Current Electricity2012-Notes - Copy Unlocked

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
Connectivity

1. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of +5V and +3V respectively.
Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the body B. Since the bodies are separated by air, the charges on the bodies are stationary or static. The branch of
physics which deals with charges at rest is called electrostatics.
If the two bodies are connected through a wire , then free electrons will *flow
from body B to body A (conventional current is from A to B). This flow of current
(i.e., charges moving in a definite direction) will continue till the two bodies attain
the same potential. Once the two bodies attain the same potential, current flow ceases.
Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that current will flow in a conductor or circuit if potential difference

1. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of +5V and +3V respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1 (i).
Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the body B. Since the bodies are separated by air, the charges on
the bodies are stationary or static. The branch of physics which deals with charges at rest is called
electrostatics.
Free
electrons
A
+5V
+3V
+5V
+3V
(i)
Fig. 6.1
Wire
(ii)
If the two bodies are connected through a wire as shown in Fig. 6.1 (ii), then free electrons will *flow
from body B to body A (conventional current is from A to B). This flow of current (i.e., charges moving in a
definite direction) will continue till the two bodies attain the same potential. Once the two bodies attain the
same potential, current flow ceases. Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that current will flow
in a conductor or circuit if potential difference
exists. If no p.d. exists between two points in a circuit, no current will flow between these points. A device
that maintains potential difference between two points is said to develop electromotive force (e.m.f.) e.g.,
battery, generator, etc. The branch of physics which deals with charges in motion is called current electricity.
2. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.)

If we want that electric current should flow through a conductor, we must maintain potential difference (p.d.)
across its ends. A device that maintains potential difference between two points is said to develop an
electromotive force (e.m.f). The simple example of such a device is that of a cell. A cell consists of two
dissimilar metal plates (say copper and zinc) immersed in an electrolyte (say dil. H2SO4) as shown in Fig.
6.2 (i). The chemical action in the cell causes copper plate to become positively charged and zinc plate
negatively charged. Note that chemical energy has *separated the positive and negative charges,
causing a potential difference to exist between the terminals of the cell. The maximum p.d. (e) between
the two plates of a cell on open-circuit (i.e. cell delivering no current) is called electromotive force
(e.m.f.) of the cell [See Fig. 6.2 (i)].
R
e
_
+
+
Copper
_
_
_
+
+
+
Dil. H2SO4
Copper
Zinc
_
_
+
+
+
_
_
_
+
+
_
(i)
Zinc
Dil. H
(ii)
Fig. 6.2
If the two plates are joined through a wire as shown in Fig. 6.2 (ii), an electron is attracted from zinc plate
through the wire to copper plate. The charges on the plates are reduced by one electron. The chemical action
of the cell now tansfers one electron from copper plate to zinc plate internally through the cell. Thus, plates
acquire original charge to maintain original p.d. This process goes on so long as the circuit is complete or so
long as there is chemical energy available.
The e.m.f. of a cell can also be defined as the energy supplied by the cell to drive a unit charge once
around the complete circuit and is given by;
e=
where
E . dl
E = electric field i.e. force per unit charge
dl = small path segment vector
Since e.m.f. of a cell is the potential difference between its plates on open circuit, one can expect that SI
unit of e.m.f. is volt.
Note: Unfortunately, the early scientists called e.m.f. a force instead of incorporating the word
work into the terminology. However, e.m.f. has unit of work and not unit of force.
3. ELECTRIC CURRENT
The flow of charge in a definite direction is called electric current. It is measured by the time rate of flow of
charge through a conductor (or material). In other words, electric current is the flow of charge through any
cross-section of the conductor per second. If q is the charge flowing through any cross-section of the
conductor in time t, then,
q
t
When a cell is connected across the ends of a conductor [See Fig. 6.3], electric field is set up in the
conductor. The electric field exerts force on the free electrons, causing the free electrons to drift towards
the positive terminal of the cell. This constitutes electric current in the conductor. As a convention, the direction
of flow of positive charge is taken as the direction of current flow. If moving charges are negative, as with
free electrons in a metal, then direction of current is opposite to the flow of negative charges. This convention
does not make any difference in the actual operation of the electrical appliances.
Electric current, I =
Note: If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, then current at any time (i.e., instantaneous current) is given by;
dq
i=
dt
where dq is a small charge passing through any cross-section of the conductor in small time dt.
Unit of electric current Electric current, I = q/t
The SI unit of charge is one coulomb and that of time is one second. Therefore, SI unit of current is 1
coulomb/sec which has been given a special name of ampere. If q = 1C and t = 1s, then I = 1/1 = 1 ampere.
One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any cross-section, one coulomb of charge
flows in one second.
Thus, if 5 ampere current is flowing through a wire, it means that 5 C per second flows past any
cross-section of the wire.
Note: 1C = charge on 6.25 1018 electrons. Thus when we say that current through a wire is 1A, it
means that 6.25 1018 electrons per second flow past any cross-section of the wire.
I =
q ne
=
t
t
where e = 1.6 10 19 C
4. CURRENT CARRIERS
The flow of charged particles in a definite direction is called electric current. Those substances which permit the
flow of charges through them are called conductors e.g., metals. However, those substances which do not permit
the flow of charges are called insulators e.g., glass, mica, etc. It is reminded that current will only flow
through a conductor if p.d. is maintained across its ends.
(i) Current carriers in solid conductors: In solid conductors (e.g., metals), there are a large number of
free electrons. When electric field (i.e., p.d) is applied to the conductor, the free electrons start drifting in a
particular direction (in a direction opposite to the field) to constitute electric current. Hence, free electrons
are the current carriers in solid conductors.
(ii) Current carriers in liquids: Some liquids are conductors of electricity. A conducting liquid is called an
electrolyte (e.g., solution of CuSO4). The electrolytic solution provides positive ions (e.g., Cu ++) and negative
ions (e.g., SO 4 ). When external electric field (i.e., p.d.) is applied,
the positive ions move in one direction and negative ions in the opposite direction to constitute electric
current. Hence, in conducting liquids, ions (positive and negative) are the current carriers.
(iii) Current carriers in gases: Under ordinary conditions, gases are insulators. However, when a gas
under low pressure is subjected to high electric field (i.e., high p.d.), ionisation of gas molecules takes place,
i.e., electrons and positive ions are formed. Hence, current carriers in gases are free electrons and
positive ions.
Note: It is possible to have a stream of electrons move across empty space, as from cathode to plate
in a vacuum tube. This is also current. In general, the flow of charged particles (positive or negative) in
a definite direction constitutes electric current.
5. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS A SCALAR QUANTITY

(i) Electric current, I = q/t. As both charge and time are scalars, therefore,
electric
current is a scalar quantity.
3A
(ii)
We show electric current in a wire by an arrow to indicate the direction of
7A
C
flow
of
positive
charge. But such arrows are not vectors because they do not obey
O
4A
the laws of vector algebra. This point can be explained by referring to Fig. 6.4. The
B wires OA and OB carry currents of 3A and 4A respectively. The total current in the
wire CO is 3 + 4 = 7A irrespective of the angle between the wires OA and OB. This
Fig. 6.4
is not surprising because the charge is conserved so that magnitudes of currents in wires OA and OB must
add to give the magnitude of current in the wire CO.
A
6. TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

The electric current may be classified into three main classes: (i) steady current (ii) varying current (iii)
alternating current.
(i) Steady current: When the magnitude of current does not change with time, it is called a steady
current. Fig. 6.5 (i) shows the graph between steady current and time. Note that value of current remains
the same as the time changes. The current provided by a battery is almost a steady current.
I
T/4
T/2
3T/4 T
t
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Fig. 6.5
(ii) Varying current: When the magnitude of current changes with time, it is called a varying current.
Fig. 6.5 (ii) shows the graph between varying current and time. Note that value of current varies with time.
(iii) Alternating current: An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes coninuously with
time and direction changes periodically. Due to technical and economical reasons, we produce alternating
currents that have sine waveform (or cosine waveform) as shown in Fig. 6.5 (iii). It is called alternating
current because current flows in alternate directions in the circuit, i.e,. from O to T/2 second (T is the time
period of the wave) in one direction and from T/2 to T second in the opposite direction.
7. OHMS LAW
The relationship between voltage across and current through a conductor was first discovered by German
scientist George Simon Ohm. This relationship is called Ohm's law and may be stated as under:
The current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
(V) across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, strain, etc.) do not change, i.e.,
I V
V
= constant = R
I
where R is a constant of proportionality and is called resistance of the conductor.
or
For example, if in Fig. 6.6 (i), the p.d. between points A and B of the conductor is V and current flowing
is I, then V/I will be constant and equal to R, resistance of the conductor between points A and B. If V is
doubled up, current will also be doubled up so that ratio V/I is constant.
Y
V
A
q
0
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 6.6
If a *graph is drawn between applied potential difference (V) and current (I) flowing through the conductor, it will be a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 6.6 (ii). Note that slope of the graph
gives the resistance of the conductor (tan = V/I = R).
Those conductors (e.g., metals) which obey Ohms law are called ohmic conductors. It may be noted
that Ohms law (a linear V I graph or constant resistance) is true only for ohmic conductors.
Note: Ohms law (R = V/I = constant) is a statement about the electrical behaviour of an ohmic
conductor. If the material is not ohmic, relation between V and I will not be linear so that R is not
constant. Nevertheless, R = V/I serves as the definition of resistance whether the material is ohmic or
non-ohmic.
8. RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
Resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of p.d. applied across its ends to the resulting current
through the conductor, i.e.,
V
R=
I
If we look at the above relation, we find that resistance is properly named. For a given potential
difference, the greater the resistance to current flow, the smaller is the current (I = V/R). In fact, resistance is
opposition offered by the substance to the flow of electric current. This opposition occurs because atoms
and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of charge carriers, i.e., free electrons in this case. Certain
substances (e.g., metals such as silver, copper, aluminium, etc.) offer very little opposition to the flow of
electric current and are called conductors. On the other hand, those substances which offer very high
opposition to the flow of electric current are called insulators, e.g., glass, rubber, mica, etc.
Unit of Resistance
R = V/I
The SI unit of p.d. is 1V and that of current is 1A. Therefore, SI unit of resistance is V/A which has been
given the special name Ohm (symbol ).
1 Ohm = 1 = 1 V/A
A conductor is said to have a resistance of 1 Ohm if a p.d. of 1V across its ends causes a current of 1A
to flow through it.
Dimensions of V
Dimensions of resistance =
Dimensions of I
Energy / Charge ML2T 2
=
I
IC
2 2
ML T
2 3 2
=
= [ ML T A ]
A AT
=
International ohm. It is defined as the resistance of 106.3 cm long mercury column of 1 mm2 crosssectional area and mass 14.4521g at 0C.
Note: It may be noted that resistance is the electric friction offered by the conductor and causes
production of heat with the flow of electric current. The moving free electrons collide with atoms or
molecules of the conductor; each collision resulting in the liberation of a minute quantity of heat.
9. FACTORS UPON WHICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS

The resistance R of a conductor
(i)
is directly proportional to its length, i.e., R l
(ii) is inversely proportional to its area of X-section, i.e., R 1/A
(iii) depends upon the nature of the material
(iv) changes with temperature.
From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we have,
R
l
A
l
A
where (Greek letter Rho) is a constant of proportionality and is known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the conductor. Its value depends upon the nature of the material and temperature.
R=
or
1 m2
Resistivity or Specific Resistance:

l
A
then R =
We have seen above that R =

If l = 1 m;
A = 1 m2,
1m
Fig. 6.7
Hence specific resistance (or resistivity) of a material is the resistance offered by 1 m length of wire
of the material having area of X-section of 1m2 [See Fig. 6.7].
For example, the resistivity of copper is 1.7 108 -m. It means that if you take a copper wire 1 m long
and having an area of X-section of 1m2, then resistance of this piece of copper wire will be 1.7 108 .
Another definition of . It we take a cube of the material of each side 1m, then area of cross-section of
each face is 1m2 and length between opposite faces is 1m.
Hence resistivity may be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube of the
material.
Unit of Resistivity
l
A
RA
=
or
l
The SI unit of length is 1m and that of area is 1m2.
ohm m2
Unit of =
= Ohm-m
m
The resistivity of substances varies over a wide range. To give an idea to the reader, the following table
may be referred :
R=
We know that
S.No.
Material
Nature
-m) at
Resistivity (
room temperature
Copper
metal
1.7 108
Iron
metal
9.68 108
Manganin
alloy
48 108
Nichrome
alloy
100 108
Pure silicon
semiconductor
2.5 103
Pure germanium
semiconductor
0.6
Glass
insulator
1010 to 1014
Mica
insulator
1011 to 1015
The reader may note that resistivity of metals and alloys is very small. Therefore, these materials are
good conductors of electric current. On the other hand, resistivity of insulators is extremely large. As a
result, these materials hardly conduct any current. There is also an intermediate class of semiconductors.
The resistivity of these substances lies between conductors and insulators.
10. CONDUCTANCE
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). If a conductor has resistance
R, then its conductance G is given by;
G = 1/R
The SI unit of conductance is mho (i.e., ohm spelt backward). These days, it is a usual practice to use
siemen as the unit of conductance. It is denoted by the symbol S.
Conductivity. The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity. It is denoted by
the symbol . If a conductor has resistivity , then its conductivity is given by;
1
A
A
=
= . Clearly, the SI unit of conductivity is siemen metre1 (Sm1).
R l
l
11. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ON THE BASIS OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
On the basis of electrical conductivity, the materials are classified as (i) insulators (ii) conductors (iii) semiconductors.
(i) Insulators. Those materials whose electrical conductivity is negligible are called insulators
e.g. mica, glass, wood, rubber etc. When a small potential difference is applied across an insulator, practically no current flows through it. There are practically no free electrons in an insulator.
For this reason, they are poor conductors of electric current as well as heat.
(ii) Conductors. Those materials whose electrical conductivity is very high are called conductors
e.g. copper, silver, aluminium etc. Metals are generally good conductors. When a small potential
difference is applied across a conductor, a large current flows through it. There are a large number
of free electrons in a conductor. For this reason, they are good conductors of electric current as
well as heat.
(iii) Semiconductors. Those materials whose electrical conductivity lies inbetween conductors and insulators are called semiconductors e.g. germanium, silicon etc. When a small
We know that G =
potential difference is applied across a semiconductor, a very weak current flows through it.
The conductivity of a semiconductor can by increased by adding controlled amount of suitable impurities. Semiconductors are being widely used in the manufacture of a variety of electronic devices.
12. CARBON RESISTORS

A component whose function in a circuit is to provide a specified value of resistance is called a resistor. The
most commonly used resistors in electrical and electronic circuits are the carbon resistors. A carbon resistor is
made from powdered carbon mixed with a binding material and baked into a small tube with a wire attached to
each end. These small-sized resistors are manufactured in values from a fraction of an ohm to several million
ohms.
Colour code for carbon resistors: Since a carbon resistor is physically
quite small, it is more convenient to use a colour code indicating the
resistance value than to imprint the numerical value on the case. In
A B C D
this scheme, there are generally four colour bands A, B, C and D printed
Fig. 6.8
on the body of the resistor as shown in Fig. 6.8. The first three colour
bands (A, B and C) give the value of the resistance while the fourth band (D) tells about the *tolerance in
percentage. The table below shows the colour code for resistance values and colour code for tolerance.
Colour Code for Resistance Values
Colour Code for Tolerance
Black
0
Green
5
Gold
5%
Brown
1
Blue
6
Silver
10%
Red
2
Violet
7
No colour
20%
Orange
3
Grey
8
Yellow
4
White
9
(i) To read the resistance value, we refer to the first three colour bands (A, B and C). The first two
colour bands (A, B) specify the first two digits of the resistance value and the third colour band
(C) gives the number of zeros that follow the first two digits. Suppose the first three colour
bands (A, B, C) on the resistor are red, brown, orange respectively. Then value of the resistance
is 21, 000 .
Red
:
2
Brown
:
1
Value = 21,000
Orange
:
000
(ii) The fourth band D gives the value of tolerance in percentage. If colour of the fourth band is gold,
tolerance is 5 per cent and if silver, then tolerance is 10 per cent. If the fourth band is
omitted, the tolerance is assumed to be 20 per cent.
0
Black
Brown
R O Y
Red
Orange
Green
Blue
Violet
G reat B ritain Ve
Yellow
Note: In order to remember the colour code, the above sentence may be helpful.
13. MECHANISM OF CURRENT CONDUCTION IN METALS
Every metal has a large number of free electrons which wander randomly within the body of the conductor
somewhat like the molecules in a gas. The average speed of free electrons is sufficiently high (~ 105 ms1) at
room temperature. During random motion, the free electrons collide with positive ions (positive atoms of
metal) again and again and after each collision, their direction of motion changes. When we consider all the
free electrons, their random motions average to zero. In other words, there is no net flow of charge
(electrons) in any particular direction. Consequently, no current is established in the conductor.
When potential difference is applied across the ends of a
conductor (say copper wire) as shown in Fig. 6.10, electric field
is applied at every point of the copper wire. The electric field
exerts force on the free electrons which start accelerating towards the positive terminal (i.e., opposite to the direction of the
field). As the free electrons move, they *collide again and again
with positive ions of the metal. Each collision destroys the
extra velocity gained by the free electrons.
The average time that an electron spends between
two collisions is called the relaxation time (). Its value is of
the order of 1014 second.
Copper wire
Fig. 6.10
Although the free electrons are continuously accelerated by the electric field, collisions prevent their
velocity from becoming large. The result is that electric field provides a small constant velocity towards
positive terminal which is superimposed on the random motion of the electrons. This constant velocity is
called the drift velocity.
The average velocity with which free electrons get drifted in a metallic conductor under the
influence of electric field is called drift velocity (vd ) . The drift velocity of free electrons is of the order
of 105ms1.
Thus when a metallic conductor is subjected to electric field (or potential difference), free electrons move
towards the positive terminal of the source with drift velocity vd . Small though it is, the drift velocity is
entirely responsible for electric current in the metal.
Note: The reader may wonder that if electrons drift so slowly, how room light turns on quickly
when switch is closed? The answer is that propagation of electric field takes place with the speed of light.
When we apply electric field (i.e., potential difference) to a wire, the free electrons everywhere in the wire
begin drifting almost at once.
14. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND DRIFT VELOCITY

Consider a metallic conductor connected to a battery as shown in Fig. 6.11.
Let
l = length of the conductor
V = p.d. across the conductor
m = mass of electron
e = charge on electron
vd = drift velocity of the free electrons

= relaxation time
Magnitude of electric field, E = V/l
E
vd
l
V
Fig. 6.11
Under the influence of electric field, each free electron experiences a force of e E. The acceleration a of
the electron is given by;
eE
a =
m
Since relaxation time is , the drift velocity of the free electron is given by;
eE
vd = a =
m
eE
vd =
m
The negative sign shows that direction of drift velocity is opposite to that of the electric field. Note
that drift velocity is directly proportional to the applied electric field.
15. RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY

Consider a portion of a copper wire through which current I is flowing as shown in Fig. 6.12. Clearly, copper wire
vd
Copper wire
is under the influence of electric field.
Let
A = area of X-section of the wire
A
n = electron density, i.e., number
of free electrons per unit volume
P
e = charge on each electron
E
v d = drift velocity of free electrons
Fig. 6.12
In one second, all those free electrons within a distance vd to the right of cross-section at P (i.e., in a
volume Av d) will flow through the cross-section at P as shown in Fig. 6.12. This volume contains n Avd
electrons and, hence, a charge (nAvd)e. Therefore, a charge of neAvd per second passes the cross-section at P.
I = n e A vd
Since A, n and e are constant,
I vd
Hence, current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the drift velocity.
(i) The drift velocity of free electrons is very small. Since the number of free electrons in a metallic
conductor is very large, even small drift velocity of free electrons gives rise to sufficient current.
(ii)
eE
I = n e Avd = n e A
m
n e2 A E
I =
m
eE
vd =
m
16. ELECTRON MOBILITY

The mobility of free electron is defined as the drift velocity of electron per unit electric field applied. It
is denoted by e .
Electron mobility, e =
drift velocity vd
=
E
electric field
vd = e E
The SI unit of electron mobility is m2s1 V1 or ms1 N1C.
We can express electric current in terms of electron mobility.
I = n e A vd = n e A (me E) ( vd = me E)
I = n e A e E
17. CURRENT DENSITY

Current density is defined as the electric current per unit cross-sectional area (area normal to current) at
any point in a conductor.
Consider a wire of cross-sectional area A and carrying current I. In this case, the current density is constant
for all points within the conductor. The magnitude of current density is given by;
I
J =
...(i)
A
Obviously the SI unit of current density is Am 2.
Current density ( J ) is a vector quantity whose magnitude is given by eq. (i) above and whose direction
is in the direction of electric field.
(i)
I = n e A vd
or
I/A = n e vd
J = n e vd
Thus, current density is a fundamental quantity and is related to the charge density (n), charge on
current carriers (e) and drift velocity (vd) of current carriers.
Note :
(ii)
or
eE
E
J = n e vd = n e e
vd =
m
m
n e2 E
J =
m
V
V
VA
I = =
=
R (l / A) l
1
I
1V
=
= E ( = and E = V/l)
A l
J = E
This shows that conductivity () is the ratio of the magnitude of current density to the magnitude of
applied electric field.
Note: If current density is not uniform, then general relation is
I = J . dA
where J . dA is the current through small area dA .
18. VALIDITY OF OHMS LAW
Consider a metallic wire of length l and uniform area of cross-section A as shown

I
in Fig. 6.13. Let V be the applied p.d. across the ends of the conductor and I the
V
resulting current.
Fig. 6.13
eE
Drift velocity,
vd =
m
Here e ( = 1.6 1019C) is the charge on electron and m is the mass of electron. Now E ( = V/l) is the
magnitude of the electric field established in the conductor and is the relaxation time.
e V
vd =
m l
We know that
I = n e A vd
10
e V n Ae 2
I = n e A =
V
ml
m l
V
ml
=
or
I
n Ae 2
2
The quantity ml/nAe is constant at a given temperature for a given conductor. It is called resistance R
of the conductor.
or
V
ml
= Constant = R
=
I
n Ae 2
This proves the validity of Ohms law.
19. VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY WITH TEMPERATURE

R=
Resistivity of a material, =
V
ml
m l
=
=

2
I
n Ae n e2 A
m
n e2
1
since m and e are constants,

n
Therefore, resistivity of the material of a conductor depends upon the following factors :
(i) It is inversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume (n) of the conductor.
Since the value of n depends upon the nature of the material, the resistivity of a conductor
depends upon the nature of material of conductor and not on its dimensions.
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the average relaxation time (). The value of decreases with the
increase in temperature and vice-vera.
1. Metals: In most of the metals, the value of n does not change with temperature so that
1
Now relaxation time () is the average time between two successive collisions of a free electron with
positive ions of metallic conductor. As the temperature increases, the amplitude of
vibrations of the positive ions also increases. Consequently, the relaxation time decreases. This in turn
increases the value of . Hence, in case of metals, the resistivity (and hence resistance R = l/A)
increases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.
It is found that resistivity of a conductor increases linearly with temperature and is given by ;
= 0 [1 + r (t t0)]
where and 0 are the resistivity at temperatures tC and t0C respectively. The term r is called temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
0
d 1
.
r =
=
Clearly,
0 (t t0 ) 0 dt
Therefore, r is defined as the fractional change in resistivity (d /0) per unit change in temperature (dt).
Note that r is positive for metals.
2. Semiconductors: In case of semiconductors, the value of n (i.e., free electron density) is very
small as compared to metals. When the temperature of a semiconductor increases, the value of n increases
and that of t decreases. But the increase in the value of n is greater than the decrease in the value of .
The net result is that the resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature.
Therefore, the resistivity (and hence resistance) of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa. The reader may note that effect of temperature on semiconductors is opposite to
that on metallic conductors. Note that r for semiconductors is negative.
3. Insulators: The resistivity (and hence resistance) of an insulator decreases exponentially with the rise
in temperature. A temperature rise in insulators creates many more free electrons than that existed in the
cooler state. Often this increase in the number of free electrons more than offsets the interference to the drift
movement caused by the increased molecular activity. Hence the resistivity of an insulator decreases with the
increase in temperature and vice-versa.
Note. In case of a semiconductor and an insulator, the temperature dependence of resistivity is given by ;
= 0 e E8 / 2 kT
where k = Boltzmann constant (= 1.381 1023 J mol1 k1 )

T = Absolute temperature
E8 = Energy gap between conduction band and valence band in the atoms of the material
11
The value of E8 decides whether a material is a semiconductor or insulator. If E8 ~ 1 eV, the material
is a semiconductor and the resistivity at room temperature is not high. However, if E8 > 1 eV, the material
is an insulator and the value of resistivity is very high. Note that at 0K, both the semiconductor and
insulator have inifinite value of resistivity.
20. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE

It has been found that in the normal range of temperatures, the resistance of a metallic conductor increases linearly
with the rise in temperature. Therefore, resistance/temperature graph is a straight line as shown in Fig. 6.14.
Consider a metallic conductor having resistance R0 at 0C and R1 at t1C. Then in the normal range of
temperatures, the increase in resistance (i.e., R1 R0)
R2
(i) is directly proportional to the initial resistance, i.e.,

Resistance
R1 R0 R0
(ii) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature, i.e.,
R1 R0 t 1
R1
R0
(iii) depends upon the nature of the material.

0
Combining the first two, we get,

R1 R0 R0 t1
or
R1 R0 = R0 t1
t1
t2
Temperature
Fig. 6.14
.... (i)
where is a constant of proportionality and is called temperature co-efficient of resistance. Its value
depends upon the nature of the material and temperature.
Rearranging eq. (i), we get, R1 = R0 (1 + t1)
R1 R0
R0 t1
= increase in resistance/ohm original resistance/C
Definition of : From eq. (i), we get,
rise in temperature
Hence, temperature co-efficient of resistance of a conductor is the increase in resistance per ohm
original resistance per C rise in temperature.
A little reflection shows that unit of will be ohms/ohms/ C i.e., / C. Thus copper has a temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.004/ C. It means that if a copper wire has a resistance of 1 at 0C, then it will
increase by 0.004 for every 1C rise in temperature, i.e., it will become 1.004 at 1C. It may be noted that
metals have positive temperature co-efficient of resistance while semiconductors and insulators have
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. It may be noted that value of is very small for
alloys. Since alloys have high value of resistivity and low value of , they are used for making standard
resistance coils.
Note: If the resistance of a conductor is R2 at t02C and R1 at t01C (t1 < t2), then,
R2 = R1 [1 + (t2 t1)]
21. NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS

Those conductors which do not obey Ohms law (I V) are called non-ohmic conductors. e.g., vacuum tubes,
transistors, electrolytes, etc. A non-ohmic conductor may have one or more of the following properties:
(i) The VI graph is non-linear i.e. V/I is variable.
(ii) The VI graph may not pass through the origin as in case of an ohmic conductor.
(iii) A non-ohmic conductor may conduct poorly or not at all when the p.d. is reversed.
The non-linear circuit problems are generally solved by graphical methods.
Fig. 6.15 illustrates the graphs of non-ohmic conductors. Note that V-I graphs for these non-ohmic
conductors are not a straight line.
+I
+I
junction
diode
neon
gas
V
I
+V
+I
diode
valve
0
I
Fig. 6.15
+V
V
I
+V
12
22. THERMISTORS
A thermistor is a heat sensitive device usually made of a semiconductor material whose resistance changes very rapidly with change of temperature. A thermistor has the following important
properties :
(i) The resistance of a thermistor changes very rapidly with change of temperature.
(ii) The temperature coefficient of a thermistor is very high.
(iii) The temperature co-efficient of a thermistor can be both positive and negative.
Construction. Thermistors are made from semiconductor oxides of iron, nickel
and cobalt. They are generally in the form of beads, discs or rods (See Fig. 6.16). A
pair of platinum leads are attached at the two ends for electrical connections. The
arrangement is enclosed in a very small glass bulb and sealed.
Applications
Bead
Disc
(i) A thermistor with negative temperature coefficient of resistance may be

used to safeguard against current surges in a circuit where this
could be harmful e.g. in a circuit where the heaters of the radio
valves are in series (See Fig. 6.17).
voltage
Fig. 6.16
Thermistor
heaters
T
supply
A thermistor T is included in the circuit. When the supply voltage is switched on, the thermistor has a high resistance at first
because it is cold. It thus limits the current to a moderate value.
Fig. 6.17
As it warms up, the thermistor resistance drops appreciably and an increased current then flows
through the heaters.
(ii) A thermistor with a negative temperature coefficient can be used to issue an alarm for excessive
temperature of winding of motors, transformers and generators [See Fig. 6.18].
Signal lamp
or
buzzer
T
Thermistor
Relay
coil
Fig. 6.18
When the temperature of windings is low, the thermistor is cool and its resistance is high. Therefore,
only a small current flows through the thermistor and the relay coil. When the temperature of the
windings is high, the thermistor is hot and its resistance is low. Therefore, a large current flows in
the relay coil to close the contacts. This completes the circuit for the signal lamp or buzzer.
(iii) Thermistors are used for voltage stabilisation, temperature control and remote sensing.
(iv) Thermistors are used to measure very low temperatures of the order of 10K.
23. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
There are metals and compounds whose resistivity goes to zero below a Material
TC (K)
certain temperature T C called critical temperature (or transition temAl
1.20
perature). These materials are known as superconductors. This phenomenon of zero resistance of some metals and compounds whencooled to
Pb
7.19
critical temperature is called superconductivity. The critical temperature for sevHg
4.15
eral metals and alloys are shown in the adjoining table. At present, the problem
Nb
9.26
with using the materials listed in the table for practical applications is that we
must use liquid helium to cool them into the superconducting state. Liquid
Sn
3.72
helium is expensive and supplies are limited.
Zn
0.85
Fig. 6.19 (i) shows resistance-temperature graph for normal metals whereas
Nb3Ge
23.2
as Fig. 6.19 (ii) shows resistance-temperature graph for a superconductor.
Nb3Sn
18.05
Note that resistance-temperature graph for a superconductor follows that
for a normal metal at temperature above TC (critical temperature). When the
NbSn2
2.60
temperature is at or below TC , the resistance drops suddenly to zero [See Fig.
PbTi0.27
6.43
6.19 (ii)]. Recent measurements have shown that resistivities of superconductors below are less than 4 10 25 m which is around times smaller than the resistivity of copper !
13
No
Resistance
Resistance
Superconducting
Resistance
of normal metals
a
rm
Resistance of
superconductor
TC
Temperature (K)
( i)
Temperature (K)
( ii)
Fig. 6.19
One of the remarkable features of superconductors is that once a current is set up in the material, the
current will persist without any applied voltage (since R = 0 ). In fact, steady currents have been observed to
persist in superconducting loops for several years with no apparent decay. Today there are thousands of
known superconductors with critical temperatures as high as 23K for one alloy made of a combination of
niobium, aluminium and germanium. The critical temperature is sensitive to chemical composition, pressure and crystalline structure.
Applications (or uses) of superconductors. The scientists are making continuous efforts to produce room
- temperature superconductors. Once this goal is achieved, the superconductivity will offer the following uses :
(i) It will offer the possibility of loss-free transmission of electric power. It is because superconducting transmission lines would have zero resistance.
(ii) It will help for the construction of superconducting magnets in which the magnetic field intensities would be about 10 times greater than those of the best normal electromagnets.
(iii) A superconducting computer would be smaller and faster than todays computers.
(iv) Superconducting electromagnets offer substantial savings in large particle accelerators for highenergy physics research.
(v) Superconducting transmission lines would permit the transmission of electric power at lower voltage, making underground power lines possible.
24. D.C. CIRCUIT

The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c. circuit. A d.c.
circuit essentially consists of a source of direct voltage (e.g., battery), the conductors used to carry current and the load. Fig. 6.20 shows a torch bulb (i.e., load)
connected to a battery through conducting wires. The direct current *starts from
the positive terminal of the battery and comes back to the starting point via the
load. The direct current follows the closed path ABCDA and hence ABCDA is
a d.c. circuit. The load for a d.c. circuit is usually a *resistance. In a d.c. circuit,
loads (i.e., resistances) may be connected in series or parallel or series-parallel.
B
I
A
D
Fig. 6.20
25. RESISTORS IN SERIES

A number of resistors are said to be connected in series if the same current flows through each resistor and
there is only one path for the current flow throughout.
Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in series across a battery of e.m.f. E volts
as shown in Fig. 6.21 (i). Let I be the circuit current. By Ohms law,
V1 = I R1; V2 = I R2; V3 = I R3
Now,
E = V1 + V2 + V3 = I R1 + I R2 + I R3
or
E = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
or
E/I = R1 + R2 + R3
But E/I is the **total or equivalent resistance RS between points A and B.
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances. Thus, we can replace the series connected resistors shown in Fig. 6.21 (i)
by a single resistor RS ( = R1 + R2 + R3) as shown in Fig. 6.21 (ii). This will enable us to calculate the circuit
current easily (I = E/RS).
14

R1
R2
R3
V1
V2
V3
RS
E
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 6.21
The following are the characteristics of a series circuit :

(i) The current in each resistor is the same.
(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances plus internal
resistance of the cell if any.
(iii) The voltage drop across any resistor is directly proportional to the resistance of that resistor.
(iv) The current in the circuit is independent of the relative positions of the resistors in the circuit.
(v) The total resistance in the series circuit is more than the largest resistance in the circuit.
Note. The main disadvantage of a series circuit is that if one device (or resistor) fails, the current in the
whole circuit ceases.
26. RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

A number of resistors are said to be connected in parallel if voltage across each resistor is the same.
Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel across a battery of E volts as
shown in Fig. 6.22 (i). Note that voltage across each resistor is the same (i.e., E volts) and there are as many
paths for current flow as the number of resistors. By Ohms law,
E
E
E
I1 =
; I2 =
; I3 =
R1
R2
R3
E
E
E
+
+
R1 R2
R3
1
1
1
+
+
I =E
R3
R1 R2
I
1
1
1
=
+
+
E R1 R2
R3
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 =
Now
or
or
But E/I is the total or equivalent resistance RP of the parallel connected resistors so that I/E = 1/RP.
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
RP
R1 R2
R3
I1
R1
I2
R2
I3
R3
RP
E
( i)
(ii)
Fig. 6.22
Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. Again we can replace parallel
connected resistors shown in Fig. 6.22 (i) by a single resistor RP as shown in Fig. 6.22 (ii). The circuit
current is I = E/RP.
The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit :
(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.
(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.
15
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
(v) As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is decreased.
(vi) The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of resistances.
(vii) If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total resistance,
Note. In homes, electrical devices are connected in parallel (not in series). Any electrical device
can be turned on or off without affecting the operation of other electrical devices.
27. TWO RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

A frequent special case of parallel resistors is a circuit that contains two resistors in parallel as shown in Fig.
6.23. The total circuit current I divides into two parts; I1 flowing through R1 and I2 flowing through R2.
(i)
Total Resistance:
or
R + R1
1
1
1
=
+
= 2
RP
R1 R2
R1 R2
RP =
I1
R1
I2
R2
R1 R2
Product
i.e.,
R1 + R2
Sum
Thus, if two resistances of 3 and 6 are connected in parallel, then

I
their total or equivalent resistance R is
3 6 18
R=
=
= 2
3+6
9
(ii) Branch Currents:
E = I RP = I
Now
I1 =
Similarly,
R1 R2
R1 + R2
R1 R2 1
R2
E
= I
=I
R1 R1 + R2 R1
R1 + R2
R2
I1 = I
R1 + R2
I2 = I
R1
R1 + R2
Other resistance
Sum of the two resistances
Thus referring to Fig. 6.24, the currents in the two branches are:
I1
6
3
I1 = 9
= 6A
3+6
i.e., Current in any of the two branches = Total current
9A
3
I2 = 9
= 3A
3+6
28.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
I2
6
Fig. 6.24
The resistance offered by a cell to the current flow is called internal resistance r of the cell. The
internal resistance of a fresh cell is generally low. However, as the cell is used, its internal resistance goes on increasing. The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the following factors :
(i) distance between the plates
increases with the increase in distance between

the plates
(ii) nature of the electrolyte

(iii) concentration of the electrolyte
increases with the increase in concentration

of electrolyte.
(iv) nature of the electrodes

(v) area of the plates
decreases with the increase in plate area.
It is a usual practice to show internal resistance of a cell as a series

resistor external to the cell as shown in Fig. 6.48.
29. E.M.F. AND TERMINAL P.D. OF A CELL
r
Fig. 6.48
(i) When the cell is delivering no current (i.e., on open-circuit), the p.d. across the terminals of the cell is
equal to e.m.f., E of the cell as shown in Fig. 6.49.
16

I
1
r
r
E
E
2
Fig. 6.49
2
Fig. 6.50
(ii) When a resistance R is connected across the cell [See Fig. 6.50], current I starts flowing in the
circuit. This current causes a voltage drop ( = Ir) across internal resistance of the cell so that terminal
voltage V is less than the e.m.f. E of the cell.
I =
or
E
R+r
IR+Ir=E
But I R = V = Terminal p.d. of the cell.
V +Ir=E
or
E=V+Ir
E V E V
V
=
( I =
)
R
I
V
R
The following points may be noted :
(a) The terminal voltage V of a cell is the voltage across its load when the cell is delivering current
i.e. the cell circuit is closed.
(b) Due to voltage drop in the internal resistance of the cell, the terminal voltage V is less than
e.m.f. E of the cell. The voltage drop in the internal resistance of the cell is Ir so that V = E Ir.
Internal resistance of the cell, r =
30. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN E.M.F. AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

E.M.F. (E)
Potential Difference (V)
1. It is the potential difference across the terminal of the cell when it is delivering no current i.e. when the cell is in the open circuit.
1. It is the potential difference across the

terminal of the cell when it is delivering
no current i.e. the cell curcuit is closed.
2. It is independent of circuit resistance and

depends upon the nature of the electrodes
and the electrolyte.
2. It depends upon circuit resistance and

circuit current.
3. It maintains potential difference.
3. It causes current to flow in the circuit.
4. It is greater than V.
4. It is less than E.
5. The term e.m.f. is used for a source of voltage.
5. The p.d. (V) is the voltage between two

points in a closed circuit.
31. BATTERY AND ITS NEED

The e.m.f. and current obtained from a single cell are generally small. For instance, an ordinary dry cell has an
e.m.f of 1.5V and can deliver about 1/8 ampere continuously. Such a cell can, therefore, supply electrical energy
to a circuit requiring 1.5V and not more than 1/8A. Many occasions arise when higher voltage or higher current
or both are required. To meet these needs, a number of cells are suitably connected or grouped. The combination of cells thus obtained is called a battery. Depending upon voltage and current requirements, cells may be
connected in three ways to form a battery viz., (i) series grouping (ii) parallel grouping (iii) series-parallel
grouping.
32. CELLS IN SERIES

When voltage required is more than that of the e.m.f. of a single cell, a number of cells are connected in
series to meet the requirement. The cells are said to be connected in series if the negative terminal of one
cell is connected to the positive terminal of the next cell and so on.
Consider n cells, each of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r connected in series across an external resistance R as shown in Fig. 6.51.
17
Total battery e.m.f. = n E
Internal resistance of the battery = n r

Total circuit resistance = R + n r
Circuit current, I =
nE
R + nr
I
n cells
Special Cases
Fig. 6.51
(i) If R >> n r, then n r can be neglected as compared to R.

E
= n current due to one cel
R
(ii) If R << n r, then R can be neglected as compared to nr.
I =n
nE E
= = current due to one cel
nr
r
Hence in order to get maximum current in a series grouping of cells, the external resistance (R) should
be very high as compared to the internal resistance of the battery (nr).
I =
33. CELLS IN PARALLEL

When current required is more than that delivered by a single cell, a
number of cells are connected in parallel to meet the requirement. In
parallel grouping, positive terminals of all the cells are joined together
and in a like manner all the negative terminals are connected together.
m rows
E
E
Consider m rows of cells in parallel, each row containing one

I
cell. Let E and r be the e.m.f. and internal resistance respectively of
each cell. Further, let this battery be connected across an external
resistance R as shown in Fig. 6.52.
E.M.F. of the battery = E
Since the cells are connected in parallel, their internal resistances are also in parallel. If rp is the total resistance of the battery, then,
1
1 1 1
= + + + ...m terms
rp
r r r
R
Fig. 6.52
See Animation No. 2
1 + 1 + 1 + ...m terms m
=
r
r
rp = r/m
r
Total circuit resistance = R + rp = R +
m
E
mE
=
R + ( r / m) m R + r
mE
I =
mR + r
=
or
Special Cases
(i) If R << r, then mR may be neglected as compared to r.

E
= m current due to one cell
r
(ii) If r << R, then r may be neglected as compared to m R.
I =m
mE E
= current due to one cell
=
mR R
Hence in order to get maximum current in parallel grouping of cells, the external resistance (R) should
be very low as compared to the internal resistance of each cell.
I =
34. SERIES-PARALLEL GROUPING OF CELLS (MIXED GROUPING)

To produce a large voltage, a number of cells are connected in series and to produce a large current, a
number of sets of such series-connected cells are connected in parallel. Such a connection is called
series-parallel grouping or mixed grouping. Clearly, series-parallel grouping embraces the advantages of
both series and parallel groupings.
Fig. 6.53 shows series-parallel grouping of cells. Let there be n cells connected in series and m such rows
connected in parallel across an external resistance R. Further, let E and r be the e.m.f. and internal resistance
of each cell respectively.
18
Resistance of one row of cells = n r

There are m rows in parallel, each having a resistance of n r. If rT
is the total internal resistance of the battery, then,
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...m terms
rT
nr nr nr
1 + 1 + 1 + ...m terms
m
=
=
I
nr
nr
nr
rT =
m
Total circuit resistance = R + (n r/ m)
n cells
m rows
R
Fig. 6.53
Total battery e.m.f. = E.M.F due to one row = n E
or
nE
mnE
=
R + ( n r / m) m R + n r
I =
mnE
mR + nr
I =
mnE
mR + nr
Condition for maximum current
mnE
... (i)
( m R n r )2 + 2 m R n r
As m, n and E are fixed quantities, therefore, numerator of eq. (i) is constant. Hence, current will be
maximum when the denominator of eq. (i) is minimum. The denominator will be minimum when quantity
( m R n r ) 2 is minimum. Now the minimum value of a squared quantity is zero i.e.,
I =
or
( mR
or
n r )2 = 0
mR = n r
nr
m
i.e.,
External resistance = Total internal resistance of the battery
Hence, in order to get maximum current in series-parallel grouping of cells, the external resistance
(R) should be equal to the total internal resistance of the battery (nr/m).
R=
or
35. EFFICIENCY OF A CELL

In general, the efficiency of any system is given by;
Output power
Efficiency, =
Input power
Consider a cell of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r delivering power to a

resistance R as shown in Fig. 6.54. If I is the circuit current, then useful power
developed is I2R and power wasted in the internal resistance of the cell is I2r. Total
power developed (input power) by the cell is I2R + I2r (= E I).
or
I
E
Fig. 6.54
Useful power
I2 R
= 2
Total power developed I R + I 2 r
R
1
=
=
R + r 1 + (r / R )
It is clear that greater the value of external resistance (R), the higher is the efficiency of the cell.
THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
Telescope with Thermocouple Attachment
1. SEEBECK EFFECT
Consider two wires of different metals (say copper and iron) joined at their ends to
form two junctions A and B as shown in Fig. 10.1. Such an arrangement is called a
thermocouple. If one junction is kept hot and the other cold, it is observed that the
galvanometer shows deflection. This means that e.m.f. (and hence current) is generated
in the circuit. The e.m.f. thus produced is called thermo e.m.f. and the resulting
current is known as thermoelectric current. The above effect is known as Seebeck
effect (or thermoelectric effect) and may be stated as under :
1. SEEBECK EFFECT
Consider two wires of different metals (say copper and iron) joined at their ends to form two junctions A and
B as shown in Fig. 10.1. Such an arrangement is called a thermocouple. If one junction is kept hot and the
other cold, it is observed that the galvanometer shows deflection. This means that e.m.f. (and hence current)
is generated in the circuit. The e.m.f. thus produced is called thermo e.m.f. and the resulting current is known
as thermoelectric current. The above effect is known as Seebeck effect (or thermoelectric effect) and may be
stated as under :
The phenomenon of production of e.m.f. (and hence current) in a thermocouple when its two
junctions are at different temperatures is known as Seebeck effect.
Iron (Fe)
(Hot) A
B (Cold)
G
Copper (Cu)
Fig. 10.1

(i) The magnitude and direction of thermo e.m.f. (and hence current) depends upon the nature of the
materials forming the thermocouple and temperature difference between the two junctions.
(ii) Usually, thermo e.m.f. is very small. For Cu-Fe thermocouple, thermo e.m.f. is found to be about 7V
for every 1C temperature difference between the junctions; for SbBi thermocouple, it is 100V per
C.
(iii) The Seebeck effect is reversible i.e. if hot and cold junctions are interchanged, the direction of
thermo e.m.f. (and hence current) is reversed.
2. THERMOELECTRIC SERIES
Seebeck, a German physicist, conducted a number of experiments by forming thermocouples of different
metals. On the basis of his experimental investigations, he arranged a list of metals such that if any two of
them form a thermocouple, then current will flow from a metal earlier in the series to a metal later in the
series through the cold junction. This list of metals is known as thermoelectric series or Seebeck series. Some
of the metals forming this series are given below:
Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Au, Cr, Sn, Pb, Cu, Co, Ni, Bi
Thus for a CuFe thermocouple, the current will flow from iron to copper through the cold junction as
shown in Fig. 10.1. Similarly, for SbBi thermocouple, the direction of thermoelectric current is from Sb to Bi
through the cold junction.
Another important feature of thermoelectric series is that it shows at a glance as to which pair of metals
forming the thermocouple will develop more thermo e.m.f. for a given temperature difference between the two
junctions. The greater the separation of the metals forming the thermocouple in the series, the greater is the
thermo e.m.f. produced (for a given temperature difference between the two junctions). Thus for a given
temperature difference between the two junctions, the thermo e.m.f. developed in SbBi thermocouple is more
than that in CuFe thermocouple.
Note. Thermocouple output is not high and the process is hardly efficient to serve as a
practical source of electric energy for many applications. For example, thermo e.m.f. for a temperature
difference of 100C is about 0.0013V for Cu Fe thermocouple and about 0.008V for Sb Bi thermocouple.
3. ORIGIN OF THERMO E.M.F.

If two dissimilar metals are in contact, more free electrons diffuse from one metal (having lower *work function)
to the other (having higher work function). Thus one metal becomes positively charged and the other negatively
charged. This continues until the difference in potential across the boundary surface becomes high enough
to establish euilibrium. This potential difference developed is known as contact e.m.f. The direction and
magnitude of contact e.m.f. depend upon what metals are used and on the temperature of the junction. When
Iron
Fe
Cu
E
Fig. 10.2
E1
+
(Hot) _
E2
+
_
Copper
Fig. 10.3
(Cold)
copper is brought in contact with iron, more free electrons diffuse from iron to copper, thus making iron
positive w.r.t. copper as shown in Fig. 10.2. It is clear that direction of contact e.m.f. at FeCu junction will be
as indicated.
When the junctions of the two metals forming the thermocouple are at the same temperature, the two
contact e.m.fs (E1 and E2) are equal in magnitude and of opposite polarity. Hence, they cancel each other and
no thermo e.m.f. is developed in the thermocouple. However, if the two junctions of the thermocouple are at
different temperatures (See Fig. 10.3), the contact e.m.f. at the hot junction is *more than that at the cold
junction (i.e. E1 > E2). Thus, there is a net e.m.f. in the thermocouple and thermoelectric current flows in the
direction as shown in Fig. 10.3. It may be noted that contact e.m.f. depends only on work functions of the
metals, not on sizes or area of contact.
Note: The cold junction of a thermocouple is normally kept at 0C.
4. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THERMO E.M.F.

Figure 10.4 (i) shows the arrangement to study the effect of temperature difference between the two junctions
of a CuFe thermocouple on the magnitude of thermo e.m.f. It is a normal practice to keep the temperature of
the cold junction at 0C. Keeping the temperature of the cold junction B constant at 0C, the temperature of the
hot junction A is gradually increased and corresponding readings of the galvanometer are noted. Note that
deflection of the galvanometer is directly proportional to the thermoelectric current and hence to the thermo
e.m.f. Fig. 10.4 (ii) shows the graph between thermo e.m.f. and temperature of the hot junction. It may be seen
that the graph has a parabolic shape.
Galvanometer
Cu
Cu
Fe
Hot bath
Ice
Fig. 10.4
The following points may be noted from the graph :

(i) When the two junctions are at the same temperature (say 0C), the thermo e.m.f. is zero.
(ii) As the temperature of the hot junction is increased (keeping cold junction at 0C), thermo e.m.f. also
increases till it becomes maximum at temperature n (called neutral temperature).
The temperature of the hot junction at which the thermo e.m.f. is maximum is known as neutral
temperature (n).
The neutral temperature depends upon the nature of metals forming the thermocouple. But for a
particular pair of metals, its value is constant and is independent of temperature of the cold junction.
Thus for CuFe thermocouple, the neutral temperature is 270C irrespective of the temperature of the
cold junction.
(iii) As the temperature of the hot junction is increased beyond neutral temperature, thermo e.m.f. starts
decreasing and ultimatley becomes zero at temperature i (called temperature of inversion).
The temperature of the hot junction at which the thermo e.m.f. is zero and changes its polarity is
known as the temperature of inversion.
If the temperature is increased beyond i, the direction of thermo e.m.f. is reversed. It is due to the fact
that the number densities and rates of diffusion of electrons in the two metals used are reversed. The
inversion temperature depends upon (a) the temperature of cold junction and (b) the nature of metals forming
the thermocouple.
5. RELATION BETWEEN n AND i

The temperature of inversion (i) always exceeds the neutral temperature (n) by the same amount as the
neutral temperature exceeds that of the cold junction (c), i.e.
i n = n c
or
2n = i + c
n =
i + c
2
6. RELATION BETWEEN THERMO E.M.F. AND TEMPERATURE

The thermo e.m.f. of many pairs of metals have been measured as a function of temperature of hot junctions
(). In every case, if the cold junction is maintained at 0C, it is found that thermo e.m.f. (E) is given by;
1 2
E = +
2
where and are constants and their values depend upon the nature of materials forming the thermocouple
and the temperature difference of the two junctions. Note that this relationship is parabolic. Therefore, the
graph between thermo e.m.f. and temperature of hot junction is a parabola [Refer back to Fig. 10.4 (ii)].
Thermoelectric Power (S): The rate of change of thermo e.m.f. with temperature is called thermoelectric
power or Seebeck co-efficient S i.e.
LM
N
OP
Q
dE
d
1
+ 2 = +
=
d
d
2
Note that thermoelectric power has linear relationship with temperature of the hot junction. Therefore,
graph between S and is a straight line AB as shown in Fig. 10.5.
Thermoelectric power, S =
B
dE
d
dE
=0
d
E
(C)
qn
Fig. 10.5
(C)
Fig. 10.6
S = +
For = 0C, S = . This shows that thermoelectric power is independent of the temperature of cold
junction.
7. EXPRESSIONS FOR n AND i

We shall now derive the expressions for n and i in terms of thermoelectric constants and .
n)
(i) Neutral temperature (
dE
1
= +
2
or
...(i)
d
2
Now neutral temperature is that temperature of hot junction at which thermo e.m.f. is maximum. Therefore,
at neutral temperature,
E = +
dE
and
=0
d
Therefore, from eq. (i), we have,
0 = + n
= n
or
n =
i)
(ii) Temperature of inversion (
1
2
2
At temperature of inversion, E = 0.
1
0 = i + i2
...See Fig. 10.6
E = +
Since i cannot be zero, +
1
i = 0 or
2
or
i =
FG
H
0 = i +
1
i
2
IJ
K
8. PELTIER EFFECT
Peltier effect is the reverse of Seebeck effect and may be stated as under :
If the junctions of a thermocouple are at the same temperature and a current is passed round the
circuit of the thermocouple, heat is produced at one junction and absorbed at the other i.e. one junction
(former) is heated and the other junction (latter) is cooled. This effect is reversible i.e. when direction of
current is reversed, the heat evolved and absorbed are interchanged.
Consider a Cu Fe thermocouple having both the junctions at the same temperature. If current is passed
through this thermocouple in the direction shown in Fig. 10.7, heat is evolved at junction A and absorbed at
Fe
junction B. Therefore, junction A is heated while junction B
is cooled. If current in the circuit is reversed, thermoelectric
effect is also reversed i.e. junction B is heated and junction
A is cooled.
Heated
Cooled
B
A
Explanation: When two dissimilar metals are joined,
contact potential difference is established at the junctions
i.e. potential of one metal becomes above that of the other.
Cu
Cu
In case of Cu Fe thermocouple, the potential of Fe is
above that of Cu.
Fig. 10.7
(i) At the junction B, current flows from Cu to Fe i.e. from lower potential to higher potential. Hence,
energy is required for this purpose. As a result, energy is absorbed from the junction and it is
cooled.
(ii) At the junction A, current flows from Fe to Cu i.e. from higher potential to lower potential. Hence,
energy is given out at this junction. Consequently, junction A becomes hot.
(iii) Peltier effect is reversible. If the direction of current through the thermocouple is reversed, the heat
evolved and absorbed at the junctions are also interchanged.
(iv) Note that Peltier heat is evolved at a junction of the thermocouple which is kept cold for Seebeck
effect. On the other hand, Peltier heat is absorbed at a junction of thermocouple which is kept hot for
Seebeck effect. Therefore, Peltier effect is complimentary to Seebeck effect.
Peltier co-efficient: The amount of heat absorbed/evolved at a junction due to Peltier effect when 1C
of charge passes across that junction is called Peltier co-efficient. It is denoted by .
Peltier heat
Peltier co-efficient, =
Charge flowing
The SI unit of is J/C. Peltier co-efficient depends upon the nature of metals forming the thermocouple
and temperature of the junctions.
Suppose the cold junction of the thermocouple is at temperature and hot junction at + d. If dE is the
thermo e.m.f. produced, then it is found that :
dE
=
d
But dE/d is thermoelectric power or Seebeck coefficient (S).
FG
H
dE
=S =
d
IJ
K
Note: In Peltier effect, the amount of heat evolved or absorbed is directly proportional to the current
flowing and is independent of the resistance of the circuit. This effect has no connection with *Joule's
effect of current.
9. PELTIER EFFECT AND JOULE'S EFFECT

eltier effect has no connection with Joule's heating effect. The two effects are entirely different and should not
be confused. This is clear from the following table :
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Peltier Effect
It is reversible effect i.e., cooling at the
junction is produced when current is in one
direction and heat is evolved at the junction
when the direction of current is reversed.
It occurs only at the junctions of two
dissimilar metals.
Heat evolved or absorbed at a junction is
proportional to current.
Heat is absorbed at one junction.
It depends upon the direction of current.
The amount of heat evolved or absorbed at
a junction depends upon the nature of the
two metals forming the thermocouple.
Both heating or cooling can take place at
the same junction depending upon the
direction of flow of current through the
junction.
Joule's Effect
It is irreversible i.e. heat is evolved in
both directions of current.
It occurs throughout the conductor.

Heat produced is proportional to the
square of current.
Heat is not at all absorbed.
It is independent of the direction of current.
It depends upon the resistance of the
conductor.
It is always a heating effect.
10. THOMSONS EFFECT

If the two ends of a single conductor are maintained at different A
B
I
temperatures [See Fig. 10.8], an e.m.f. is developed between them i.e.
Cold
potential of one end becomes higher than that of the other. This e.m.f. is Hot
called Thomson's e.m.f. If now steady current is passed through such an
Fig. 10.8
unequally heated conductor, an absorption or evolution of heat (other than Joule's heat) takes place along the
length of the conductor.
The absorption or evolution of heat (other than Joule's heat) when current is passed through an
unequally heated conductor is called Thomson's effect.
(i) Consider a copper wire AB with end A hot and end B cold. If current is passed from A to B [See Fig.
10.9 (i)], then heat is evolved along the length AB. On the other hand, if current is passed from B to
A [See Fig. 10.9 (ii)], then heat is absorbed along the length BA. The above behaviour can be
explained by the fact that the hot end of copper wire is at *higher potential than that of cold end.
When current flows from A to B (i.e. from higher potential to lower potential), the heat is given out.
Copper Wire
A
(Hot)
B
(Cold)
Copper Wire
(Hot)
Heat evolved
( i)
B
(Cold)
Heat absorbed
(ii)
Fig. 10.9
However, when current flows from B to A (i.e. from lower potential to higher potential), energy is
reuired for this purpose. Hence, heat is absorbed. The substances which behave like copper are
said to have positive Thomsons effect e.g., Sb, Ag, Zn, etc.
(ii) There are certain substances (e.g., Fe, Co, Bi, Pt, etc.) which show negative Thomsons effect. In such
substances, heat is evolved when current flows from cold end to hot end of the substance. On the
other hand, heat is absorbed when current flows from hot end to cold end.
Note: Thomsons effect is nil for lead. This means that no heat is evolved or absorbed when current
is passed through an uneually heated rod of lead. For this reason, lead is used as a reference metal in
thermoelectricity.
Thomsons co-efficient: It is defined as the e.m.f. set up between the two points of a conductor which
has a temperature difference of 1C (or 1 K). It is denoted by .
dV
Thomson's co-efficient, =
d
where
dV = potential difference set up between two points of the conductor
d = temperature difference between those points
The SI unit of Thomsons co-efficient is volt per C.
Thomsons coefficient of the material of a conductor is found by forming its thermocouple with a lead
wire. It can be shown that Thomsons coefficient of the material of a conductor is given by ;
d2E
d 2
dE
dS d 2 E
S =
=
or
d
d d 2
dS
=
d
=
But
FG IJ
H K
11. THOMSONS EFFECT AND JOULE'S EFFECT

Thomsons effect is entirely different from Joules heating effect. It is apparent from the following table:
S.No.
Thomsons Effect
1.
2.
It is reversible
Heat may be evolved or absorbed along the
length of the conductor.
A temperature difference is required along
the length of the conductor.
It depends upon the direction of current.
It is irreversible.
Heat is always evolved along the length of
the conductor.
No temperature difference is required along
the length of the conductor.
It is independent of the direction of current.
Amount of heat evolved/absorbed depends

upon the temperature difference between
the ends of the conductor.
Amount of heat evolved does not depend

upon the temperature difference between
the ends of the conductor.
3.
4.
5.
Joules Effect
6.
Heat evolved/absorbed is proportional to

current in the conductor.
Heat evolved is proportional to the square

of current in the conductor.
12. LAWS OF THERMO-ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

When the junctions of a thermocouple are at different temperatures, a thermo-e.m.f. is produced in it. This
e.m.f. arises due to the difference in the work functions of the dissimilar metals forming the thermocouple.
There are three laws for thermoelectric circuits.
(i) Law of homogeneous circuit. A thermoelectric current cannot exist in a circuit of single metal,
however varying in section, by the application of heat alone.
This law simply says that two different materials are reuired for a thermocouple circuit.
(ii) Law of Intermediate Temperatures. The thermo-e.m.f. developed by any thermocouple with its
junctions at any two temperatures 1 and 3 respectively is equal to the algebraic sum of the e.m.f. of the
thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures 1 and 2 respectively and the e.m.f of the same thermocouple
with its junctions at temperatures 2 and 3 respectively.
Fig. 10.10 illustrates the law of intermediate temperatures. In Fig. 10.10 (i), the junction temperatures are
1 (hot) and 3 (cold) and thermo e.m.f. developed is E. In Fig. 10.10 (ii), the junction temperatures are 1 and
2 and thermo-e.m.f. is E1 while in Fig. 10.10 (iii), the junction temperatures are 2 and 3 and thermo-e.m.f. is E2.
Metal A
1
e.m.f. = E
Metal A
3
Metal B
(i)
e.m.f. = E1
Metal B
(ii)
Fig. 10.10
According to law of intermediate temperatures,

E = E1 + E2
(iii) Law of Intermediate metals. The algebraic sum of the thermo- e.m.f.s in a circuit composed of any
number of dissimilar metals is zero, if whole the circuit is at a uniform temperature.
If A and D are the extreme metals and D,C are intermediate metals, then,
E AD = E AB + E BC + ECD
This law makes it possible to insert a measuring device and its connecting wires into the thermocouple
circuit without altering the thermo-e.m.f. provided its ends are at the same temperature.
13. THERMOELECTRIC THERMOMETER

Thermoelectric thermometer is basically a thermocouple and is used to measure both low and high
temperatures. Its operation is based on Seebeck effect. The selection of two metals to form the thermocouple
depends upon the range of temperature measurement.
Thermocouple
Range of Temperature
(i) Copper-gold and Iron alloy
1 K to 50 K
(ii) Copper and Constantan
50 K to 400 K
(iii) Platinum and PlatinumIridium alloy
400 K to 1300 K
(iv) Platinum and Platinum-Rhodium alloy
1300 K to 2000 K
Construction. Fig. 10.11 shows the basic parts of a thermoelectric thermometer. The two wires forming
the thermocouple are welded together at one end and this end forms the hot junction. The portions of wire
near the hot junction are insulated from each other by enclosing them in hard glass capillary tubes C.T. The
wires pass through mica discs arranged one above the other in a porcelain tube T. The ends of the wire are
connected to terminals T1 and T2 at the top of the porcelain tube T. To the terminals T1 and T2 are connected
two leads L1 and L2 (called compensating leads) of the same material as those of the wires forming the
thermocouple. The leads are taken to a convenient place and welded together to form the cold junction. The
cold junction is immersed in ice to keep it at 0C (273 K). A sensitive millivoltmeter (not shown) is inserted in
the thermocouple circuit to measure the thermo e.m.f.
T1
L1
L2
T2
Porcelain
Tube
Mica Discs
Capillary tube (C.T.)
Fig. 10.11
Theory
(i) By keeping the hot junction at different temperature (cold junction being at 0C), the corresponding
thermo e.m.f.s are noted from the millivoltmeter. A graph between the temperature of hot junction and
thermo e.m.f. is plotted as shown in Fig. 10.12.
(ii) The body whose temperature is to be determined is placed in contact with the hot junction (cold
junction at 0C). The thermo e.m.f. produced in the thermocouple is measured by millivoltmeter. Using
the curve shown in Fig. 10.12, the temperature of the hot body can be found corresponding to the
measured thermo e.m.f.
Advantages
(i) As the junction is very small, therefore, it absorbs only a small amount of heat from the object.
Consequently, the temperature of the object does not change.
(ii) It has low thermal capacity and, therefore, quickly attains the temperature of the object. For this
reason, a thermocouple can be used to measure fluctuating temperatures.
(iii) Because of the electrical nature of measurement, it is an accurate method.
(iv) A thermocouple has a very large range from 200C to 1500C, depending upon the metals used.
(v) They are very sensitive and can measure temperatures upto 0.05C.
(vi) They are cheap and can be constructed easily.
Disadvantages
(i) As the output voltage is less than 10 V, a very sensitive voltmeter is required.
(ii) These thermometers are not direct reading thermometers. Therefore, they cannot be used in
experiments on calorimetery.
(iii) Temperature of the cold junction has to be kept constant.
(iv) For the measurement of temperature of different temperature ranges, different thermocouples have to
be used.
14.APPLICATIONS OF
Other important applications of thermoelectric effect
are listed below :
1. Thermopile: By arranging several
thermocouples in series, a sensitive heat-detecting
device called a thermopile can be made. Since the Radiation
thermocouples are connected in series, the e.m.f.s are
added up. This increases the net thermo e.m.f. and
hence thermoelectric current. Figure 10.13 shows the
arrangement of detecting heat radiations by a
thermocouple. A number of series-connected *BiSb
thermocouples are housed in a horn-shaped vessel.
One set of junctions (junction A) is painted black to
absorb radiations and so becomes hot more easily.
The other set of junction (junctions B) is well
Bi
A
Sb
Bi
Sb
Bi
Sb
Fig. 10.13
polished and covered with insulating lid; this set, therefore, remains cool. The free ends of the thermocouples
are connected to a sensitive galvanometer.
When heat radiations fall on the horn-shaped end of the thermopile, the temperature of junctions A is
increased relative to the junctions B. Consequently, thermo e.m.f. is produced in each thermocouple. These
e.m.f.s add together to given an appreciable output. The galvanometer is generally so calibrated that it
directly gives the temperature or intensity of heat radiations. This instrument is so sensitive that it can detect
the heat from a lighted match-stick some distance away.
2. Thermoelectric refrigerator: The working of thermoelectric refrigerator is based on Peltier effect i.e.
if current is passed through a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the other
junction. If on the whole the process results in the removal of heat, we have a thermoelectric refrigerator. It
can be used when the region to be cooled is small and noiseless operation is required.
3. Thermoelectric generator: The working of a thermoelectric generator is based on Seebeck effect. By
heating one junction of a thermocouple and keeping the other junction at ambient temperature, electric current
can be generated. The electric power thus generated may be used to operate electronic devices in remote
areas.
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
Ornithologist Testing Thermocouples
1. COMPLEX CIRCUITS
Sometimes we encounter circuits where simplification by series and parallel combinations is impossible. Consequently, Ohms law cannot be applied to solve such
circuits. This happens when there is more than one source of e.m.f. in the circuit or
when resistors are connected in a complicated manner. Such circuits are called
complex circuits. We shall discuss two such circuits by way of illustration.
(i) A circuit containing two sources of e.m.f. E1 and E2 and three resistors.
This circuit cannot be solved by series-parallel combinations. Are resistors R1 and R3 in parallel? Not quite, because there is an e.m.f. source E1
between them. Are they in series? Not quite, because same current does
not flow in them.
1. COMPLEX CIRCUITS
Sometimes we encounter circuits where simplification by series and parallel combinations is impossible.
Consequently, Ohms law cannot be applied to solve such circuits. This happens when there is more than one
source of e.m.f. in the circuit or when resistors are connected in a complicated manner. Such circuits are
called complex circuits. We shall discuss two such circuits by way of illustration.
(i) Fig. 7.1 shows a circuit containing two sources of e.m.f. E1 and E2 and three resistors. This circuit
cannot be solved by series-parallel combinations. Are resistors R1 and R3 in parallel? Not quite,
because there is an e.m.f. source E1 between them. Are they in series? Not quite, because same
current does not flow in them.
E1
E2
R1
R1
R2
R3
R2
R3
E
R4
Fig. 7.1
R5
Fig. 7.2
(ii) Fig. 7.2 shows another circuit where we cannot solve the circuit by using series and parallel
combinations. Though this circuit contains one source of e.m.f. (E), it cannot be solved by
using series and parallel combinations. Thus, resistors R1 and R2 are neither in series nor in
parallel, same is true for other pair of resistors.
In order to solve such complex circuits, Gustav Kirchhoff gave two laws, known as Kirchhoff's laws.
2. KIRCHHOFFS LAWS
Kirchhoff gave two laws to solve complex circuits, namely;
1. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
2. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
1. KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

This law relates to the currents at the *junctions of an electric circuit and may be stated as under:
The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in an electrical
circuit is zero.
I1
O
I2
I4
Fig. 7.3
I3
An algebraic sum is one in which the sign of the quantity is taken into
account. For example, consider four conductors carrying currents I1, I2, I3 and I4
and meeting at point O as shown in Fig. 7.3. If we take the signs of currents
flowing towards point O as positive, then currents flowing away from point O will
be assigned negative sign. Thus, applying Kirchhoff's current law to the junction O in Fig.7.3, we have,
(I1) + (I4) + ( I2) + ( I3) = 0

or
i.e.,
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3
Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents
Hence, Kirchhoff's current law may also be stated as under :

The sum of currents flowing towards any junction in an electrical circuit is equal to the sum of
currents flowing away from that junction. Kirchhoff's current law is rightly called the junction rule.
Kirchhoffs current law is true because electric current is merely the flow of free electrons and they
cannot accumulate at any point in the circuit. This is in accordance with the law of conservation of charge.
Hence, Kirchhoff's current law is based on the law of conservation of charge.
2. KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
This law relates to e.m.fs and voltage drops in a closed circuit or loop
and may be stated as under :
In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the
electromotive forces (e.m.fs) and voltage drops in resistors is equal to
zero, i.e.,
In any closed circuit or mesh,
Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
R2
R1
B
I
E
D
A
Fig. 7.4
The validity of Kirchhoff's voltage law can be easily established by referring to the loop ABCDA
shown in Fig. 7.4. If we start from any point (say point A) in this closed circuit and go back to this point (i.e.,
point A) after going round the circuit, then there is no increase or decrease in potential. This means that
algebraic sum of the e.m.fs of all the sources (here only one e.m.f. source is considered) met on the way
plus the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in the resistances must be zero. Kirchhoff's voltage law is
based on the law of **conservation of energy, i.e., net change in the energy of a charge after completing the closed path is zero.
Note: Kirchhoff's voltage law is also called loop rule.
3. SIGN CONVENTION
While applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to a closed circuit, algebraic sums are considered. Therefore, it is
very important to assign proper signs to e.m.fs and voltage drops in the closed circuit. The following sign
convention may be followed :
A rise in potential should be considered positive and fall in potential should be considered negative.
(i) Thus in Fig. 7.5 (i), as we go from A to B (i.e., from negative terminal of the cell to the positive
terminal), there is a rise in potential. In Fig. 7.5 (ii), as we go from A to B, there is also a rise in
potential.
B A
A
(i)
B
(ii)
Fig. 7.5
(ii) In Fig. 7.6 (i), as we go from C to D, there is a fall in potential. In Fig. 7.6 (ii), as we go from
C to D, there is again a fall in potential.
4. ILLUSTRATION OF KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS

Kirchhoff's laws can be beautifully explained by referring to
Fig. 7.7. Mark the directions of currents as indicated. The directions in which currents are assumed to flow is unimportant, since
if wrong direction is chosen, it will be indicated by the negative
sign in the final result.
(i) The magnitude of current in any branch of the circuit
can be found by applying Kirchhoff's current law. Thus
at point C in Fig. 7.7, the incoming currents to the
junction C are I 1 and I2. Obviously, the current in
branch CF will be I1 + I2.
I1
I2
I 1 + I2
E1
R2
R1
I1
I2
E2
Fig. 7.7
(ii) There are three loops in Fig. 7.7 viz., ABCFA, CDEFC and ABCDEFA. Since there are only two
unknown quantities (i.e., I1 and I2), we need only two equations in terms of I1 and I2. This can be
achieved by applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to any two loops.
Loop ABCFA: In this loop, e.m.f. E1 will be given positive sign. It is because as we consider the loop in
the order ABCFA, we go from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery in the branch AB
and, hence, there is rise in potential. The voltage drop in branch CF is (I1 + I2)R1 and shall bear negative
sign. It is because as we consider the loop in the order ABCFA, we go with the current in the branch CF and
there is a fall in potential. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the loop ABCFA, we have
E1 (I1 + I2) R1 = 0
or
E1 = (I1 + I2) R1
...(i)
Loop CDEFC: As we go round the loop in the order CDEFC, drop I2 R2 is positive, e.m.f. E 2 is
negative and drop (I1 + I2) R1 is positive. Therefore, applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to this loop, we get,
I2 R2 E2 + (I1 + I2) R1 = 0
or
I2 R2 + (I1 + I2) R1 = E2
...(ii)
Since E1, E2, R1 and R2 are known, we can find the values of I1 and I2 from the above two equations.
Hence current in all the branches can be determined.
5. STEPS TO SOLVE CIRCUITS BY KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

(i) Assume unknown currents in the given circuit and show their directions by arrows.
(ii) Choose any loop and find the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the algebraic sum of e.m.fs
in that loop and put it equal to zero.
(iii) Write equations for as many loops as the number of unknown quantities. Solve the equations to
find the unknown quantities.
(iv) If the value of assumed current comes to be negative, it means that actual direction of current
is opposite to that of assumed direction.
6. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge is used to measure accurately an unknown resistance. It consists of four resistors (two fixed known resistances P
and Q, a known variable resistance R and the unknown resistance X
whose value is to be found out) connected to form a diamond shaped
circuit ABCDA as shown in Fig. 7.8. Across one pair of opposite junctions (A and C), a battery is connected through key K1 and across the
other opposite pair of junctions (B and D), a galvanometer is connected
through a key K. The circuit is called a bridge because galvanometer
bridges the opposite junctions B and D. The keys K1 and K are closed
and the value of R is varied till galvanometer shows no *deflection
(null point). Under such conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced.
I1
I2
K
X
D
K1
E
Fig. 7.8
Principle: Wheatstone bridge principle states that when the bridge

is balanced, the products of the resistances of the opposite arms are equal, i.e.,
Q
X = R
PX = QR or
P
Since the values of Q, P and R are known, the value of the unknown resistance X can be calculated.
Proof: Let under balanced conditions of the bridge;
I1 = current through P;
I2 = current through R
Since there is no current in the galvanometer,
Current through Q = I1
and
Current through X = I2
Since points B and D are at the same potential (because there is no current in the galvanometer),
P.D. across P = P.D. across R
or
Also
or
I1P = I2R
...(i)
P.D. across Q = P.D. across X

I1Q = I2X
...(ii)
(i )
P
R
Dividing , we get,
=
(
ii
)
Q
X

or
PX = QR
Note that exp. (iii) is true only under balanced conditions of the bridge i.e. when the
galvanometer current is zero.
B
7. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AND KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

Fig. 7.9 shows unbalanced Wheatstone bridge. Under such conditions,
the galvanometer will carry current Ig. Let the total current delivered
by the battery be I. At junction A, total current is divided into two
parts : I 1 flowing through P and (I I1) flowing through R. At junction B, current I1 is divided into two parts, Ig flowing through galvanometer and (I 1 I g ) passes through Q. At junction D, I g and (I
I 1 ) add up so that (I I 1 + Ig) flows through X. Let G be the resistance of the galvanometer.
Loop ABDA: Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the closed circuit ABDA, we have,
(I1P) + (IgG) + [(I I1) R] = 0
or
I1
I _ I1
I 1_ Ig
Ig
...(iii)
C
I _ I 1 + Ig
E
Fig. 7.9
I1P + IgG (I I1) R = 0
...(i)
Loop BCDB: Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the closed circuit BCDB, we have,
[ (I1 Ig) Q] + [(I I1 + Ig) X] + [IgG] = 0
or
(I1 Ig) Q (I I1 + Ig) X IgG = 0
...(ii)
Under balanced conditions: Under balanced conditions of the bridge, Ig = 0. Putting Ig = 0 in eqs. (i) and
(ii) above, we get,
I1 P = (I I1) R
...(iii)
and
I1 Q = (I I1) X
...(iv)
Dividing [(iii)/(iv)], we get,
P/Q = R/X
or
PX = QR
8. ADVANTAGES OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Although value of unknown resistance can be measured by such methods as potentiometer method (See
Art. 7.11), voltmeter-ammeter method etc, yet wheatstone bridge method offers the following advantages :
(i) The Wheatstone bridge method is independent of the fluctuations and variations in the supply
voltage. It is because X = (Q/P)R and battery voltage does not appear in this expression.
(ii) It removes the objectionable feature of voltmeter-ammeter method where the accuracy of measurement is limited by the accuracy of calibration of the instruments.
(iii) This method can accurately determine the value of resistances over the range 0.1 to 1M.
(iv) Since it is a null method, the measurement of unknown resistance is not affected by the
internal resistance of the battery used.
9. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE USING WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
B
We know that resistance of a conductor increases with increase in

temperature. A platinum wire wound non-inductively on a mica former is
connected in the arm CD of Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 7.10.
P
A
(i) The platinum wire is immersed in ice at 0C. Making P =

Q,the value of R is adjusted so that on closing eys K1 and
K2, the galvanometer gives zero reading. Since the values
of resistances in the three arms AB, BC and AD are known, the
value R0 of the platinum wire at 0C can be found using Wheatstone bridge formula.
G
R
K2
S
D
K1
(ii) The platinum wire is then maintained at 100C by placing

E
the wire in steam. Making P = Q, the value of R is so
Fig. 7.10
adjusted that on closing the keys K 1 and K 2 , the galvanometer gives zero reading. Using Wheatstone bridge formula, we can find the resistance R100 of
the platinum wire at 100C.
(iii) The platinum wire is then placed in the bath whose temperature tC is to be determined. Following
the above procedure, the resistance Rt of the platinum wire at tC can be found.
Calculations. If is the temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum wire, then,
R100 = R0 (1 + 100)
Rt = (1 + t)
Also
R100 R0
R0 100
Rt R0
=
R0 t
or
or
... (i)
... (ii)
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

Rt R0 R100 R0
=
R0 t
R0 100
Rt R0
100
R100 R0
Since the values of R0, Rt and R100 are known, the unknown temperature t can be determined.
t=
or
10. POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer is an accurate device for measuring the e.m.f. of a cell or potential difference (p.d.) between
two points of an electric circuit.
Principle: If a wire of uniform area of cross-section is carrying a steady current, then fall of
potential across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.
E
E
Rh
I
A
l
V
Fig. 7.31
A
B
E1
K2
Fig. 7.32
Consider a wire AB of uniform area of X-section and carrying a steady current I as shown in Fig.
7.31. Consider a portion AC (= l) of this wire. Suppose the p.d. across AC is V, i.e,. fall of potential across
length l of the wire is V. If A is the area of cross-section of the wire and is the resistivity of the wire,
then,
l
Resistance of portion AC, R =
A
l
V = I
Now
V = I R or
A
Since, I, and A are constant, V l.
Construction: Fig. 7.32 shows the potentiometer in its simplest form. It consists of a long uniform wire
AB made of manganin stretched on a wooden board. A graduated scale (not shown in the figure) runs parallel
to the wire. The end A of the wire is connected to the positive terminal of the battery E (driver battery) whose
negative terminal is connected to the other end B through an ammeter, rheostat Rh and key K1. The current
in wire AB can be changed with the help of the rheostat. The positive terminal of the cell whose e.m.f. E1
is to be measured is connected to the end A of the wire. The negative terminal of this cell is connected
through a galvanometer G and key K2 to a jockey J which can slide along the wire AB and can make contact
at any point on the wire. First key K 1 is closed and rheostat is set at one position to obtain steady
current in wire AB. Now key K2 is also closed and the jockey is moved over the wire to get the balance
point. The potentiometer is said to be balanced if the jockey is at such a position on the wire AB that on
pressing the jockey, there is no current in the galvanometer.
11. APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER
The potentiometer basically measures the potential difference between
two points but on this basis, it can be used to make several other measurements. A few common applications of potentiometer are given below:
E
I
Rh
K1
1. Determination of Potential difference. Fig. 7.33 shows the

J
I
arrangement for determining the potential difference across resistance A
B
R1 connected across a cell of e.m.f. E1. The positive terminal of cell E1
is connected to the positive terminal of battery E.
G
R1
(i) First key K1 is closed (K2 being open) and rheostat is
set at the desired position to obtain steady current I in the
E1 K2
wire AB. Let the value of resistance of rheostat be R.
The rheostat setting is not to be disturbed throughout
Fig. 7.33
the experiment.
(ii) Now key K2 is also closed and the jockey is moved over the wire AB to obtain a point J such
that when jockey is made to touch this point, there is no current in the galvanometer G.
The point J is called the null point or balance point. When the potentiometer is balanced, the
current in wire AB is again I.
(iii) At null point, the p.d. between points A and J is equal to the p.d. V across R1. If resistance of
1cm of wire AB is r and length AJ = l cm, then,
P.D. across R1,V = P.D. across AJ = Il r = k l
where k = p.d. across 1 cm length of wire AB. If length of wire AB is L cm, then resistance of
length AB = rL. If R is the resistance of rheostat, then,
E
R + rL
E
lr
P.D. across R1, V = I l r =

R +r L
2. Determination of e.m.f. of a cell. Fig. 7.34 shows the arrangement for determining the e.m.f. of a cell
with the help of a potentiometer. The positive terminal of the cell whose e.m.f. E1 is to be determined is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery E.
(i) First key K1 is closed (K2 being open) and rheostat is set at the desired position to obtain a steady
current I in the wire AB. The rheostat setting is not to be disturbed throughout the experiment.
(ii) Now key K2 is also closed and the jockey is moved over the wire AB to obtain a point J such that
when jockey is made to touch this point, there is no current in the galvanometer. The point
J is called the null point or balance point. When the potentiometer is balanced, the current
through wire AB is again I.
Current in wire AB, I =
E
A
Rh
K1
Rh
E
A
K1
I
J
J1 J2
E1
G
E1
K2
1
3
G
2
E2
Fig. 7.34
Fig. 7.35
(iii) At null point, the p.d. between points A and J is equal to the e.m.f. of the cell. If resistance of 1
cm of wire AB is r and length AJ = l cm, then,
P.D. across A J = I (l r) or
E.M.F. of cell, E1 = I l r
or
E1 = k l
where k(= I r) is the p.d. across 1 cm length of wire AB. Note that E 1 l.
Note that potentiometer method is a null method for determining the e.m.f. of a cell.
3. Comparison of e.m.fs of two cells: Fig. 7.35 shows the arrangement for comparing the e.m.fs E1 and E2
of two cells with the help of potentiometer. The positive terminals of the cells (E1 and E2) are connected to the
positive terminal of the battery E. The negative terminals of the cells are connected to terminals 1 and 2 of a twoway key. The common terminal 3 of the two-way key is connected to the jockey through a galvanometer G.
(i) The key K1 is closed and current in potentiometer wire is adjusted to a suitable constant value
(say I) with the help of the rheostat. The rheostat setting is not to be disturbed throughout the
experiment.
(ii) The terminals 1 and 3 are closed by a plug so that only cell of e.m.f. E1 is put in the circuit. The
jockey is moved on the potentiometer wire till galvanometer reads zero (null point). Let this point
be J1 on the wire and let distance AJ1 = l1.
E1 l1
(iii) Remove the plug between the terminals and insert it between terminals 2 and 3. This puts the cell
of e.m.f. E2 in the circuit. Repeat the procedure as in para (ii) above till null point is obtained at
point J2 on the potentiometer wire. Let distance AJ2 = l2.
E2 l2
E1
l
= 1
E2 l 2
Note: The e.m.f. E of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f. E1 or E2 otherwise null point will
*not be obtained. Further, a shunt must be used with the galvanometer initially and near the null
point, it should be removed.
4. Determination of internal resistance of a cell: Fig. 7.36
Battery
Rh
shows the arrangement for determining the internal resistance
K1
A
(r) of a cell of e.m.f. E with the help of a potentiometer. The positive terminal of the cell is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery. The negative terminal of the cell is connected to the
J2 J1
B
jockey negative terminal of the cell is connected to the jockey A
through a galvanometer G. A resistance box R is connected across
G
E
the cell through key K2.
(i) The key K1 is closed and current in potentiometer wire
AB is adjusted to a suitable constant value with the
help of rheostat. The setting of the rheostat is not to be
disturbed throughout the experiment.
R
K2
(ii) Keeping key K2 open, the position of jockey is adFig. 7.36
justed till null point is obtained, i.e., galvanometer reads
zero. Let the null point be obtained at point J1 on the potentiometer wire and let distance AJ1 = l1.
E.M.F. of cell, E l1
(iii) Now suitable resistance R from the resistance box is inserted and key K2 is closed. Again the
position of the null point is obtained on the potentiometer wire. Now the null point corresponds
to the p.d.V across the terminals of the cell. If the null point is obtained at point J2 and distance
AJ2 = l2, then, P.D. across the cell, V l2.
E l1
=
V l2
Internal resistance of the cell,
E V
E
r =
R = 1 R
V
V
l1
l1 l2
= 1 R =
R
l2
l2
l l2
r = 1
R
l2
Since the values of l1, l2 and R are known, the value of the internal resistance r of the cell can be
determined.
12. SENSITIVITY OF POTENTIOMETER

The sensitivity of a potentiometer indicates the smallest potential difference that can be measured
with it. The sensitivity of a potentiometer depends upon the potential gradient of the potentiometer wire
(i.e. fall in potential per unit length along the potentiometer wire). The smaller the potential gradient, the more
is the sensitivity of the potentiometer. Therefore, the sensitivity of a potentiometer can be increased by
decreasing the potential gradient i.e.
(i) by increasing the length of potentiometer wire.
(ii) by reducing the current in the potentiometer wire with a resistance in series with potentiometer
wire. This is equivalent to increasing the length of potentiometer wire.
13. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POTENTIOMETER
We now discuss the advantages and disadvantages of potentiometer.
Advantages
(i) It is a null-deflection method and, therefore, the balance condition can be found with a high
degree of sensitivity.
(ii) No current is drawn from the circuit under test. Therefore, it can measure the e.m.f. of a cell
accurately.
(iii) The scale can be made long for maximum accuracy.
(iv) Results are dependent only on measurements of lengths and the values of standard resistances
and standard e.m.f.s.
(v) The potentiometer is more accurate than the moving-coil voltmeter for measuring the e.m.f. The
moving coil voltmeter has finite resistance and while connected across a cell, the voltmeter
draws some current. Therefore, the voltmeter measures the e.m.f. of a cell approximately.
(vi) A potentiometer is a voltmeter with infinite resistance. Therefore, it is an ideal voltmeter.
Disadvantages
(i) It is slow in operation.
(ii) The potentiometer wire must be of uniform thickness.
(iii) The temperature of potentiometer wire must remain constant.
14. SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE (or METRE BRIDGE)
A slide wire bridge is a sensitive device used for measuring the unknown resistance. Its operation is based
on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
Construction: Fig. 7.37 shows the various parts of a slide wire bridge.
(i) AC is 1m long wire made of manganin (or constantan) and having uniform area of cross-section.
A graduated scale runs parallel to this wire. Since wire AC is 1m long, the device is also called
metre bridge.
(ii) The resistance R is a known resistance (resistance box) and X is unknown resistance whose value is
to be determined. Note that copper strips are used for making connections. This ensures negligible
resistance of the connections.
(iii) A battery E is connected between points A and C through key K; the positive terminal of E being
connected to point A.
(iv) One end of galvanometer G is connected to point D (junction point of R and X) and the other
end is connected to jockey B which can slide over the wire AC.
K
P
X
D
100
Q
G
R
0
A
X
D
E
Fig. 7.38
Fig. 7.37
Theory
(i) Introduce a suitable value of R and close the key K.
(ii) Move the jockey on the wire AC to obtain the null point (i.e., zero reading of the galvanometer).
Let point B be the null point on the wire AC. Suppose the resistance of portion AB of the wire
is P and that of portion BC is Q. Let length AB = l cm. Then length BC = (100 l) cm.
Now
*P l
and
Q (100 l)
P
l
=
Q 100 l
(iii) According to Wheatstone bridge principle, the relation between four resistances (P, Q, X and R)
at null point is given by;
l
R
P
R
=
=
PX = R Q
or
or
100 l X
Q X
100 l
X =
R
l
Since the values of l and R are known, the value of unknown resistance X can be determined.
Note: The resistance R should be so selected that null point is obtained near the middle of the
wire AC. This will result in minimum percentage of error in the measurement.
Advantages of Slide Wire Bridge
(i) It is a null-deflection method and, therefore, the balance condition can be found with a high
degree of sensitivity.
(ii) At balance, the galvanometer takes no current and, therefore, the result is not affected by the
faulty calibration of the galvanometer.
(iii) Variation in the e.m.f. of the supply does not affect the balance point.
(iv) The error inherent in the voltmeter-ammeter method of measuring resistance is not present.
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Levitation by Superconductivity
1.

1. CAUSE OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
When potential difference is applied across the ends of a conductor, the free electrons move with drift
velocity and current is established in the conductor. As the free electrons move through the conductor,
they collide with positive ions of the conductor. On collision, the kinetic energy of an electron is
transferred to the ion with which it has collided. As a result, the kinetic energy of vibration of the positive
ion increases, i.e., temperature of the conductor increases. Therefore, as current flows through a conductor, the free electrons lose energy which is converted into heat. Since the source of e.m.f. (e.g., a
battery) is maintaining current in the conductor, it is clear that electrical energy supplied by the battery
is converted into heat in the conductor.
2. HEAT PRODUCED IN A CONDUCTOR BY ELECTRIC CURRENT

Suppose a battery maintains a potential of V volts across the ends of a
conductor AB of resistance R ohms as shown in Fig. 8.1. Let the steady
current that passes from end A to end B be I amperes. If this current
flows for t seconds, then charge transferred from point A to B is q = It
coulomb. The electric potential energy lost (W) by the charge q as it moves
from A to B is given by;
q=It
V
Fig. 8.1
W = charge p.d. between A and B

( V = I R)
or
W = I2 R t
This loos of electic potential energy of charge is converted into heat (H) becasue the conductor AB has
resistance only.
= q V = V I t = I2 R t
I2 Rt
...(i)
calories
4.18
Eq. (i) is known as Joule's law of heating. It is because Joule was the first scientist who studied the
heating effect of electric current through a resistor. Thus according to Joule, heat produced in a conductor is
directly proportional to
H = I 2 R t Joules =
(i) square of current through the conductor

(ii) resistance of the conductor
(iii) time for which current is passed
H = V I t = I2 R t =
Note:
V2
t Joules
R
VIt
I 2 Rt
V 2t
=
=
calories
4.18 4.18 R 4.18
3. ELECTRIC POWER
The power of an electric appliance is the rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms
of energy (e.g. heat, etc.). For example, a 60W bulb converts 60J of electrical energy into heat and light each
second.
Thus referring to Fig. 8.2, as the charge q (= I t) moves from point A
to B, it loses electric potential energy = qV. In other words, q V joules of
electrical energy is converted into heat in t seconds.
q=It
=
=
V2/R
R watts
watts
V
Fig. 8.2
q V (I t) V
=
V I J / s or watt
t
t
Electric Power = V I watts
Electric Power =
I2
...(i)
( V = I R)
....(ii)
....(iii)
Any one of the three formulas can be used to calculate electric power, depending upon the problem at hand.
Unit of Electric Power
P= VI
The SI unit of p.d. is 1 V and that of current is 1 A so that SI unit of power = 1V 1A = 1VA or 1watt (1W).
Hence electric power of a circuit or device is one watt if a current of 1A flows through it when a p.d.
of 1V is maintained across it.
The bigger units of electric power are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
1kW = 1000W ;
1MW = 103 kW = 106 W.
The commercial unit of power is horse power (H.P.) where 1 H.P. = 746 W.
Note: Electric appliances are rated in terms of electric power. The faster the appliance converts
electrical energy into some other form of energy, the greater the electric power it has. Thus, in 1 second, a
100 W bulb converts more electrical energy into heat and light than a 60 W bulb.
4. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
The loss of electrical potential energy in maintaining current in a circuit is called electrical energy
consumed in the circuit.
Thus in Fig. 8.2 above, as the charge q (= I t) moves from point A to B, it loses electric potential energy
= q V = V I t joules. This loss of electric potential energy is converted into heat. We say thatelectrical energy
consumed in t seconds is VIt joules
V2
t joulws
Electrical energy consumed, W = V I t =I2 R t =

R
Unit of Electrical Energy
W = V I t = power time
The SI unit of power is 1W and that of time is 1s so that SI unit of electrical energy = 1W 1s = 1Ws
or 1J.
1J (or 1Ws) energy is consumed when a device (e.g., bulb, heater, etc.) converts electrical energy to
other forms at a rate of 1W for a time of 1 second.
Commercial Unit: In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1kWh energy is consumed when a device converts electrical energy to other forms at a rate of 1kW
for a time of 1hour.
Electrical energy in kWh = Power in kW Time in hours
The electricity bills are made on the basis of total electrical energy consumed by the consumer. The
unit for billing of electrical energy is 1kWh. Thus when we say that a consumer has consumed 100 units, it
means that electrical energy consumption is 100 kWh. Note that 1kWh is also called Board of Trade Unit
(B.O.T.U.) or unit of electricity.
5. USE OF POWER AND ENERGY FORMULAS

It has already been discussed that electric power as well as electrical energy consumed can be expressed by three
formulas. While using these formulas, the following points may be kept in mind:
V2
P = I2 R =
watts
(i) Electric Power,
R
2
V
t joules
Electrical energy consumed, w = I 2 R t =
R
The above formulas apply only to resistors and to devices (e.g., electric bulb, heater, electric kettle etc.)
where all electrical energy consumed is converted into heat.
(ii) Electric power
P = V I watts
Electrical energy consumed, W = V I t joules

These formulas apply to any type of load including the one mentioned in point (i).
6. APPLICATIONS OF HEATING
EFFECT OF CURRENT
glass bulb
filament
argon
or
nitrogen
The heating effect of electric current has a large number of applications in everyday life. A few applications are given below by way of
illustration :
(i) Incandescent electric bulb. It consists of a metal filament
of fine wire (generally of tungsten) enclosed in a glass
bulb. Tungsten is used because it has a large value of resistivity and high melting point (3650 K). The bulb also contains a small amount of inert gas such as nitrogen or argon
to prevent oxidation and evaporation of the filament. When
voltage is applied across the bulb, current flows through
the filament. The filament gets heated to a high temperature
and soon reaches the stage of incandescence. Note that
electrical energy supplied to the electric bulb is converted
bayonet cap
connections
Fig. 8.3

into heat as well as light. Filament lamps are inefficient because the greater part of energy is emitted
as heat and not as light.
Note: Flourescent tubes are about three times as efficient as filament lamps. Although initially
more expensive than tungsten filament lamps, the running costs are far less because the current is less and
they also last longer.
(ii) Electric heating appliances. The heating effect of electric current is utilised in the manufacture of
many heating appliances such as electric heater, electric toaster, electric kettle, soldering iron,
electric iron etc. The basic principle of all these appliances is the same. Electric current is passed
through a high resistance (called heating element), thus producing the required heat. The heating
element is generally made of nichrome (an alloy of nickel and chromium) due to the following
reasons :
(a) It has high resistivity ; more than 50 times that of copper.
(b) It has high melting point.
(c) It is not oxidised easily when heated in air.
The electric power dissipated (P) and energy consumed (W) by electric heating appliances are :
V2
P = V I = I2 R =
R
V2
t
R
(iii) Arc lamp. It consists of two carbon rods separated by a small air-gap. When high voltage is
applied across the electrodes, a spark jumps across the gap and a very bright light is emitted.
W = V I t = I 2R t =
(iv) Fuse. A fuse. is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive
current flows through it and thus breaks the circuit.
A fuse is made of materials having low melting point and high
conductivity Generally, it is made of tin-lead alloy (63% tin and 37%
lead). It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected and
carries the total circuit current as shown in Fig. 8.4. Under normal
conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting
point. Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating.
However, when a short-circuit or overload occurs, the current
through the fuse increases beyond its normal value. This raises the
temperature and fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the
circuit protected by it. In this way fuse protects the electrical appli- Fuse
ances from damage due to excessive currents.
Note: When a fuse blows, it should be replaced by fuse wire
of the same thickness. On no account should it be replaced by a fuse
wire of greater thickness.
Bulb
I3
Toaster
I2
Heater
I1
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
230V
Fig. 8.4
7. EFFICIENCY OF ELECTRIC DEVICE

The efficiency of an electric device is the ratio of useful output power to the input power i.e.
Useful output power Useful output Energy
=
Input power
Input energy
The law of conservation of energy states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be
Non-useful output (heat)
converted from one form to another. Some of the
input energy to an electric device may be converted
into a form that is not useful. For example, consider an
electric motor shown in Fig. 8.5. The purpose of the
motor is to convert electric energy into mechanical
energy. It does this but it also converts a part of input Useful
energy into heat. The heat produced is not useful. There- output
(work)
fore, the useful output energy is less than the input
energy. In other words, the efficiency of motor is less
than 100%.
Some electric devices are nearly 100% efficient.
Fig. 8.5
An electric heater is an example. In a heater, the heat
is useful output energy and practically all the input
electric energy is converted into heat energy.
Efficiency, =
Input from
energy source
8.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
When load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from the source to the load. The
amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If load resistance RLis made equal to the
internal resistance Ri of the source, then maximum power is transferred to the load RL. This is known as
maximum power transfer theorem and can be stated as follows:
Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is made
I
V = 100 volts
Ri = 10 W
RL = 10 W
P max
RL = Ri
Fig. 8.6
equal to the internal resistance of the source.

Consider a voltage source V of 100 volts and internal resistance R i of 10 delivering power to a load
RL of 10 as shown in Fig. 8.6. The calculations below show how load power varies with RL.
RL
Circuit Current
Power in RL
10A
0W
6.66A
222W
10
5A
250W
15
4A
240W
20
3.3A
218W
1000
0.09A
8.1W
Note the maximum power (i.e. 250W in this case) occurs when RL = Ri . If RL is either smaller or greater
than Ri , the power delivered to the load (RL) becomes smaller. A graph of power delivered to load versus RL
also shows this fact clearly (See Fig. 8.7).
Proof.
V
RL + Ri
2
V
P = I 2 RL =
Power delivered to load,
... (i)
RL
RL + Ri
For a given source, the voltage V of the source and internal resistance Ri are constant. Therefore,
power delivered to the load depends upon RL. In order to find the value of RL for which the value of P is
maximum, it is necessary to differentiate eq. (i) w.r.t. RL and set the result equal to zero. Thus,
I =
Circuit current,
( R + Ri ) 2 2 RL ( RL + Ri )
dp
=V2 L
=0
dRL
( RL + Ri )4
or
(RL + Ri)2 2RL(RL + Ri) = 0
or
(RL + Ri) (RL + Ri 2RL) = 0
or
(RL + Ri) (Ri RL) = 0
Since (RL +Ri) cannot be zero,
Ri RL = 0
or
i.e.
RL = Ri
Load resistance = Internal resistance
Thus for maximum power transfer, the load resistance RL must be equal to the internal resistance Ri of
the source.
2
(i) Maximum Power,
V
V
Pmax =
RL =
RL
RL + Ri
2 RL
V2
Pmax =
4 RL
( RL = Ri)
(ii) The efficiency at maximum power transfer is only 50% as one-half of total power generated is
dissipated in the internal resistance of the source.
I 2 RL
Output power
100
Efficiency = Input power 100 = 2
I ( RL + Ri )
R
= L 100 = 50%
( RL = Ri)
2 RL
V
V RL V
(iii) Load voltage = I R L = R + R RL = 2 R = 2
( RL = Ri)
i
L
L
Thus under the condition of maximum power transfer, the load voltage is one-half of the open-circuited
voltage at the load terminals.
9. IMPORTANT POINTS
While dealing with problems on heating appliances, the following points should be kept in mind:
(i) The electrical energy in kWh can be converted to joules by the following relation:
*1 kWh = 36 105 joules
(ii) The heat energy in calories can be converted into joules by the following relation :
1 cal = 4.18 J ;
1 kcal = 4180 J
(iii) The electrical energy in kWh can be converted into calories (or kilocalories) by the following
relation :
36 105
cal = 860 103 cal
1 kWh = 36 105 J =
4.18
1 kWh = 860 kcal

(iv) The electrical energy supplied to the heating appliance forms the input energy. The heat
obtained from the device is the output energy. The difference between the two, if any, represents the loss of energy during conversion from electrical to heat energy.
CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Nuclear Reactors at Power Station
CHEMICAL EFFECT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
1. ELECTRIC BEHAVIOUR OF LIQUIDS
Some liquids conduct current while others do not permit the passage of current
through them. On the basis of electrical conductivity, the liquids may be divided
into three classes viz.,
(i) Those liquids which do not conduct current are called insulators e.g.,
mineral oils, distilled water etc.
(ii) Those liquids which conduct current due to drifting of free electrons
are called conductors e.g., mercury.
(iii) Those liquids which conduct current due to drifting of ions are known as
electrolytes e.g., solutions of CuSO4, AgNO3 etc. This is the most
important class of liquid conductors.
CHEMICAL EFFECT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
1. ELECTRIC BEHAVIOUR OF LIQUIDS
Some liquids conduct current while others do not permit the passage of current through them. On the
basis of electrical conductivity, the liquids may be divided into three classes viz.,
(i) Those liquids which do not conduct current are called insulators e.g., mineral oils, distilled water
etc.
(ii) Those liquids which conduct current due to drifting of free electrons are called conductors
e.g., mercury.
(iii) Those liquids which conduct current due to drifting of ions are known as electrolytes e.g., solutions of CuSO 4, AgNO3 etc. This is the most important class of liquid conductors.
2. ELECTROLYTES
A liquid which conducts electric current due to the drifting of ions is called an electrolyte.
Salts like silver nitrate (AgNO3), sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulphate (CuSO4), etc., when dissolved
in water dissociate into ions. Their ionic dissociation can be represented as under:
AgNO3
Ag+
NO3
NaCl
Na+
Cl
CuSO4
Cu++
SO4
The atom or group of atoms having positive charge is called a positive ion. On the other hand, the
atom or group of atoms having negative charge is called a negative ion. For example, when NaCl is dissolved
in water, it splits into positive ions (Na+) and negative ions (Cl). The conduction of current through an
electrolyte is due to the drifting of negative and positive ions within the liquid.
3. MECHANISM OF IONISATION
The splitting up of an ionic compound in solution into ions is known as ionisation or ionic dissociation. Let us take the example of sodium chloride (NaCl). The structure of this solid crystalline salt is made
up of Na+ and Cl ions. When in solid state, there is a very strong force of attraction between Na+ and
Cl ions which holds them together as a molecule of NaCl. However, when sodium chloride is dissolved
in water, the force of attraction between the ions (Na+ and Cl) of sodium chloride molecule is tremendously
*reduced due to high permittivity of water (K = 81). In fact, the force of attraction between ions reduces 81
times. The result is that sodium ion (Na+) and Cl ion get separated. This process is called ionisation. It
may be noted that as soon as sodium chloride is dissolved in water, ions are formed. In other words, ions are
present in an electrolytic solution even before it conducts electric current.
4. ELECTROLYSIS
The conduction of electric current through an electrolyte together with the resulting chemical changes is
called electrolysis.
The process of electrolysis is carried out in an apparatus called voltameter. It consists of a glass vessel
containing an electrolyte and two metal plates (called electrodes). If the electrolyte is a solution of CuSO4
and the electrodes are copper plates, it is called a copper voltameter. On the other hand, if electrolyte is a
solution of AgNO3 and electrodes are silver plates, it is called a silver voltameter. When appropriate direct
potential difference is applied across the electrodes, electrolyte starts conducting current. The electrode
connected to the positive terminal of the source is called anode while that connected to the negative
terminal is called cathode. A rheostat Rh is included in the circuit to change the circuit current. The
ammeter A gives the value of current in the circuit.
B
A
Electron
+
Anode
(Copper plate)
SO4
Cu++
Fig. 9.1
Cathode (Copper plate)
CuSO4 (Electrolyte)
Current conduction in an electrolyte: Figure 9.1 shows a copper voltameter. When key K is closed,
**current starts flowing in the circuit as indicated by the ammeter. It is found that copper is removed from the
anode and gets deposited on the cathode. Obviously, the passage of current through the electrolyte (CuSO4
in this case) is causing chemical changes. These chemical
changes take place so long as current flows through the electrolyte. This process is called electrolysis
and is utilised in many industrial and commercial applications.
Explanation: The CuSO4 solution contains Cu++ and SO4 ions due to ionisation. When direct p.d. is
applied across the electrodes by closing key K, *Cu++ ions drift towards cathode (negative plate) and SO4
ions towards anode (positive plate).
At cathode: A Cu++ ion on reaching the cathode takes up two electrons from it to become neutral Cu atom
and gets deposited on the cathode.
Cu++
2e
Cu atom
At anode: A SO4 ion on reaching the anode gives up two electrons to it to become sulphate radical.
These electrons given up at the anode move through the external circuit to the cathode where they are
available to neutralise the Cu++ ions arriving at the cathode. Now, the sulphate radical cannot exist independently and, therefore, it acts chemically on anode material to form CuSO4.
SO4
2e
SO4 (radical)
Cu
SO4
CuSO4
Thus copper from the solution (CuSO4) gets deposited on the cathode. The following points may be
noted:
(i) The gain in mass of the cathode is equal to the loss in mass of the anode.
(ii) The positive ions (Cu++) and negative ions (SO) move in opposite directions in the solution; both
contributing to the net current.
(iii) The concentration of CuSO4 solution remains unchanged.
(iv) The current within the electrolyte is by the movement of ions and in the external wire it is due to the
drifting of electrons.
Rh
B
K
5. SILVER VOLTAMETER
Figure 9.2 shows the various parts of a silver voltameter. The electrodes are silver plates and the electrolyte is AgNO3. Due to ionisation, AgNO3 splits into
Ag+ ions and NO3 ions. When d.c. supply is applied
across the electrodes, Ag + ions move towards
the cathode and NO3 ions towards the anode.
+
Anode
(silver)
Ag+
NO3
AgNO3
At anode:
Ag
NO3
NO3
NO3
AgNO3
Cathode (silver)
Fig. 9.2
Thus silver from the anode continuously goes into the solution so long as this action takes place.
At cathode:
Ag+
Ag (atom)
Thus silver from the solution (AgNO3) gets deposited on the cathode.
6. WATER VOLTAMETER
Figure 9.3 shows the various parts of a water voltameter. The electrodes are made of platinum and the
electrolyte is water to which a few drops of sulphuric acid have been added. In the electrolyte, there are
positive hydrogen ions (H+), negative sulphate ions (SO4 ) and hydroxyl

Acidulated
water
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Platinum electrode
(Anode)
Platinum electrode
(Cathode)
R
A
Fig. 9.3
(OH).
ions
When d.c. potential difference is applied across the electrodes, hydrogen gas is collected at
the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.
At cathode: The electrons from the negative terminal of the battery enter the cathode and cause reduction
of water.
4H2O +
4e
4OH + 2H2
...(i)
Therefore, hydrogen gas is liberated at the cathode and concentration of OH ions increases near the
cathode.
At anode: At the anode, OH ions and SO4 ions are present. The concentration of OH ions is low and
SO4 ions are difficult to oxidise. Consequently, direct oxidation of water occurs.
2H2O
4H+
+ 4e
+
O2 ...(ii)
Thus oxygen gas is liberated at the anode. The electrons released in this reaction flow towards the
positive terminal of the battery and concentration of H+ ions increases near the anode. The H+ and OH ions
move towards the opposite electrodes and get neutralised.
4H+
+
4OH
4H2O
...(iii)
Adding (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
2H2
+ O2
2H2O
Note that volume of hydrogen gas collected is twice that of the oxygen gas collected.
Note: In case of electrolysis of water, there is no gain or loss of mass of the electrodes and we are
apparently decomposing water into its constituents. But Faradays laws of electrolysis are still applicable.
7. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE REQUIRED FOR ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER

In the electrolysis of water, the chemical reaction is as under :
2H2O
2H2
O2
It is found that 2.9 eV energy is required to dissociate a water molecule and decomposition of one
molecule of water results in the flow of two electrons in the circuit.
Let
V = potential difference applied

W = energy required to dissociate one molecule of water = 2.9 eV
e = charge on electron
Since two electrons are flowing in the circuit when one molecule of water dissociates,
Energy required per electron =
W
2.9 eV
=
= 1.45 eV
2
2
1.45 eV
1.45 V
e
Thus the minimum voltage required to decompose water is 1.45V. However, in practice, we require
minimum voltage of 1.7V to decompose water. The minimum voltage required to decompose an electrolyte
is called the decomposition voltage for that electrolyte.
V =
8. BACK E.M.F. (OR POLARISATION POTENTIAL) IN WATER VOLTAMETER

The e.m.f. set up in water voltameter (or electrolytic cell ) which opposes the external d.c. supply to the
voltameter (or electrolytic cell) is called back e.m.f. (or polarisation potential) of water (electrolyte) voltameter.
Back e.m.f. of water is equal to decomposition voltage (=1.7V). When current is passed through water
voltameter by an external source of d.c. supply, the electrolysis of water occurs. The cathode is covered
with hydrogen and anode with oxygen. This produces an e.m.f. that opposes the external d.c. voltage. This
opposing voltage is called back e.m.f. The value of back e.m.f. is different for different electrolytes. For
water, its value is 1.7V. If we apply voltage less than 1.7V to a water voltameter, no current will flow and
electrolysis of water does not take place.
9. ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMED IN DECOMPOSITION OF WATER

Let
V = external d.c. voltage applied to water voltameter

E = back e.m.f. set up in water voltameter
R = resistance of water voltameter
Current I through water voltameter is given by ;
V E
I =
or
V = IR + E
R
Power equation is VI = I2R + EI
where
VI = electric power input

I2R = heat produced in voltameter circuit per second
EI = work done per second in decomposing the water
10. FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

Faraday performed a number of experiments on electrolysis. He summed up his conclusions into two
laws, known as Faradays laws of electrolysis.
1. First Law
The mass of the substance liberated or deposited on an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed through the electrolyte.
If m is the mass of a substance liberated or deposited at an electrode due to the passage of charge q, then
according to Faradays first law of electrolysis,
mq
or
m=zq
...(i)
where z is a constant of proportionality and is called electrochemical equivalent (E.C.E.) of the substance. It
has the same value for one element but different for other elements.
If the charge which passes is due to a steady current I flowing for time t, then eq. (i) can be written as:
m=zIt
Electrochemical Equivalent
If
q = 1C,
m = zIt = zq
then,
m=z
Hence electrochemical equivalent of a substance is the mass of the substance liberated or deposited in
electrolysis by the passage of 1 coulomb of charge. Its SI unit is kg C1. However, generally E.C.E. of a
substance is expressed in gram/coulomb (g C1).
For example, E.C.E. of copper is 0.000304 g C1. It means that if 1C of charge is passed through a copper
voltameter, then mass of copper deposited on the cathode will be 0.000304 g.
2. Second Law
If the same quantity of electric charge is passed through different electrolytes, the masses of the substances liberated or deposited are proportional to their chemical equivalents i.e.
mE
m1
E
= 1
m2
E2
Here m1 and m2 are the masses of the substances liberated or deposited (when same charge is passed
through their electrolytes) and E1 and E2 are their respective chemical equivalents.
or
AgNO 3
CuSO 4
Copper Voltameter
Silver Voltameter
Fig. 9.4
Faradays second law of electrolysis is illustrated in Fig. 9.4 where silver and copper voltameters are
connected in series. For a given time, the same charge will pass through each voltameter. It will be seen
that the masses of silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) deposited on the respective cathodes are in the ratio of 108
: 32. These values of 108 and 32 are respectively the chemical equivalents of silver and copper.
Mass of silver deposited
Chemical equivalent of Ag 108
=
=
Mass of copper deposited Chemical equivalent of Cu
32
11. RELATION BETWEEN E AND z

Suppose the same amount of electric charge (q) is passed through two electrolytes. If m1 and m2 are the
masses of the substances liberated/deposited and z 1 and z 2 are their electrochemical equivalents, then,
m1 = z1q ; m2 = z2 q
m1
z
= 1
m2
z2
But
m1
E
= 1
m2
E2
E1
z
= 1
E2
z2
... Faradays second law
E
= Constant
z
Thus the ratio E/z is the same for all substances. This constant is called Faraday constant F (= E/z).
or
12. FARADAY CONSTANT (F)

According to Faradays First law of electrolysis,
m=zq
Suppose M is the mass of one mole of the substance. If, during electrolysis, the mass of the substance to be deposited is M and p is the valency of the depositing atom, then NA (= 6.023 10 23) atoms
will deposit on the electrode.
Now
m=M
M = z NA p e
or
z=
But
and
q = pe
... Faradays First Law
1 M
NA e p
M
Mass of one mole
= Chemical Equivalent of the substance
=
p
Valency
z=
E
NA e
Now NA e is a constant, called Faraday constant F.
E
z=
F
1F = NA e = (6.023 1023) 1.602 1019 = 96485 C ~ 96500 C
Definition of F
We know
F =
E
E
=
z
m/q
( m = zq)
If
qE
m
m = E (gram equivalent of the substance), then,
F =
F = q = 96500 C
Hence Faraday constant is the quantity of charge (i.e. 96500 C) required to liberate/deposit
one gram equivalent (chemical equivalent in gram) of the substance during electrolysis.
For example, chemical equivalent of silver is 108. When a charge of 96500C is passed through a silver
voltameter, then mass of silver deposited on the cathode will be 108g. Again chemical equivalent of copper
is 31.75. If a charge of 96500C is passed through a copper voltameter, then mass of copper deposited on
the cathode will be 31.75g.
13. DEDUCTION OF FARADAYS LAWS

Suppose a charge q is passed through an electrolyte during electrolysis and the mass liberated/
deposited on the electrode is m.
m=zq
E
E
m=
q
or
...(i)
z =
F
F
Eq. (i) is the fundamental equation of electrolysis and contains Faradays two laws of electrolysis.
(i) It is clear from eq. (i) that
mq
... Faradays first law
(ii) If the same charge is passed (i.e. q is constant) through different electrolytes, then,
mE
... Faradays second law.
14. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS

The phenomenon of electrolysis has many industrial and commercial applications. A few of them are discused
below by way of illustration.
(i) Electroplating: The process of depositing a thin layer of superior metal (e.g., gold, silver, nickel,
etc.) over an inferior metal (e.g., iron) is known as electroplating. The aim of electroplating is to
provide good appearance and protect the object against corrosion. Fig. 9.5 shows a simple
arrangement of silver plating. The object to be plated (e.g. a small iron key) is used as the
cathode. The metal to be deposited (silver in this case) is made the anode. The solution of
compound of the metal to be deposited in this case AgNO3 is taken as the electrolyte. When d.c.
supply is applied to the electrodes, the silver rod (i.e. anode) continuously dissolves into the
solution and gets deposited on the cathode (i.e. the object).
R
A
A
Silver
Rod
(Anode)
Ag
NO3
Fig. 9.5
Impure
Copper
(Anode)
Pu
Cop
(Cath
Object
(Cathode)
AgNO3
CuS
Fig. 9.6
(ii) Refining of metals: Many metals are purified by the process of electrolysis. The impure metal is
used as the anode and a small piece of pure metal is used as the cathode. The salt solution of the
metal to be purified is used as the electrolyte. Fig. 9.6 shows a simple arrangement for electrolytic refining of *copper. When d.c. supply is applied to the electrodes, pure copper from anode
goes into the solution and gets deposited on the cathode. The impurities sink to the bottom of
the container and form an anode mud. Similarly, electrolytic process can be employed for
refining other metals such as silver, gold, platinum and nickel.
(iii) Production of chemicals: The process of electrolysis is being extensively used for the commercial
production of chemicals like sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, caustic soda etc.
(iv) Extraction of metals from ores: Many metals such as Al, Mg, Zn, Cu, etc. are extracted from
their ores by electrolysis.

(v) Production of oxygen and hydrogen. By the electrolysis of acidic water, oxygen and hydrogen can
be produced.
(vi) Electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor consists of two aluminium foils in which a very
thin dielectric is sandwitched by the process of electrolysis. Two foils of aluminium (which act
as electrodes) are dipped in a solution of boric acid, glycerine and ammonia water. When current
is passed between anode and cathode, a very thin film of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is formed on
the anode surface. This oxide film acts as a dielectric. Since the oxide film is very thin, the
electrolytic capacitor has a very large capacitance.
(vii) Anodising. It is the process of coating aluminium oxide on the aluminium itself by electrolysis to
protect it against corrosion. The aluminium article is made the anode and dil. H2SO4 is the
electrolyte.
(viii) Electro-typing. This is the process in which we obtain an impression of a page of the book in
**copper. The ordinary type is arranged to form a page of the book. Then a special kind of wax is
poured over it. When the wax hardens and is peeled off, it bears an impression of that page. The
wax-mould is uniformly coated with a very thin layer of powdered graphite to make it a conductor. The mould is made the cathode and a pure copper plate as the anode. The two electrodes are
immersed in a bath containing copper sulphate solution (CuSO4) as the electrolyte. When d.c.
supply is applied to the electrodes, copper from anode goes into the solution and gets deposited
over the cathode i.e. wax-mould. When sufficient thick layer (as thick as ordinary visiting card)
of copper is deposited on the cathode (i.e. wax-mould), the circuit is disconnected. The wax is
removed from the cathode and the copper plate obtained would have an impression of the
page in copper. Several hundred thousands impressions of the page can be taken from this
plate.
15. CELL
We have seen that when a current passes through the solution of an electrolyte, chemical changes take place
i.e. electrical energy is converted into chemical energy. The converse of this is also true i.e. we can convert
chemical energy into electrical energy. The device which accomplishes this job is called a cell.
A cell is a source of e.m.f. in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
A cell essentially consists of two metal plates of different materials immersed in a suitable solution. The
plates are called electrodes and the solution is called electrolyte. Due to chemical action, one plate is maintained at positive potential and the other at the negative potential, thus developing an e.m.f. The magnitude
of e.m.f. of a cell depends upon (i) the nature of the material of electrodes used and (ii) the nature of
electrolyte. It may be noted that the e.m.f. of a cell does not depend upon the size and spacing of the
plates. However, with the increase in the size of the plates, the capacity of the cell increases i.e. the cell will
deliver current for a longer period.
16. TYPES OF CELLS

Using various metals and methods of construction, a large variety of cells has been developed. However,
cells can be divided into two main classes viz. (i) Primary cells (ii) Secondary cells.
(i) Primary cells : A cell in which chemical action is not reversible is called a primary cell, e.g.,
Voltaic Cell, Daniel Cell, Leclanche cell and dry cell. As a primary cell delivers current, the active
materials are used up. When the active materials are nearly consumed, the cell stops delivering
current. In order to renew the cell, fresh active materials are provided. Another drawback of a
primary cell is that it cannot provide large and steady current for a longer period. This fact
makes the primary cell rather an expensive source of electrical energy. Due to these drawbacks,
the use of primary cells is limited to torch batteries and for experimental purposes in the laboratories.
(ii) Secondary cells: A cell in which chemical action is reversible is called a secondary cell. A secondary cell operates on the same principle as a primary cell but differs in the method in which it may
be renewed. In this cell, there is no actual consumption of any plate and that chemical process
is reversible. When the cell is delivering current (i.e. discharging), the chemical action changes
the composition of plates. When the cell is exhausted, the chemical action can be reversed (i.e.
plates can be restored to original condition) by passing current through the cell in the reverse
direction to that in which the cell provided current. This process is called charging.
Thus when a secondary cell is charged, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy. When the
cell discharges, the stored chemical energy starts converting into electrical energy. For this reason, a secondary cell is sometimes called a storage cell or accumulator. There are several types of storage cells, the more
common ones being :
(a) Lead-Acid accumulator (b) Alkali accumulator or Edison Cell.
As in primary cells, the e.m.f. of a secondary cell depends upon the nature of electrode materials and the
electrolyte. The e.m.f. of a lead-acid cell is about 2.1V
and that of Edison cell is about 1.2V.
Copper
Plate
(Anode)
17. VOLTAIC CELL

The first primary cell, now called Voltaic cell was invented by
Allexandro de Volta in 1800. Fig. 9.7 shows the various parts
of a voltaic cell. It consists of two platesone of copper
and other of zinc immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid
contained in a glass vessel. The copper plate acts as the
positive electrode while zinc plate acts as the negative
electrode.
R
_
Zinc
Plate
(Cathode)
Dil. H2 SO4
Fig. 9.7
Working
(i) The sulphuric acid splits into positively charged hydrogen ions (2H+) and negatively charged sulphate ions (SO4 ).
2H+ +
H2SO4
SO4
At cathode: Some zinc atoms which are originally neutral go into the solution as zinc ions (Zn++).
The chemical action at the cathode can be represented as under :
Zn++
Zn
SO4
Zn++ +
ZnSO4
2e
Thus zinc plate acquires negative charge and zinc goes into the solution in the form of ZnSO4.
Note that zinc plate is being consumed.
At anode: Due to high concentration of zinc ions (Zn++) near the cathode, hydrogen ions are
repelled towards the copper plate. On reaching the copper plate, hydrogen ions remove electrons from it and get converted into hydrogen gas (H2).
2H+
+ 2e
H2 (gas)
Thus, copper plate acquires positive charge and hydrogen gas is liberated at this electrode.
(ii) The action at the cathode continues until the negative charge on the cathode is sufficient to stop
further ionisation of zinc atoms. Similarly, the action at the anode continues until the positive charge
on the anode is sufficient to repel hydrogen ions with a force equal to that repelling them towards
the anode. This equilibrium position is quickly established in the cell and p.d. between the plates
attains the maximum value. The maximum potential difference across the plates of a cell on opencircuit (i.e. when cell is not delivering current) is called e.m.f. of the cell. The e.m.f. of a voltaic cell is
about 1.1V.
(iii) When the electrodes are connected to an external resistance, electrons start flowing from negatively charged zinc plate to positively charged copper plate* via the resistor. This constitutes
electric current.
(iv) As soon as the cell starts delivering current, the electrical equilibrium is disturbed. Now more zinc
goes into the solution to build up original potential difference (or charges on plates) between
the plates. The cell will stop delivering current when the whole of zinc is dissolved or sulphuric
acid is consumed.
18. DEFECTS OF VOLTAIC CELL

The two principal defects of a voltaic cell are (i) local action and (ii) polarisation.
1. Local action: Commercial zinc has such impurities as carbon, iron, lead etc. If ordinary zinc is used,
a particle, say of iron, forms with zinc a small short-circuited cell. Thus, a vast number of such elementary
cells are formed within the cell. As a result, zinc is consumed whether or not current is being drawn from the
cell. This destructive action is called local action.
Local action can be prevented by using chemically pure zinc or amalgamated zinc (i.e. zinc that has been
rubbed with mercury). The impurities are covered with a layer of mercury. Consequently, **local action
does not take place. However, when the cell is in use, fresh zinc continues to come to the surface for
chemical action.
2. Polarisation: When the cell is in use, positive hydrogen ions travel towards copper plate and transfer
their positive charge to it. In doing so, hydrogen ions are converted into hydrogen gas which escapes
through the solution in the form of bubbles. However, some bubbles form a layer around the copper plate.
This defect is called polarisation and has the following ill effects:
(i) Since hydrogen gas is a bad conductor of electricity, the internal resistance of the cell is increased.
10
(ii) Due to the presence of layer of hydrogen gas at copper plate, the hydrogen ions (2H+) are unable
to reach the copper plate. As a result, these ions get deposited on hydrogen gas layer and set up
electric field from hydrogen layer to zinc. This back e.m.f. decreases the effective e.m.f. of the
cell.
Due to polarisation, the current delivered by the cell starts decreasing and eventually it may become zero.
This defect can be removed (a) by brushing the copper plate from time to time or (b) by using oxidising agent
which reacts with hydrogen to form water. The first method is not practicable and for this reason, second method
is employed. The oxidising agent is called the depolariser.
19. DANIEL CELL

Figure 9.8 shows the various parts of a Daniel cell. It consists of a copper vessel containing concentrated copper sulphate solution. The CuSO4 solution acts as a depolariser. The copper
_
CuSO4
Crystals
+
Zinc Rod
Copper
vessel
Dil. H2 SO4
CuSO4
Solution
Porous Pot
Fig. 9.8
vessel itself acts as anode i.e. positive electrode. A porous pot containing dil. H2SO4 (electrolyte) and an
amalgamated zinc rod (cathode) is placed in copper sulphate solution. The porous pot does not permit the
mixing of solution but allows the H+ ions to pass through it. In order to maintain the concentration of
CuSO4 solution, a perforated shelf containing copper sulphate crystals is placed near the top of the copper
vessel.
Working: When the circuit is completed, the action of the cell can be studied as under :
(i) Inside porous pot: Zinc atoms in contact with dil. H2SO4 pass into it as zinc ions (Zn++), leaving the
zinc rod negatively charged (cathode). The chemical reactions inside the porous pot are as under :
++
Zn
+
2e
Zn
+
H2SO4
+
SO4
2H
Zn++
+ SO4
ZnSO4
Zn
H2SO4
ZnSO4 +
2H+
2e
Thus inside the porous pot, zinc goes into the solution (electrolyte) in the form of ZnSO4.
(ii) Outside the porous pot: The hydrogen ions produced in the porous pot come out of it and react
with CuSO4 solution as under :
2H+
+ CuSO4
Cu++
H2SO4 +
The copper ion (Cu++) gets deposited on the vessel where it neutralises itself by taking two electrons
from the vessel. Consequently, copper vessel attains positive charge w.r.t. zinc electrode. Since CuSO4 is
reacting with hydrogen ions (H+) to give H2SO4, there will be no deposition of hydrogen gas (H2) on the
copper vessel (anode). Consequently, defect of polarisation is avoided by using CuSO4 solution (depolariser).
Note that local action as well as polarisation is avoided in this cell. The local action is prevented by
using amalgamated zinc rod while polarisation is avoided by using CuSO4 solution (depolariser). The e.m.f.
of a Daniel Cell is about 1.12 V.
20. LECLANCHE CELL

Figure 9.9 shows the various parts of a Leclanche cell. It consists of a glass vessel containing strong
solution of NH4Cl (electrolyte). An amalgamated zinc rod dipping in NH4Cl solution acts as the negative
electrode (cathode). The carbon rod placed in a porous pot acts as the positive electrode (anode). The space
surrounding the carbon rod is filled with a mixture of manganese dioxide (depolariser) and powdered charcoal.
The purpose of the latter is to reduce the internal resistance of the cell.
11
Carbon Rod
Zinc Rod
Porous Pot
Mixture of Powde
Manganese dioxid
Glass
Vessel
NH4Cl
Solution
Fig. 9.9
Working: When the circuit is completed, the action of the cell can be studied as under :
Outside porous pot: Zinc atoms in contact with NH4Cl solution pass into it as zinc ions (Zn++), leaving
zinc rod negatively charged (cathode). The chemical reactions outside the porous pot are as under :
Zn++ +
2e
Zn
2NH4Cl
2NH3 +
2H+
2Cl
ZnCl2
ZnCl2 +
Zn
+ 2NH4Cl
2NH3 + 2H+
+ 2e
Thus zinc goes into the solution in the form of ZnCl2. The ammonia gas (NH3) formed in the reaction
escapes from the vessel.
Inside the porous pot: The 2H+ ions diffuse into the porous pot and come in contact with MnO2
(depolariser) to produce the following chemical reaction :
2H+ + 2MnO2
Mn2O3 + H2O + 2e+
Zn++
2Cl
The positive charge is transferred to the carbon rod which, therefore, acts as the anode.
The drawback of this cell is that it cannot provide current continuously. It is because MnO2 is in solid
form and its action is slow. When the cell is in use, after some time partial polarisation occurs i.e. hydrogen is
liberated more quickly than MnO2 can use it up. Consequently, e.m.f. and hence current of the cell falls. If the
cell is allowed to rest (by switching off the circuit), hydrogen gas escapes and the cell regains its original e.m.f.
For this reason, Leclanche Cell is used only in those applications where intermittent current is required
e.g. experiments concerning potentiometer, slide wire bridge etc. The e.m.f. of a Leclanche cell is about
1.5V. The cell has an internal resistance ranging from 0.5 to 5.
21. DRY CELL

The dry cell is a modified and miniature form of Leclanche cell. It is the only primary cell in general use and is
a convenient source of direct current for many purposes.
Construction: Figure 9.10 shows the various parts of a dry cell. It consists of cylindrical zinc vessel
which acts as the negative electrode or cathode. The zinc vessel contains a moist paste of saw dust
saturated with a solution of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride. While ammonium chloride acts as the
electrolyte, the purpose of adding zinc chloride is to maintain the *moistness of the paste. The positive
electrode (or anode) is the carbon rod placed in the middle of the zinc vessel. The carbon rod is surBrass
Cap
Shellac
Seal
NH4Cl + ZnCl2
& saw dust
Carbon Rod
Zinc vessel
(cathode)
Muslin Bag
MnO2 and
Charcoal
Paper
lining
Fig. 9.10
12
rounded by a mixture of manganese dioxide and powdered charcoal in a muslin bag. The manganese
dioxide acts as the depolariser and the powdered charcoal reduces the internal resistance of the cell. The
carbon rod is fitted with a brass cap which acts as the positive terminal of the cell. The zinc vessel is sealed
at the top with pitch or shellac. The carbon rod is insulated from the bottom of the cell with a tar paper washer.
Working: When the circuit is completed, the chemical actions that take place are the same as those
in Leclanche cell. The reader may note that in both the cells we employ ammonium chloride as the electrolyte and manganese dioxide as the depolariser. The e.m.f. of a dry cell is about 1.5V.
The dry cell is primarily useful in circuits requiring intermittent current. It cannot provide more than
0.25A continuously. If an excessive continuous current is drawn from the cell, polarisation does occur. This
increases the internal resistance of the cell and results in a lower potential difference across the terminals.
However, polarisation soon ceases after the circuit is opened.
Note: The lowest voltage of a cell at which it still works is called end point voltage of cell. For a
dry cell, its value is 0.8V.
22. LEAD-ACID ACCUMULATOR

The most inexpensive secondary cell is the lead-acid accumulator and is widely used for commercial
Vent
purposes, e.g. lead-acid battery is used in cars.
_
+
Construction: Figure 9.11 shows the simplified diagram of a

Acid lead-acid cell. A lead-acid cell when ready for use contains two plates
level immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) of specific gravity about
1.28. The positive plate (anode) is lead peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown colour and the negative plate is lead (Pb) which is of grey
colour. The electrolyte is dil. H2SO4. The e.m.f. of this cell is about 2.1V.
Glass
Dil.
H2SO4
PbO2
Pb
In order to increase the *capacity of the cell, we use a multiplate

construction instead of using two plates. The alternate positive and
negative plates of the cell are sandwitched together with insulators
(called separators). The negative plates are connected together as are
the positive plates. A commercial lead-acid cell always contains an
odd number of plates such as 11, 13, 15 or 17. The number of negative
plates is always one more than the number of positive plates; the
outside plates being negative.
Fig. 9.11
Working
(i) When the cell supplies current to a load (i.e. discharging), the chemical action that takes place
forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the plates with water being formed in the electrolyte.
After a certain amount of energy is withdrawn from the cell, both sets of plates are transformed into the same material (i.e. PbSO4) and the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4) is
lowered (about 1.18). The cell is then said to be discharged and requires recharging.
(ii) To recharge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in the reverse direction to that in
which the cell provided current. This reverses the chemical process and again forms lead peroxide
(PbO2) positive plates and pure lead (Pb) negative plates. At the same time, H2SO4 is formed at the
expense of water, restoring the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4) to the original value
(1.28).
23. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN LEAD-ACID ACCUMULATOR

For the sake of simplicity, we shall describe the chemical changes in a lead-acid cell by taking two-plate
construction.
1. Chemical changes during discharging: Figure 9.12 shows the discharging of a lead-acid cell. Sulphuric
acid splits into hydrogen ions (2H+) and sulphate ions (SO4 ). The sulphate ions move towards the cathode
and hydrogen ions move towards anode causing the following chemical reactions:
At cathode
SO4
2e
Pb
+
(Grey colour)
At anode
SO4
SO4 (radical)
PbSO4
(whitish in colour)
H+H+
2e
2H
PbO2
2H
PbO
PbO +
H2SO4
PbO2 +
H2SO4 + 2H+
PbSO4
+ 2e
+ H2O
H2O
PbSO4
2H2O
13
R
Electron Flow
_
++
HH
Anode
(PbO2)
Cathode
(Pb)
Electrolyte
(Dil. H2SO4)
SO4
Fig. 9.12
The chemical changes that take place during discharging are summed up as under:
(i) Both the plates are *converted into lead sulphate (PbSO4) which is whitish in colour.
(ii) Water is formed which lowers the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4). When the cell is fully
discharged, the specific gravity of H2SO4 falls to about 1.18.
(iii) The e.m.f. of the cell falls. The lead-acid cell should not be discharged beyond the point where its
e.m.f. falls to about 1.8V.
(iv) The chemical energy stored in the cell is converted into electrical energy.
It is important to note that e.m.f. of the lead-acid cell provides little indication to the state of discharge
of the cell since it remains close to 2V for 90 per cent of the discharge period. In practice, specific gravity of
the electrolyte (H2SO4) is used to know the state of discharge. The cell should be recharged when the
specific gravity of H2SO4 falls to about 1.18.
2. Chemical changes during recharging: Consider a discharged lead-acid cell having both the plates
converted to lead sulphate (PbSO4). In order to recharge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell
in the reverse direction to that in which the cell provided current. To do so, the anode is connected to the
positive terminal of the d.c. source and cathode to the negative terminal of the source as shown in Fig. 9.13.
The electrolyte (H2SO4) splits into hydrogen ions (2H+) and sulphate ions (SO4 ). Hydrogen ions move
towards cathode and sulphate ions move towards anode causing the following chemical reactions:
At anode
SO4
2e
SO4 (radical)
H2SO4 + O
The oxygen in the atomic state (i.e. O) is very active and reacts chemically with anode material (PbSO4) to
produce the following chemical change :
SO4
PbSO4 +
H2O
H2O
PbO2
+ H2SO4
Electron Flow
+
++
HH
Anode
(PbSO4)
Electrolyte
(H2SO4)
SO4
Fig. 9.13
At cathode
2H+
2e
2H
PbSO4 +
2H
Pb
Cathode
(PbSO4)
+ H2SO4
14
As the charging process goes on, the anode is converted into PbO2 and cathode into Pb. The
H2SO4 produced in the above chemical reactions increases the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The
chemical changes that occur during recharging can be summed up as under :
(i) The positive plate (anode) is converted into PbO2 and the negative plate (cathode) into Pb.
(ii) H2SO4 is formed in the reactions. Therefore, specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4) is raised.
When the cell is fully charged, the specific gravity of H2SO4 rises to about 1.28.
(iii) The e.m.f. of the cell rises. The e.m.f. of a fully charged cell is about 2.1V.
(iv) Electrical energy supplied is converted into chemical energy which is stored in the cell.
24. BATTERY CHARGING CIRCUIT

Fig. 9.14 shows the lead-acid battery charging circuit. A d.c. source of suitable magnitude is connected in series with a rheostat R, ammeter and the battery to be charged. Ensure that polarity is correct i.e.
positive terminal of d.c. source should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery. The charging
current is adjusted to the required value with the help of rheostat. As the charging process proceeds, the
terminal voltage of the battery rises but the charging current is kept constant by adjusting the value of
rheostat R. The terminal voltage of the battery and specific gravity of electolyte are checked at regular
intervals of time. When the terminal voltage ceases to rise, the specific gravity of electrolyte reaches the
value 1.28 and there is enough gassing at the plates, the battery is fully charged. It is then taken out of the
charging circuit. The entire charging process may take several hours.
Calculations. When the battery is being charged, its e.m.f. acts in opposition to the applied voltage.
The applied voltage V sends a charging current I against the back e.m.f. Eb of the battery.
The input power is VI but the power being supplied to the battery is EbI. The power EbI is converted into
chemical energy which is stored in the battery.
V Eb
R+r
where
R = resistance of rheostat in the circuit
r = internal resistance of the battery
The charging current is kept constant throughout (by adjusting R) except towards the finish of charge.
The following points may be kept in mind during charging :
(i) When the battery is being charged, the vents must be open so that the gases (H2 and O2) may
be able to escape. Otherwise the case may be cracked.
(ii) The mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is explosive. Therefore, care must be taken not to carry an
open flame or lighted cigarette near a battery being charged.
(iii) The charging current should be such that battery temperature does not exceed 40C and that
violent gassing does not take place. Instead of a constant charging current, the usual practice
is to charge the battery at a tapered rate i.e. at high rate at first but at a gradually reduced rate
as the battery becomes fully charged.
(iv) After charging, water should be added to compensate for the loss of water by gassing and
evaporation. The level of the electrolyte should be 1 cm above the tops of the plates. If water is
not added, the excessive concentration of H2SO 4 may char the separators, causing permanent
damage to the battery.
Charging current, I =
25. NICKEL-IRON CELL or EDISON CELL OR ALKALI ACCUMULATOR

Nickel-iron cell was developed by American scientist Thomos A. Edison in 1909. It has lesser weight and
longer life than that of a lead-acid cell. As a result, these cells are very suitable for portable work. The e.m.f.
of this cell is about 1.36V.
Construction: When nickel- iron cell is in the charged condition, the active material on positive plates
is Ni(OH)4 and that on the negative plates is iron (Fe). The positive and negative plates are held in a nickelplated steal container; the plates being insulated from each other by hard rubber strips. The container
contains 21 per cent solution of KOH (electrolyte) to which is added a small amount of lithium hydrate
(LiOH) for increasing the capacity of the cell.
(i) The positive plates are in the form of perforated nickel-plated steel tubes filled with Ni(OH)4 and
flakes of metallic nickel; the addition of flakes of nickel reduces the internal resistance of the cell.
(ii) The negative plates are also in the form of perforated nickel-plated steel tubes filled with powdered iron oxide and a little mercuric oxide. The purpose of mercuric oxide is to decrease the
internal resistance of the cell.
Chemical changes: The molecules of electrolyte (KOH) dissociate into K+ and OH ions.
+
K + OH
(i) During discharging, the K+ ions move towards the positive plate (anode) and reduce Ni(OH)4 to
Ni(OH)2. The OH ions travel towards the negative plate (cathode) and oxidise iron. The chemical changes
during discharging can be represented by the following equations :
KOH

Positive plate
: Ni(OH)4
15
2K
Ni(OH)2
2KOH
Negative plate : Fe + 2OH
Fe(OH)2
(ii) During recharging, the K+ ions move towards negative plate (cathode) and OH ions go to positive
plate (anode) causing the following chemical changes:
Positive plate
: Ni (OH)2 + 2OH
Ni(OH)4
Fe
Negative plate : Fe(OH)2 + 2K
+ 2KOH
The chemical reactions during discharging and recharging can be summed up in a single reversible
equation as under:
Discharge

Ni (OH)
Ni (OH)
+ KOH + Fe
+ KOH
+ Fe(OH)
4
Recharge
Positive
Ngative
Positive
Negative
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
It may be observed from the above equation that no water is formed in the reaction. Consequently, the
specific gravity of the electrolyte (KOH) remains unchanged during charging or discharging. For this reason,
a nickel iron cell is not damaged if left in a fully discharged condition for a considerable period of time.
Note: Since the electrolyte (KOH) does not undergo any change in specific gravity during charge or
discharge, the state of charge of this cell cannot be determined by the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
Instead, a voltmeter is employed to ascertain whether the cell is charged up to its rated voltage.
26. COMPARISON OF LEAD-ACID CELL AND EDISON CELL

Particulars
1. Positive plate
2. Negative plate
3. Electrolyte
4. Average e.m.f.
5. Internal resistance
6. Efficiency :
amp-hour
watt-hour
7. Cost
8. Life
9. Strength
Lead-acid cell
PbO2, lead-peroxide
NiO2
Spongy lead
diluted H2SO4
2.0 V/cell
Comparatively low
Edison cell
Nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)4 or
9095%
7280%
Comparatively less than
alkali cell
Gives nearly 1250 charges
and discharges
Needs much care and
maintenance. Sulphation
occurs often due to incomplete
charge or discharge.
charge and discharge,
nearly 80%
about 60%
Almost twice that of Pb-acid
cell. Easy maintenance.
Five years at least
Iron oxide
KOH
1.2V/cell
Comparatively higher
Due to all-steel construction,

they are robust, mechanically
strong, can withstand vibration,
are light, unlimited rates of
can be left discharged, free from
corrisive liquids and fumes.
27. CAPACITY OF A SECONDARY CELL

The capacity of a secondary cell is the quantity of electricity which it can give out during a single
discharge. It is measured by the product of current in amperes and the time in hours i.e.
Capacity of Cell = Id Td ampere-hours (Ah)
where
Id = steady discharging current in amperes
Td = discharging time in hours
Consider a cell of capacity 120 Ah. This means that the cell can deliver 1A for 120 hours, 2A for 60
hours or any combination of amperes and hours that, when multiplied together, gives 120.
28. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF A SECONDARY CELL

The energy efficiency of a secondary cell is the ratio of energy given on discharge to the energy input
of charge i.e.
Energy given on discharge
100
Energy input of charge
V I d Td
= d
100
Vc I c Tc
The energy efficiency is also called watt-hour efficiency. The watt-hour (or energy) efficiency of a lead-
Energy efficiency =
16
acid cell is 75%. This means that if a lead-acid cell provides 75Wh on complete discharge, then 100Wh
must be put bak into the cell to restore it to its original condition.
29. SOLID STATE PRIMARY CELLS

The primary cells discussed so far use a liquid electrolyte, one cathode and an anode. These wet cells are
not practical for many applications. They are subject to leakage, corrosion due to acidic/alkaline solution, short
life etc. Recently solid state primary cells have been developed. These cells can be 1. Button cells 2. Solar cells.
1. Button cells. These are the tiny dry cells which are available in several forms. They look like a button
in shape and hence the name. These cells have low internal resistance and a flatter discharge curve. A flat
discharge curve means that the output voltage remains relatively constant over the life of the cells. Important
types of button cells are :
(i) Mercuric oxide button cells
(ii) Silver oxide button cells
(iii) Lithium button cells
Each button cell has the same basic layouta cathode, an anode and solid electrolyte. The basic
geometry of a button cell is given in Fig. 9.17 with mobile cations M+ and anions X1. Either one of these ions
or both can move.
(i) Mercuric Oxide button cell. Mercuric oxide cells are also called mercury cells and are noted for
their extremely flat discharge curve. Mercuric oxide forms the cathode and amalgamated zinc is
used for anode. The electrolyte may be either potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. During
discharge, the zinc anode oxidises and leaves positive hydrogen ions in the electrolyte. These
travel to the cathode and combine with the mercuric oxide to form mercury and water. The anode
gains electrons as it oxidises and cathode loses electrons as it gives up oxygen atoms. The
voltage of the cell is about 1.5V. Mercury cells produce about three times the energy for a given
volume when compared to dry cells. However, their high cost limits them to more specialised
applications such as medical instruments, smoke alarms, paging receivers and photographic equipment.
(ii) Silver oxide button cell. They are similar to mercury cells but develop an output of 1.5V under
moderate load. The cathode is silver oxide with a small amount of manganese dioxide. They
are used in light load applications such as watches, cameras and hearing aids.
(iii) Lithium cell. Most primary cells use zinc for anode. A more recent development in primary cells is
to use lithium in place of the zinc. Lithium is the lightest metal and has a specific gravity only half
that of water. It is also a very active metal and lithium cells can produce as much as 3.5V under
load. Lithium cells and batteries are quite expensive but can produce up to 10 times the energy
per weight and volume as compared to alkaline cells. Some types can last over 10 years. General
applications of lithium cells and batteries include watches, calculators, memory, backup power,
medical devices, telephones etc.
SUN RAYS
2. Solar Cells. A solar cell is a device that converts
+
light energy (e.g. sun light) directly to electrical energy.
Fig. 9.18 shows the construction of a simple solar cell. A
wafer consisting of a pure silicon (semiconductor) is
P.Type Layer
*doped with a specific amount of arsenic (donor impurity). This makes it N-type semi-conductor. As a result of
this, the wafer contains an excess of free electrons. This
N.Type Layer
wafer is coated at its top with a very thin layer of silicon
doped with appropriate amount of boron (acceptor impurity). This makes the top layer of P-type semi-conductor
and the contact surface becomes a P-N junction. When

Fig. 9.18
sunlight shines on top P-type layer and penetrates into N-type material just below it, the free electrons
in N-type material receive energy and move across the P-N junction into P-type material. This
movement of charge carriers (i.e. holes from P-type and free electrons from N-type) constitutes electric
current. The bottom of the wafer (N-type material) and a spot on the P-type layer are tinned for the
connection leads.
The operating voltage of one solar cell is about 0.39 V and the current may be between 30 and 40 mA.
The output power of the cell depends upon the exposed area of the cell and the intensity of light falling
upon it. The maximum output with the sun directly overhead on a clear day is 8 or 9 mW/ cm2. The **area
of the cell cannot be made large because it is difficult to have large silicon crystals. The operating
efficiency is about 10%. The life of a solar cell is estimated to be thousands of years. They do not
deteriorate when not in use. The chief uses of solar cells are : to provide power for transistor portable radios,
to charge nickel-cadmium batteries in satellites, to provide power for clocks and other devices such as
aperture control for movie cameras, microwave relay stations etc.

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ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

2. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.)

E = electric field i.e. force per unit charge

dl = small path segment vector

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

5. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS A SCALAR QUANTITY

6. TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

9. FACTORS UPON WHICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS

Resistivity or Specific Resistance:

We have seen above that R =

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

12. CARBON RESISTORS

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

14. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND DRIFT VELOCITY

vd = drift velocity of the free electrons

15. RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

16. ELECTRON MOBILITY

17. CURRENT DENSITY

where J . dA is the current through small area dA .

18. VALIDITY OF OHMS LAW

Consider a metallic wire of length l and uniform area of cross-section A as shown

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

19. VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY WITH TEMPERATURE

since m and e are constants,

where k = Boltzmann constant (= 1.381 1023 J mol1 k1 )

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

20. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE

(i) is directly proportional to the initial resistance, i.e.,

(iii) depends upon the nature of the material.

Combining the first two, we get,

Definition of : From eq. (i), we get,

21. NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

(i) A thermistor with negative temperature coefficient of resistance may be

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

24. D.C. CIRCUIT

25. RESISTORS IN SERIES

But E/I is the **total or equivalent resistance RS between points A and B.

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

The following are the characteristics of a series circuit :

26. RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

27. TWO RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Thus, if two resistances of 3 and 6 are connected in parallel, then

i.e., Current in any of the two branches = Total current

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

increases with the increase in distance between

(ii) nature of the electrolyte

increases with the increase in concentration

(iv) nature of the electrodes

decreases with the increase in plate area.

It is a usual practice to show internal resistance of a cell as a series

29. E.M.F. AND TERMINAL P.D. OF A CELL

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE