Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electric Transformers
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
1. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (Faradays Experiment)
When the magnetic flux *linking a conductor (or coil) changes, an e.m.f. is induced in
the conductor. If the conductor (or coil) forms a complete loop or circuit, a current will
flow in it. This phenomenon is called **electromagnetic induction. Two things are
worth noting. First, the basic requirement for electromagnetic induction is the change
in the magnetic flux linking the conductor (or coil). Secondly, the e.m.f. and hence
current in this conductor (or coil) will persist so long as this change is taking place.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
1. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (Faradays Experiment)
When the magnetic flux *linking a conductor (or coil) changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor. If the
conductor (or coil) forms a complete loop or circuit, a current will flow in it. This phenomenon is called
**electromagnetic induction. Two things are worth noting. First, the basic requirement for electromagnetic
induction is the change in the magnetic flux linking the conductor (or coil). Secondly, the e.m.f. and hence
current in this conductor (or coil) will persist so long as this change is taking place.
C
S
G
Fig. 15.1
To demonstrate the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, consider a coil C of several turns connected to a centre zero galvanometer as shown in Fig. 15.1. If a permanent magnet is moved towards the coil, it
will be observed that the galvanometer shows deflection in one direction. If the magnet is moved away from the
coil, the galvanometer again shows deflection but in the opposite direction. In either case, the deflection will
persist so long as the magnet is in motion. The production of e.m.f. and hence current in the coil C is due to the
fact that when the magnet is in motion (towards or away from the coil), the amount of magnetic flux linking the
coil changesthe basic requirement for inducing current in the coil. If the movement of the magnet is stopped,
though the flux is linking the coil, there is no change in flux and hence no e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
Consequently, the deflection of the galvanometer reduces to zero. It may be noted that basic requirement for
inducing e.m.f. in a coil is not the magnetic flux linking the coil but the change in magnetic flux linking the coil.
No change in magnetic flux, no e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
Note: We have seen that when magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
An equivalent statement is like this: when a conductor cuts magnetic field lines, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
If the conductor moves parallel to the magnetic field lines, no e.m.f. is induced. This terminology is very
helpful in visualising the concept of production of e.m.f.
2. FLUX LINKAGES
The product of number of turns (N) of the coil and the magnetic flux () linking the coil is called flux
linkages i.e.
Flux linkages
=
N
Experiments show that the magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkages. If N is the number of turns of the coil and the magnetic flux linking the coil changes (say
increases) from 1 to 2 in t seconds, then,
Induced e.m.f.,
e Rate of change of flux linkages
N 2 N1
or
e
t
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
e =
d
...(i)
dt
The minus sign on the R.H.S. represents Lenzs law mathematically. In SI units, e is measured in volts,
in webers and t in seconds.
d
Note. Magnitude of induced e.m.f., e = N
. For a given coil (i.e. given N), the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
dt
is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (i.e. d/dt) linking the coil. For example, if in
Fig. 15.1, the magnet is moved faster (towards or away from the coil), d/dt increases and hence large e.m.f.
will be induced in the coil and vice-versa. If the movement of the magnet is stopped, d/dt = 0 and hence e
= 0. For e.m.f. to be induced in a coil, the magnetic flux linking the coil should change continuously.
e
Motion
G
Fig. 15.2
i
i
i
Lenzs Law obeys Law of conservation of Energy
It may be noted here that Lenzs law directly follows from the law of
conservation of energy i.e. in order to set up induced current, some energy
Fig. 15.4
must be expended. In Fig. 15.2, for example, when the N-pole of the magnet is
approaching the coil, the induced current will flow in the coil in such a direction that the left-hand face of the
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
coil becomes N-pole. The result is that the motion of the magnet is opposed. The mechanical energy spent in
overcoming this opposition is converted into electrical energy which appears in the coil. Thus Lenzs law is
consistent with the law of conservation of energy.
When the N-pole of the magnet is moved away from the coil, the left-hand face of the coil becomes Spole. Therefore, again the motion of the magnet is opposed and the mechanical energy spent in overcoming
this opposition is converted into electrical energy. When there is no motion of the magnet, induced e.m.f. and
hence current in the coil is zero i.e. no electrical energy is available. This is consistent with law of conservation
of energy since no mechanical energy is spent.
(ii) Flemings Right-Hand Rule: This rule is particularly suitable to find the direction of the induced
e.m.f. and hence current when the conductor moves at right angles to a stationary magnetic field. It may be
stated as under:
Stretch out the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand so that they are at right angles
to one another. If the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb in the direction of motion of
the conductor, then the middle finger will point in the direction of induced current.
G
S
Fig. 15.5
Consider a conductor AB moving upwards at right angles to a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig.
15.5. Applying Flemings right-hand rule, it is clear that the direction of induced current is from B to A. If the
motion of the conductor is downward, keeping the direction of magnetic field unchanged, then the direction of
induced current will be from A to B.
E . dl
...(i)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
It is important to discuss the differences between electric fields produced by the changing magnetic
fields and the electric fields produced by electric charges at rest (electrostatic case).
(i) The electric field lines produced in electrostatic case start and stop on electric charges. But the
electric field lines produced by a changing magnetic field are continuous; they form *closed
loops.
(ii) We have seen that static electric fieldsthose arising from charges at restare conservative i.e.
work done to move a charge around any closed path in the electrostatic field is zero i.e.
z
z
E . dl = 0
(electrostatic field)
But when the electric field is produced by a changing magnetic field, the integral around a closed
path is not zero but is given by;
d B
E . dl =
dt
Thus the line integral of induced electric field around a closed path is non-zero. Therefore, we come to the
conclusion that induced electric fields are non-conservative. Let us discuss this point by referring to Fig. 15.6.
If we move clockwise around the loop, we gain energy all the way around. However, if we move anticlockwise,
we must do work against the induced electric field. The amount of work done in moving around a closed path
is not zero. In fact, it depends upon which path we choose. And this is the property of non-conservative fields.
v sin
v cos v
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 15.7
d
B l dx
=
dt
dt
e = Blv
e = N
( v = dx/dt)
Special case: If the conductor moves at an angle to the magnetic field [See
Fig. 15.7 (ii)], the velocity at which the conductor moves across the field is *v sin .
e = B l v sin
l BIl
The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be determined by Flemings Righthand rule.
(ii) Using Principle of Conservation of Energy: Consider a conductor PQ of
length l moving (in the plane of the paper) at right angles to a uniform magnetic field
B with a velocity v towards right as shown in Fig. 15.8. The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper and is directed inward. The applied force F
( N = 1)
P
I
F
Q
Fig. 15.8
v
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
is toward right. Suppose that the conductor forms a part of a closed circuit so that induced current I flows in it.
By Fleming's right-hand rule, the direction of the induced current I will be as shown. Since the conductor is
carrying current and is in the uniform magnetic field, it will experience a force of magnitude B I l. By right-hand
rule for cross product, the direction of this force is towards left, i.e. it opposes the applied force F.
F = BIl
The applied force is doing work against the force B I l.
or Fm = e v B
... magnitude
Fig. 15.9
By right-hand rule for cross product, the direction of Fm is from P to Q along the length of the conductor.
Therefore, the free electrons in the conductor start moving from P to Q under the action of this force. The result
is that the end P of the conductor becomes positive and end Q negative. This establishes an electric field
across the conductor. The electric field exerts a force Fe on each electron. The flow of electrons stops when the
electric force on the electron becomes equal to the magnetic Lorentz force.
If V is the potential difference across the ends of the conductor in the equilibrium position, then,
V
Electric field,
E =
l
eV
Magnitude of electric force on electron, F e = eE =
l
Magnitude of magnetic force on electron,Fm = e v B
In the equilibrium position,
F e = Fm
or
eV
= evB
l
V = Blv
=
BA cos
where B
=
magnetic flux density
A
=
area of the coil
=
angle between B and normal to the area.
d d
=
(B A cos )
dt dt
The magnetic flux through the coil can be changed by changing B, A or . Therefore, e.m.f. can be
induced in a coil (or circuit) in three ways viz. (i) by changing magnetic flux density (ii) by changing the area of
the coil (iii) by changing the orientation of the coil w.r.t. the magnetic
field (i.e. by changing ).
(i) Induced e.m.f. by changing magnetic flux density ( B ) : When the magnetic flux density B associated
with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. Thus referring back to Fig. 15.1, as the magnet is moved
towards the coil, the magnetic field B linking the coil increases. The reverse happens should the magnet move
away from the coil. In either case, e.m.f. is induced in the coil due to the change in B .
(ii) Induced e.m.f. by changing area (A): Consider a uniform magnetic field B confined to the region
KLMN; the field is perpendicular to the plane of the paper and is directed inward as shown in Fig. 15.11.
Suppose a rectangular loop PQRS of one turn is situated partially in this magnetic field in the plane of the paper.
Let PQ = l. Suppose the loop is moved with a velocity towards right in the plane of the paper and at right angles
to the direction of the magnetic field. As the loop is moved, the area associated with the magnetic field changes
(decreases in this case) and hence e.m.f. is induced in the loop. Let x be the length of the loop in the magnetic
field at any time t. In a small time dt, the loop travels a small distance dx = v dt. Therefore, the area of the loop
Induced e.m.f. in the coil,
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
decreases by a small amount dA = l dx = l v dt. According to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction, the
magnitude of induced e.m.f. is given by ;
dA
d
d
B l v dt
( BA) = B
=
=
=Blv
e
=
dt
dt
dt
dt
e
=
Blv
If R is the resistance of the loop, then induced current I is given by;
e
Blv
=
R
R
The direction of induced e.m.f. and hence current can be determined by Flemings right- hand rule or
Lenzs law.
I
Note: The induced current will appear only if the area of the loop associated with uniform magnetic
field changes. If the loop is moved in such a way that the entire area of the loop remains in the magnetic
field, no induced current will appear in the loop. It is because in that case, there is no change in the magnetic
flux linking the loop.
L
M
x
P
K
N
Fig. 15.11
Y
Fig. 15.12
(iii) Induced e.m.f. by changing orientation of the coil: Consider a rectangular coil XY of area A being
rotated with constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field B about an axis which is perpendicular to
the plane of the paper [See Fig. 15.12]. When normal to the coil is at an angle to the direction of the magnetic
field, the magnetic flux through each turn of the coil is given by;
=
B A cos
As the coil rotates, angle and hence the magnetic flux linking the coil changes. Therefore, an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil. This is a practical method of generating e.m.f. in an a.c. generator.
8. EDDY CURRENTS
(increasing)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(ii) Induction heating: The heating effect of eddy currents can be used to heat/melt those substances
which are conductors of electricity. The substance to be heated/melted is placed in a *high-frequency magnetic
field. The rapidly changing magnetic field induces large eddy currents. The heat thus produced melts the
substance. This technique is known as induction heating and is being widely used to extract metals from their
ores, preparation of certain alloys etc. Another use of induction heating is in diathermy, where heat is applied
to the human body for healing purposes. The high-frequency current is passed through a coil surrounding the
affected part of the body. Since the body is a conductor (though a rather poor one), heat is produced deep
within it, though the skin remains cool.
(iii) Energy meters: Eddy current braking is employed in energy meters. The aluminium disc of the
energy meter rotates between the poles of two permanent horse shoe magnets. As the disc rotates and cuts
across the magnetic fields of the magnets, eddy currents are produced in the disc. These eddy currents oppose
the motion of the disc. As a result of this braking effect, the speed of the disc is directly proportional to the
energy consumed.
(iv) Electro-magnetic Brakes: Eddy current braking can be used to control the speed of electric trains.
In order to reduce the speed of the train, an electromagnet is turned on that applies its field to the wheels. Large
eddy currents are set up which produce the retarding effect.
(v) Induction Motors: An induction motor has a rotor and a stator. The stator winding produces a rotating
magnetic field. As a result, large eddy currents are induced in the rotor. The interaction of these eddy currents
and stator field sets the rotor rotating.
9. SELF-INDUCTION
When current in a coil increases or decreases, there is a change in magnetic flux linking the coil. Hence,
an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. This is called self-induced e.m.f. (es) and the process is called self-induction.
According to Lenzs law, the direction of this induced e.m.f. is such that it opposes the cause that has produced
it. Now the cause of this induced e.m.f. is the change in magnetic flux through the coil (i.e. change of current in
the coil). Hence, the induced e.m.f. will oppose the change of current in the coil. If current in the coil is
increasing, the induced e.m.f. will oppose the increase in current. On the other hand, if current in the coil is
decreasing, the induced e.m.f. will oppose the decrease in current.
I
+
es
es
+
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 15.15
Illustration: Fig. 15.15 illustrates the phenomenon of self-induction. In Fig. 15.15 (i), closing the switch is an
attempt to increase the current in the coil (i.e. to change it from zero to some positive value). As a result, e.m.f. es
is induced in the coil in such a direction to oppose the increase in current i.e. induced e.m.f. acts in a direction
opposite to that of applied voltage V. In Fig. 15.15 (ii), the opening of switch is an attempt to reduce the current in
the coil (i.e. to change it from some positive value to zero). Again e.m.f. es is induced in the coil in such a direction
to oppose the decrease in current i.e. induced e.m.f. acts in the direction of the applied voltage V.
It may be noted that e.m.f. induced in a coil will persist so long as the current in the coil is changing. Thus
in the above two cases, the induced voltage eventually reduces to zero because there is no continuous attempt
to change the current beyond the instant that the switch is closed or opened.
es
dt
b g
Fig. 15.16
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
dI
...(i)
dt
where *L is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of self-induction or self-inductance. Its unit
is henry (H). Note that minus sign in eq. (i) reminds us that self-induced e.m.f. opposes the change in current.
dI
If
= 1 A/s and es = 1V, then L = 1 H.
dt
Hence a coil (or circuit) has an inductance of 1 henry if current changing at the rate of 1 ampere per
second through the coil induces an e.m.f. of 1V in it.
A coil is said to have large self-inductance if it produces a large induced e.m.f. for a given rate of change
of current through it. The value of L depends upon the dimensions of the coil, the number of turns and the
relative permeability (r ) of the core material.
Another expression for L: When current through a coil changes, an e.m.f. es is induced in it. This induced
e.m.f. can be expressed in the following two ways:
es = L
or
b g
d
N
dt
es
es
= L
...(ii)
b g
dI
d
=
LI
dt
dt
...(iii)
N
I
Thus self-inductance is the flux linkages of the coil per ampere. If N = 1Wb and I = 1 A, then L = 1H.
Hence a coil has self-inductance of 1 henry if a current of 1A in the coil sets up a total flux of 1Wb
(i.e., N = 1Wb).
Note. Self-inductance is generally called inductance. It may be noted that inductance makes itself felt
in a circuit (or coil) only when there is a changing current. For example, if a steady direct current (d.c.) is
flowing in a circuit (or coil), there will be no inductance. However, when alternating current is flowing in the
same circuit (or coil), the current is changing continuously and hence the circuit (or coil) exhibits inductance. Note that inductance is electrical inertia of the coil.
N = LI
or
L=
0 N I
l
Magnetic flux linked with each turn of solenoid is
0 n I =
Inductance of solenoid,
where n =
N
l
FG N I IJ A = N I A
H l K
l
N F N I AI
N
N A
G
J
=
=
H
K
I
l
I
l
0
0 N 2 A
l
Note that this is the expression for air-cored solenoid. If the solenoid carries a core of relative permeability r, then,
0 r N 2 A
L
=
l
Note: Inductance like capacitance depends upon geometric factors. The reader may note that
inductance of a coil is directly proportional to the square of the number of turns.
N2
d 2
dt
10
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
2
Coil B
Coil A
I1
N2
N1
Coil B
Coil A
N1
I2
eM
eM
( i)
N2
(ii )
Fig. 15.17
The above discussion can be repeated for the reverse situation i.e. a changing current in coil B will
induce mutually induced e.m.f. in coil A as shown in Fig. 15.17 (ii). If 1 part of magnetic flux produced by
current I2 in coil B links with coil A, then mutually induced e.m.f. in coil A is given by;
d1
dt
(i) The mutually induced e.m.f. persists in a coil so long as the current in the other coil is changing. If
the current in the coil becomes steady, the mutual flux also becomes constant and mutually
induced e.m.f. drops to zero.
(ii) The mutual induction between two coils depends upon (a) the size and shape of the two coils (b)
their relative orientation (c) separation between the coils and (d) material of the core on which they
are wound.
eM
N1
d 2
d
N 2 2
=
dt
dt
Since magnetic flux is due to current I1 in coil A, it follows that flux linkages of coil B will be proportional
to I1 i.e.
N2 2 I1
eM
= N2
dI1
dI1
or eM = M
...(i)
dt
dt
where *M is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance
between the two coils. Its unit is henry (H). The mutually induced e.m.f. opposes the cause that produces it and,
therefore, the inclusion of minus sign on the R.H.S. of eq. (i). If dI1/dt = 1A/s and eM = 1V then M = 1H.
Hence mutual inductance between two coils is 1 henry if current changing at the rate of 1 ampere per
second in one coil induces an e.m.f. of 1V in the other.
The mutual inductance between two coils is said to be large if it produces a large mutually induced e.m.f.
in one coil for a given rate of change of current in the other coil.
Another expression for M: Referring to Fig. 15.18, the mutually induced e.m.f. in coil B can be expressed
in the following two ways :
eM
d
N 2 2
dt
eM
eM
M I1 =
N2 2
...(ii)
b g
d
dI1
M I1
=
dt
dt
...(iii)
N22
I1
...(iv)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
11
Thus mutual inductance between two coils is equal to the flux linkages of one coil (N2 2) due to one
ampere current in the other coil. If N2 2 = 1Wb and I1 = 1 A, then M = 1 H.
Hence mutual inductance between two coils is 1 henry if a current of 1A flowing in one coil sets up a
total flux of 1Wb (N2 2 = 1 Wb) in the other coil.
Eq. (iv) provides an alternative definition of M and in some circumstances is useful in calculating M.
FG
H
Now,
M21
FG
H
IJ
K
IJ
K
N I A
N 1 I1
A= 0 1 1
l
l
FG
H
Fig. 15.19
IJ
K
0 N1 N 2 A
N 2 2
N 0 N1 I1 A
= 2
=
I1
l
I1
l
0 N1 N 2 A
...(i)
l
Mutual inductance of S1 w.r.t. S2 (M12) : The magnetic field B2 inside solenoid S2 due to current I2 through
it is given by;
M21
FG
H
IJ
K
N
0 N1 I 2
n2 = 2
l
l
Since the solenoids are closely wound, the magnetic field inside solenoid S1 is also B2.
B2
0 n2 I2 =
FG
H
Now,
M12
IJ
K
FG
H
N1 0 N 2 I 2 A
N1 1
=
I2
l
I2
IJ = N I
K
l
0
2 2A
0 N2 I2 A
...(ii)
l
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have, M21 = M12 = M.
Thus the mutual inductance between the two coils is the same no matter which of the two coils carries the
current. Therefore, no subscripts are needed.
0 N2 I2 A
M
=
l
M12
L2
k L1 L2
M
=
Obviously, mutual inductance between the coils will be maximum when k = 1.
(i) If two coils P and S are wound on a soft-iron core as shown in Fig. 15.21 (i), the co-efficient of
coupling is maximum. Therefore, the mutual inductance between the coils is maximum.
12
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(ii)
(i)
Fig. 15.21
(ii) If the two coils are placed so as to have a common axis as shown in Fig. 15.21 (ii), the coefficient of
coupling is less than that of the above case. Therefore, the mutual inductance between the coils is
large but not maximum.
(iii) If the two coils are placed such that their axes are perpendicular to each other as shown in Fig. 15.21
(iii), the co-efficient of coupling has a minimum value. As a result, the mutual inductance between the
two coils is minimum.
LT
=
L1 + L2 + 2M
... fluxes additive
M
+M
L2
L1
(i )
L2
L1
Fig. 15.22
(ii)
(ii) Series-opposing. Fig. 15.22 (ii) shows the series-opposing connection i.e. the fluxes of the two coils
oppose each other. Suppose the current is changing at the rate di/dt. The total induced e.m.f. in the
circuit will be equal to e.m.f.s induced in L1 and L2 minus the mutually induced e.m.f.s.
di
di
di
di
di
M
M
L1 + L2
e
=
= L1 + L2 2 M
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
If LT is the total inductance of the circuit, then,
di
LT
e
=
dt
LT
=
L1 + L2 2M
... fluxes subtractive
Note: If the coils are so positioned that *M = 0, then, LT = L1 + L2.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
iT
or
diT
dt
But
e
LT
or
1
LT
13
=
i1 + i2 + i3
di1 di2 di3
+
+
dt
dt
dt
di
di
e
L
or
=
dt
dt
L
e
e
e
+
+
L1 L2 L3
1
1
1
+
+
L1 L2 L3
... (i)
iT
i2
i1
i3
e
LT
L2
L1
L3
Fig. 15.23
When mutual inductances are present, the values of L1, L2 and L3 will be modified to include the appropriate mutual inductances and then relation (i) can be used to find LT. The mutual inductance between any pair
of coils will be +ve or ve depending upon whether their mutual fluxes add to each other or subtract. ** Dot
notation on the coils reveals this information. Thus mutual inductance M12 between L1 and L2 in Fig. 15.23 is
positive because their dotted ends are connected to the same terminal A of the supply. Similarly mutual
inductance M13 between L1 and L3 is positive. The result is that value of L1 is modified and becomes L1 + M12 +
M13. The same procedure can be followed to find the modified values of and . By inserting the modified values
of L1, L2 and L3. in relation (i), we can find LT.
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
1. CLOSING AND BREAKING AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
Consider a series RL circuit connected to a d.c. source of E volts as shown
in Fig. 16.1.When switch S is closed, the current in the circuit increases
gradually and takes some time to reach the final value. The reason the
current does not build up instantly to its final value is that as the current
increases, the self-induced e.m.f. (i.e. back e.m.f.) in L opposes the change
in current (Lenzs law). Suppose at any time t, the circuit current is I and
is increasing at the rate dI/dt. The e.m.f. induced in L is LdI/dt. The
resultant e.m.f. in the circuit is E L dI/dt. Therefore, according to
Kirchhoffs voltage law,
EL
Fig. 16.1
dI
=IR
dt
dI
dt
As the current increases, voltage across R (= IR) increases and voltage across L (= L dI/dt) decreases
since E is constant. The decrease in L dI/dt means that dI/dt decreases because L is constant. The result is
that after some time, dI/dt becomes zero and so does the self-induced e.m.f. (= L dI/dt). At this stage, the
current attains the final steady value I0 given by;
or
E = IR + L
E
R
Thus when a d.c. circuit containing inductance is switched on, the current takes some time to reach the
final value I0 (= E/R). Note that role of inductance (L) is to delay the change; it cannot prevent the current from
attaining the final value. Similarly, when an inductive circuit is opened (i.e. battery is removed so that only R
and L are present), the current does not jump to zero but falls gradually. In either case, the delay in change
depends upon the values of L and R as explained later.
E = I0 R + 0
I0 =
or
E
Fig. 16.2
E I R = L dt
R
...(i)
t+K
L
where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions. At t = 0, I
= 0. Putting these values in eq. (i), we get, loge E = K. Therefore eq. (i) becomes :
or
log e ( E I R) =
log e ( E I R) =
or
log e
R
t + log e E
L
E IR
R
= t
E
L
R
or
t
E IR
=e L
E
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
E IR=e
or
R
t
L
t
E
1 e L
But E/R = I0, the final value of current attained by the circuit.
R
I =
or
t
...(ii)
I = I 0 1 e L
Eq. (ii) gives the value of current at any time t during the growth of current in RL dc circuit. Note that
growth of current follows an exponential law [See Fig. 16.3].
R
t
L
t
I = I 0 1 e L
The exponent of e is Rt/L. The quantity L/R has the dimensions of *time so that exponent of e (i.e.
Rt/L) is a number. The quantity L/R is called time constant of the circuit. It is represented by .
L
= seconds
Time constant,
R
Note that here L and R are in henry and ohms respectively. For a given circuit, time constant is
constant because L and R are constant.
If the time interval
t = (or L/R), then,
R
t
I = I 0 1 e L = I0 (1 e1) = 0.632 I0
Hence inductive time constant of series RL circuit may be defined as the time in which the current rises
from zero to 0.632 of its final steady value. [See Fig. 16.4]
I
I0 =
Current changing
slowly; back e.m.f. low
E
R
I0 =
E
R
0.632 I0
0
l
L
R
2L
R
3L
R
4L
R
5L
R
Fig. 16.4
The inductive time constant is a measure of how long it takes the current to attain the final steady value.
The larger the inductive time constant (i.e. L/R), the longer it takes for the current to reach the final steady
value. **Theoretically, the current will reach its final steady value I0 (= E/R) in an infinite time. However, for most
practical purposes, we assume that current reaches its final steady value after time equal to 5 time constants
(i.e. at t = 5 L/R). It is a common practice to use this assumption.
R
t
I = I 0 1 e L
5
At t = 5 L/R,
I = I0 (1 e ) = 0.993 I0
Hence the current almost attains final steady value after time equal to 5 time constants.
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
3
0= IR+ L
or
dI
dt
dI
R
= dt
I
L
Integrating both sides, we get,
R
t+K
...(i)
L
where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions. When t = 0, I =
I0 (= E/R). Putting these values in eq. (i), we get,
log e I =
loge I0 = 0 + K
or
log e I =
log e
K = loge I0
R
t + log e I 0
L
I
R
= t
I0
L
Rt
I
=e L
I0
or
Rt
...(ii)
I = I0 e L
Eq. (ii) gives the decay of current in an RL series circuit with time and is represented graphically in
Fig. 16.6. Note that decay of current follows the exponential law.
or
I
L
I0 =
1
E
R
S
2
0.368 I0
t
0
E
Fig. 16.5
L
R
2L
R
3L
R
4L
R
5L
R
Fig. 16.6
Time constant: The quantity L/R is the time constant of the circuit. When t = (= L/R),
I = I0 e1 = 0.368 I0
Hence, inductive time constant of RL series circuit may also be defined as the time taken for the
current to fall to 0.368 of its initial maximum value [See Fig. 16.6].
Theoretically, the current will reach zero value in an infinite time. However, after five time constants have
passed (i.e. t = 5 L/R), the current can be assumed to be zero for all practical purposes.
4. CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
Consider an uncharged capacitor of capacitance C connected in series with a *resistance R to a d.c. supply
of E volts as shown in Fig. 16.7. When the switch is closed, the capaciC
R
tor starts charging up and charging current flows in the circuit. The
charging current is maximum at the instant of switching and decreases
gradually as the voltage across the capacitor increases. When the capacitor is charged to applied voltage E, the charging current becomes zero.
At switching instant: At the instant the switch is closed, the voltage
across the capacitor is zero because we started with an uncharged capacitor. The entire applied voltage E is dropped across resistance R and charging current is maximum (call it I0).
S
Fig. 16.7
E
R
At any instant: After having closed the switch, the charging current starts decreasing and voltage across
capacitor gradually increases. Let at any time t during charging
I0 =
I = charging current
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
v = p.d. across C
q = charge on capacitor = Cv
According to Kirchhoffs voltage law, the applied voltage E is equal to the sum of voltage drops across
the resistor and capacitor.
E = v + IR
or
E = v + **C R
dv
dt
dv
dt
=
Ev
RC
Integrating both sides, we have,
dv
dt
E v = RC
or
t
+K
...(i)
RC
where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions. At t = 0, v
= 0. Substituting these values in eq. (i), we get loge E = K. Therefore, eq. (i) becomes:
t
log e ( E v) =
+ log e E
RC
log e ( E v) =
log e
or
Ev
t
=
E
RC
Ev
= e t / RC
E
v = E [1 et/RC]
or
...(ii)
Eq. (ii) is the expression for voltage across the capacitor at any time t during charging. Note that growth
of voltage across the capacitor follows an exponential law [See Fig. 16.8].
q
v
q0
0.632 q0
0.632 E
t
RC
2RC
3RC 4RC
5RC
t
RC
Fig. 16.8
2RC
3RC 4RC
5RC
Fig. 16.9
Growth of charge: Suppose the final charge on the capacitor is q0. Since v = q/C and E = q0/C, eq.
(ii) becomes :
q q0
=
(1 et / RC )
C
C
or
q = q0 (1 et/RC)
...(iii)
Eq. (iii) gives the value of charge on the capacitor at any time t during charging. Note that increase
of charge on the capacitor plates follows exponential law [See Fig. 16.9].
Time constant:
v = E (1 et/RC)
The exponent of e is t/RC. The quantity RC has the *dimensions of time and is called time constant of the
circuit. It is denoted by .
Time constant,
= RC seconds
Note that time constant will be in seconds if R is in ohms and C in farad. For a given circuit, time constant
is constant because R and C are constant.
If time interval t = (= R C), then,
v = E (1 et/t) = E (1 e1) = 0.632 E
Hence capacitive time constant can be defined as the time in which the voltage across the capacitor
increases from zero to 0.632 of its maximum value [See Fig. 16.8].
The time constant is a measure of how long it takes the capacitor to charge to its final value. The larger the
value of R or C or both, the longer it takes for the capacitor to charge to the final value and vice-versa.
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
Theoretically, the voltage across the capacitor will reach the final value E in an infinite time. However, for most
practical purposes, we assume that the voltage across the capacitor reaches its final value after a time equal to
5 time constants (i.e. at t = 5 RC). It is a common practice to use this assumption.
Note: We can also define time constant in terms of growth of charge on capacitor plates.
q = q0 (1 et/RC)
If t = (= RC), then, we have,
q = q0 (1 et/t) = q0 (1 e1) = 0.632 q0
Hence, capacitive time constant can also be defined as the time in which the charge on the capacitor
increases from zero to 0.632 of its maximum value.
5. DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 16.10. First, we leave the switch S2 open and close the switch S1. As
a result, the capacitor starts charging up. After some time, the capacitor is charged to voltage E and the
corresponding final charge on capacitor plates is q0. If now switch S1 is opened and switch S2 closed, the
voltage across capacitor (as well as charge) starts decreasing. Let at any time t during discharging
v = p.d. across the capacitor
R
I = discharging current
S1
S2
dv
dt
=
dt
RC
Integrating both sides w.r.t. t, we have,
dv
dt
v = RC
or
Fig. 16.10
t
...(i)
+K
RC
where K is a constant of integration whose value can be determined from the initial conditions. At t = 0, v
= E. Putting these values in eq. (i), we have, loge E = K. Therefore, eq. (i) becomes:
t
+ log e E
log e v =
RC
log e v =
or
or
log e
or
or
v
t
=
E
RC
v
= et / RC
E
v = E et/RC
...(ii)
Again RC (= ) is the time constant of the circuit. Equation (ii) gives the value of voltage across the
capacitor at any time t during discharging. Note that decrease in voltage across the capacitor follows an
exponential law [See Fig. 16.11].
q
v
q0
E
0.368 q0
0.368E
0
t
RC
2RC
3RC 4RC
5RC
t
RC
4RC 5RC
Fig. 16.12
Fig. 16.11
Decay of charge:
2RC 3RC
or
q = q0 et/RC
...(iii)
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
Eq. (iii) gives the value of charge on the capacitor at any time t during discharging. Note that
decrease of charge on capacitor follows exponential law [See Fig. 16.12].
Time constnat: v = E et/RC
If time interval t = (= RC), then, v = E et/t = E e1 = 0.368 E
Hence capacitive time constant may also be defined as the time during which the voltage on the
capacitor decays from maximum initial value to 0.368 of maximum value.
Theoretically, the voltage across the capacitor will reach zero value in an infinite time. However, for
most practical purposes, we assume that voltage across capacitor becomes zero after a time equal to 5 time
constants (i.e. at t = 5 RC).
Note. The larger the value of R or C or both, the longer it takes for the capacitor to discharge and viceversa.
W =
I0
dW
I0
I2
L I dI = L
2
I0
1
or
W = L I 02
2
This work done is equal to the energy U stored in the inductor.
1
...(i)
LI 2
2 0
Eq. (i) gives the expression for the energy stored in an inductor when current through it increases from
zero to the final value I0. The energy stored will be in joules if inductance (L) and current (I0) are in henry
and amperes respectively. The following points may be noted:
(i) The energy stored in the inductor is supplied by the source of e.m.f.
(ii) The energy in an inductor can be considered to be stored in its magnetic field.
(iii) When current in an inductor is constant (say I 0), the e.m.f. induced in L is zero. However, the
energy stored in the inductor is (1/2) L I02.
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
W =
q0
1
q
dq =
C
C
q0
q dq =
1 q0
2 C
1 q0
2 C
Since q0 = C V0 where V0 is the potential difference across the capacitor corresponding to charge q0,
2
1 q0
1
1
U =
= C V0 2 = q0 V0
2 C
2
2
Note that energy stored will be in joules if q0, C and V0 are in SI units.
(i) The energy stored in the capacitor is supplied by the source of e.m.f.
(ii) The source of e.m.f. supplies an amount of energy equal to q0V0 during the charging process. Half
of the energy (i.e. q0 V0/2) goes to the capacitor and the other half is transferred to heat in the
circuit resistance.
(iii) The energy stored in a capacitor may be considered to be stored in its electric field.
8. LC OSCILLATIONS
When a charged capacitor is connected to an inductor, the charge oscillates back and forth. In other words,
charge flows back and forth from one plate of the capacitor to the other through the inductor. This
results in the production of electrical oscillations (generally called electromagnetic oscillations). The
physical reason is that energy shuttles back and forth between the magnetic field of the inductor and the
electric field of the capacitor.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C carrying a charge q. The energy is stored in the electric field
of the capacitor and is given by UE = q2/2C.
(i) Suppose an inductor of inductance L is connected to the capacitor. At this instant, all the energy
is stored in the electric field of the capacitor. The energy stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor (UB = L I2/2) is zero because the current is zero [See Fig. 16.13 (i)].
+ q q
+
+
C
L
(i)
q= 0
q + q
Current maximum
(ii)
(iii)
+ q q
Current maximum
(iv)
(v)
Fig. 16.13
(ii) The capacitor now begins to discharge through the inductor. As q *decreases, the energy stored
in the electric field also decreases. Since there is no loss of energy (inductor is assumed to
have zero resistance), the loss of stored energy in the capacitor must be transferred to the
magnetic field of the inductor. Thus as electric field decreases, the magnetic field builds up
and the energy is transferred from the former to the latter. When the capacitor is fully discharged, the electric field in the capacitor is zero, the energy there having been transferred
entirely to the magnetic field of the inductor [See Fig. 16.13 (ii)]. Since at this instant, the
energy (UB = L I2/2) in the inductor is maximum, the current is also maximum.
(iii) Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse and produce a counter
e.m.f. According to Lenzs law, the counter e.m.f. will keep the current flowing in the same
direction. The result is that capacitor now begins to charge but in the reverse direction. The
energy now flows from the inductor back to the capacitor as charge and electric field build up
again. Eventually, the capacitor receives all its original energy back and, therefore, is charged to
the same voltage as originally, except in the opposite direction [See Fig. 16.13 (iii)].
(iv) The capacitor will start to discharge again but in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 16.13 (iv).
The circuit eventually returns to its initial situation [See Fig. 16.13 (v)].
The whole process then repeats, giving continuous electrical oscillations. Note that not only does the
charge oscillate back and forth but so does the energy. It can be shown that electrical oscillations will have a
sinusoidal waveform [See Fig. 16.14] of frequency f given by;
f =
1
2 L C
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
If LC circuit does not have any resistance, the amplitude of oscillations will remain constant. Such
oscillations are called undamped oscillations [See Fig. 16.14]. However, in a practical LC circuit, there are
resistance losses in the inductor and dielectric loss in the capacitor. During each oscillation, a small part of
I
Fig. 16.14
Fig. 16.15
the originally imparted energy is used up to overcome these losses. The result is that the amplitude of oscillating current decreases gradually [See Fig. 16.15] and eventually it becomes zero when all the energy is consumed
as losses. Such oscillations are called damped oscillations. Therefore, LC circuit by itself will produce damped
oscillations. It may be noted that frequency of oscillations remains unchanged since it depends upon L and C.
=L
C
dt
dI
q
or
...(i)
L
+
=0
dt C
The current I is due solely to the flow of charge from the capacitor so that :
dq
or
dt
Therefore, relation of eq. (i) can be written as :
I =
L
*
or
d 2q
dt
d 2q
dt 2
dI d 2 q
= 2
dt
dt
q
=0
C
C
q
Fig. 16.16
1
= 2
LC
d 2q
+ 2 q = 0
dt 2
The general solution of this differential equation is
q = A cos t + B sin t
where A and B are constants whose values can be found from initial conditions.
(i) At
t = 0,
or
A = q0
I =
or
t = 0,
or
I
+q
1
+
q=0
LC
Put
At
B=0
...(ii)
...(iii)
TRANSIENT CURRENTS
...(iv)
Eq. (iv) shows that charge on the capacitor in an LC circuit varies sinusoidally. The current in the
inductor also varies sinusoidally since
dq
d
(q0 cos t) = q0 sin t
=
dt
dt
(a) The maximum value of varying charge on the capacitor is q0.
I =
I 0 = q0 = q0
LC
(c) The frequency of oscillating charge (or current) is given by;
f =
1
2 LC
2
=
LC
( = 2 f)
UE =
2 2
1 2 L q0
LI =
sin 2 t
2
2
q02
=
sin 2 t
2C
Therefore, at any time t, the total energy in the LC circuit is
q2
q2
U = U E + U B = 0 cos 2 t + 0 sin 2 t
2C
2C
2
q
q2
= 0 (cos 2 t + sin 2 t ) = 0
2C
2C
UB =
q02
2C
Hence the total energy is constant and is conserved.
or
U =
( q = q0 cos t)
( I = q0 sin t)
( 2 = 1/L C)