LESSON

Our Dynamic Climate

Guiding Question: What factors determine Earths climate?

Describe factors that affect how the sun warms

Earth.
Discuss the role of wind patterns in determining
climate.
Explain how the oceans affect climate.
Describe how climate is affected by topography,
volcanoes, regional vegetation, and periodic
changes in Earths orbit.

16.1 LESSON PLAN PREVIEW

Differentiated Instruction
ELLs complete cloze prompts
to better understand lesson
concepts.
Inquiry Students model thermohaline circulation.
Real World Students identify topographical features
that may influence their local
climate.

16.1 RESOURCES
Modeling Lab, Effects of Greenhouse
Gases Lesson 16.1 Worksheets
Lesson 16.1 Assessment Chapter 16
Overview Presentation
GUIDING QUESTION
FOCUS Make a cluster diagram on
the board. Write the phrase
Factors That Determine Climate in
the center of the cluster diagram.
Have students identify factors that
they think affect Earths climate
and add these factors to the cluster
diagram. As students read the lesson, ask them to add to or revise the
cluster diagram.

484 Lesson 1

Reading Strategy Before you read, preview Figure 1.

Write two questions about the process shown in the illustration. As you read, write answers to the questions.
Vocabulary greenhouse effect, greenhouse gas,
thermohaline circulation, El Nio, topography

OF ALL THE ENVIRONMENTAL issues, global climate change

may be the one that will have the greatest impact on your future. Recall
that while weather refers to the daily changes in temperature, precipitation, air pressure, and so forth, climate is an areas average weather conditions over a long period. To understand why Earths climate is changing,
you first need to know what determines climate. Three factors have more
influence on Earths climate than all others combinedthe sun, global
wind patterns, and the oceans.

Energy From the Sun

The heating of Earths atmosphere by the sun is influenced by
the greenhouse effect, latitude, and sunspot cycles.
The sun is the source of the energy that determines weather and climate
on Earth. Energy from the sun is transferred to Earth by means of radiation. About 30 percent of this incoming radiation is reflected back into
space when it strikes land, water, or clouds. This reflected radiation is lost
to space and does not contribute to the heating of Earth. The rest of the
incoming solar radiation is not reflected. This radiation may be absorbed
by Earth and the atmosphere and converted to heat.

The Greenhouse Effect in the Atmosphere If Earth did not have

an atmosphere, most of the energy from the sun would be reflected back
into space. The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which certain
gases in the atmosphere keep heat near Earth and prevent it from radiating into space. The gases that do this are called greenhouse gases. The
major greenhouse gases are water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Other greenhouse gases include tropospheric ozone (O3), nitrous oxide
(N2O), and methane (CH4).
The term greenhouse effect is a bit misleading. Greenhouses used
for plants hold heat in place by preventing warm air from escaping. In
contrast, greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere do not trap air or
anything else. Instead, they absorb heat and release it slowly.

3 Some heat is
radiated into space.

FIGURE 1 Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases, such as water vapor
and carbon dioxide, trap some of the
heat that radiates from Earths surface.
Without the greenhouse effect, living
things could not survive.

1 Suns energy
reaches Earth.

2 Earths surface
is heated.
4 Some radiated heat
is absorbed by greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.

If greenhouse gases keep heat in the atmosphere,

why dont they also block solar energy from getting to Earth? The answer
lies in what happens to solar energy when it reaches Earth. Greenhouse
gases do not stop sunlight from getting through. However, after sunlight
hits the surface of Earth, much of its energy is converted to heat. Much
of this heat radiates back into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb
some of the heat radiated from Earths surface. Figure 1 shows how the
greenhouse effect works.
Greenhouse gases prevent some heat from radiating into space as
rapidly as it otherwise would. They release the heat slowly, and this slow
release of heat warms the troposphere.

Sunlight and Heat

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that is generally beneficial to living things. Greenhouse gases
have been present in our atmosphere for billions of years. Without them,
life on Earth would be impossible because the surface would be too cold.
However, as you will learn, human activities are adding greenhouse gases
to the atmosphere and increasing the greenhouse effect.

No Life Without Greenhouse Gases

BIG QUESTION
What are the causes and consequences of a warming Earth?
Self-Knowledge Students may have
already heard about the greenhouse
effect and greenhouse gases in the
context of global warming from the
media and other sources. Because
of this, they may assume that the
greenhouse effect is completely
caused by humans and is always
harmful to the environment. Reinforce that the greenhouse effect is
not only a natural process, but a necessary one to support life on Earth.
Have pairs discuss why greenhouse
gases and the greenhouse effect are
necessary for life. Then, have a class
discussion to summarize this topic.

The Effect of Latitude Latitude has a significant effect on climate.

Latitude is a measurement of a places distance from the equator. The

equator is located at 0 latitude. The farther you move from the equator,
the greater the number of a places latitude. For example, the latitude of
Charlotte, North Carolina, is 35 N. In contrast, Anchorage, Alaska, is
located at 61 N latitude, indicating that Anchorage is farther from the
equator than Charlotte is. The N in the latitude numbers indicates that
both Charlotte and Alaska are north of the equator. An S would indicate
that a place is south of the equator. In general, the farther a place is from
the equator, the cooler its climate. Areas close to the equator are generally
warm.
Global Climate Change 485

Temperate
Most
direct

Tropical

Less direct

23.5 N

23.5 S

Polar

90 S

66.5 N

Temperate

66.5 S

FIGURE 2 Climate Zones The suns

rays hit different locations on Earth at
different angles. As a result, different
parts of Earth have different climates.

The relationship between climate and latitude happens because the suns radiation strikes regions of Earth
at different angles. The difference in angles causes unequal heating
on Earth. You can see this in Figure 2. Notice that there are three
general climate regions: tropical, temperate, and polar.

Unequal Heating

90 N

Polar

Less direct

Tropical areas are generally hot.

That is because, all year round, the suns rays hit the equator most
directly compared to other parts of Earth. Because of the angle at
which the rays strike the polar areas, the energy that polar regions
receive is spread out over a larger area than the energy received
by regions near the equator. Therefore, polar regions are generally
colder than other areas.

The Tropics and the Poles

Regions between the poles and the

equator are in temperate climate zones. Temperate zones generally have
climates that are cool during some parts of the year and warm in others.

The Temperate Climate Zones

The seasons change because, as Earth orbits the

sun, the angle at which the suns rays strike parts of Earth changes. In the
Northern Hemisphere in June, the northern end of Earths axis is tilted
toward the sun, and the Northern Hemisphere experiences summer. In
December, the northern end of Earths axis is tilted away from the sun. It
is then winter in the Northern Hemisphere.

Changing Seasons

Does Latitude Affect the Suns Rays?

1 2
5 6 Begin
7 by
8 taping
9 a strip of paper to a
1 Work
2 with
3 4a partner.

globe from the North Pole to slightly below the equator.

Label the top part North
6 into
7 three
8 parts.
9
2 Divide
3 4 the 5paper
Pole, the middle part mid-latitudes, and the bottom
1 part
2 3 4
equator.
roll to the light end of a flash5 end
6 of7a toilet-paper
8 9
3 Tape
4 the
light and turn the flashlight on. The flashlight represents
the sun. Hold the flashlight about 30 cm (12 in.) from the
equator. On the paper strip, your partner should draw lines
indicating the area the light shines on.

486 Lesson 1

the flashlight
up and aim the beam
5 6
7 8 9
4 Move

at the mid-latitudes. Keep the flashlight

horizontal. Have your partner mark the
lighted area.
5 Repeat
6 7Step
8 4, but
9 shine the light on the
North Pole area of the strip.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Observe What shape was the lighted area
when you pointed the flashlight at the
equator?
2. Compare and Contrast How did the size
and shape of the lighted area change when
you moved the flashlight beam to the midlatitudes and the North Pole?
3. Relate Cause and Effect Why did the
shape of the lighted area change as you
moved the flashlight?
4. Use Models How does this activity show
why areas near the equator are warmer
than areas at the poles?

Sunspot Cycles The sun varies slightly in the amount of radiation it

emits, over both short and long periods. There is, for example, a relationship between sunspots and radiation emitted. A sunspot is a dark spot on
the surface of the sun. The more sunspots present on the surface of the
sun, the more energy the sun gives off. The number of sunspots rises and
falls in cycles that last about 11 years. Although sunspot cycles have some
effect on global climate, scientists think that they do not have a major,
long-term effect.
Reading
Checkpoint

What accounts for the change in seasons in temperate zones?

Wind Patterns in the Atmosphere

Winds distribute heat and moisture globally.
Recall that if air becomes warm, it usually rises. In contrast, if air becomes
cool, it sinks. Rising warm air and sinking cool air form convection currents. Convection currents that result from unequal heating produce air
currents, or winds. Winds transport both heat and moisture, affecting
both temperature and precipitation in the regions they pass over.

ANSWERS

Quick Lab
1. circle
2. The lighted area became larger
and more elongated.
3. The angle at which the light rays
hit the globe changed.
4. Like the light from the flashlight,
the suns rays are more concentrated at the equator and more spread
out at the poles, so areas near the
equator are warmer than areas at
the poles.
Reading Checkpoint The changing
angle at which the suns rays strike
Earth as Earth orbits around the sun

Winds and Heat Because the regions near the equator are warm, air

rises above them. In contrast, the North and South poles are cold, and air
moves downward, toward Earths surface. The rising of air in equatorial
regions and the sinking of air in polar regions help create global wind patterns, called prevailing winds, shown in Figure 3. The prevailing winds
move huge air masses around the surface of Earth. Warm air moves away
from the equator and toward the poles, and cold air moves in the opposite
direction.

Winds and Moisture Moisture in the atmosphere occurs in the form

of water vapor, which is water in the form of a gas. In the water cycle,
water vapor enters the atmosphere through evaporation from Earths surface from lakes, oceans, and soil. Plants also release water vapor into the
atmosphere. In general, warm air can carry more water vapor than cooler
air can. When warm, moist air is cooled, the water vapor condenses to
form clouds. Rain, snow, or other forms of precipitation
may then fall from the clouds.
Winds move moisture from one location to another.
For example, when winds move over a large body of
water, such as a lake or ocean, they pick up water vapor.
The winds may then carry the water vapor a long distance
over land, where it falls as precipitation.

60 N

30 N

Westerlies
Northeast trade winds

EQUATOR

Southeast trade winds

FIGURE 3 Prevailing Winds Global wind currents

show patterns related to latitude. Trade winds between
the equator and 30 latitude blow westward, whereas
westerlies between 30 and 60 latitude blow eastward.
Because of Earths rotation, in general winds blow from
east to west near the equator and from west to east over
temperate zones.

Westerlies

30 S

60 S

Global Climate Change 487

The Oceans and Climate

Oceans affect climate by transporting heat and absorbing
carbon dioxide.
Like winds, ocean currents transport heat over long distances. In addition, ocean water absorbs carbon dioxide, and this has a cooling effect.

Ocean Circulation Ocean water exchanges huge amounts of heat

with the atmosphere, and ocean currents move heat energy from place to
place. A worldwide system of ocean currents is caused by a combination
of unequal heating of water and unequal salinity (salt concentration).
Cool water generally has a greater density
than warm water. Saltier water is denser than water with a lower salinity.
Therefore, warmer, less salty water moves along the surface of the ocean,
and colder, saltier water moves deep beneath the oceans surface. This pattern is called the thermohaline circulation. As part of this pattern, cooler,
saltier water at the poles sinks, and warmer, less salty water from the
equator moves to take the place of the cooler water. In the Gulf Stream in
the Atlantic Ocean, warm surface water flows northward from the equator. The warm water keeps Europe warmer than it would otherwise be.

Thermohaline Circulation

The interactions between ocean and atmosphere

called El Nio and La Nia affect climate. El Nio is a change in air
pressure, wind patterns, ocean temperature, and ocean circulation in the
Pacific Ocean. Normally, prevailing winds blow from east to west along
the equator. The winds help move warm surface waters westward. During
El Nio, however, equatorial winds weaken, and the surface water in the
eastern Pacific Ocean becomes warmer than usual. Figure 4 diagrams this
pattern. El Nio has a major effect on weather worldwide. For example, it
causes rainstorms and floods in areas that are usually dry, such as southern California. The pattern known as La Nia is the opposite of El Nio.
During La Nia, temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean are colder
than average. Like El Nio, La Nia disrupts weather worldwide.

El Nio and La Nia

FIGURE 4 El Nio (a) Normally,

winds push warm waters toward the
western Pacific. (b) In contrast, under El
Nio conditions, the winds weaken and
the warm water flows back across the
Pacific toward South America. El Nio
changes precipitation patterns all over
the world.

Convec
t

Increa

ion loo

sed co

EQUATOR

PACIFIC
OCEAN

Equator

Equator

Winds

Indonesia

Move
of wa ment
rm w
Upw
ater
elling
of deep
, cold water

(a) Normal conditions

Winds

Indonesia

Peru

Move
of wa ment
rm w
Deep
ater
, cold
water
stays b
elow surface.

(b) El Nio conditions

Adapted from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Tropical Atmospheric Ocean Project.

488 Lesson 1

nvectio
n

Winds

Peru

Ocean Absorption of Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide moves

back and forth between the atmosphere and ocean water. Oceans can
hold 50 times more carbon dioxide than is found in the atmosphere.
Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, the absorption of carbon dioxide by the ocean has a cooling effect on the atmosphere. However, the
oceans absorb carbon dioxide more slowly than it is being added to the
atmosphere. Therefore, carbon absorption by the oceans is slowing global
warming but not preventing it.

Other Factors That Affect Climate

Global climate may be affected by factors such as topography,
volcanic eruptions, regional vegetation, and changes in Earths orbit.
Other factors besides the sun, the atmosphere, and the oceans affect climate. Four of these factors are topography, volcanoes, regional distribution of vegetation, and changes in Earths path around the sun.

Topography A regions topography describes the surface character-

istics of the area, including its elevation and features such as mountains,
rivers, and lakes. The characteristics of a regions topography affect its
climate. Two of these are altitude and the presence of mountain ranges.

Mount Cayambe in South America is located right on the

equator. However, its peak is always covered with snow, as are the tops
of many high mountains near the equator. In general, the greater the
altitude, or elevation, the cooler the air temperature will be. That is why
the kinds of plants at the bottom of mountains are usually not the same
varieties as those found higher up.

Altitude

As winds pass over mountains, the rising air cools

and clouds often form. Then, precipitation may fall from those clouds. By
the time the air has moved to the other side of the mountains, however, it
has usually lost much of its moisture. In general, precipitation falls on the
windward side of mountain ranges, which is the side that wind first passes
over. The leeward side of a mountain range, or the downwind side, gets
relatively little precipitation.

Mountain Ranges

Reading
Checkpoint

What is topography?

ANSWERS

Reading Checkpoint The surface

characteristics of a region

FIGURE 5 Snow-Covered Mountain

Even though Mount Cayambe is on the
equator, its peak is always covered with
snow.
Global Climate Change 489

Volcanoes An erupting volcano may expel huge

amounts of gases and particles, as Figure 6 shows.

Winds can carry these materials to areas that are a
long way from the volcano. If the eruption is large
enough, the gases and particles may block some sunlight from entering Earths atmosphere. This blocking
of sunlight may, in turn, cool the atmosphere. The
cooling is temporary, however, because the volcanic
materials remain in the atmosphere for a limited
time.

Regional Vegetation Plant life, or vegetation,

FIGURE 6 Volcanoes and Climate

A volcano erupts in New Guinea.
Volcanoes spew out materials that may
prevent some sunlight from entering
Earths atmosphere.

can influence climate when it covers a large area. For

example, the abundant vegetation of the Amazon
rain forest promotes cloud formation and rainfall. In
addition, plants affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
because they use carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis. Huge
forests take in an especially large amount of carbon dioxide. This intake
decreases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However,
when large sections of forests are cut down, the loss of trees means that
the carbon dioxide they would have used remains in the atmosphere.
Therefore, the destruction of forests in one area can increase the temperature of the atmosphere worldwide.

Changes in Earths Orbit Evidence indicates that during Earths his-

ANSWERS

Lesson 1 Assessment For answers

to the Lesson 1 Assessment, see page
A25 at the back of the book.

tory climate has changed many times. For example, in the last three million years, Earth has gone through a series of ice ages. During these ice
ages, huge glaciers covered large parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Many
large mammals that are now extinct, such as woolly mammoths, survived
in the frigid climate.
One cause of these climate changes is the periodic variation in Earths
movement and position in space in relation to the sun. Minor changes in
Earths orbit, and in the tilt of Earths axis, occur in regular cycles. These
cyclic changes affect the distribution of solar radiation over Earths surface. This change in the distribution of sunlight can affect climate. Climate changes caused by these variations may last for thousands of years.

1
1. Relate Cause and Effect Why does a regions latitude affect its climate? In your answer, mention the
equator, the poles, and the regions in between the
equator and the poles.
2. Compare and Contrast How is the behavior of
warm air different from that of cold air? Relate this
difference to global wind patterns.
3. Explain What happens during El Nio?

490 Lesson 1

4. Apply Concepts What is the relationship between

altitude and climate? How does this account for the
differences in ecosystems at the base of a mountain
and at its peak?
5. Explore the BIGQUESTION Imagine that you have
taken a trip, via spaceship, to a planet that has very
little atmosphere, and therefore very little greenhouse effect. Describe what the planets climate
might be like, and how it would probably be different from Earths climate.