1

CHAPTER 1
1.0

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS AN INVERTER?
An inverter is a device that converts DC power into AC power.

Electronic devices run on AC power, however, batteries and some forms of

power generation produce a DC voltage so it is necessary to convert the
voltage into a source that devices can use. Hence a need for power rating
inverter to smoothly operate electrical and electronic appliances. The
inverting process can be achieved with the help of transistors, Silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCR), tunnel diodes etc. for low and medium power
outputs transistorized inverters are suitable, but for higher power outputs
SCR inverter are essential.
The basic working principle of an inverter can be explained with the
help of the circuit shown below.

Fig. 1.0 Basic diagram of an Inverter.

This is a voltage driven inverter because the DC voltage source is
connected through semiconductor switches directly to the primary of the
transformer.
S1 and S2 are switching devices (i.e. transistors or SCRs) which
open and close alternatively at regular intervals of time. The two
switching devices are generally driven by an astable multivibrator
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operating at a given frequency when S1 is closed, the entire DC source

voltage applied across point A and B of the transformer primary winding.
S1 remarks closed for a certain period of time after which it is cut off and
S2 closes, it also remain closed for the same period of time during which
the source voltage V, is applied across points B and C of the transformer
primary S2 then opens out and S1 closes. In this way an alternating
voltage is applied across the transformer primary which reduces an AC
voltage in the secondary
THE NEED FOR INVERTERS
Inverters have become very important in modern technology because
of the need to produce continuous supply of electric power to critical loads
such as computers, surgical equipment, security doors, automated teller
machine (ATMs), telecommunication and broadcast equipment, public
address systems, rechargeable lambs e.t.c.is a major segment of an
uninterrupted power supply unit (UPS). The inverter is in high demand
because of the advantage it offers against other alternative ways of power
generation, such as generators, some of which are listed below.
Table 1.0 advantage of Inverters over Generators
DESCRIPIONS
WEIGHT

INVERTER

GENERATORS

Very light

usually heavy

EASE OF USE

Simply turn it ON

Pull start by hand

FUEL COST

Nil

Diesel/petrol

MAINTENANCE

Nil

Usual for motors

NOICE FACTOR

Silent

Quite noisy

SIZE

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Compact

Bulky

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The major disadvantage of the inverter is the low power generation

compared to generators.

1.2

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE THE PROJECT

The aim or purpose of this project is to design and construct, test and
implement a circuit that will take a 12v DC input from a battery and
provide a 1500VA (AC) output with under voltage and over
voltage protection. Specially the study intends:
To design a circuit that converts dc power to ac power for various
appliances used in laboratories, theatres and rural areas.

To design an inverter circuit with undervoltage and

overvoltage protection

To provide a noiseless and weightless source of electricity

generation

To have a source of generating electricity that has no negative

effect on the environment (i.e. no greenhouse effect

To provide a source of electricity power with low maintenance

cost and zero fuel cost.

The study will also serve as a means of impacting practical

knowledge and skills to students, lecturers and others who may which to
acquaint themselves with the principles of operation of an inverter.
1.3

MOTIVATION AND JUSTIFICATION

I was motivated by the need to generate electrical power through a

noiseless, portable and inexpensive source that has no negative effect on
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the environment. I also took up the challenge to carry out this project
because of my quest to know more about power generation. However the
design and construction of a 1.5KVA inverter is justified by the fact that it
converts 12VDC from a battery to 240VAC, 1.5KVA output which can be
used to power essential circuits such as computers, television, etc.

1.4

PROBLEM STATEMENT

In the country power outage have become more frequent owing to the
lack of incentives to invest in aged national grid, transmission and
distribution infrastructures, as well as the fact that energy from
decentralized, volatile renewable sources is not well aligned to work on
electricity grids. Frequent power outages are inconvenient, expensive and
difficult to mitigate without very expensive backup power systems. Some
of solution to this problem is an auxiliary AC power generator and solar
panels but the cost of fossil fuels continues to increase rapidly thus it will
not be cost effective in the future while solar power has some aesthetic,
economic and technical drawbacks. A more effective and reliable
alternative is battery power back-up system.
1.5

CONTRIBUTION AND KNOWLEDGE

During the process of designing and construction of the project,

various data and information relevant to the execution of the project were
obtained through the following techniques:
1.

Consultation of senior friends and colleagues who are

already in the field and had knowledge on inverter/ UPS for more
ideas on designing

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2.

It also involved visiting the departmental library for

consultation of previous student projects write-ups.

3.

Also involved visiting/studying some books and materials

dealing with electronic circuits, devices and laws employed in the
design.

4.

Also, interaction with the project supervisor for more

advice on the designing and construction of the project.

5.

It involved the use of lecture note and materials dealing

with the working principles of components used.

6.

It includes browsing through the internet for some

information on the materials or components used.

1.6

SUMMARY

An inverter is a device that converts DC power into AC power. Due to the

epileptic power supply of the country the need for an inverter is in high
demands because of the advantage it offers against other alternative way
of power generation. Such advantage includes a noiseless and weightless
source of electricity generation, a source of power generation with no
negative effect on the environment, also to provide a source of electricity
power with low maintenance cost and zero fuel cost.
It is now established that power inverter is a DC to AC inverting device
that is capable of converting DC power found in batteries, into AC power
that is used to run everyday appliances in the home such as electronics,
and even household lighting. The power inverter would transfer readily
available DC power, from a battery or other stored power source, and turn
it into readily usable AC power on the go or at home on devices you would
normally plug into a home electrical outlet.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0

INTRODUCTION

The quest to convert DC Power to AC Power has been since the late 19th
century and from then to the mid-20th century, DC-to-AC power conversion
was accomplished using rotary converters or motor generator sets (M-G
sets). In the early 20th century, Vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began
to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The origin of electromagnetic
converters explains the source the term inverters. Early AC-to-DC
converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor directly connected
to a generator (dynamo) so that the generators commutators reversed its
connection at exactly the right moment to produce DC. A later
development is the synchronous converters in which the motor and
generator windings are combined into one armature with slip rings at one
end and a commutator at the other, with only one field frame. The result
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is a dc in and ac out. With an M-G set, the dc can considered to be

separately generated from the ac with synchronous converter. In a certain
sense, it can consider to be mechanically rectified ac. Given the right
auxiliary equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be run backward;
converting dc to ac. Hence an inverter can be called an INVERTED
CONVERTER. In modern inverter circuits, the dc power is connected to a
transformer primary through the center tap of the primary winding. A
switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow following
two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the
other. The alternation of the direction of flow of current in the primary
winding of the transformer produces an alternating current in the
secondary winding. The electromechanical version of switching devices
includes; two stationary contacts and spring supported moving contact.
The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary
contacts and an electromagnet pull the movable contact to the opposite
stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the
action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back
and forth. This electromagnetic inverter switch called vibrator or buzzer
was used in vacuum automobile radios. The latest inverter circuits have
transistors, FETs, SCRs and other electronic switches incorporated in them
because of their advantages over electromagnetic switches.
2.1

INVERTER

An inverter is a device that converts the DC sources to AC sources. The

purpose of a DC/AC power inverter is typically to take DC power supplied
by a battery, such as a 12 volt car battery, and transform it into a 240 volt
AC power source operating at 50 Hz, emulating the power available at an
ordinary household electrical outlet. Inverters are used in applications
such as adjustable-speed ac motor drivers, uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS) and ac appliances run from an automobile battery
2.1.1

CLASSFICATION OF INVERTERS.

On the market today there are two different types of inverters:

Modified Square Wave (Modified Sine Wave)
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Pure Sine Wave (True Sine Wave)

These inverters differ in their outputs, providing varying levels of
efficiency and distortion that can affect electronic devices in different
ways.
2.1.2

Modified Sine Wave

A modified sine wave is similar to a square wave but instead has a

stepping look to it that relates more in shape to a sine wave. This can be
seen in FIGURE 1, which displays how a modified sine wave tries to
emulate the sine wave itself. The waveform is easy to produce because it
is just the product of switching between three values at set frequencies,
thereby leaving out the more complicated circuitry needed for a pure sine
wave hence provides a cheap and easy solution to powering devices that
need AC power. However it does have some drawbacks as not all devices
work properly on a modified sine wave, products such as computers and
medical equipment are not resistant to the distortion of the signal and
must be run off of a pure sine wave power source Modified sine wave
inverters approximate a sine wave and have low enough harmonics that
do not cause problem with household equipments. The main
disadvantage of the modified sine wave inverter is that peak voltage
varies with the battery voltage
2.1.3

Pure Sine Wave

Pure sine wave inverter represents the latest inverter technology. The
waveform produced by these inverters is same as or better than the
power delivered by the utility. Usually sine wave inverters are more
expensive than the modified sine wave inverters due to their added
circuitry.
There are two methods in which the low voltage DC power is inverted to
AC power;
The low voltage DC power is first boosted to high voltage power source
using a DC-DC booster then converted to AC power using pulse width
modulation.

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The low voltage DC power is first converted to AC power using pulse

width modulation then boosted to high AC voltage using a boost
transformer.
The second method is used in modern inverters extensively because of its
ability to produce a constant output voltage compared to the first method
that require additional circuit to boost the voltage.

Figure 2.3 Types of Inverter Wave Forms

2.2

PRINCIPLES APPLIED IN THE PROJECT

Since the inverter system is an electrical/electronic system, current

will flow through the various components, voltage will be dropped at some
points, and therefore the following principles were applied in designing the
project.
2.2.1

JOULES LAW
This states that the rate of heat generation (P) in a metallic

conductor held at constant temperature is directly proportional to the

square of the current (I) flowing through the conductor.
2.2.2

AMPERES LAW

This law states that the magneto motive force (mmf) around a closed
path is equal to the current enclosed by the path
2.2.3

LENZS LAW

The electromagnetically induced current always flow in such a direction

that the action of the magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very
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cause which produces it.

2.2.4

OHMS LAW;
The ratio of potential difference (v) between any two points in a

circuit to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided the
temperature and the Resistance of the conductor remains constant.
i.e.

V= IR

2.2.5

KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW;

This states that the algebraic sum of the product of currents and

resistances in each of the conductors in any closed path in a network plus

the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs in that path is zero
2.2.6

KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW

This states that In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the

currents at a junction is zero.

2.2.7

FARADAYS LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

This states that whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit

changes, an emf is always induced in it and the magnitude of the induced

emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages

2.3 THEORY AND DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS AND COMPONENTS

USED
The construction of this project requires several tools and equipment
other than the specific electrical and electronics components required for
this design. Some of these tools will involve testing and measuring,
tightening

and

loosing,

soldering

and

joining.

Since

electronics

components like integrated circuits cannot be tested with any instrument

quick miniature assembly in other to test these components.

2.3.1

RESISTORS

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Resistors restrict the flow of electric current. Resistors may be connected

either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

Figure 2.3.1(a): Resistor symbol

Power Ratings of Resistors
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a
resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the
voltage across the resistor high) a large current may pass making the
resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand
the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most
circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the
rare cases where a higher power is required it should be clearly specified
in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than
about 300) or high voltages (more than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by: P = I R or P = V / R
Where; P is the power developed in the resistor in watts (W), I is the
current through the resistor in amps (A), R is the resistance of the resistor
in ohms ()

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Figure 2.3.1 (c): Resistor Colour Code

A 2.2k resistor has RRR (red, red, red). Calculated as A B x 10 c . Where A, B and
C are corresponding colour code on the resistor. (22x10 2 = 2200 equivalent to
2.2k).
The fourth colour code on the resistor in a 4-band resistor depicts the tolerance
range which could be silver (50% tolerance) or gold (25% tolerance).
2.3.2
CAPACITORS
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.

Figure 2.3.2 (a):

Electrolytic Capacitor and Symbol

Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by
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heat when soldering.

Figure 2.3.2 (b): fixed Capacitor and symbol

Some small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either
way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one
unusual type (polystyrene).
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a
multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier
should be!
For example 0.1 means 0.1F = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
i.
ii.
iii.

The 1st number is the 1st digit,

The 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance

iv.

in pF (Pico Farad).
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage
rating.

2.3.3

DIODES

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes
are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called
valves.
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labeled 'a' or + for anode and ' k' or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c,
for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body.

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Figure 2.3.3 Ideal diode and Symbol

An LED (light emitting diode) which is a special type of diode is also used
at junctions for circuit current indication. It comes in various stand-alone
colours or in a multiple display form.
2.3.4

TRANSISTORS

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor
material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power,
a transistor can amplify a signal. A transistor may be used as a switch
(either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as
an amplifier (always partly on). The amount of current amplification is
called the current gain.
Types of Transistor
There are two types of standard transistors; NPN and PNP, with different
circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material
used to make the transistor.

Figure 2.3.4: Types of Transistors

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Testing a Transistor with a multimeter

A multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) is used to
check each pair of leads for conduction. The digital multimeter was set to
diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.
i.

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and

conduct one way only

ii.

The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode

and conduct one way only

iii.
2.3.5

The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

POWER MOSFET

According to Paul and Winfield (1989), FET (field effect transistor) is

generally divided into junction FET and metal-oxide semiconductor FET. A
power MOSFET is a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor and
can be used as a voltage controlled device requiring a small input gate
voltage. Furthermore, it has high input impedance.
MOSFETs are operated in two states; ON STATE and OFF STATE. Switching
speed of MOSFET is very high. The switching time is of the order of
nanoseconds. Paul and Winfield (1989), further by subdividing MOSFETS
into two:
i.

Enhancement MOSFET: these types of MOSFET are non-conducting

with zero gate bias and are driven into conduction by bringing gate

ii.

positive with respect to the source.

Depletion MOSFET: This type of MOSFET can either be an n-channel
or p-channel depletion type. The n-channel has plenty of channel
conduction, even the zero gate bias and the gate must be reversed
biased a few volt to cut off the drain current.

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Figure 2.3.5(a): Classification of Field Effect Transistor

Figure 2.3.5 (b): the symbol for MOSFET

The MOSFET has gate, Drain D and Source S, terminals instead.
Paul and Winfield (1989) also made a clear distinction stating the
advantage of MOSFETS over BJTS as;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Simpler to drive.
Easy paralleling
High input impedance
High switching frequency i.e. high frequency performance.

In this project, enhancement MOSFETS are used as switching device

because of the following advantages:
i.
ii.

It is smaller in size, has longer life and high efficiency

It has a very High input impedance (of order of 100m) which
permits high degree of isolation between the input and the output

iii.

circuit.
It has a very high power gain which eliminates the necessity of

iv.
v.
vi.

using driver stages.

The noise content is low.
It has high frequency response.
It is more rugged in nature.

2.3.6 POWER TRANSFORMER

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A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit

to another through inductively coupled conductors- the transformers
coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformers core and thus a varying magnetic field
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF), or voltage, in the secondary winding.
This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the
secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and
electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load.
In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (V S)
is in proportion to the primary voltage (V P), and is given by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary (N S) to the number of turns in the
primary (NP) as follows
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer
thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be stepped
up by making NS greater than NP, or stepped down by
making NS less than NP.

Figure 2.3.6 (a): Components in a transformer.

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The physical basis of a transformer is mutual inductance between two

circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. If an alternating voltage is
applied to the primary winding of a transformer an electromagnetic field is
set up around the core which expands and contract in response to the
input frequency. This charging field will touch the wires in the secondary
and induce a voltage in it. The voltage at the secondary winding depends
on the voltage at the primary winding of the turns ratio between windings.
The number of turns on the primary and secondary windings determines
the voltage at both the primary and secondary windings i.e. if the
secondary winding has many turns as the primary winding, the voltage at
the secondary will be twice that at the primary. Similarly, if there are half
as many turns in the secondary as in the primary, the secondary voltage
will be half that of the primary voltage.
In accordance with the law of conservation of energy, the product of
voltage and current remains the same on both sides of the transformer
except for losses.
Theoretically, a transformer can be said to be 100% efficient if the voltage
at the secondary is double that at the primary. The current at the
secondary side will be half that at the primary to keep voltage-ampere
product constant, i.e. the product of voltage and current is power. The
power input should be equal to the power output. But in practical
transformers this is not so because there efficiency is about 90% due to
ohmic resistance (copper loss) eddy current and hysteresis loss caused by
changing polarity of the applied current.

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Figure 2.3.6 (b): transformer with different windings symbol

2.3.7 RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. The electromagnetic relay
consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an
electromagnet. When the coil is energized by passing current through it,
the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The coil can be energized from
a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch high
powers such as the mains supply. Relays can generate a very high voltage
across the coil when switched off and this can damage components in the
circuit. To prevent this, a diode is connected across the coil. The springsets (contacts) can be a mixture of normally open (NO), normally close
(NC) and common (CO). Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal with complete electrical isolation between
control and controlled circuits, or where several circuits must be controlled
by one signal.

Figure 1.3.7 Design of a relay

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Relays have the exact working of a switch. A relay is said to switch one or
more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be shown in mainly three
ways. They are:
i.

Normally Open (NO), or make contact: It is open when the

coil is de-energized and closes when the coil is energized. It
disconnects the circuits when the relay is inactive.
They are useful in applications that must switch a single power

ii.

source of high current from a remote location.

Normally Closed (NC), or break contact: It is closed in the deenergized position and opens when the coil is energized. When the
relay is activated, the circuit disconnects. They are useful in
applications that require the circuit to remain closed, and when the

iii.

relay is activated, the circuit is shut off.

Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) contacts: This type of
contacts are used to control two types of circuits. They are used to
control a NO contact and also a NC contact with a common terminal.
According to their type they are called by the names break before
make and make before break contacts.

2.3.8

RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating

current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC),

which flows in only one direction. Rectifiers have many uses, but are often
found serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage
direct current power transmission systems. There are two types of
rectifiers:
HALF- WAVE RECTIFIERS
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or
negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked.
Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean
voltage is lower half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a singlephase supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a
unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far

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more ripples than full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed
to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

Figure 2.3.8(a): Half-wave rectification

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of
constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification
converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC (direct
current), and yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and
a centre tapped transformer, or four diodes in a configuration and any AC
source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed.

Figure 2.3.8(b): Full-wave rectification

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER BRIDGES
This requires a transformer (not center tap) and four diodes.

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Figure 2.3.8(c): Full-wave Rectification Bridge

2.3.9 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (SG3524)

This stage is basically responsible for the generation of oscillating pulses
either through an IC (SG3524, CD4047, CD4049, or a peripheral interface
controller, PIC circuit or a transistorized circuit). In this project, only one
type of integrated circuit was used which is SG3524. It functions as an
oscillator. It requires an external capacitor (between pin 1 and 3) and an
external resistor (between pin 2 and 3) to determine the output pulse
width in the monostable mode, and the output frequency in the astable
mode.
Astable operation is enabled by a high level on the astable input or low
level on the astable input. The output frequency (at 50% duty cycle) at Q
and Q outputs is determined by the timing components. A frequency twice
that of Q is available at the Oscillator Output; a 50% duty cycle is not
guaranteed.

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Figure 2.3.9: Pin Configuration of SG3524 diagram

Recommended Operating Conditions
The recommended absolute maximum rating over operating free-air
temperature range (unless otherwise noted) as seen from the data sheet
is therefore stated below;
MIN
Vcc
Icc
Io(ref

Supply voltage
Collector output current
Reference output current

MAX
40
100
50

UNIT
V
Ma
Ma

150
260

mA
o
C
o
C

)
Tj

Current through CT terminal

-5
Maximum junction temperature
Lead temperature 1,6 mm (1/16 inch)

from case for 10 seconds

Tstg
Storage temperature range
-65
150
From the data sheet, the following instructions were noted:

1. Stresses beyond those listed under Absolute Maximum Ratings table

may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress
ratings only and functional operation of the device at these or any
other conditions beyond those indicated under Recommended
Operating Conditions table are not implied. Exposure to absolutemaximum-rated conditions for extended periods may affect device
reliability.
2. All voltage values are with respect to network ground terminal.
3. The reference regulator may be bypassed for operation from a fixed
5V supply by connecting the VCC and reference output (REF OUT)
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pin both to the supply voltage. In this configuration, the maximum

supply voltage is 6V.
2.3.10 PIC16F876 MICROCONTROLLER
The PIC16F876 is a well-known product by microchip. It features all the
components which modern microcontrollers normally have. For its low
cost, wide range of application, high quality and easy availability, it is an
ideal solution in applications such as the control of different processes in
industry, machine control devices, measurement of different values.
The PIC16F876 has three type of memory, i.e. The ROM (read only
memory), RAM (random access memory) and EEPROM (electrical erasable
programmable random memory).

Figure 2.3.10:

2.4

Pin configuration of PIC16F876

SUMMARY

The quest to convert DC power to ac power warrants knowing what

component to combine. In other for this to happen we need to understand
and know the sole function of each component to be used in the design
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and construction of the project. Understanding the types of component,

when and when not to use them and principles to use in combining them
will allow easy construction and design of the project. The summary of this
chapter is to know the theories and description of tools and component
used.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0

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METHODOLOGY

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The method adopted in the course of the design and construction of

this project follows the procedure below:
The operation of the designed and constructed 1.5KVA inverter is
based on the conversion of 12vDC to 240vAC. The IC SG3524N with
respect to the external resistor RT and the external capacitor CT is used to
determine the oscillating frequency for the switching devices (MOSFET).
This in turn determines the operating frequency of the inverter itself
(50Hz).
The winding procedure of the transformer was followed to achieve
the rated output power supply.
The relay base for switching to the mains supply when power is
restored.
The inverter is basically a system that converts the battery DC
power (12v DC) current into conventional any AC appliance absolutely
anywhere, such items as lights, power tools, battery chargers, motors, etc.
The inverter system comprises of an oscillator, switching circuit,
protection circuit (under voltage and over voltage). In the inverter circuit,
DC power is connected to the transformer through the center tap of the
primary winding. The switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow
current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths
through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The
alternation of the direction of current in the primary of the transformer
produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.
The integration of the various electronic components and electric
devices such as diodes, transistors, resistors, ICs, transformers and using
other materials such as breadboard for testing, clay boards, wires, etc.,
were made it possible for the actualization of the project work.

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The arrangement of the various components on the circuits as well

as the determination of the electrical quantities such as current, voltage,
frequency, etc., were made possible by applying the various known
principles such as Ohms law, Kirchhoffs law , Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction, Joules law.
3.1

PROJECT ALGORITHM
The project algorithm is the steps to taken to successfully complete

the design and construction of a 1500VA inverter.

This is illustrated in the flowchart shown below:

CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM
3.1 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 1.5KVA INVERTER
This chapter is mainly concerned with the design of various units
and determination of the parameters and quantities of the various units
and the considerations made to select the components used in the project
construction.
DESIGN
3.1.1

PRELIMINARY DESIGN SPECULATIONS

In the design of this project, the following is included;

1.

The input voltage is within 8 to 12VDC.

2.

The AC output supply is in the range of 220-240V.

3.

The relay base (contactor) should isolate the inverter from the
supply when power is restored after 10 seconds delay.

4. Fault detection cut off

5. Battery level indicator
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6. Battery low cut-off and buzzer

7. Low battery power consumption.
8. Low voltage warning.
The transformer should operate at the following design specifications;
Input power = output power = 1500VA
Frequency = 50Hz
Input voltage =12v 0 12v dc
Output voltage = 240v ac
3.1.2

BLOCK DIARGRAM
Mains
220V
AC

DC to AC
power
inverter

220V AC /
50Hz
Load

12V DC
battery

Figure 3.1.2: Block Diagram of Sector of the Inverter

3.1.3 Determining of the Numbers of MOSFET Required
The maximum drain current of the MOSFET is 30A at 25 0C but it is
difficult to keep the MOSFET at this temperature during high power
operation, hence the need to de-rate, choosing the maximum drain
current for each MOSFET at 1000C to be 19A (IRF250N datasheet).
Maximum current drawn by the MOSFETS is 133.333A
Maximum drain current for each MOSFET = 19A (after de-rating)
Number of MOSFET= MOSFET used for easy paralleling is 8
MOSFETs.

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3.1.4 BATTERY
The battery recommended for use in an inverter system is a deep cycle
battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically designed to be discharged to low
energy and rapid recharge or cycle charged and discharged day after day
for years. The battery is chosen in such a way that it is large enough to
store sufficient energy to operate the appliances during the day and night.
But to avoid over -drain of this battery, we only make use of it until the
drain is 8V before the control system signals a low battery.
Where: Battery loss is 0.85; Depth of discharge is 0.6 and Nominal
battery voltage is 12V. The battery needed therefore is about
1000Ah. The assumption here is that the inverter is to operate for
just a day before mains (generator or PHCN) is supplied.
3.1.5 HEAT SINK SELECTION PROCEDURE
The use of heat sink was introduced in order to keep the temperature of
the semiconductor below 12500C. This was achieved by finding the
thermal resistance of the heat sink that will be able to overcome the
power dissipation due to the resistance between the drain and the source
and also power loss during switching. The thermal resistance (R th) was
calculated using the equation (Jonathan, 2006):
Where TJ is the junction temperature, TC is the case temperature. These
values are obtained from the IRF250 MOSFET data sheet. Power
dissipation is 15.75W and we obtained the thermal resistance.
The required thermal resistance needed for the heat sink can be
found by subtracting the thermal resistance of the junction to case
and the case to heat sink (International Rectifier document, 2002).
The MOSFETs is to be mounted on the heat sink and separated by an
insulator called mica.
SYSTEM DESIGN
3.2.0 STAGES OF INVERTER OPERATION

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There are different stages in which the inverter operates, the stages are
has stated below;
3.2.1 THE OSCILLATOR STAGE
SG3524 as an oscillator is a square wave generator, and this determines
the frequency of the oscillator in hertz (50Hz). These oscillations are
basically the production alternate battery positive and negative (ground)
voltage peaks with a particular specified frequency (number of positive
peak per second). This stage consists of components such as capacitors,
resistors, variable resistors, TIP 41 transistor and IC SG3524. The circuit
diagram is as shown in the circuit diagram.
3.2.2 INVERTER SOUND INDICATOR (12V BUZZER)
Buzzer is a device that converts the electrical energy to sound energy.
This design is intended to make a sound to the hearing of the user when
an AC main comes ON. This is an important feature for load sharing. By so
doing, users can then connect other devices to mains leaving the inverter
to charge.
3.2.3 BATTERY CHARGING
It is pertinent to note that the output transformer is an auto-verse. This
means that when the inverter is operated on DC (from the battery), the
transformer serves as a step up, 12/220V. But when the main comes ON,
the transformer reverses operation and can be used as a step down
220/12V device for charging the battery. This circuitry is also made

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possible using a relay as a control switcher. Also, when MOSFETs is turned

off, it behaves ordinarily like a diode.
The micro controller sense an AC and inverter power system is on
standby mode then the inverter power system will change to utility supply
and delay for 10 seconds to cancel out incoming surge before activating
the charging relay connected to the charging hand of the transformer.
3.2.4 AUTOMATIC BATTERY CUT-OFF
While charging, the micro controller (PIC16F876A) continuously check the
input voltage of the battery as its increasing and automatically deenergize the charging relay if the battery voltage is above 14.5V while the
changeover is still ON.
Meanwhile when the inverter power is operating on the battery and the
battery voltage goes below 9.8V, the battery automatically trips and
displays SHUT DOWN.
3.2.5

FAULT DETECTION

When the inverter power supply is switched on and the micro controller
(PIC16F876A) detects the inverter power system is been set to inverting
mode and there is no output then it display INVERTER POWER SYSTEM
VOLTAGE IS TOO LOW.
SUMMARY
The operation and design plus construction of the inverter are based on
the conversion of 12vDC to240vAC. The integration and usage of various
electronic components and electric devices such as diode, transistors,
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resistors, were all made possible due to the method. The chapter is based
on the design and method used in constructing the inverter.

CHAPTER FOUR
TESTING, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1

INVERTER TESTING

The circuit was designed and constructed in different stages to enhance

easy trouble shooting just in case. Each stage was tested and confirmed
working before assembling on the PCB (printed circuit board) after which a
final test and measurements of the entire system were carried out using
digital millimeter.
4.2

INVERTER LOADING TEST

To achieve this, the inverter was tested using a constant increasing load
(using 200W bulb and incrementing it) measuring the voltage at full load,
of full load, full load and of full load. Knowing that the 2000VA is
also equivalent to 1600W which gives the rating of the power inverter.
Also the current drain by various load was also noted and measured. The
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inverter draws some little amount of energy when there is no load on it

resulting from the running of the internal circuitry.
The result below shows the results gotten from the test in the inverter
output voltage at each load.
Table 4.2 (a): voltage and current result at various load values.
LOADING (W)

VOLTAGE

MEASURED

CALCULATED

MEASURED (V)

CURRENT

CURRENT (A)

NO LOAD
221.20
200
219.50
400
218.20
600
216.50
800
215.10
1000
214.30
1200
213.60
Note: The result possibility

(A)
Nil
Nil
0.863
0.911
1.854
1.833
2.880
2.771
3.799
3.719
4.656
4.666
5.762
5.618
of the battery. It should be noted that the

higher the battery ampere hours the more the loads will stay/last.
The best battery to be used is the deep cell battery and when compared
to the lead acid battery i.e. the car battery, the following voltages where
gotten;
Table 4.2 (b): Battery test values at various incremental loads

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LOADING (W)

BATTERY(INPUT) VOLTAGES

NO LOAD
200
400
600
800
1000
1200

MEASURED (V)
12.22
11.93
11.91
11.62
11.43
11.22
11.10

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From the above table, the place recorded as nil occurred because the
battery could no longer withhold the load from the inverter. At this point,
the current drawn from the battery was too much for the battery to handle
thereby causing the inverter to trips. Hence, the lead acid battery is not
an ideal battery for power inverter use.
4.3

BATTERY LIFE TEST

To test for the normal life of a battery been used at full load, the time
elapsed for a full consumption of the battery is given below
Time = energy
Time
Where the Energy is the capacity of the battery rated as 200Ah
Therefore,
Time = (200Ah x 12V)
2000VA
= 1.5h = 1hour and 50 minutes
The time used can be increased by increasing the capacity of the battery.
Table 4.3: Time duration table for various load using a 200Ah battery
LOADING (W)

OUTPUT VOLTAGE BATTERY TIME AS BATTERY

AS

TIME

MEASURED (V)

OBSERVED

OBSERVED

NO LOAD

221.20

(200Ah)
(60Ah)
Battery on Stand Battery on Stand

200

219.50

by
11hours 50mins

by
3hours
10minutes

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400
218.20
5hours 45mins
600
216.50
3hours 30mins
800
215.10
2hours 50mins
1000
214.30
2hours 20mins
1200
213.60
1hour 55mins
On the condition that the inverter will be operating at

1hour 40minutes
1hour 30minutes
1hour 12minutes
1hour 5minutes
53 minutes
full load with the

200Ah battery on a take up time by the user. And comparing the result
with the operation of the lead acid battery of 60Ah, the result obtained at
full load was assumed that the preferred battery to be used is the 200Ah
battery.
4.4

RESULT AND DISCUSIIONS

From the final testing of the inverter, it was realized that the power
inverter is noise free electronics power generator, but the application
depends on the conditions you will be using your power inverter in.
Even though the frequency was not 100% stable it still remained between
50 to 60Herz and the output wave form remained modified square wave.
A standing fan and a drilling machine was tested and a negligible noise
was generated.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5.1

CONCLUSION

It was now established that the 1.5kVA inverter is an alternative source of

power for a three bedroom flat apartment using a PIC16f877 micro
controller, and other electronics component. The design was put into
consideration the ease of accessing components and at a reduced cost. All
circuits to be used for the design was carried out on the printed circuit
board (PCB) software (software for circuit design and simulation) for
system simulation before the major design.

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This project has expose me to know that in designing and constructing

any system, step by step process is required. This will also add to my
mentality that cordial human interaction is very important in all
ramifications and also to know the importance of more than one hand in
achieving a given task.
5.2

RECOMMENDATION

The power inverter should be run efficiently and safely in a flat. It should
be placed on dry surface that is preferably indoors where it is kept away
from extreme weather elements and exposure, and it should be placed
within fairly close range of the battery supply to get a direct and clear
signal. It is a good idea to add up the wattage used in the home normally
by the amount of wattage used in each appliance and electrical item,
lighting, etc., and then also give extra wattage for startups and occasional
surges that many appliances tend to put out at times. So the amount of
wattage all the electrical items give out plus some additional wattage for
surges and startups should indicate the size of power inverter required in
the house. It is ideal to have excess power than having a brown out
inverter because of overloading which depletes all of the available power.
The batteries that connect to the inverter should be kept in fairly close
proximity to the power DC to AC inverter so that the cables can be short
and run a clean and clear signal. Power inverters are not weatherproof
and should be kept from getting wet.
It should be kept dry like any other electronic device. The inverter should
not be allowed to get struck by lightning. Ensure that the power inverter is
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kept away from any kind of generated heat or flammable source that can
cause overheating and fires.
5.3

REFERENCES

IEEE, S. (2000): Multivibrator. Dictionary of standard terms Institutes of

Electrical

and

Electronics

Engineering,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multibrator seventh Edition (site visited June

25, 2015). pp 217.
Theraja B.L, & Theraja A.K, (2005): A Textbook of Electrical Technology.
Third Edition, Scand and company Limited, New Delhi, Vol. 3. India. pp
2782.
Roland, A. (2008): Design and Construction of 600VA DC to AC Power
Inverter. B.eng. thesis (published), Department of Informatics and
Engineering, Regent University College of Science and Technology, Ghana.
pp 66.
Owen, Edward L. (1996): "Origins of the Inverter". IEEE Industry
Applications Magazine: History Department (IEEE) Vol.2. (1): pp 6466.
Akinyomi, O. (2014): Design and Construction of a 2kVA Uninterrupted
Power Supply. B.Tech. thesis (unpublished), Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
pp 64.

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Alaskan, ABS. (2006): DC to AC Power Inverters. Inverters and Appliances,

http://www.absak.com/basic/inverters.html (site visited on June 23, 2015).
Pp217.
Horowitz P. & Winfield H. (1989): Art of Electronics. Second Edition,
Cambridge University Press. Pg 111-117, Pg 312.
Winglette, W. (2005): DC/AC inverters. Winglette Wind Generating
Ststems, www.winglette.com/inverters .htm (site visited on May 29, 2015).
Vladimir, G. (2005): Electrical Relays: Principles and Applications. CRC
press, New York. USA, pp 704.
Jim D, Dan E. and Jeremy S. (2006): DC/AC pure sine wave inverter,
Worcester polytechnic institute. pp 547.
Kwaha, B. J. (2011): Circuit Theory and Electronics I. An Undergraduate
Course in the Department of Physics, University of Jos, Nigeria.
Unpublished.

Williams, A. (2002): Microcontroller Projects Using the Basic Stamps, 2nd

Edition. Focal Press, NY pp 248.

Wikipedia (2015).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/power-inverter.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/microcontroller.
www.nellsemi.com

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APPENDIX ONE: CODE FOR >>>

#include <inverter NEW.h>
#define LCD_ENABLE_PIN PIN_C1
#define LCD_RS_PIN PIN_C0
#define LCD_RW_PIN PIN_C6
#define LCD_DATA4 PIN_C2
#define LCD_DATA5 PIN_C3
#define LCD_DATA6 PIN_C4
#define LCD_DATA7 PIN_C5
#include <lcd.c>
int count;
adc_init();
int16 value,arch,caleb;
float volts,arch2,caleb2;
void delay_timer()
{
fan_off();
for(count=0;count<=10;count++)
{
output_high(PIN_D3);
printf( lcd_putc,"\fTIMER--->%u",count);
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
printf( lcd_putc,"PLEASE WAIT..... ");
lcd_gotoxy(2,1);

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delay_ms(1000);
count++;
}
}
void buzzer_sound()
{
if(volts>=10.5 && volts<=11.0)
{
fan_on();
output_high(PIN_D4);
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("WARNING--BATTERY");
lcd_gotoxy(14,2);
lcd_putc("v");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
printf(lcd_putc,"battery=%f",volts);
output_high(PIN_D0);
output_high(PIN_D1);
delay_ms(1000);
output_low(PIN_D0);
output_low(PIN_D1);
delay_ms(1000);
}
}
void oscillator_faulty()
{
lcd_putc('\f');
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void inverting()
{
set_adc_channel( 0 );
delay_us(200);
value = read_adc();
volts =(float) value*0.0002596529714;
lcd_putc('\f');
buzzer_sound();
fan_off();
if(volts>=10.5 && volts<=14)
{
output_high(PIN_D3);
output_high(PIN_B1);
output_high(PIN_B3);
output_low(PIN_B4);
output_low(PIN_B2);
output_low(PIN_D5);
output_low(PIN_D2);
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("inverting.......");
//lcd_gotoxy(14,2);
//lcd_putc("v");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
printf(lcd_putc,"battery>%fv",volts);
}
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else if(volts<=10.49)
{
lcd_putc('\f');
output_low(PIN_B2);
output_low(PIN_D5);
output_low(PIN_B1);
output_low(PIN_B3);
output_low(PIN_B4);
output_low(PIN_D2);
output_low(PIN_D3);
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("shutting down ");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
lcd_putc("battery low ");
delay_ms(1000);
fan_off();
}
else
{
fan_off();
output_low(PIN_D4);
output_low(PIN_B1);
output_low(PIN_B2);
output_low(PIN_D5);
output_low(PIN_B3);
output_low(PIN_B4);
output_high(PIN_D2);
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output_high(PIN_D3);
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("shutting down");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
lcd_putc("over-voltage ");
}
}
void main()
{
//END OF THE INTERRUPT INITIALIZATION
setup_adc_ports(AN0_AN1_AN2_AN3_AN4);
setup_adc(ADC_CLOCK_DIV_2);
lcd_init();
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("\fONIFADE FEMI\n");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
lcd_putc("FINAL YEAR PROJ ");
output_high(PIN_D3);
delay_ms(1000);
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("\fRATING--->1.5kVa \n");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
lcd_putc("SINGLE---PHASE");
fan_off();
delay_ms(1000);
lcd_putc('\f');
if (!input(PIN_E0)&& !input(PIN_E1))
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{
output_low(PIN_B3);
delay_timer();
fan_off();
}
delay_ms(100);
//////////////////////////code for inverting....
//////////////////////////code for battery low...
//////////////////////////code for over-voltage..
/////////////////////////end of inverting
while(true)
{
/////////////OSCILLATOR ERROR
if(input(PIN_E0)&& input(PIN_E1))
{
inverting();
}
else if ( !input(PIN_E0) && !input(PIN_E1)) //mains identification
{
////////////OSCILLATOR ERROR END
output_low(PIN_B1);
output_low(PIN_B3);
output_high(PIN_B2);
output_high(PIN_B4);
output_high(PIN_D5);
fan_on();
set_adc_channel(1);
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delay_us(200);
arch = read_adc();
arch2=(float)arch*0.004425048828;
lcd_gotoxy(14,1);
lcd_putc("v");
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
printf(lcd_putc,"I/put=%fv",arch2);
set_adc_channel(2);
delay_us(200);
caleb = read_adc();
caleb2 = (float)caleb*0.0002596529714;
lcd_gotoxy(14,2);
lcd_putc("v");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
printf(lcd_putc,"chargn=%fv",caleb2);
}
while(arch2>=260)
{
lcd_putc('\f');
fan_off();
output_low(PIN_B2);
output_low(PIN_D5);
output_low(PIN_B4);
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("MAINS PROTECTION");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
lcd_putc("REMOVE I/P MAINS");
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}
while(caleb2>=14.5)
{
fan_off();
output_high(PIN_D3);
output_low(PIN_B2);
output_low(PIN_D5);
output_low(PIN_B4);
lcd_putc('\f');
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
lcd_putc("shutting down ");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
lcd_putc("battery is full ");
}
}
}

//TODO: User Code

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APPENDIX TWO:

PIN

CONFIGURATION

SG3524

RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS

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AND

FUNCTION

OF

49

APPENDIX THREE:

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APPENDIX FOUR:

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APPENDIX FIVE:
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ELECTRICAL

CHARACTERISTICS

OF

CONTROLLER

Source: PIC16F877A micro-controller datasheet.

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PIC16F877A

MICRO-