photoelectric effect

In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic
solids, liquids or gases) as a consequence of their absorption of energy
from electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, such
as visible or ultraviolet radiation. Electrons emitted in this manner may be referred to as
photoelectrons.

The energy supplied by the photon will be, E =hf. Where h is plancks
constant and f is the frequency of the light (radiation). It therefore means
that the max K.E. gained by the liberated electrons will be equivalent to hf.
So K.E.max = hf.
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy proportional to the frequency
of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs
the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the electron
binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron
is unable to escape the material. Increasing the intensity of the light beam increases the
number of photons in the light beam, and thus increases the number of electrons
excited, but does not increase the energy that each electron possesses. The energy of
the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on

the energy or frequency of the individual photons. It is an interaction between the

incident photon and the outermost electron.

Experimental observations of photoelectric emission

The theory of the photoelectric effect must explain the experimental observations of the
emission of electrons from an illuminated metal surface.
For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below
which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency.
Increasing the frequency of the incident beam, keeping the number of incident photons
fixed (this would result in a proportionate increase in energy) increases the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted. Thus the stopping voltage increases. The
number of electrons also changes because the probability that each photon results in an
emitted electron is a function of photon energy.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron depends on the frequency of the incident light, but is independent of the
intensity of the incident light so long as the latter is not too high [9]
For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons
are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. Increase in
intensity of incident beam (keeping the frequency fixed) increases the magnitude of the
photoelectric current, though stopping voltage remains the same.
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is
very small, less than 109 second.
Mathematical equation:
Max. K.E. = hf
Work function, is the minimum energy required to liberate an electron from the
surface of a metal. If no electrons are emitted the K.E. = 0, then
0=hf
hf =
f0 = /h , where f0 is the threshold frequency. Threshold frequency is the
minimum frequency required for photoemission.
From the wave equation c = f , where c is the speed of light , is the
wavelnght.
So c/ = /h
0 = /hc , where 0 is the cut-off wavelength.

STOPPING POTENTIAL

The electrons with the maximum KE can be stopped from completing their
journey across the photoelectric tube if there is a stopping potential set-up
to impede their progress. The formula that relates the KE of these
photoelectrons to this stopping potential is
KEmax = eVstopping
where

Vstopping is the stopping potential, and

e is the magnitude of the charge of an electron, 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs.

This formula is based on the fact that work is done on charged particles when they
cross through an electric field. The work done (qV) equals the change in each
electron's KE.
If all the electrons are stpped it means the max. k.e. = 0
So

0=hf - eVstopping

eVs = hf
Vs = hf/e - /e

By plotting a graph of stopping potential vs frequency then

h/e represents the gradient

/e represent the y-intercept

From the equation ;

way

Max. K.E. = hf , the equation can be written in another

mv2 = hf , where v is the velocity of the liberated electrons.

This graph indicates

The photoelectric effect has some curious properties that cannot be

explained by classical physics. It was found that the number of electrons

released by a metal was proportional to the amount of ultraviolet light, while

the energy of the electrons depended on the frequency of the light. Below a
threshold frequency, there are no electrons released at all, no matter how
bright the light is, while above the threshold frequency, there are always
electrons released, no matter how dim the light is. This contradicted classical
physics because classical wave theory stated that either increased intensity
or increased frequency should provide more energy in the same way, but the
observed effect showed that only increased frequency provided the needed
energy to eject an electron from the metal.
It was proposed that light could not only be waves, but could also come in
packets of energy, as photons. As a photon hit an electron, it would provide it
with a certain amount of energy. If it was enough, the electron would be
kicked to the surface of the metal and be observed, but if it wasn't enough,
the electron would fall back to its atom. Therefore, photons with energy
below the threshold had no discernible effect and the number of photons
could only determine how many electrons were released, as only one photon
at a time was likely to hit an electron.

X-RAY
X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons that have been
accelerated through a potential difference of order 1 kV to 1 MV strikes
a metal target.

Electrons from a hot element are accelerated onto a target anode.

When the electrons are suddenly decelerated on impact, some of the
kinetic energy is converted into EM energy, as X-rays.

Less than 1 % of the energy supplied is converted into X-radiation during this
process. The rest is converted into the internal energy of the target
Properties of X-rays
X-rays travel in straight lines.
X-rays cannot be deflected by electric field or magnetic field.
X-rays have a high penetrating power.
Photographic film is blackened by X-rays.
Fluorescent materials glow when X-rays are directed at them.
Photoelectric emission can be produced by X-rays.
Ionization of a gas results when an X-ray beam is passed through it.
X-ray Spectra
Using crystal as a wavelength selector, the intensity of different wavelengths
of X-rays can be measured

 The graph shows the following features.

A continuous background of X-radiation in which the intensity
varies smoothly with wavelength. The background intensity
reaches a maximum value as the wavelength increases, then the
intensity falls at greater wavelengths.
Minimum wavelength which depends on the tube voltage. The
higher the voltage the smaller the value of the minimum
wavelength.
Sharp peaks of intensity occur at wavelengths unaffected by
change of tube voltage.
Minimum wavelength in the X-ray Spectra
When an electron hits the target its entire kinetic energy is converted
into a photon.
The work done on each electron when it is accelerated onto the anode
is eV.
Hence hf = eV and the maximum frequency

f max

eV
h

min

hc
eV

Characteristic X-ray Spectra

Different target materials give different wavelengths for the peaks in
the X-ray spectra.

 The peaks are due to electrons knock out inner-shell electrons from
target atoms.
When these inner-shell vacancies are refilled by free electrons, X-ray
photons are emitted.
The peaks for any target element define its characteristic X-ray
spectrum

Uses of X-rays
In medicine
To diagnose illness and for treatment.
In industry
To locate cracks in metals.
X-ray crystallography
To explore the structure of materials.

Attenuation of X-Rays By Matter

X-rays are attenuated as they pass through matter. That is, the intensity of an X-ray
beam decreases the farther it penetrates into matter. Basically, each interaction of an Xray photon with an atom of the material removes an X-ray from the beam, decreasing its
intensity.
The amount of decrease in intensity of the X-ray beam depends upon two factors:

The depth of penetration (x) or thickness

A characteristic of the material called its "absorption coefficient" (A).

The intensity decreases exponentially with the distance traveled, or

I = I0exp ( Ax)
where I0 is the initial X-ray beam intensity. Note that this exponential decay of photon
intensity applies in the optical region of the electromagnetic spectrum as well. In this
region, it is known as the BeerLambert law.
The quantity A is thelinear absorption
coefficient. The quantity usually
encountered in tabulations of material
properties is the mass absorption coefficient (). These two coefficients are related by
the density of the material () as = A/.

Atomic spectral line

In physics, one thinks of atomic spectral lines from two viewpoints.

An emission line is formed when an electron makes a transition from a

particular discrete energy level E2 of an atom, to a lower energy level E1, emitting a
photon of a particular energy and wavelength. A spectrum of many such photons will
show an emission spike at the wavelength associated with these photons.

An absorption line is formed when an electron makes a transition from a

lower, E1, to a higher discrete energy state, E2, with a photon being absorbed in the
process. These absorbed photons generally come from background continuum
radiation and a spectrum will show a drop in the continuum radiation at the
wavelength associated with the absorbed photons.

The two states must be bound states in which the electron is bound to the atom, so the
transition is sometimes referred to as a "boundbound" transition, as opposed to a
transition in which the electron is ejected out of the atom completely ("boundfree"
transition) into acontinuum state, leaving an ionized atom, and generating continuum
radiation.
A photon with an energy equal to the difference E2 E1 between the energy levels is
released or absorbed in the process. The frequency at which the spectral line occurs
is related to the photon energy by Bohr's frequency
condition E2 - E1 = hf where h denotes Planck's constant.

Energy levels of Hydrogen

Wave particle nature of matter

The theory was proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924 in his PhD thesis.[1]. The de
Broglie relations show that the wavelength is inversely proportional to
themomentum of a particle and is also called de Broglie wavelength. Also
the frequency of matter waves, as deduced by de Broglie, is directly proportional to the
particle's total energy, i.e. the sum of particle's Kinetic energy and rest energy.
At the end of the 19th century, light was thought to consist of waves of electromagnetic
fields which propagated according to Maxwells equations, while matter was thought to
consist of localized particles (See history of wave and particle viewpoints ). This division
was challenged when, in his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, Albert
Einstein postulated that light was emitted and absorbed as localized packets, or
quanta (now calledphotons). These quanta would have an energy
E=hf
As a wave light shows interference and diffractive properties.
As a particle it can be explained using the photoelectric effect.
Derivation for De Broglie Equation

De Broglie, in his research, decided to look at Einsteins research on

photons or particles of light and how it was possible for light to be
considered both a wave and a particle. Let us look at how there is a
relationship between them.
We get from Einstein (and Planck) two equations for energy:
E = h f (photoelectric effect) & E = mc2 (Einsteins Special
Relativity)
Now let us join the two equations:
E = h f = m c2

From there we get:

h f = p c (where p = mc, for the momentum of a photon)

h/p=c/f

Substituting what we know for wavelengths ( = v / f, or in this

case c / f ):

h / mc =
h/p =
De Broglie saw that this works perfectly for light waves, but does
it work for particles other than photons?
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION

De Broglies waves are not EM waves

He called them pilot or material waves

B depends on the momentum and not on physical size of

the particle

For a non-relativistic free particle:

Momentum is p = mv, here v is the speed of the particle

h
h
h

p mv
2 Em
For free particle total energy, E, is kinetic

energy
EK

p 2 mv 2

2m
2

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Thomson Model
He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the Plum
Pudding model.
Atoms were made from a positively charged substance with negatively
charged electrons scattered about, like raisins in a pudding.

Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

Rutherfords experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny positively

charged particles at a thin sheet of gold foil (2000 atoms thick)
Most of the positively charged bullets passed right through the
gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil without changing course at
all.
Some of the positively charged bullets, however, did bounce
away from the gold sheet as if they had hit something solid. He
knew that positive charges repel positive charges.

 This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were mostly
open space. Atoms were not a pudding filled with a positively charged
material.
Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, dense, positively
charged center that repelled his positively charged bullets.
He called the center of the atom the nucleus
The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole.
Rutherford reasoned that all of an atoms positively charged particles
were contained in the nucleus. The negatively charged particles were
scattered outside the nucleus around the atoms edge

Bohr Model

According to Bohrs atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits

around the nucleus, much like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy
levels, are located at certain distances from the nucleus

Disproof of the Pudding

Rutherford calculated from the results --1911

To reflect alpha the +ve charge (and most of the mass) has to be in a
very small diameter

About 10-15 m compared to 10-10 m for the diameter of the atom

Solar System Model

Positively charged nucleus at centre

Negatively charged electrons in orbit

Problem

Orbiting electrons are accelerating

Will give off energy

Will spiral in to centre

Model not stable

Subatomic Particles
Particle Symbol

Charge

Relative
Mass

Electron e-

1-

Proton

p+

Neutron

Atomic Symbols

Show the mass number and atomic number

Give the symbol of the element

mass number
23

atomic number 11

Na

sodium-23

Number of Electrons

An atom is neutral
The net charge is zero
Number of protons = Number of electrons
Atomic number = Number of electrons
Mass Number
an atom

- Counts the number of protons and neutrons in

Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons, but different
numbers of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element (same atomic number) with
different mass numbers
Isotopes of chlorine
35
37
Cl
Cl
17

17

chlorine - 35

chlorine 37

Example of an Average Atomic Mass

Cl-35 is about 75.5 % and Cl-37 about 24.5% of natural
chlorine.
35 x 75.5
=
26.4
100
35.5
37 x 24.5
=
9.07
100

Millikans oil drop experiment.

Millikan determined the size of the charge of an electron.

He showed that there was a smallest unit of charge or that charge
is quantised.
He did this by measuring the charge on numerous microscopic
charged oil drops.
All the charges were found to come in multiples of the basic unit:
2e, 3e or Ne where N is any whole number.
The charge of the electron
of charge detected.

e= 1.6*10-19

is the smallest amount

Nuclear Physics
Radiations:
1) a, b-, g are all emitted;

2) protons and neutrons are NOT emitted, except in the case of mass
numbers 5 and 9;
3) alphas are emitted only for mass numbers greater than 209, except in the
case of mass number 8.
Alpha () decay
example:

92

U238

90

Th234 + 2a4 +

Beta minus (b-) decay

example:

C14

N14 + -1b0

Charge and mass numbers are conserved

General Rules:
1) a emitted to reduce mass, only emitted if mass number is above 209

2) b- emitted to change neutron into proton, happens when there are too
many neutrons
3) g emitted to conserve energy in reaction, may accompany a or b.
Alpha Decay

Beta Decay

Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are not charged particles like a and b particles.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with high frequency.
When atoms decay by emitting a or b particles to form a new atom, the
nuclei of the new atom formed may still have too much energy to be
completely stable.
This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays (gamma ray photons have
energies of ~ 1 x 10-12 J).

Mass Defect & Binding Energy

By definition, mass of 6C12 is 12.00000 amu.

The mass of a proton (plus electron) is 1.00782 amu. (The mass of a
proton by itself is 1.00728 amu, and the mass of an electron is 0.00055
amu.)
The mass of a neutron is 1.008665 amu.
Note that 6*mproton+e + 6*mneutron > mC-12
The missing mass was converted into energy (E=mc2) and emitted
when the carbon-12 atom was made from the six protons and six
neutrons:
Dm = 6*mproton + 6*mneutron - mC-12 =
6(1.00782 amu) + 6(1.008665 amu) - 12.00000 amu
= .099 amu;
BE = m*c2 =
(0.099 amu)*(1.66x10-27kg/amu)*(3x108m/s)2
= 1.478x10-11J*(1 eV/1.6x10-19J) = 92.37 MeV
For Carbon-12 we have:
BE = Dm*c2 = 92.37 MeV
If we consider the binding energy per nucleon, we have for carbon12:
BE/nucleon = 92.37 MeV /12 = 7.70 MeV/nucleon
The largest BE/nucleon happens for the stable isotopes of iron
(about 8.8 MeV/nucleon).

Fission and fusion

Rate of decay
From experiment, we find that the amount of decay of a radioactive material
depends only on two things: the amount of radioactive material and the
type of radioactive material (the particular isotope).
The rate of decay does NOT depend on temperature, pressure, chemical
composition, etc.
Mathematically, then, we have:
dN/dt = -*N
where is a constant that depends on the particular isotope, N is the
number of radioactive isotopes present, and the minus sign comes from the
fact that dN/dt is DECREASING rather than growing.
We can solve this differential equation for N(t): dN/dt = -N , or dN/N =
-dt , or log (N/No) = - t , or N(t) = No e-t .
Further, if we define activity, A, as
A = -dN/dt then A = N = Noe-lt = Aoe-t ;
which means that the activity decreases exponentially with time also.
Half Life
N(t) = No e-lt The number of radioactive atoms does decrease with time.
But is there a definite time in which the number decreases by half,
regardless of what the beginning number is? YES:
N(T=half life) = No/2 = Noe-T , or 1/2 = e-T
or -T = ln(1/2) = ln(1) ln(2) = 0 - ln(2), or T(half life) = ln(2) / .
Review:

N(t) = No e-t
A = lN = Aoe-t
T(half life) = ln(2) / .

We can find T(half life) if we can wait for N (or A) to decrease by half.
We can find l by measuring N and A.
If we know either l or T(half life), we can find the other.

Log graph

Example of carbon dating:

The present day ratio of C-14 to C-12 in the atmosphere is 1.3x10-12 . The
half-life of C-14 is 5,730 years. What is the activity of a 1 gm sample of
carbon from a living plant?
A = N = [ln(2)/5730 years]*[6x1023 atoms/mole * 1mole/12 grams * 1
gram]*[1.3x10-12 ] = 7.86x106/yr = .249/sec = 15.0/min
Thus, for one gram of carbon, Ao = 15.0/min .
If a 1 gram carbon sample from a dead plant has an activity of 9.0/min, then
using:
A = Aoe-t ,
we have 9.0/min = 15.0/min * e-(ln2/5730yrs)t , or
or
t = 5730 years * ln(15/9) / ln(2) = 4,200 years

-(ln2/5730 yrs)*t = ln(9/15) ,