UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS

• Basic Sonar Principles • Noise (Ambient, Self

• Sound Made)
Transmit/Receive • Sound in Sediments
• Speed of Sound • Sonar Equation
• Spherical Spreading
• Absorption of Sound
• Refraction of Sound
• Reflection of Sound
• Backscatter
(Reverberation)
• Time-Varied Gain
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Basic Sonar Principles

• Sonar (SOund
Navigation And
Ranging)
• Active Sonar

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Sound Transmit
• Vibration
• Frequency
• Source Level

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Sound Receive

• Type of Material
• Conversion to
electrical signals
• Pre-amplification
• Amplitude
• Frequency

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Speed of Sound
• 1500 meters per
second
• Affected by
temperature,
salinity & pressure
• Different for sea
water and sub-
bottom

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Spherical Spreading of
Sound
• Spreading loss
• When it hits the
sea bottom or
surface,
spreading
becomes
cylindrical

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Absorption of Sound
High Frequency Sound
• Vibrating
molecules
• Viscosity
• Chemical Low Frequency Sound

• Depends on
Frequency of
Sound

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Refraction of Sound
• Bending of a sound
wave towards a
region of slower
sound speed
• Effects on imaging
the bottom

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Reflection of Sound
• Deflection of the
path of a sound
wave by an object
or by the boundary
between two media
• Acoustic properties
of the boundaries…
• Similar = less
reflection
• Dissimilar = more
reflection

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Scattering of Sound

• Scattering
affects the
distance sound
can travel
• Amount of
scattering…
• Size of scatter
• Wave length of
sound
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Noise (Ambient, Man Made)
• Traveling through the sea,
an underwater sound signal
becomes delayed, distorted
and weakened, reflecting
on boundaries of underside
surface of waves, bottom
and shores, bubbles,
suspended particles and
marine life.
• Tide, current, temperature
variances and wind also
play on a sound's final
quality.
• Man made noise can also
affect the results

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Time-Varied Gain

• (TVG) accurately
controlled
amplification
(gain) relative to
time after
transmission,
used to correct
for transmission
loss
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Sonar Equation

• EL = SL + TS - 2TL
• Where EL (echo level) is the level of
the reflected sound, SL (source level)
is the level of the incident sound, TS
is target strength, and 2 TL is two-
way transmission loss due to
spreading and absorption.

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SUB-BOTTOM PROFILER
DESCRIPTION
What is a Sub-Bottom
Profiler
• Seismic
Reflection
• Sound Source
• Penetration
• Hydrophones
• Time of Travel
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Typical Sub-Bottom
Configuration
• Tow Vehicle
– Transmitter
– Hydrophone
– Pre-Amp
• Tow Cable
• Amplifier
• Display Processor
– Video Display
– Mass Storage
– Printer

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Uses of Sub-Bottom Profiler
• Geological Surveys • Cable And Pipeline
• Geotechnical Surveys
Surveys • Archeological surveys
• Hazard Surveys • Mining & Dredging
• Hydrographic Surveys
Surveys • Scour & Erosion
• Environmental Site Surveys
Investigations • Deep Water Profiling
• Sediment (Hull Mounted
Classification
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System) 17
Sub-Bottom Profiler Record
Interpretation
• Transmit (T0)
• Bottom Echo
• Sub-Bottom
• Layers
• Multiples

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Record Interpretation -
Layers
• Detection
• Grey Scale Intensity
• Separation
• Hidden

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Record Interpretation -
Acoustic Shadows
• Hard Object
• Trapped Gas

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Record Interpretation -
Targets
• Pipelines
• Known Objects
• Unknown Objects

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 Record Interpretation -
Distortions
• Multi-Path
• Direct Path
• Side Echos
• Point Source
Reflections

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Distortions - Multi-Path

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Distortions - Direct Path &
Water Surface Reflections

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Distortions - Point Source
Reflections (Side Echo)

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Side Scan Sonar
 SSS Features

• SIDEWAYS LOOKING
• NARROW BEAM HORIZONTAL
• WIDE VERTICAL BEAM
• TWO SIDES
• TOWED BODY DECOUPLES SHIP
MOVEMENT
• TOW FISH IS BELOW SURFACE NOISE

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 Ambient Noise Sources

• AMBIENT NOISE
• SELF MADE NOISE
• SEA SURFACE
• BIOLOGICAL
• SURF
• FLOW
• TERRESTRIAL
• MAN MADE
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 Self Made Noise Sources

• OTHER INSTRUMENTS
• SHIPS MACHINERY
• FLOW

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 Sonar Performance

Thus: The resolution of a sonar is its ability to

determine the presence of two small objects
separated by a distance X. If the resolution of
the sonar is greater than X, the 2 targets will
appear as one in the sonar image. If the
resolution is X or less the target should be
resolved into 2 distinct targets in the image.
For this purpose we use the following rule to
determine if the targets will be resolved.
"The resolution of the sonar is twice the two
way 3 dB beamwidth.“ with conventional side
scan sonar systems.

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 Data acquisition

Beam spreading

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 Data acquisition

Target recognition
In general, the side scan sonar system shall be
operated so that it can detect an object on the sea
floor that measures 1 m x 1 m x 1 m.

If the object in question is smaller than 1m x 1 m x 1

m the system should be operated in such a manner
that at least three hits (pings) on a target is
obtained. This is achieved by varying the speed
and or repetition rate of the side scan system.

Speed
The Surveyor should tow the side scan sonar at a
speed such that an object 1 m on a side on the sea
floor would be independently insonified a minimum
of three times per pass. The 4200 Multi ping sonar
allows for faster tow speeds due to the increased
ping rates.

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 Sonar Performance

The number of pings per second, or repetition rate,

determines the speed at which the boat or tow fish
can move along the track and still maintain the
required coverage of the bottom. Longer sonar ranges
have slower ping rates, which requires the vessel
speed to be slower if the entire bottom is to be
covered.

A minimum of 3 "hits" on a target at 100m range is the

general standard used in target recognition and
classification. Using this criteria we can find the
maximum tow speed at which the conditions are met
for 100m range for the 2 frequencies.

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 Data acquisition

Bottom Coverage

Bottom coverage is the term used to describe the

extent to which the bottom has been insonified by
side scan sonar swaths, that is, the section of sea
bed which has been insonified and logged along
a track line. One hundred percent coverage is
defined as an area insonified once, and two
hundred percent coverage results in an area
insonified twice.

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 Data acquisition

There are three methods used to achieve the required

coverage of an area.

• Method 1. Conduct a survey where the vessel track lines are

separated by one-half the distance required for 100-percent
coverage.
• Method 2. Conduct two separate 100-percent coverages wherein
the vessel track lines during the second coverage split the
difference between the track lines of the first coverage. Final track
spacing is essentially the same as technique 1.
• Method 3. Conduct two separate 100-percent coverages in
orthogonal directions. This technique may be advantageous when
searching for small man-made objects on the bottom as the
bottom is insonified in different aspects.

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 Data acquisition

Horizontal Range
Side scan sonar ranges refer to the range of the
display on each side. For example, a range setting of
100 meters provides a 200 meter swath width.

What the sonar range should be set to is a function of

several factors . such as sea state, thermoclines, sea
bed composition, system characteristics,towfish
altitude, tow fish (vessel) speed, size of a specific
target being searched for.

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 Side Scan range

Environmental Conditions:
The acoustic environment can have a severe affect on
the operating range of a side scan sonar. There
are 4 primary factors which may affect range
performance:
3. ambient noise
4. water temperature and salinity
5. water depth
6. sonar/towfish height above bottom (altitude)

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 Side Scan range

Noise: The ambient noise level for sidescan sonar frequencies (100 to
500Khz typically) is mostly dominated by acoustic and waterborne electrical
noise or interference from the vehicle platform itself.

The use of chirp technology with very well controlled receiver filter
characteristics such as is used in EdgeTech's Full Spectrum systems can
ensure that out of band system noise does not limit range.

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 Side Scan range

Water Conditions: The water temperature and salinity can have a

dramatic affect on range performance.
Statements of outrageous or excessive range performance by a
manufacturer may well be true under one of the extreme conditions that
can be found in nature. The 2 way transmission loss (the total drop in
intensity a signal undergoes traveling to and from the target) for a
410Khz signal is shown graphically in Figure 1
for two extreme, but realistic conditions, of a warm tropical sea (Florida
east coast), and a cold fresh water
lake.

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 Data acquisition

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 Side Scan range

The vertical scale is logarithmic, in dB (decibels) where every 20dB loss

represents a ten fold weakening of the signal. A 120dB loss is therefore
a million fold reduction and is a typical loss that can be tolerated by
good sonar systems.

A given sonar system with good range performance out to 120m in

Florida waters, will achieve the same
imaging performance out to beyond 200m in the conditions of a cold
fresh water lake !.

Water Depth: The effects of water depth are illustrated in Figure 2.

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 Data acquisition

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 Side Scan range

The beam shape shown in the previous slide is highly idealized but illustrates
the essential concepts.
The vertical beam shape of the sonar inevitably has some response to
echoes returning from the surface. (surface reflection)
As the ratio of depth (D) to Range (R) gets increasingly smaller either by way
of shallower water or longer range, the masking effects of the surface
backscattered echoes become more pronounced resulting in a
decrease in range performance. In shallow waters this effect is pronounced in
the lower frequency ( hence longer range) systems.
It is worth noting that the frequency dependant loss experienced by the
sound is weakly dependant on pressure (depth), and at extreme depths
(>2000-3000m) longer ranges can be obtained.

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 Side Scan range

Altitude: The backscattering strength of the sea floor (intensity of initial

echoes) is a strong function of the grazing angle, or the acute angle
between the line of sight to the sea bottom and the sea floor itself. At
longer ranges/lower altitudes, this angle can become extremely small
and all incident energy is reflected away from the source, and not back
to the sonar. Thus maximum range is also limited by the altitude to
range ratio. A typical and accepted value for Altitude/MaxRange for this
purpose is 1/10. ( D/R in Figure2)
Detection range
The meaning of "maximum range" itself is somewhat arbitrary and may
vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, Maximum Range may be given
to mean the ability of the operator/observer to see the echo of a large
target(ship wreck or similar) above the obscuring noise, or, at the other
extreme, the ability of the user to useshadows in the image to aid in
target identification.
The difference in the "maximum" range as defined by these two
conditions for the same sonar may be as great as 30 to 50 % of stated
range.

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 Side Scan range
EdgeTech's statement of maximum range for a system is given for the
following general and typical conditions:

Full Spectrum Sonar Systems.

Expected Operational Ranges, depending on Water temperature and
salinity. (See Figures 3 and 4).
The absorption factor is estimated based on a model from Francois and
Garrison, JASA 1982, and a depthof 50m.

Freq : 75kHz, Range: 700 to 800m. 1000m is possible at extreme depths

and with special pulses
Freq : 120Khz, Range: 250 to 500m.
Freq : 270kHz, Range : 150 to 300m
Freq: 410kHz, Range: 130 to > 200m
Freq : 540kHz, Range: 100 to 150m

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 Side Scan range

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 Side Scan range

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 Measuring targets
4200-FS
system
The height of an object off the sea floor can be determined
using the formula, Ht=(Ls×Hf) ∕ R

DSCOVER Target logger software allows for computer aided

mensuration of targets.

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 Measuring targets
4200-FS
system
Ht=(Ls×Hf) ∕ R

Range to end of shadow (R)

Towfish height
(Hf)
Length of shadow (Ls)

Height of
Target (ht)

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 Discover Screen

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 Measuring targets
Dis co ver sof twa re
Using TARGET logger

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 Target logger Screen

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 Target logger Screen

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 Discover Screen

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