopt

Choose Find

Make

Stand

Advise

Clap

Fly

Marry

Stare

Agree

Clean

Forget

Measure Start

Allow

Collect

Forgive Meet

Announc Compar
Fry
e
e

Move

Stink
Study

Apprecia Complai
Gather Murder
te
n

Sweep

Approve Confess Get

Obey

Swim

Argue

Confuse Give

Offend

Take

Arrive

Constru
Glow
ct

Offer

Talk

Ask

Control Greet

Open

Teach

Assist

Copy

Grow

Paint

Tear

Attack

Count

Guess

Pay

Tell

Bake

Create

Harass Pick

Thank

Bathe

Cry

Hate

Play

Travel

Be

Damage Hear

Pray

Type

Beat

Dance

Print

Understa

Help

nd
Become Deliver

Hit

Pull

Use

Beg

Destroy Hope

Punch

Visit

Behave

Disagre
Identify Punish
e

Wait

Bet

Drag

Interru Purchas
Walk
pt
e

Boast

Drive

Introdu
Push
ce

Want

Boil

Drop

Irritate Quit

Warn

Borrow

Earn

Jump

Race

Wed

Keep

Read

Weep
Wink

Breathe Eat
Bring

Employ Kick

Relax

Build

Encoura
Kiss
ge

Rememb
Worry
er

Burn

Enjoy

Laugh

Reply

Write

Bury

Establis
Learn
h

Retire

Yell

Buy

Estimat
Leave
e

Rub

Call

Exercise

Lend

See

What Are the Fourteen Punctuation Marks in

English Grammar?
Knowing where and when to use the fourteen punctuation marks can greatly improve your writing skills.
There are fourteen punctuation marks commonly used in American English? They are the period, question mark, exclamation
point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipses.

Sentence Endings
Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings. They are the period, question mark, and
exclamation point.
The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete and after many abbreviations.
For example:
As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market .
After an abbreviation: Her Mar . birthday came and went.
Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence. For example: When did Jane leave for
the market ?
The exclamation point/mark (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add emphasis.
1.
2.

Within dialogue: Holy cow! screamed Jane.

To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious !

Comma, Semicolon and Colon

The comma, semicolon and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a series.
The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence. Additionally, it is used in letter
writing after the salutation and closing.
Separating elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black , green , and blue shoes.
Letter Salutations: Dear Uncle John ,
Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies , and we went to the beach.
The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship between the clauses than a period would
show. For example: John was hurt ; he knew she only said it to upset him.
A colon (:) has two main uses:

The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series. It is also often used after the
salutation of a business letter.
The second is within time expressions. Within time, it is used to separate out the hour and minute: 12 : 15 p.m.

Dash and the Hyphen

Two kinds of dashes are used throughout written communications. They are the endash and the emdash. An endash is a symbol (-)
that is used in writing or printing to connect numbers or to connect elements of a compound adjective, such
as 1880 - 1945 or Princeton - New York trains.
However, the emdash has more complicated grammatical use. The symbol of is used to:

Indicate a break in thought or sentence structure

Introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition, or explanation
Separate two clauses

Use it in the following manner: We only wanted to get two birds - but the clerk talked us into four pregnant parakeets.

A hyphen (-) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different usage rules. A hyphen is used between the parts of
a compound word or name or between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of text.
Examples of this in use include:
Between a compound name: Mrs. Smith - Reynolds
Within a compound word: back - to - back

Brackets, Braces and Parentheses

Brackets, braces and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation or are considered a group.
Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks. However, parentheses can be
replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases. For example: John and Jane ( who were actually half brother and
sister ) both have red hair.
Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations. YourDictionary uses them when you look up word
definitions. At the bottom of each definition page, brackets surround a technical description of where the word originated.
Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are considered as a unit. They are not
commonplace in most writing, but can be seen in computer programming to show what should be contained within the same lines.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipses

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation marks and ellipses. Unlike previously mentioned
grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in any form.
An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase
letters.
Examples of the apostrophe in use include:
Omission of letters from a word: An issue of nat'l importance.
Possesive case: Sara's dog bites.
Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's. It should be noted that, according to Purdue University,
some teachers and editors enlarge the scope of the use of apostrophe, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and
capitalized letters (Q&A's), even though they are not necessary.
Quotations marks ( ) are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a passage attributed to
another and repeated word for word. They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious status of a
word.
Single quotation marks (') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.
The ellipses mark is generally represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally demonstrated with three asterisks (***).
The ellipses are used in writing or printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within
quotations to jump from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students writing
research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipses to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.

Pronouns

Definition

A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the
sentenceJoe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him);
orpossessive (his).

Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.

Example: ___ did the job.

I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to beverbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.

Examples:
It is he.
This is she speaking.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.

NOTE

In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English.

Example: It could have been them.

Technically correct: It could have been they.

Example: It is just me at the door.

Technically correct: It is just I at the door.

Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.

Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am)

Incorrect: It is I who is sorry.

Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are)

Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.

Rule 4. In addition to subject pronouns, there are also object pronouns, known more specifically as direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposition (for more detail, see the
definition of a verb in the Finding Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects section). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves.

Examples:
Jean saw him.
Him is the direct object of the verb saw.
Give her the book.
The direct object of give is book, and her is the indirect object. Indirect objects always have an implied to or for in front of them: Give [to] her the book. Do [for] me a favor.
Are you talking to me?
Me is the object of the preposition to.

Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time.

The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is.

Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject:

Example: He is one of those men who are always on time.

The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are.

In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.

Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is
frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.

Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Neither of them is available to speak right now.

Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:

Incorrect: The women each gave her approval.

Correct: The women each gave their approval.
Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel.
Correct: The words are and there each end with a silent vowel.

These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather anadjunct describing the true subject.

Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.

Examples:
Tranh is as smart as she/her.
If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer.
Zoe is taller than I/me.
Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.
Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.
We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me.OR Daniel would rather talk to her than I would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably,
depending on the pronoun you choose.

Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.

Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe
in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error.

Examples:
It's been a cold morning.
The thermometer reached its highest reading.
He's the one who's always on time.
He's the one whose wife is always on time.
Keeping oneself ready is important.

Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves,
yourselves, andthemselves.

Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.

Example: Joe helped himself.

If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:

Example: Joe bought it for himself.

Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.

Correct: I worked myself to the bone.

The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of working.

Incorrect: My brother and myself did it.

Correct: My brother and I did it.

Don't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence.

Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself.

Correct: Please give it to John or me.
Correct: You saw me being myself.

Myself refers back to me in the act of being.

A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself.

In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.

Example: Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously.

Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.

Example: He himself finished the whole job.

Rule 11. The use of they and their with singular pronouns is frowned upon by many traditionalists. To be consistent, it is a good practice to try to avoid they and its variants
(e.g.,them, their, themselves) with previously singular nouns or pronouns.

Not consistent: Someone has to do it, and they have to do it well.

The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy sentence, even if it is technically correct.

Technically correct: Someone has to do it, and he or she has to do it well.

Replacing an inconsistent sentence with a poorly written one is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite.

Rewritten: Someone has to do it, and has to do it well.

Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or her to keep sentences consistent.

Inconsistent: No one realizes when their time is up.

Awkward: No one realizes when his or her time is up.
Rewritten: None realize when their time is up.
Inconsistent: If you see anyone on the trail, tell them to be careful.
Awkward: If you see anyone on the trail, tell him or her to be careful.
Rewritten: Tell anyone you see on the trail to be careful.

NOTE

Please see our note regarding the word none under Rule 6 of Subject-Verb Agreement.

Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble.

Incorrect: Her and her friend came over.

If we remove and her friend, we're left with the ungrammatical Her came over.

Correct: She and her friend came over.

Incorrect: I invited he and his wife.

If we remove and his wife, we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he.

Correct: I invited him and his wife.

Incorrect: Bill asked my sister and I.

If we remove my sister and, we're left with the ungrammatical Bill asked I.

Correct: Bill asked my sister and me.

Rule 13. If two people possess the same item, and one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both.

Incorrect: Maribel and my home

Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home
Correct: Maribel's and my home

Incorrect: he and Maribel's home

Incorrect: him and Maribel's home
Correct: his and Maribel's home

Incorrect: you and Maribel's home

Incorrect: yours and Maribel's home
Correct: Maribel's and your home

Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive
pronouns(mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such constructions.

Auxiliary verb
An auxiliary verb (abbreviated AUX) is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which it appearsfor example, to
express tense, aspect, modality,voice, emphasis, etc. Auxiliary verbs usually accompany a main verb. The main verb provides the main semantic content of the
clause.[1] An example is the verb have in the sentence I have finished my dinner. Here, the main verb is finish, and the auxiliary have helps to express the perfect
aspect. Some sentences contain a chain of two or more auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs, helper verbs, or (verbal) auxiliaries.

Basic examples[edit]
Below are some sentences that contain representative auxiliary verbs from English, German, and French, with the auxiliary verb marked in bold:
a. Do you want tea? do is an auxiliary accompanying the main verb want, used here to form a question see do-support.
b. He has given his all. has is an auxiliary used in expressing the perfect aspect of give.
c. Das wurde mehrmals gesagt. wurde 'became' is an auxiliary used to build the passive voice in German.[2]
That became many times said = 'That was said many times.'
d. Sie ist nach Hause gegangen. ist 'is' is an auxiliary used with movement verbs to build the perfect tense/aspect in German. [3]
She is to home gone = 'She went home/She has gone home.'
e. J'ai vu le soleil. ai 'have' is an auxiliary used to build the perfect tense/aspect in French. [4]
I have seen the sun = 'I have seen the sun/I saw the sun.'
f. Nous sommes hbergs par un ami. sommes 'are' is an auxiliary used to build the passive voice in French. [5]
We are hosted by a friend.

These auxiliaries help express a question, show tense/aspect, or form passive voice. Auxiliaries like these typically appear
with a full verb that carries the main semantic content of the clause.

Article
An article (abbreviated ART) is a word (or prefix or suffix) that is used with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify
grammaticaldefiniteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and (in
certain contexts) some. 'An' and 'a' are modern forms of the Old English 'an', which in Ganglia dialects was the number 'one' (compare 'on', in Saxon dialects) and
survived into Modern Scots as the number 'wan'. Both 'on' (respelled 'one' by the Normans) and 'an' survived into Modern English, with 'one' used as the number
and 'an' ('a', before nouns that begin with a consonant sound) as an indefinite article.

In many languages, articles are a special part of speech, which cannot easily be combined with other parts of speech. In English, articles are frequently considered
a part of a broader speech category called determiners, which combines articles and demonstratives (such as 'this' and 'that').

In languages that employ articles, every common noun, with some exceptions, is expressed with a certain definiteness (e.g., definite or indefinite), just as many
languages express every noun with a certain grammatical number (e.g., singular or plural). Every noun must be accompanied by the article, if any, corresponding
to its definiteness, and the lack of an article (considered a zero article) itself specifies a certain definiteness. This is in contrast to other adjectives and determiners,
which are typically optional. This obligatory nature of articles makes them among the most common words in many languagesin English, for example, the most
frequent word is the.[1]

Articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite.[2] A few languages with well-developed systems of articles may distinguish additional subtypes.
Within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, according to grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case, or according to
adjacent sounds.

Definite article[edit]
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one which is identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned, or it
may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English, for both singular and plural nouns, is the.

The children know the fastest way home.

The sentence above refers to specific children and a specific way home; it contrasts with the much more general observation that:

Children know the fastest ways home.

The latter sentence refers to children in general and their specific ways home. Likewise,

Give me the book.

refers to a specific book whose identity is known or obvious to the listener; as such it has a markedly different meaning from

Give me a book.

which uses an indefinite article, which does not specify what book is to be given.

The definite article can also be used in English to indicate a specific class among other classes:

The cabbage white butterfly lays its eggs on members of the Brassica genus.

However, recent developments show that definite articles are morphological elements linked to certain noun types due
to lexicalization. Under this point of view, definiteness does not play a role in the selection of a definite article more than the
lexical entry attached to the article.[3][4]

The definite article is sometimes also used with proper names, which are already specified by definition (there is just one of
them). For example: the Amazon, the Hebrides. In these cases, the definite article may be considered superfluous. Its presence
can be accounted for by the assumption that they are shorthand for a longer phrase in which the name is a specifier, i.e. the
Amazon River, the Hebridean Islands. Where the nouns in such longer phrases cannot be omitted, the definite article is
universally kept: the United States, the People's Republic of China. This distinction can sometimes become a political matter: the
former usage the Ukraine stressed the word's Russian meaning of "borderlands"; as Ukraine became a fully independent state
following the collapse of the Soviet Union, it requested formal mentions of its name omit the article. Similar shifts in usage have
occurred in the names of Sudan and both Congo (Brazzaville) and (Kinshasa); a move in the other direction occurred with The
Gambia.

Some languages also use definite articles with personal names. For example, such use is standard in Portuguese (a Maria,
literally: "the Maria") and in Greek ( , , , ). It also occurs colloquially
in Spanish, German, Italian and other languages. In Hungary it is considered to be a Germanism.

Rarely, this usage can appear in English. A prominent example is how U.S. businessperson Donald J. Trump is known as "The
Donald", this wording being used by many publications such as Newsweek and New York Post. Another is U.S. President Ronald
W. Reagan's nickname as "The Gipper";[5] publisher Townhall.com issued an article after Reagan's death titled simply "Goodbye
to 'the Gipper'".[6]

Indefinite article[edit]
An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the
speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a
general statement about any such thing. English uses a/an, from the Old English forms of the number 'one', as its primary
indefinite article. The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even if spelled with an initial consonant, as
in an hour), and abefore words that begin with a consonant sound (even if spelled with a vowel, as in a European).

She had a house so large that an elephant would get lost without a map.

Before some words beginning with a pronounced (not silent) h in an unstressed first syllable, such
as hallucination, hilarious, historic(al), horrendous, and horrific, some (especially older) British writers prefer to
use an over a (an historical event, etc.).[7] An is also preferred before hotel by some writers of British English (probably
reflecting the relatively recent adoption of the word from French, where the h is not pronounced).[8] The use of "an" before
words beginning with an unstressed "h" is more common generally in British English than American. [8] American writers
normally use a in all these cases, although there are occasional uses of an historic(al) in American English.[9] According to
the New Oxford Dictionary of English, such use is increasingly rare in British English too.[7] Unlike British English, American
English typically uses an before herb, since the h in this word is silent for most Americans. The correct usage in respect of
the term "hereditary peer" was the subject of an amendment debated in the UK Parliament. [10]

Using a before a word beginning with a vowel sound in unstressed syllables - such as I left a orange on the working
surface - is not uncommon, but is universally considered non-standard.

The word some is used as a functional plural of a/an.[citation needed] "An apple" never means more than one apple. "Give
me some apples" indicates more than one is desired but without specifying a quantity. This finds comparison in Spanish,
where the singular indefinite article 'un/una' ("one") is completely indistinguishable from the unit number, except where it
has a plural form ('unos/unas'): Dame una manzana" ("Give me an apple") > "Dame unas manzanas" ("Give me some
apples"). However, some also serves as a quantifier rather than as a plural article, as in "There are some apples there, but
not many."

Some also serves as a singular indefinite article, as in "There is some person on the porch". This usage differs from the
usage of a(n) in that some indicates that the identity of the noun is unknown to both the listener and the speaker,
while a(n) indicates that the identity is unknown to the listener without specifying whether or not it is known to the speaker.
[citation needed]

Thus There is some person on the porch indicates indefiniteness to both the listener and the speaker, while There

is a person on the porch indicates indefiniteness to the listener but gives no information as to whether the speaker knows
the person's identity.

Tenses
The concept of time can be split into:

1.

The Present - What you are currently doing.

I eat, I am eating

The Past - What you did some time back.

I ate, I was eating

The Future - What you will do later.

I will eat, I will be eating

In the English language, tenses play an important role in sentence formation.

The tense of a verb shows the time of an event or action.

There are four types of tenses. Simple, Perfect, Continuous and Present Perfect Continuous and each of these has a present, past and future form.

PRESENT TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said about its completeness.

I eat.
I sleep.
I play.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous.

I am eating.
I am sleeping.
I am playing.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect.

I have eaten.
I have slept.
I have played.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still ongoing.

I have been eating.

I have been sleeping.
I have been playing.

PAST TENSES
SIMPLE PAST TENSE

In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past.

I ate.
I slept.
I played.

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past.

I was eating.
I was sleeping.
I was playing.

PAST PERFECT TENSE

Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in the past.

I had eaten.
I had slept.
I had played.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and continued until another time in the past.

I had been eating.

I had been sleeping.
I had been playing.

FUTURE TENSES
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is said about the time in the future.

I will eat.
I will sleep.
I will play.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the future. However, the action will not have finished at the moment.

I will be eating at 9 a.m.

I will be sleeping when you arrive.
I will be playing at 5 p.m.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.

I will have eaten before 10 a.m.

I will have slept before you arrive.
I will have played before 6 p.m.

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some point in the future.

I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive.
I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m.

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).

Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might
have several translations depending on the situation.

There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in
English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions Time

English

Usage

Example

days of the week

on Monday

months / seasons

in August / in winter

time of day

in the morning

year

in 2006

after a certain period of time (when?)

in an hour

for night

at night

for weekend

at the weekend

a certain point of time (when?)

at half past nine

from a certain point of time (past till now)

since 1980

over a certain period of time (past till now)

for 2 years

a certain time in the past

2 years ago

earlier than a certain point of time

before 2004

on

in

at

since

for

ago

before

English

Usage

Example

telling the time

ten to six (5:50)

telling the time

ten past six (6:10)

marking the beginning and end of a period

from Monday to/till Friday

in the sense of how long something is

He is on holiday until Friday.

to

past

to / till / until

till / until

of time

going to last

by

in the sense of at the latest

I will be back by 6 oclock.

up to a certain time

By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions Place (Position and Direction)

English

Usage

in

a
t

Example

room, building, street, town, country

in the kitchen, in London

book, paper etc.

in the book

car, taxi

in the car, in a taxi

picture, world

in the picture, in the world

meaning next to, by an object

at the door, at the station

for table

at the table

for events

at a concert, at the party

place where you are to do something typical

at the cinema, at school, at work

(watch a film, study, work)

o
n

attached

the picture on the wall

for a place with a river

London lies on the Thames.

being on a surface

on the table

for a certain side (left, right)

on the left

for a floor in a house

on the first floor

for public transport

on the bus, on a plane

for television, radio

on TV, on the radio

left or right of somebody or something

Jane is standing by / next to /

English

Usage

y, next to,

Example

beside the car.

beside

on the ground, lower than (or covered by)

u
nder

the bag is under the table

something else

lower than something else but above ground

the fish are below the surface

covered by something else

put a jacket over your shirt

meaning more than

over 16 years of age

getting to the other side (also across)

walk over the bridge

overcoming an obstacle

climb over the wall

higher than something else, but not directly

a path above the lake

getting to the other side (also over)

walk across the bridge

getting to the other side

swim across the lake

something with limits on top, bottom and the

drive through the tunnel

movement to person or building

go to the cinema

movement to a place or country

go to London / Ireland

for bed

go to bed

in

enter a room / a building

go into the kitchen / the house

movement in the direction of something (but

go 5 steps towards the house

elow

ver

a
bove

over it

a
cross

t
hrough

sides

t
o

to

owards

not directly to it)

movement to the top of something

jump onto the table

fr

in the sense of where from

a flower from the garden

nto

om

Other important Prepositions

English

Usage

Example

who gave it

a present from Jane

who/what does it belong to

a page of the book

what does it show

the picture of a palace

who made it

a book by Mark Twain

walking or riding on horseback

on foot, on horseback

entering a public transport vehicle

get on the bus

entering a car / Taxi

get in the car

leaving a public transport vehicle

get off the train

leaving a car / Taxi

get out of the taxi

rise or fall of something

prices have risen by 10 percent

travelling (other than walking or

by car, by bus

from

of

by

on

in

off

out of

by

horseriding)

for age

she learned Russian at 45

for topics, meaning what about

we were talking about you

at

about

PHRASAL VERBS WITH A VERB + AN ADVERB

Many phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Some of these phrasal
verbs are intransitive and some are transitive.
I. Intransitive verbs followed by adverbs
Here are some intransitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an
adverb and each phrasal verb has its meaning.

Intransitive
Phrasal Verb

Meaning

blow over

pass

boil away

disappear by boiling

boil over

overflow by boiling

bounce back

recover

buckle down

work seriously

catch on

be widely accepted

cloud over

become overcast

die down

become less

double up

bend over

drop in

visit

fade away

become less

fall off

become less

get away

escape

get by

barely succeed

give in

admit defeat

go on

continue

grow up

became an adult

keep on

persist in

level off

stop rising

log on

contact a computer

log off

break contact with a computer

system

move in
move out
nod off

take possession of living quarters

give up possession of living
go to sleep

pass out

faint

pitch in

help

play along

pretend to agree

pull in

arrive (of vehicles)

pull out

leave (of vehicles)

set off

leave

settle down

become peaceful

settle in

become used to

show up

arrive

stay up

not go to bed

step down

resign

step in

intervene

take off

leave the ground

touch down

land (of places)

tune in

find a station on the radio

watch out

beware

wear off

gradually disappear

NOTE: The intransitive phrasal verb to show up is formed by the verb to

show followed by the adverb up. In the following example, the phrasal verb does
not have an object.
Example: At ten o clock, her brother showed up.
II. Transitive verbs followed by adverbs
Here are some transitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an
adverb and each phrasal verb has its meaning.
Transitive
Phrasal Verb
back up

Meaning
support

bail out

rescue

break in

make something new fit for use

breathe in

inhale

breathe out

exhale

bring back

return

bring around

persuade

bring up

raise

butter up

flatter

call in

ask to assist

call off

cancel

call up

telephone

cheer on

cheer, encourage

chop down

fell

clean up

tidy

fend off

repel

ferret out

find with difficult

figure out

solve, understand

fill in

complete

fill out

complete

fill up

make full

give back

return

give off

send out

hand down

give to someone younger

hand in

give to person in authority

hand on

give to another person

hand over

transfer

hang up

break a telephone connection

hold back

restrain, delay

iron out

remove

knock out

make unconscious

lap up

accept eagerly

lay off

put out of work

leave behind

leave, not bring

leave out

omit

let down

disappoint

live down

live so that past faults are

forgotten

look up
make up
pass up
pension off
phase in
phase out
pick up
pin down
play down
point out
polish off
pull down
pull off
put away
put back
put off

find (information)
invent
not take advantage
dismiss with a pension
introduce gradually
cease gradually
collect
get a commitment
de-emphasize
draw attention to
finish
demolish
succeed
put in proper place
return to original location

reel off

postpone

rope in

recite a long list

rub out

persuade to help

rule out

erase

scale down

remove from consideration

sell off

reduce

set back

dispose of by selling

shout down

delay

shrug off

stop from speaking by shouting

single out

dismiss as unimportant

size up

select from others

sort out

assess

sound out

organize

stammer out

talk with to learn the opinion of

sum up

stammer

summon up

summarize

take in

gather

take out

absorb

take over

invite to a restaurant

talk over

assume control

tear up

discuss

think over

destroy by tearing

think up

consider

track down

invent

trade in

search for and find

try on

give as part payment

try out

test clothes by putting them on

turn away

test by using

turn back

refuse admission

turn off

reverse direction

turn on

deactivate by using a switch

water down

activate by using a switch

wear out

dilute

write down

gradually destroy by wearing or

using

write off
write up

make a note
cancel, regard as
compose in writing

NOTE: The transitive phrasal verb to sort out is formed from the verb to
sort followed by the adverb out.
Example: We sorted out the papers.
1) The position of an object of the verb
In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, if
the object of the verb is a nun, the object can usually either follow or precede the
adverb. In the following examples, the verb objects are underlined.
Example:
- I called of the meeting.
- I called the meeting of.
NOTE: In the first example the object meeting follows the adverb of, while in the
second example the object meetingprecedes the adverb of.
However, in the case of a few phrasal verbs, a noun object must usually follow the
adverb.
Example: We attempted to smooth over is the disagreement.

NOTE: In this example, the phrasal verb to smooth over is followed by the noun
object disagreement. In this case, the object disagreement cannot be placed
before the adverb over.
The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs where a noun object must
usually follow the adverb. Each phrasal verb is accompanied by its meaning and an
example
The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs where a noun object must
usually follow the adverb. Each phrasal verb is accompanied by its meaning and an
example of its use. The objects of the verbs are underlined.
Verbs followed by adverb followed by noun object
Phrasal Verb

Meaning

drum up

raise

paper over

repair superficially

smooth over

improve

Example:
- She has drummed up support for the plan.
- They attempted to paper over their differences.
- We tried to smooth over the station.
In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb,
if the object of the verb is a pronoun, the object must usually precede the adverb. In
the following examples, the pronoun objects are underlined.
Example:
- I called it of.
- We attempted to smooth it over.
NOTE: In these examples, the object pronoun it precedes the
adverbs of and over.
Most transitive phrasal verbs may be used in the passive voice.
Example:
- The meeting was called of by me.
- The disagreement was smooth over.

NOTE: In these examples, the phrasal verbs to call of and to smooth over are
used in the passive voice.
2) The position of an adverb of manner modifying the verb
In the case of a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, the verb
and the adverb usually may not be separated by an adverb of manner. In the
following example, the adverb of manner is underline.
Example: I hurriedly called of the meeting.
NOTE: In this example, the adverb of manner hurriedlyprecedes the phrasal
verb called of. The adverb hurriedly may also be placed at the beginning or the
end of the sentence, but may not be placed between the verb called and the
adverb of.
3) Stress in spoken English
When a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb occurs at the end of
a clause, it is usually the adverb which is stressed in spoken English. In the following
examples, the words which are tressed are printed in bold type.
Example:
- How did that come about?
- Please drop in whenever you have time.
NOTE: In the first example, the verb come followed by the adverb about occurs at
the end of a clause, and the adverb aboutis stressed. In the second example, the
verb drop followed by the adverb in occurs at the end of a clause, and the
adverb in is stressed.
4) Ergative verbs
It should be noted that there are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed
by an adverb, which have the same meaning whether they are used transitively or
intransitively.
Example:
- The engineer slowed down the train.
- The train slowed down.
NOTE: In the first example, the phrasal verb to slow down is used transitively,
with the object train. In the second example, the phrasal verb to slow down is
used intransitively, without naming the originator of the action. In these two
examples, it can be seen that the object of the transitive verb is the subject of the

intransitive verb. However, the general meaning of the two sentences is the same.
Verbs which can be used in this way may be referred to as ergative verbs.
Ergative phrasal verbs
The following are examples of expressions which can function as ergative phrasal
verbs and each ergative phrasal has its meaning.
Phrasal Verb

Meaning

Blare out

Make a loud sound

Blow up

Destroy by an explosion

Break up

Break into pieces

Burn down

Detroy by fire

Calm down

Become calm

Dry out

Become dry

Get across

Transmit

Liven up

Become lively

Pull through

Recover from, survive

Rol up

Wrap into a cylinder

Shut down

Close, stop working

Wake up

Stop sleeping

Wash out

Remove by washing

Wear away

Gradually remove

Wear out

Gradually destroy by using

Verb patterns and structures

NOVEMBER 3, 2012 -

English sentences follow certain patterns. In this section we will first consider some of the commonest verb patterns and then some of the other
important structures, both literary and conversational.

We have already learned that a sentence consists of two main parts the subject and the predicate. The subject must contain a noun or a pronoun.
It may also contain other words like articles (a/an and the), possessives (my, your etc.) or demonstratives (this, that, these and those).
The predicate must contain a verb. Sometimes the subject is omitted and then we get one-word sentences.

Stop. Who goes there?

Listen. I want to tell you something.

Then there are sentences of two words they just consist of a noun and an intransitive verb. Examples are:

Time flies. (Subject time; verb flies)

Water boils. (Subject water; verb boils)

Dogs bark. (Subject dogs; verb bark)

But we cant get far with short sentences of this kind, so we will have to construct more elaborate sentence patterns.

Sentence pattern 1

Subject

Intransitive verb +
adverb

Granny

is coming on Monday.

A gentle breeze was blowing across

the meadow.
The children

are playing upstairs.

The sun

has already risen.

The storm

has at last subsided.

SENTENCE PATTERN DEFINITION

There are five important components in a sentence.

e.g.

Subject (S)

Verb (V)

Complement (C)

Adverbial (A)

Object (O)

1. SUBJECT (S)
Definition :
To get S ask the quesiton Who? before the verb.

e.g.

Nancy danced well

(Here Nancy - Subject)

The child broke the glass

(Here The child - Subject)

consists of nouns or pronouns

Subject (S)

occurs before a verb

2. VERB (V)
Definition :
In every sentence the most important word is the verb. A verb shows action or activity or work done.

e.g.

He is a doctor

(Be form verb)

Jems wrote a letter

(Main verb)

The baby is crying

(auxiliary verb + Main verb)

consists of (a) auxiliaries

Verb (V)

(a) Auxiliaries

e.g.

am, is, are ,was, were

(b) finite verbs

has, have, had

does, do, did

Modals : can, could; will, would; shall, should; may, might; must

Semi-modals / Quasi Modals : dare to; need to; used to; ought to

(b) Finte verbs - denote action

e.g.

talk, sing, write, make, dance, play, cook, leave, teach, sleep

- verbs occur after the subject

- vebs occur before the object

3. OBJECT (O)
Definition :
To get the object O ask the question What or Whome. What is for things and Whome is for persons. Persons may be nouns or
pronouns.

e.g.

He bought a pen

(a pen = Object)

He handles the computer

(computer = Object)

I saw him

(him = Object)

Object (O) - consists of nou ns or noun phrases or nou n clauses

- direct object

(a) Do

- answers the question what

e.g.

O (what)

likes

animals

(b) IO

- indirect object

- answers the question whom

e.g.

IO (whom)

DO

gave

Rosy

a pen

4. COMPLEMENT (C)
Definition :
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence are called Complement of the sentence .

e.g.

He

is

a dentist

She

became

a journalist

It

grew

dark

Complement (C) - from the word complete

- completes the meaning in the sentence

- wihtout it the, meaning is incomplete

- wihtout it the, meaning changes

occurs in two pattern. (i) S V C pattern. (ii) S V O C pattern

(i) In S V C pattern, the complement C

- complements the subjects

- tells about the subject

- wihtout it the, meaning changes

- without C, the sentence is incomplete or the sentence changes its meaning

- use to be forms, grew, became, seems for verb

e.g.

They

are

players

She

was

angry

It

seems

absurd

(ii) In S V O C pattern
- the complement tells about the object

- the complement and object are of the same person or thing

e.g.

They

called

David

a genius

found

her

crying

They

elected

Michle

leader

Types of Complement

1. Subject Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is called Subject Complement .

e.g.

She is a doctor

She looks sad

2. Object Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is called Object Complement .

e.g.

They made her angry

She called him a liar

Adjunct or Adverbial
Definition :
To get A ask the question why, when, where or how .

The use of adverbial is optional whereas complement is essential. It has adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun-phrase and prepositional phrase.

e.g.

Why? (reason)

When? (Time)

Where? (Place)

How? (Manner)

due to cold

now, later

here, there

by bus / cycle

through floods

after 2 years

every where

through efforts

under compulsion

when young

in the sky

by mixing

carefully

in the morning

at home

by hard work

Adjunct - A - answers the questions where? when? how? why?

- without A, any change in the meaning of the sentence

Examples of Adjuncts in sentences

e.g.

She

Comes

every day

Sit

here

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct and indirect speech can be a source of confusion for English learners. Let's first define the terms, then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how to
convert speech from direct to indirect or vice-versa.
You can answer the question What did he say? in two ways:

by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)

by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).

DIRECT SPEECH
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is
no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous
conversation.

EXAMPLES

She says, "What time will you be home?"

She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "

"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.

John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

INDIRECT SPEECH
Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask',
and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect speech)
'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

'SAY' AND 'TELL'

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.

'TALK' AND 'SPEAK'

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.

Degrees of Comparison

Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another.
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.
Let us see all of them one by one.
1.Positive degree.
When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree.
Examples:
This house is big.
In this sentence only one noun The house" is talked about.
He is a tall student.
This flower is beautiful.
He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.

The second one in the Degrees of Comparison is...

2.Comparative degree.
When we compare two persons or two things with each other,
We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree.
Examples:
a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)
This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree)
The term bigger" is comparative version of the term big".
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive)

The term more beautiful" is comparative version of the term beautiful".
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative)

He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive)

The term more intelligent" is comparative version of the term intelligent".

Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

d. He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative)

He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive)

The term taller" is comparative version of the term tall".

Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

When we compare more than two persons or things with one another,
We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees.
Examples:

a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative)

This house is bigger than any other house in this street. (Comparative)

No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive)

The term biggest" is the superlative version of the term big".

All the three sentences mean the same meaning.

b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden. (Superlative)

This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this garden. (Comparative)
No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one. (Comparative)
The term most beautiful" is the superlative version of the term beautiful".
All the three sentences mean the same meaning.
c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative)
He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative)
No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive)

The term most intelligent" is superlative version of the term intelligent".

Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

d. He is the tallest student in this class. (Superlative)

He is taller than other students in this class. (Comparative)
No other student is as tall as this student. (Positive)

The term tallest" is superlative version of the term tall".

*Degrees of Comparison are applicable only to Adjectives and Adverbs*

*Nouns and verbs do not have degrees of comparisons*

He is the tallest student in the class.

The term tallest" is an adjective.
Among the members of the group, Mr. Clinton speaks most effectively.

The term effectively" is an adverb.

All the terms used in the above-examples are either adjectives or adverbs.
We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison.

Let us see their models.

Model -1: The best":

Examples:
i. This is the best hotel in this area.

No other hotel is as better as this on in this area.

No other hotel is as good as this one in this area.

ii. Unemployment is the most serious problem facing our country.

Unemployment is more serious than any other problem facing our country.

No other problem facing our country is as serious as unemployment.

Model-2: One of the best":

Examples:

i. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India.

Calcutta is large than most other cities in India.

Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta.

ii. Satin Tendulkar is one of the best batsmen in the world.

Satin Tendulkar is better than most other batsmen in the world.

No other batman in the world is as good as Satin Tendulkar.

Model-3: Not the best":

Examples:
i. This is not the best solution to the problem.
ii. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem.
iii. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one.

ii. New York is not the largest city in America.

New York is not bigger than many other cities in America.
Few other cities in America are at least as large as New York.

Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting more" before them.
And their superlative terms, by getting most" before them.
Examples:

Beautiful..........more beautiful..........most beautiful

Effective.more effectivemost effective

Effectivelymore effectively.most effectively

Enjoyable.more enjoyable.most enjoyable

Useful.more useful..most useful

Different..more differentmost different

Honest..more honest..most honest

Qualifiedmore qualifiedmost qualified

Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting er" after them and their superlative terms, by getting est" after them.
Examples:
Hard..harder..hardest
Big.bigger.biggest

Tall..tallertallest

Longlongerlongest

Short..shorter.shortest

Costlycostliercostliest

Simple.simpler.simplest
Degrees of Comparison add beauty and varieties to the sentences.

Sentence clause structure

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In grammar, clause structure refers to the classification of sentences based on the number and
kind of clauses in their syntactic structure. Such division is an element oftraditional grammar.
A simple sentence consists of only one clause. A compound sentence consists of two or
more independent clauses. A complex sentence has at least one independent clause plus at least
one dependent clause. A set of words with no independent clause may be an incomplete sentence,
also called a sentence fragment.
[1]

A sentence consisting of at least one dependent clauses and at least two independent clauses may
be called a complex-compound sentence or compound-complex sentence.
[unreliable source?]

Sentence 1 is an example of a simple sentence. Sentence 2 is compound because "so" is

considered a coordinating conjunction in English, and sentence 3 is complex. Sentence 4 is
compound-complex (also known as complex-compound). Example 5 is a sentence fragment.
1. I like pumpkin pie.
2. I don't know how to bake, so I buy my sweets.
3. I enjoyed the apple pie that you bought for me.
4. The dog lived in the garden, but the cat, who was smarter, lived inside the house.
5. What an idiot.
The simple sentence in example 1 contains one clause. Example two has two clauses (I don't know
how to bake and I buy my sweets), combined into a single sentence with thecoordinating
conjunction so. In example 3, I enjoyed the apple pie is an independent clause, and that you bought
for me is a dependent clause; the sentence is thus complex. In sentence 4, The dog lived in the
garden and the cat lived inside the house are both independent clauses; who was smarter is a
dependent clause. Example 5 features a noun phrase but no verb. It is not a grammatically complete
clause.
Contents

[hide]

1Simple sentences

2Compound sentences

3Complex and Compound-Complex sentences

4Incomplete sentence

5References

6External links

Simple sentences[edit]

A simple sentence structure contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

[2]

I run.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, I, and
one predicate, run.

The girl ran into her bedroom.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, girl, and one
predicate, ran into her bedroom. The predicate is a verb phrase that consists of more than one word.

In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at the cat.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, dog, and one
predicate, barked and howled at the cat. This predicate has two verbs, known as a compound
predicate: barked and howled. This compound verb should not be confused with a compound
sentence. In the backyard and at the cat are prepositional phrases.

Compound sentences[edit]
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a
dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma).
a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences
when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction
is being used to connect the sentences, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A
conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. Conjunctions are words such
as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Examples:

I started on time, but I arrived late.

I will accept your offer or decline it; these are the two options.

The law was passed: from 1 April, all cars would have to be tested.

The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was occupied.

The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses without the addition of an appropriate
conjunction is called a comma splice and is generally considered an error (when used in the English
language). Example:
[2]

The sun was shining, everyone appeared happy.

Complex and Compound-Complex sentences[edit]

Main article: Dependent clause

A Complex sentence has one or more Dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). Since a
dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence, complex sentences must also have at
least one independent clause. A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more
dependent clauses is called compound-complex or complex-compound.
In addition to a subject and a verb, dependent clauses contain a subordinating conjunction or similar
word. There are a large number of subordinating conjunctions in English. Some of these give the
clause an adverbial function, specifying time, place, or manner. Such clauses are called adverbial
clauses.

When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I had only
two things on my mind. (S. E. Hinton, The Outsiders)

This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, When I stepped out into the bright sunlight
from the darkness of the movie house. The adverbial clause describes when the action of the main
clause, I had only two things on my mind, took place.
A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase in the independent
clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an adjective.

Let him who has been deceived complain. (Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote)
You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you. (J.K. Rowling, Harry
Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone)

In the first example, the restrictive relative clause who has been deceived specifies or defines the
meaning of him in the independent clause, Let him complain. In the second example, the nonrestrictive relative clause who have never known your family describes you in the independent
clause, You see them standing around you.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun. A noun clause may function as
the subject of a clause, or as a predicate nominative or an object.

What she had realised was that love was that moment when your heart was about to
burst. (Stieg Larsson, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo)

In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses. The noun clause What she had
realized serves as the subject of the verb was, and that love was that moment serves
as complement. The sentence also contains an adverbial clause, when your heart was about to
burst.

Incomplete sentence[edit]

An incomplete sentence, or sentence fragment, is a set of words which does not form a complete
sentence, either because it does not express a complete thought or because it lacks some
grammatical element, such as a subject or a verb. A dependent clause without an independent
clause is one example of an incomplete sentence.
[1]

[3]

Some prescriptive grammars consider sentences starting with a conjunction such as but or and to
be incomplete sentences, but this style prescription has "no historical or grammatical foundation".
Computer grammar checkers often highlight incomplete sentences. If the context is clear from the
rest of the paragraph, however, an incomplete sentence may be considered perfectly acceptable
English.
[4]

[5]

Personal Skills Defined

Are you the first person your friends come to when they need advice? Do you tend to speak up in groups and easily share your ideas? If you answered yes,
then you can count interpersonal skills and leadership as two of your personal skills. These types of skills can be abilities we are born with, our natural
talents, or things we develop through our experiences and deliberate practice. Whether an innate aptitude or a developed capability, knowing what our
own personal skills are is very useful in both our personal and professional lives.

Soft & Hard Skills

Before we can truly answer what a personal skill is, we must first define what a skill is in general. A skill is the ability to do something well, a certain
competence or proficiency. Skills are typically acquired or developed through direct experiences and training, and they can require sustained effort.
Therefore, personal skills are simply those skills that you possess and consider your strengths. But how do we know what these are?
To answer this question, you can categorize personal skills in two ways: soft and hard skills. Soft skills are more general, intangible qualities or attributes
we possess that enhance our interactions with others. They can be related to our attitude, personality, emotions, habits, communication style, and social
manners. Successful development of soft skills happens during our interactions with others (family, friends, and co-workers) and are fundamental to how
well we build and manage our relationships.
In contrast, hard skills are more specific and are often associated with a task or activity, most times job-related. They include certain abilities and
knowledge about an area of focus and can be easily quantified and evaluated. Mostly learned through education, training, and on-the-job experience, hard
skills can include computer literacy, project management, editing, or proficiency in a foreign language. These types of skills make us employable and allow
us to tackle our job responsibilities. Soft and hard skills complement each other and make up our arsenal of personal skills that demonstrate our
capabilities.

Body Language Basics

"If language was given to men to conceal their thoughts, then gestures

purpose was to disclose them." John Napier

For millions of years, our early ancestors ambled on this planet, navigating a very dangerous world. They did so by communicating effectively their
needs, emotions, fears, and desires with each other. Impressively, they achieved this through the use of nonverbal communications such as
physiological changes (flushed face), gestures (pointing hand), noises (grunting is not a word) and facial or body reactions (quizzical or frightened
look). This has been part of our biological heritage for so long that we still primarily communicate nonverbally, not verbally, and why we need emotional
icons in our written communication.

Fortunately for us we evolved a system to immediately communicate to others how we feel and what we sense. If not for this, a room might be
dangerously hot - not just warm and a swim in a lake might turn into hypothermia. If we had to think, even for a few seconds, at every perilous
encounter (imagine a coiled rattle snake by your leg) we would have died out as a species. Instead we evolved to react to threats or anything that
might harm us and not to think (the "freeze, flight, fight response" I talk about in Louder Than Words).

This system that evolved over time, which alerts us instantly of any perceived danger, also instantly communicates to others around us. Just as our
brain forces us to freeze in place when we see an aggressive dog or large felines while on safari, it also communicates to others instantly, through our
bodies, whether or not we are comfortable or uncomfortable, content or miserable, safe or unsafe. The benefit is two fold, we react to the world around

us and others benefit from our early reactions even as we do from theirs. For example, taste something putrid and everyone around you will know from
your expression; they don't need to taste it also. Quick, authentic, and reliable: body language as I said in What Every Body is Saying, is the "shortcut
to communicating what is most important" because it has been evolutionarily beneficial.

And it is not just about survival or threats, although that is the primary reason we react to certain things so visibly (loud sounds make us freeze or
cower in place). Our brain also telegraphs our intentions. This is why when you are talking to someone you like and suddenly you notice that one of
their feet points toward their car or an elevator, you know that the person probably needs to go. Because they are running late, the body through the
legs communicates that something urgent is pressing (causing psychological discomfort) even though the person continues the conversation. Which is
why we say when it comes to communication, body language is more truthful than the spoken word.

So what is psychologically behind all of this? Simply this: Our needs, feelings, thoughts, emotions, and intentions are processed elegantly by what is
known as the "limbic system" of the brain. It doesn't have to think, it just reacts to the world in real time and our bodies show how we feel. Someone
gives us bad news and our lips compress; the bus leaves without us and we are clenching our jaws and rubbing our necks. We are asked to work
another weekend and the orbits of our eyes narrow as our chin lowers. These are discomfort displays that our limbic brain has perfected over millions
of years, whether we are in China or Chile.

Conversely, when we see someone we really like, our eyebrows will arch defying gravity, our facial muscles will relax, and our arms become more
pliable (even extended) so we can welcome this person. In the presence of someone we love, we will mirror their behavior (isopraxis), tilt our heads,
and blood will flow to our lips making them full, even as our pupils dilate. Once again, our limbic brain communicates through our bodies precisely the
true sentiments that we feel and orchestrates accurate corresponding nonverbal displays.

In a way, our bodies don't really have to do these behaviors and yet we evolved to demonstrate them for a reason: we are social animals that need to
communicate both verbally and nonverbally. How do we know body language is essential for us? Children who are born blind, having never seen these
behaviors will also perform them. A blind child will cover his eyes when he hears something he doesn't like in the same way my neighbor does
whenever I ask him to help me move heavy objects. Fortunately these behaviors are hard-wired.

Whether in business, at home, or in relationships, we can always be assured that true sentiments will be reflected in our body language through
displays of comfort and discomfort. This binary system of communicating how we feel has stood the test of time and survived to help us through its
elegant simplicity.

Obviously this can be very effective in determining how others feel about us and in evaluating how a relationship is evolving. Often when people sense
that something is wrong in a relationship, what they are sensing are changes in body language displays. Couples who no longer touch or walk close
together are easy to spot but sometimes the more subtle behaviors are even more accurate. An example of this is when couples touch each other with
their fingertips rather than their full hand (distancing behavior) indicative of psychological discomfort. This behavior alone may portend serious
problems in the relationship that on the surface may not be so obvious (Clues to Deceit)

And so while there are many aspects of nonverbal communications and body language, focusing on comfort and discomfort can go a long way in
helping us to see more clearly what others are truly feeling, thinking, fearing or desiring. Having that extra insight gives us a more honest appraisal of
others and it will in the end assist us in communicating more effectively and empathetically for a deeper understanding.

Computer fundamentals
Windows introduction
"Windows" redirects here. For the part of a building, see window. For other uses, see Windows (disambiguation).

Microsoft Windows

Screenshot of Windows 10 (July 2015 Release), showing the Action Center and Start Menu

Developer

Microsoft

Written in

C, C++, Assembly[1]

Working state

Publicly released

Source model

Closed / Shared source

Initial release

November 20, 1985; 30 years ago, as Windows 1.0

Latest release

Windows 10 Version 1511 (v10.0.10586.318)

(May 10, 2016; 14 days

ago) []

Latest preview

Windows 10 RS1 Insider Preview 10.0.14332

ago) []

Marketing target

Personal computing

Available in

137 languages[2]

Update method
Windows Update

(April 26, 2016; 28 days

Windows Anytime Upgrade

Windows Store

WSUS

Package manager

Windows Installer (.msi),Windows Store (.appx)[3]

Platforms

ARM, IA-32, Itanium, x86-64,DEC Alpha, MIPS, PowerPC

Kernel type
Windows NT family: Hybrid

Windows 9x and earlier:Monolithic (MS-DOS)

Default user interface

Windows shell

License

Proprietary commercial software

Official website

windows.microsoft.com

Microsoft Windows (or simply Windows) is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold byMicrosoft. It consists of several
families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows
Embedded and Windows Phone; these may encompass subfamilies, e.g. Windows Embedded Compact (Windows CE) or Windows Server. Defunct Windows
families includeWindows 9x and Windows Mobile.

Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the
growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[4] Microsoft Windows came todominate the world's personal computer market with over 90% market share,
overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. However, since 2012, because of the massive growth of smartphones, Windows sells less than Android,
which became the most popular operating system in 2014, when counting all of the computing platforms each operating system runs on; in 2014, the number of
Windows devices sold were less than 25% of Android devices sold. However, comparisons across different markets are not fully relevant; and for personal
computers, Windows is still the most popular operating system.

As of March 2016, the most recent version of Windows for personal computers, tablets, smartphones and embedded devicesis Windows 10. The most recent
versions for server computers is Windows Server 2012 R2. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console.[5]
Contents

[hide]

1Genealogy

1.1By marketing role

2Version history

2.1Early versions

2.2Windows 3.x

2.3Windows 9x

2.4Windows NT
2.4.1Early versions

2.4.1.1Home versions of Windows NT

2.4.2Windows Vista

2.4.3Windows 7

2.4.4Windows 8 and 8.1

2.4.5Windows 10

2.4.6Multilingual support

2.4.7Platform support

2.5Windows CE

2.6Xbox OS

3Timeline of releases

4Usage share

5Security

5.1File permissions

5.2Windows Defender

5.3Third-party analysis

6Alternative implementations

7See also

8References

9External links

Genealogy

By marketing role
Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector
of the computing industry. As of 2014, the following Windows families are being actively developed:

Windows NT: Started as a family of operating system with Windows NT 3.1, an operating system for server computers and workstations. It now
consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the same time and share the same kernel

Windows: The operating system for mainstream personal computers. The latest version is Windows 10. It is almost impossible for
someone unfamiliar with the subject to identify the members of this family by name because they do not adhere to any specific rule; e.g. Windows

Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8/8.1 and Windows RT are members of this family but Windows 3.1 is not. The main competitor of this family is OS
X by Apple Inc. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by category)

Windows Server: The operating system for server computers. The latest version is Windows Server 2012 R2. Unlike its clients sibling, it
has adopted a strong naming scheme. The main competitor of this family is Linux. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by
category)

Windows PE: A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as a live operating system, used for installing Windows on
bare-metal computers (especially on many computers at once), recovery or troubleshooting purposes. The latest version is Windows PE 5.1.

Windows Phone: An operating system sold only to manufacturers of smartphones. The first version was Windows Phone 7. The latest version
is Windows Phone 8.1. The main competitor of this family is Android by Google. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by category)

Windows Embedded: Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited
to be called a full-fledged computer. Eventually, however, Windows CE was renamed Windows Embedded Compact and was folded under Windows
Compact trademark which also consists ofWindows Embedded Industry, Windows Embedded Professional, Windows Embedded Standard, Windows
Embedded Handheld and Windows Embedded Automotive.[6]

The following Windows families are no longer being developed:

Windows 9x: An operating system that targeted consumers market. Discontinued because of suboptimal performance. (PC World called its last
version, Windows ME, one of the worst products of all times.)[7] Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT.

Windows Mobile: The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile phone operating system. The first version was called Pocket PC 2000; the third
version, Windows Mobile 2003 is the first version to adopt the Windows Mobile trademark. The last version is Windows Mobile 6.5.

Version history
Main article: History of Microsoft Windows
See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions

The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products. These products are generally categorized as
follows:

Early versions
Main articles: Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0 and Windows 2.1x

Windows 1.0, the first version, released in 1985

The history of Windows dates back to September 1981, when Chase Bishop, a computer scientist, designed the first model of an electronic device and project
Interface Manager was started. It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the name "Windows", but Windows
1.0 was not released until November 1985.[8]Windows 1.0 was to compete with Apple's operating system, but achieved little popularity. Windows 1.0 is not a
complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. The shell of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS Executive. Components
included Calculator, Calendar, Cardfile, Clipboard viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi,Terminal and Write. Windows 1.0 does not allow
overlapping windows. Instead all windows are tiled. Only modal dialog boxes may appear over other windows.

Windows 2.0 was released in December 1987, and was more popular than its predecessor. It features several improvements to the user interface and memory
management.[citation needed] Windows 2.03 changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit
against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.[9][10] Windows 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard shortcuts and could make use
ofexpanded memory.

Windows 2.1 was released in two different versions: Windows/286 and Windows/386. Windows/386 uses the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 to multitask
several DOS programs and the paged memory model to emulate expanded memory using available extended memory. Windows/286, in spite of its name, runs on
both Intel 8086 and Intel 80286 processors. It runs in real mode but can make use of the high memory area.[citation needed]

In addition to full Windows-packages, there were runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows software from third parties and made it possible to run
their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows feature set.

The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services.[11] However,
even the earliest Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable file format and providing their
own device drivers(timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound). Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the
same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run
applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce; data segments moved
in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.

Windows 3.x
Main articles: Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1x

Windows 3.0, released in 1990

Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share
arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several
megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They run inside the same address space, where the segmented
memory provides a degree of protection. Windows 3.0 also featured improvements to the user interface. Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into assembly.
Windows 3.0 is the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months. [12][13]

Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992, featured a facelift. In August 1993, Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-topeer networking features and a version number of 3.11, was released. It was sold along Windows 3.1. Support for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001. [14]

Windows 3.2, released 1994, is an updated version of the Chinese version of Windows 3.1.[15] The update was limited to this language version, as it fixed only
issues related to the complex writing system of the Chinese language.[16] Windows 3.2 was generally sold by computer manufacturers with a ten-disk version
of MS-DOS that also had Simplified Chinese characters in basic output and some translated utilities.

Windows 9x
Main article: Windows 9x

The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995. While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95
introduced support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking, long file names of up to 255 characters, and provided increased
stability over its predecessors. Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start
menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer shell. Windows 95 was a major commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that "by the time Windows
95 was finally ushered off the market in 2001, it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world."[17] Microsoft published four OEM Service Releases
(OSR) of Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack. The first OSR of Windows 95 was also the first version of Windows to be bundled
with Microsoft's web browser, Internet Explorer.[18] Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000, and extended support for Windows 95
ended on December 31, 2001.[19]

Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows 98 on June 25, 1998, which introduced the Windows Driver Model, support for USB composite devices,
support forACPI, hibernation, and support for multi-monitor configurations. Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active
Desktop and other aspects of theWindows Desktop Update (a series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which were also made available for Windows 95). In
May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an updated version of Windows 98. Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media
Player 6.2 amongst other upgrades. Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.
[20]

On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows ME (Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version of Windows. Windows ME incorporated visual interface
enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which however, required the removal of the
ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs),[21] expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media
Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras), additional system
utilities such as System File Protectionand System Restore, and updated home networking tools.[22] However, Windows ME was faced with criticism for its speed
and instability, along with hardware compatibility issues and its removal of real mode DOS support. PC World considered Windows ME to be one of the worst
operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product of all time.[7]

Windows NT
Main article: Windows NT
Early versions

In November 1988, a new development team within Microsoft (which included former Digital Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark Lucovsky)
began work on a revamped version of IBM and Microsoft's OS/2 operating system known as "NT OS/2". NT OS/2 was intended to be a secure, multiuser operating system with POSIXcompatibility and a modular, portable kernel with preemptive multitasking and support for multiple processor architectures.
However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port of the Windows
API known as Win32 instead of those of OS/2. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs (allowing existing Windows applications to easily
be ported to the platform), but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel. Following its approval by Microsoft's staff, development continued on what
was now Windows NT, the first 32-bit version of Windows. However, IBM objected to the changes, and ultimately continued OS/2 development on its own. [23][24]

The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows 3.1) was released in July 1993, with versions for
desktop workstationsand servers. Windows NT 3.5 was released in September 1994, focusing on performance improvements and support for Novell's NetWare,
and was followed up by Windows NT 3.51 in May 1995, which included additional improvements and support for the PowerPC architecture. Windows NT 4.0 was
released in June 1996, introducing the redesigned interface of Windows 95 to the NT series. On February 17, 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000, a
successor to NT 4.0. The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand.[24]

Home versions of Windows NT

The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP, was released on October 25, 2001. The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumeroriented Windows 9xseries with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOSbased predecessors. Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface (including an updated Start menu and a "task-oriented" Windows Explorer),
streamlined multimedia and networking features,Internet Explorer 6, integration with Microsoft's .NET Passport services, modes to help provide compatibility with
software designed for previous versions of Windows, andRemote Assistance functionality.[25]

At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions: the "Home" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the "Professional" edition was targeted
towards business environments and power users, and included additional security and networking features. Home and Professional were later accompanied by

the "Media Center" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote
controls), and the "Tablet PC" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional
pen-enabled applications).[26][27][28] Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended support ended on April 8, 2014.[29]

After Windows 2000, Microsoft also changed its release schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003,
was released in April 2003.[24] It was followed in December 2005, by Windows Server 2003 R2.

Windows Vista

After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006, for volume licensing and January 30, 2007, for consumers. It contained
a number ofnew features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features. It was available
in a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism, such as drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new UAC, and stricter license
agreement. Vista's server counterpart,Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008.

Windows 7
Main article: Windows 7

On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 were released as RTM (release to manufacturing) while the former was released to the public 3
months later on October 22, 2009. Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a
more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already
compatible.[30] Windows 7 has multi-touchsupport, a redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup,[31] and
performance improvements.

Windows 8 and 8.1

Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, 2012. A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the
introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft's Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs.
These changes include the Start screen, which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of continually updated
information, and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices. Other changes include increased integration with cloud
services and other online platforms (such as social networks and Microsoft's own SkyDrive and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software
distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture.[32][33][34][35][36][37] An update to Windows 8, called Windows 8.1,
[38]

was released on October 17, 2013, and includes features such as new live tile sizes, deeper SkyDrive integration, and many other revisions. Windows

8 and Windows 8.1 has been subject to some criticism, such as removal of Start Menu.

Windows 10
Main article: Windows 10

On September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.1. It was released on July 29, 2015, and addresses shortcomings in
the user interface first introduced with Windows 8. Changes include the return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability to run Windows Store
apps within windows on the desktop rather than in full-screen mode. Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1
and Windows 8.1 computers from the Get Windows 10 Application (for Windows 7, Windows 8.1) or Windows Update (Windows 7).[39]

On November 12, 2015, an update to Windows 10, version 1511, was released.[40] This update can be activated with a Windows 7, 8 or 8.1 product key as well as
Windows 10 product keys.[41] Features include new icons and right-click context menus, default printer management, four times as many tiles allowed on the Start
menu, Find My Device, and Edge updates.[41]

Multilingual support

Multilingual support is built into Windows. The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel.
Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier,
files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel).
Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs.

Interface languages for the operating system are free for download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows. Language Interface
Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later) - they translate
most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with). This is used for most
languages in emerging markets. Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows

(Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single Language). They do not require a specific base
language, and are commonly used for more popular languages such as French or Chinese. These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download
Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).

The interface language of installed applications are not affected by changes in the Windows interface language. Availability of languages depends on the
application developers themselves.

Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed,
and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location. The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 also
includes a counterpart settings page for this. Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps (such as Mail, Maps
and News) and certain other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop). The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that
full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets.

Platform support

Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world. Windows NT
4.0 and its predecessors supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000. (Although some these platforms implement 64-bit computing, the operating system
treated them as 32-bit.) However, Windows 2000, the successor of Windows NT 4.0, dropped support for all platforms except the third generation x86 (known
as IA-32) or newer in 32-bit mode. The client line of Window NT family still runs on IA-32, although the Windows Server line has ceased supporting this platform
with the release of Windows Server 2008 R2.

With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows
XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 counterparts. Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released in 2005, is the last
Windows client operating systems to support Itanium. Windows Server line continued to support this platform until Windows Server 2012; Windows Server 2008
R2 is the last Windows operating system to support Itanium architecture.

On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions to support the x86-64 (or simply x64), the
eighth generation of x86 architecture. Windows Vista was the first client version of Windows NT to be released simultaneously in IA-32 and x64 editions. x64 is still
supported.

An edition of Windows 8 known as Windows RT was specifically created for computers with ARM architecture and while ARM is still used for Windows
smartphones with Windows 10, tablets with Windows RT will not be updated.

Windows CE
Main articles: Windows CE and Windows Phone

The latest current version of Windows CE,Windows Embedded Compact 7, displaying a concept media player UI.

Windows CE (officially known as Windows Embedded Compact), is an edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems
and some mobile phones. Windows Embedded Compact is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows CE kernel. Microsoft licenses Windows CE
to OEMs and device makers. The OEMs and device makers can modify and create their own user interfaces and experiences, while Windows CE provides the
technical foundation to do so.

Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with Sega's own proprietary OS for the console. Windows CE was the core from which Windows Mobile was
derived. Its successor, Windows Phone 7, was based on components from both Windows CE 6.0 R3 andWindows CE 7.0. Windows Phone 8 however, is based
on the same NT-kernel as Windows 8.

Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with Windows XP Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded, modular editions of Windows based on
Windows NT kernel.

Xbox OS
Main articles: Xbox One system software and Xbox 360 system software

Xbox OS is an unofficial name given to the version of Windows that runs on the Xbox One.[42] It is a more specific implementation with an emphasis on virtualization
(usingHyper-V) as it is three operating systems running at once, consisting of the core operating system, a second implemented for games and a more Windowslike environment for applications.[43] Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox
and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC.[44] The Windows 10-based Core had replaced the Windows 8-based one in
this update, and the new system is sometimes referred to as "Windows 10 on Xbox One" or "OneCore".[45][46] Xbox One's system also allows backward compatibility
with Xbox 360,[47] and the Xbox 360's system is backwards compatible with the original Xbox.[48]

Timeline of releases

Table of Windows versions [show]

Windows timeline: Bar chart [show]

Operating system

Operating system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Operating systems

Common features

Process management

Interrupts

Memory management

File system

Device drivers

Networking

Security

I/O

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer

hardware and software resources and provides commonservices for computer programs. The
operating system is a component of the system software in a computer system. Application
programs usually require an operating system to function.

Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include
accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other
resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts
as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is
usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is
interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer
from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
[1][2]

Examples of popular desktop operating systems include Apple OS X, Linux and its variants,
and Microsoft Windows. So-calledmobile operating systems include Android and iOS. Other classes
of operating systems, such as real-time (RTOS), also exist.