Controlling With SIMATIC Prac PDF

SIEMENSjon of the Deutsche Bibliothek “The Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the German national bibliography; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Intemet at htip:/dnb.ddb.de. ‘The author, translator and publisher have taken great care with all texts and illustrations in this book. Nevertheless, errors can never be completely avoided. ‘The publisher, author and translator accept no liability, regardless of legal basi Designations used in this book may be trademarks whose use by third parties for their own purposes coutd violate the rights of the owners. www publicis-erlangen.de/books. ISBN 3-89578-255-6 Editor: Siemens Aktiengesellschaft, Berlin and Munich ‘Translator: Ronald Hume; Office: Monika First (BDU), Germany Publisher: Publicis Corporate Publishing, Erlangen © 2005 by Publicis KommunikationsAgentur GmbH, GWA, Erlangen This publication and all parts thereof are protected bry copyright Any use of it outside the strict provisions of the copyright law without the consent Of the publisher is forbidden and will incur penalties. This applies particularly to reproduction, translation, microfilming or other processing. and to storage or processing in electronic systems. It also applies to the use of individual illustrations or extracts from the text, Printed in GermanyContents Controllers and their Names . . . Designation According to Application and Design Designation Acconding to Parameter Components 16 Designation According to Controlled Variable _. 19 Designation According to Control Structure .. 21 Designation According to Controlted Process . 2 Designation According to Setpoint Type and Source . 22 Symbols Used 22.22.2222... 08 Controllers and their Signals... 23 Controller Input Signals .. Controller Output Signals Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC S7_. Summary of SIMATIC Control Products. Connection System Quantity Framework and Dynamic Performance of a Control Loop Quality Criteria and Accuracy of a Loop Control Safety Requirements Operation and Visualization . Complexity and Flexibility Tuning Aid: PID Self-Tuner . Controllers with Integral Tuning Aid . Advantages of Software Controllers and FMs Actuators and Sensors for a Control System... Influence of Final Control Elements on Control System . ‘Contactors, Relays and Semiconductor Relays... Dampers and Butterfly Valves ....... Variable-speed Pumps and Motors . Dosing Actuators ........ Influence of Measurement Technique on Control System Signals from Directly Connected Thermocouples . . 55 Signals from Directly Connected Resistance Thermometers. 57Contents 3.2.3 Standard Signals (0...10 V, 4...20 mA or 0...20 mA) 3.2.4 Measuring Principle of Analog Acquisition 60 3.2.5 Resolution, Accuracy and Repeatability’ 7 ‘ 62 9.3 -Connection of Actuatort and Sensors to the PLC a 59 4 Representation of Loop Controls _. 4.1 Flowcharts According to DIN 28004 re 4.2 Planning Documents According to DIN 19227, Part .ssssessssecseseees OB 4.3 Controllers in the Configuration GUI . . 10 4.3.1 Sofiware Controls in STL Text Representation 70 4.3.2 Modular Controls in CFC Representation . 1 4.3.3 Parameterization of Compact Loop Controls . B 4.3.4 Configur of PID Controllers in the $7-200 . B Configuration of PI Controllers in the LOGO! Logic Module. 44 Software Controllers in the User Interface. a 66, 66, Operation of Control FMs_........ Operation of LOGO! Logic Module . Operation of SIPART Controllers . Operating Modes SL Summary of Operating Modes ......escsceeeeeeeeceerssneveeeeeveees 1B 3.2.1 _Bumpless Manual/Automatic Switchover... 0.0...) ssessssees sees 2.2 Bumpless Automatic/Manual Switchover _. Manual/Automatic Switchover not Bumpless Automatic/Manual Switchover not Bumpless Automatic/Safety Manipulated Variable Switchover . SPC or DDC/Safety Manipulated Variable Switchover Starting of (Software) Controller Following Restar/Cold Restart of CPU_. Starting of Control Loop not Bumpless Starting of Control Loop Bumpless _ 83 Operating Mode Following Controller OFF/ON . Bt Straight-forward Control of a Loop . 85 Control with Feedback of a Loop . 86 Safety Modes 86 SPC Backup . . 86 DDC Backup _- . 86 Safety Setpoint. . 88 Safety Manipulated Variable 88 Funetions of a Process Controller ............26+. ee ee 89 Elementary Functions of the Setpoint Branch Internal Assignment of Setpoit External Assignment of SetpointContents Setpoint Ramp .. Setpoint Limiting ...... Elementary Functions of the Actual Value Branch Filter .. Standardization Linearization. * Ketal-valie: Momivorg ssesieeinisesisveceiGases Elementary Functions for Generation of Error Signal Response Threshold v.csssscseeccserscseerneers Ratio Generation in a Ratio Controller Elementary Functions of the Algorithm Standard P] or PID Algorithm with D Component in the Forward Branch . Pl or PLD Algorithm with D Component in the Feedback Branch PI Algorithm with D Component in the Disturbance Variable Bbranch . P Algorithms . Elementary Functions of Signal Output . Limiting of Manipulated Variable Elementary Functions of Binary Signal Generation Limiting of Manual Manipulated Variable . 9 7 — Control Structures. csicesansicnavaavnvewuvenneasnmnaneevewesnnens 98 WW Disturbance Variable Feedforward ...... 6.606. cee ee ee eee eee renee «ee 1.2___Beedforward Control 100 73 Ratio Control 24 Cascade Control 7.5 Split Range Control... 7.6 Secondary Variable Control_. 7.7 __Alte mating of Override Control Negative Feedback . Positive Feedback 82.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 83 84 8&5 Model-based Predictive Control Calling of Software Controllers in the PLC... . Time Interrupt Levels and Sampling'Times .......0600020e00000 6 Calls in SIMATIC TIA . .. Division of Cyelic and Interrupt-driven Program Sections . ‘Clock Distribution and Sampling Times of the Function Elemen: Interval Division with the LP_SCHED Block Structure of a Modular Control... 045555 Calls in $7-200 .., Calls in LOGO ... Calls in SIMATIC PCSTContents. 9 Commissioning of Process Controllers ............. Dib Ses See ance ercrn 9.1.1 Installation and Checking of the Signal Connections Default Values of Control Parameters Linearization of Process Values... Adjustment of the Pulse Generator Stages Adjustment of a Caseade Controller... : Recording of the Step-forced Response of the Process Preparation Checklist . 2 settee, * Initial Recording ........ Systems with Pure Delay Response... “Temperature Systems with Active Heating und Passive Cooling “Temperature Systems with Active Heating and Active Cooling . . Adjustment Rules ~ Selection, its and Evaluation . ‘ ‘Adjustment of the Sampling Time for Software Controls Adjustment According to Chien/Hrones/Reswick as Adjustment Rules for Systems with Dead Times Accoriing 10 Ziegler/Nichols Adjustment Rules According to Rate of Rise 3 Adjustment Rules for Empirical Post-Optimization Coaveision from S805 9.5 Commissioning with PID Self-Tuner 145 96 PCS7PID-Tuner . oe wee LAT 9.7 Commissioning ofS $7-200 with the Integral Autotuner ..................- 150, 10 Examples 000 eevee ISI METI ec ee ND, Standards, Directives, Reports and Links ............... 153 Abbreviations .. ves 154 Subject Index 581 Introduction and Overview 1.1 Processes and their Behavior A process is considered to be an enclosed system in which material, energy and/or information is converted and/or transported, Mastering of the processes and process values in the industrial environment is the main application of control devices or equipment. These comprise the totality of equipment required for the control function, including software, with at least one sensor for measuring the controlled variable, a comparator for generating the sys- tion, and an arithmetic circuit for calculation of a manipulated variable from the n which then acts on the process to be controlled. Control devices are usually system de individual control units or software controllers, and are used in machine construction to control temperature, pressure, flow, quantity, dosing, level, orientation, position, speed, distance and ~ in process engineering - also to control concentration, conductivity, viscosity, density, chemical composition, ete. This wide field of applications is increased even further in that there arc different production requirements for almost every control of the above-mentioned processes, making classification of the task area almost impossible. A main differentiation is made between continuous Processes and discontinuous production processes (batch processes, recipe procedures etc.), as well as discrete processes (one-off processes). Almost every control of a specific physical variable exhibits its own special problem which is frequently dependent on the actuator and sensor systems used. Sensor systems are under stood to be the techniques with which the measured values can be recorded. The sensor itself is a miniature unit provided with a solid-state (amplifier) circuit. The book “Handbuch der Prozessautomatisicrung” (Manual of Process Automation) [4] provides a detailed overview table of the market and also a comprehensive description of the mode of operation and the various procedures used by actuator and sensor systems in process automation, The special features and differences of the various controlled systems will be described briefly below. Temperature Mastering of controlled systems for temperature is often still unjustly considered to belong to the “simple” control tasks. The systems are usually non-symmetrical (different response when heating up and cooling down), and possess a non-linear response due to the actuator sensors used. This results in time-consurning commissioning because of the long heating-up and cooling-down times and the influencing of adjacent temperature control systems by means of thermal compensation, Such a response for the controlled system complicates the optimization and adjustment of the controllers ~ the part of the control equipment compris- ing a constructional unit or software function containing at least the comparator and the arithmetic circuit. The latter determines the transmission response of the control equipment. Although temperature controls belong to the slow control systems, optimization of complex temperature control systems is extremely difficult, and extemal optimization tools seldom1 Introduction and Overview provide usable results in practice. Nevertheless, most thermal processes for plant and machine construction are provided with compact controllers or software-based control equipment, not least for cost reasons, Resistance thermometers, thermocouples and pyrometers are used to measure the temperatures to be controlled. Pressure Pressure controls are generally considered as fast controls which may even reach the (speed) Jimits of compact controllers or software-based control equipment. A differentiation is made between pressure and differential pressure measuring procedures. In process engineering, static pressure measuring systems are mainly used in liquid and gas- cous media, Controlled systems for pressure are usually pure delay systems of low order, and therefore easy to optimize. Optimization tools generally provide exceptionally good results, Tecan become critical for a pressure controller if shut-off mechanisms in a pipeline system can (or have to) react rapidly, The compensation of sudden increases in pressure places very high demands on the dynamic performance of the controller and its actuator, Appropriate constructive measures can help in this case to avoid high expenditure on the electronics side. Pressure measurements are carried out using inductive, piezoresistive or capacitive procedures with strain gauges or resonance wire sensors. Flow and quantity Flow controls and quantity controls are extremely significant in process engineering plants, and their control response in practice is similar to pressure control, although the mastering of dead times is an additional difficulty, A prerequisite for good flow and quantity control is a high-quality sensor system insensitive (o interference. When controlling the flow of liq- vids, problems frequently occur in practice with the sensors, although these are not directly recognized as such and are assigned to the controller by mistake. The difference between measured signals proportional to quantity or flow is to be found in consideration of the time unit. Flow and quantity are measured using differential pressure, positive displacement, flow, rot- ameter, electromagnetic, Coriolis and ultrasonic flow procedures. Modem flow and quantity measuring units are frequently designed as autonomous field devices equipped with their own arithmetic unit, and contain a convenient control panel for task-specific standardization of the measured signal as well as local display of the measured value. Dosing Dosing is considered as the apportioning or division of specific quantities. In process engineering, dasing is often associated with recipes. Batch or continuous operations are possible. According to the definition of a closed-loop control function, dosing is control of the material flow and therefore very similar to pressure or quantity control. With a dosing control, the control action is the addition of liquid or solid components to a batch or continuous proce: This task is handled by dosing pumps, belt scales, or rotary, vibration or worm dosing units, The pressure and quantity sensors mentioned above can be used to measure the controlled quantity.1.1 Processes and theit Behavior Level Level controls in process engineering in their plain form are often considered as easy to mas ter, and can be readily set using P(D) controllers. In practice, increased demands may be placed on the drafting of control concepts for such processes because a number of distur bance variables may have to be considered. Floats, positive displacement, base pressure, capacitive and conductive measurements are possible to measure levels, as well as runtime and radiometric meters, limit transducers and weight, Orientation, position, speed and distance Orientation, position, speed and distance are already limiting cases for some standard control units. Pure orientation control in a system of high dynamic performance is frequently impossible to implement for speed reasons. Exceptions are slower positioning tasks such as dancer controls, roller positioning control, etc. A differentiation is made between measurement of orientation, position, speed and distance, and these are recorded using incremental shaft-angle encoders, SSI encoders and pulse encoders by means of incremental/decremental counting, Chemical variables The control of chemical variables is frequently associated with concentration controls such as pH control, oxygen control and other biochemical variables, some of which are determined using complex analytical procedures. Thermal coupling such as the temperature control of an exothermic reaction or temperature controls in columns frequently plays an important role in such biochemical processes, These comtrols can be considered as complex topics for process engineering since the processes are frequently non-linear, time-variant, associated with a dead time, and/or non-symmetrical. Extremely powerful computer systems are required in order to produce an ideal controller draft for such processes, The planning and commissioning of such individual systems can be very complex, For this reason, the use of compact controllers or software-based control equipment for such processes is widely encountered in industry despite the problems described above. The requirements for commissioning and optimization must not be under- estimated here when planning, Control structures in the software of freely-programmable controllers or standard control units usually provide sufficient intervention possibilities for overriding or influencing the closed-loop controller in its interaction with a host PLC. A fuzzy software solution is an extremely flexible instrument for control engineers with which such host control networks can be produced and adjusted. ‘The following can be referred to as examples of the required analyses: measurement of pH, oxygen, moisture, viscosity, analysis of flue gas, gas warning Sensors, as well as measurements using photometry, gas chromatography, mass spectrometry etc.1 Introduction and Overview 1.2 Controllers and their Names Controllers — in the sense of automatic control systems — are functional elements which act on a physical variable by means of an actuator depending on an analyzed process variable (measured using a sensor) in a closed, analog circuit with exact mathematical definitions. This is shown in Fig. 1.1. rc Controtier 7 Sensor ‘Algorithm ‘Actuator t + Figure 1 Basie Now of signals inacootroller Process In practice, controllers not only consist of a mathemat contain a number of control functions for operation, monitoring, safety functions and linking possibilities in a controller network. All controllers described below (PID controllers) can be basically divided into: recording of the input signals, generation of the setpoint, generation of the error signal, algorithm (, 1, D, Z components) and generation of the output signal, Each part of a controller has a number of different, optional functions whose implementation or activation significantly influences the controller response and also defines the name or category of the many different types of controll In addition to: the above-mentioned possibilities for naming or classifying controllers and control equipment according to their parameter settings, there are many other possibilities for division and naming, This wide range of terms, often with equivalent meanings, certainly contributes to the supposed complexity of the topic “Control engineering”. ‘These terms are listed in the DIN 19225 standard of 1981 “Designation and assignment of controllers". The word “controller” can be preceded by functions (e.g. temperature controller, dancer controller, process controller, PI controller, two-step controller, slave controller, state space controller etc.), the result being an almost incalculable number of terms which are frequently confused even by experts. Only a selection of controller examples and their assignments will be described below. 1.2.1. Designation According to Application and Design Industrial controller ‘The term Industrial controller is frequently used to identify a single control unit in machine or small plant construction, where these units are frequently used to control temperature, pressure or level. Controllers of this type are characterized by their rugged and application- tailored process interface (analog and binary) for recording measured values and for output of a manipulated variable, a separate microprocessor controller with own operator panel, and1.2 Controllers and their Names an interface to a host control system. Industrial controllers are often fitted in control desks or control cabinet doors, i.e. close to the machine. Process controllers Process controllers have a design similar to the industrial controllers, with rugged, universal and expandable process interfaces for recording measured values and for output of a manipulated variable, own optimization functions, a separate microprocessor controller with own operator panel, and an interface to a host system. In addition, process controllers have control engineering functions which permit the control of all important proces trollers are frequently installed in control panels, and possess quite complicated communication to host process control systems. Universal controllers Universal controllers are process controllers in the form of plug-in cards fitted in a programmable control system (SIMATIC S7/C7/PCS7/WinAC) or in a PROFIBUS system. The omission of a separate operator panel means that the controller operation can be integrated flexibly and universally into the GUI of the existing process control level or process visualization. Just like process controllers, the universal controllers have their own rugged and universal process interfaces (analog and binary) for recording measured values and for output of a manipulated variable, and own optimization functions. Communication with the host control system is via the backplane bus or the PROFIBUS. Special or sector coniratiers Special controllers are process controllers which have been developed and optimized for a particular sector. For example, controllers are available for the plastics processing industry or for building automation which are designed as individual units or complete, compact microcomputer systems with special controller algorithms, Additional open-loop control and intervention functions then satisfy the specific demands far better than universal controllers or “simple” process controllers. There is a whole range of special developments in the SIMATIC spectrum which has resulted in a large number of special controllers. Software controtlers All sofware controllers in the SIMATIC spectrum are also process controllers or universal controllers since they are available for universal use, can be expanded by existing or individually generated supplementary functions, and can be configured into universal controllers using the wide range of SIMATIC S7 VO modules and field devices. Together with the visualization facilities provided by SIMATIC. they exceed the flexibility of process controllers. However, the increased overhead for configuration and commi ming must be remembered. Whereas all hardware controllers (industrial controllers, process controllers and universal controllers) are sutonomous control units and therefore frequently used in plants with high fault tolerance demands, software controllers are inevitably linked to the PLC and can no. Jonger carry out their function in the event of a PLC failure or when this is in the STOP status (see Table 1.1). For this reason, mixed controller configurations (host software control structures with subordinate hardware backup controtlers) are being increasingly used in control plants. In tum, the software control products can be divided into three groups: 151 Introduction and Overview ‘Table 1.1 Summary of types of control products and their typical representatives in SIMATIC ‘Controller Industrial Process Universal ‘Temperature controller controller controller controller ‘Single unit SIPART DRIO | SIPART DR3i, = (stand-alone) DR22, DRI Hardware PM355" FM 355-2 module in FM4SS SIMATIC 87 Software product PCS7 controller S7-200| PID Temperature in SIMATIC ST PID Control Control (FB 58/59) (FB 41-43) Standard PID Control Modular PID Control "Ms te abbreviation for fuetion madole Caxodul or plug-in submodule in SIMATIC $7) + Compact control structures + Modular control functions + Optimization and commissioning tools, 1.2.2 Designation According to Parameter Components ‘The user can apply parameter assignments (and sometimes also the position of structure switches) to define the type of controller. The function of a particular type can be clarified most appropriately by testing the controller in the open control loop. ‘This means that one applies a constant actual value to the controller input, and connects a recorder or other graphic recording function (c.g. trend display in an HMI system such as WinCC from SIEMENS) to the recorder’s analog output. The setpoint can be defined either using the “normal operation” of the controller or by also applying an analog value, ‘There is then no feedback of the output signal to the input, One refers to this as an “open control loop". The difference between the standardized setpoint and the standardized actual value (0.,.100%) results in the system error, which is identified by the letter “e”,’The controller — or more exactly, the arithmetic function (algorithm) stored in the controller — reacts according to thi The P controller With a P controller as shown in Fig. 1.2, a system error (the error signatl) is multiplied by the proportional gain X,, In isolated cases, the variable X, (proportional band) is used instead of K, (proportional gain or gain factor). The relationship between K, and X, is described by Equation 1. dd 161.2 Controllers and their Names Equation 1.1 is valid as long as the control loop gain is constant throughout the complete: working range of the controller. The result of the product between the proportional gain and. the error signal is referred to as the proportional component (P component). The complete: controller is deactivated by the value K, = 0. uy : 100 Ke 05 60 ‘0 Input variable w(t) ‘Output variable vfl)= K; - u(t) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Times) Figure 1.2 Step-forced response of a P controller in an open control Loop The PI controller The PI controller superimposes a proportional component and an integral component (leomponent). With a constant error signal, the reset time parameter 7, results in a faster oF slower increase or decrease in the I component depending on the sign of the error signal. This is shown in Fig. 1.3. In the SIMATIC terminology, the parameter 7, (integration time) is mostly used instead of T, (reset time). Depending on the product, the associated documentation defines which of the parameter terms is used. [f the output of the PI controller (not only the I component) reaches a limit set on the controller, the integrator (f component) must be disabled for this. direction. This is also referred to as blocking of the { component at the controller limit in order to avoid integral saturation, The integrator or the integrating clement is an arithmetic unit which outputs the time integral of a sequence present at its analog input. ‘The result of the product between proportional gain, error signal and reset time is the integral component (I component). PD-T, controller ‘The PD-T, controller superimposes a proportional component and a real differential component (D component). The parameter 7, results in a sudden change in the D component when the error signal changes, depending on the sign of the error signal. The D component is automatically reduced according to an exponential function with the time constant 7;, provided the error signal remains unchanged. This is shown in Fig. 1.4.1 Introduction and Overview K=20 tp0: T= 4008 ‘Output variable 20 vit) = voll) + mat) \ Wl) = KylTo * Uftoaa) + At VAic= 20 40 60 60 40 Voll) = Ky + ufbaad 80 400 Time[s) Figure 1.3 Step-forced response of a Pl controller in an open contro! Loop ‘Caution: ‘The controller reacts slower as the 7, values are increased, and faster as they ¢ decreased, However, if 7), is selected smaller than twice the sampling rate of the controller, malfunctions result at the controller output (the controller oscillates), ‘The value 7, = 0.0 is basically impermissible, since the algorithm would have to Carry out a division by 0. This is detected by a parameter test in the software of all SIEMENS: control products. Certain software products (¢.g. Standard PID Control) therefore have «a separate parameter (I_SEL = TRUB) for act of the I component, The function of the D component means that itis possible to determine the step height of the D component for the process controller, The default setting of the so-called derivative action gain V, is the factor 5, This value has a historical background, At the time when controllers were still designed using operational amplifiers, a defined combination of resistors resulted in this value. This value was then used further for the first sampling controllers (software/ firmware). It is sometimes appropriate to change this value, Decisive for the effeets of the D component is the area produced by the integral of the differential element (shaded area in Fig. 14). The value V, for SIPART controllers is set using the ratio shown in Equation 1.2. 7, is the time delay constant with which the D component retums to 0 again, and T, the controller's, sampling time. v, Ky ult) TMC, + Ty/2) (12) The value 7, = 0 switches off the D component. The ratio 1IT, In particular with “PID Temperature Control” and FM 355-2, the ratio Vis determined from ‘TD/TM_LAG and is identified there as D_F. is normally fixed.1.2 Controllers and their Names Auy K=20 wo | Pees 80-4 wo Wea Ky emus TUT 40-5 2 | Input variable u(t) 0 Note: Please note.th: time gonstam) in the The PID-T, controller ‘The PID-7, control algorithm is superimposed on all the function components mentioned above. Most SIMATIC controllers are based on this algorithm (e.g.: Standard PID Control, Modular PID Control, CTRL_PID of PCS7). This is shown in Fig. 1.5. The facility for di abling certain individual components means that this type of controller covers all others (P, PI and PD controllers). Speciat types Parameter-based controls are special types such as e.g. the P’(1)D controller or the zone controller. With these controllers, the components described above are modified according to certain events or with certain process values by means of a host PLC, Such parameter control in the case of process controllers is only recommendable far P or PD: controllers. Parameter controls become problematical in the case of process controllers with an activated I component, The PID Self-Tuner (version 5) contains a zone control with [ component, and eliminates the problem described above, 1.2.3 Designation According to Controlled Variable Controllers are frequently also named according to their field of application, i.e. the process variable to be controlled. These basically include temperature, pressure, flow, level and orientation controllers: 191 Introduction and Overview Output variable = volta) * Mba) + Vo(teua) aly 80 400 120 Time(s} Figure 1.5 Step-forced response of 1 PID-7, controller in an open control loop Temperature controllers The range of temperature controllers is extremely wide, and the majority of all controllers currently used in programmable control systems are temperature controllers, Because the time delays in controlled systems for temperature are frequently very long, only very low dynamic performance requirements arc expected of the temperature controllers, However, temperature controls do exist (e.g. for plastics manufacture and processing) which place such high demands on the structure of the controller's output signal that special hardware versions are required for these controllers, These are deseribed in more detail in Sections 2, 6,8 and 9. Standard temperature systems can usually be readily controlled using PI controllers or PID controllers, Problems are only to be expected with the optimization when commissioning because of the long recovery time and the asymmetry of the controlled system. Pressure controllers: A higher dynamic performance is required of pressure controllers because the time delays in controlled systems for pressure are frequently short. Large numbers of pressure controllers are encountered in the process industry, They restrict a flowing medium by a variable amount by means of an appropriate actuator. Standard controlled systems for pressure can be readily controlled using PID controllers. The compensation of interferences is an important factor when commissioning pressure controls, and is usually carried out by appropriately modify- ing the structure (¢.g, disturbance variable feedforward, cascade control, etc.). A special type of pressure controtler is the differential pressure controller. This only differs from a standard pressure controller in the manner in which the actual value is recorded. 201.2 Controllers and their Names Flow controllers Flow controllers frequently respond like pressure controllers. In practice, however, itis frequently problematical to exactly measure the flow. Detailed fundamentals and further infor mation on actuators can be found in various publications [4], (6] and [7]. The dynamic performance of the controlled system for pressure partially depends on the operating range in which the controller is working. In addition, non-linearities of the actuators (see also key- word “Equal-percentage characteristic”) and possibly dead times may interfere with the contol. Level controllers A level controller, also referred to as position controller, controls the position or level of a liquid, In most cases, levels can be appropriately controlled using P controllers or PD controllers. 1.2.4 Designation According to Control Structure In certain control applications, it is necessary to link several controllers into control structures. The most important types are: Cascade controllers If satisfactory control results are not achieved in a single-loop control system, it is possible to improve the contro! response by using additional measured variables from the process. A cascade controller consists of a master controller and a slave controller. The output of the master controller is used as the setpoint for the slave controller. The slave controller only controls part of the process, and the master controller controls the complete process, The cascade controller is considered in more detail in Section 7. Ratio controllers In some processes, the ratio between two or more components is more important than the absolute values of the controlled variable. A ratio controller is used for such requirements, An example is the gas/air mixture of a burner. For example, the ratio controller measures the air flow and controls the supply of gas according to an adjustable ratio. The setpoint of a ratio controller is therefore a non-dimensional variable — the ratio factor. The ratio controller is considered in more detail in Section 7. Blending controllers With a blending control, the proportions to be mixed must be kept at a defined percentage similar to a ratio control, A ratio controller is used for this as a slave controller which has a superimposed master controller, This special type of ratio controller is also referred to as a ratio cascade control or blending controller. Applying the above example of the bumer to the ratio cascade, the master controller is a temperature controller which requests a higher or lower temperature by controlling the inlet air valve, The slave controller continues to control the mixture (the ratio) of gas and air, The blending controller is considered in more detail in Section 7. a1 Introduction and Overview 1.2.5 Designation According to Controlled Process. Using the example of a heating controller, it is possible to show that controllers can be assigned according to the type of process to be controlled. ‘These “controllers” are usually equipped with highly complex structures and a number of additional switching functions and special functions which cannot be provided, or only with great difficulty, using the equi ment of classical control technology. ‘The advantages of the open and flexible facilities provided by freely programmable control- Jers are particularly evident here, permitting safe and economical implementation of such sector-specific structures. The heating controller is easy to explain despite its frequently highly complex design. Almost every household has a heating controller. This type of controller has a number of special functions (e.g. boiler temperature characteristic, pump ci cuitry, adaptive heating time optimization, timeswitch programs, etc.), Particularly the heating characteristic implemented in every heating controller defines the setpoint for generation of the primary circulation temperature of the heating water (boiler water temperature) depending on the outside temperature. 1.2.6 Designation According to Setpoint Type and Source Depending on the type and source of the setpoint, controllers can also be divided as follows: Setpoint (SP) Actual value (PV) Figure 1.6 Signal flow with fixed setpoint controller Fixed setpoint controllers A single-loop controller with a fixed or operator-controllable setpoint (SP) is referred to as a fixed setpoint controller. The setpoint is therefore a constant whieh can be modified using control unit, Fig, 1.6 shows the basic circuitry ofa fixed setpoint controller, A setpoint can be defined at any time by an operator intervention. Slave controllers In contrast to the fixed setpoint controller described above, the setpoint SP of a slave controller is a variable derived from an analog value and connected in the program. The origin Of this signal can be e.g. an equation (correction computer), a characteristic, or a series-connected controtler, Direct input of the setpoint by an operator intervention is not possible, Master controllers In contrast to the slave controller, the master controller does not directly output its manipulated variable (LMN) to the /O or actuator, but its output value is processed further or inter+1.4 Controllers and their Signals connected in the totality of the control concept. For example, this can be a min /max. selection, a characteristic, or the setpoint input for another controller (e.g. slave controller). Time-scheduled controtlers/program controllers Ifthe setpoint (SP) of a fixed setpoint controller is defined by a setpoint sequence, setpoint contour, time scheduler or time-controlled program function stored in the PLC or CPU, one refers to.a program controller or time-scheduled controller. 1.3 Symbols Used The DIN standards use symbols which cannot be displayed, or only incompletely, in the SIMATIC graphic-based engineering tools (CFC representation, programming editors, parameterization tools etc.). Furthermore, the common English and international terms have ‘been taken into consideration for detinition of the SIMATIC terms, The new designations are therefore primarily based on the intemational market and on the IEC 1131-3 standard. Table 1.2 shows the relationship between the DIN standards and the symbols used in SIMATIC, Note: The SIMATIC-TIA syinbols will be used im the rest of this'hook, See Section 9.4 for conversion from S5 to $7. 1.4 Controllers and their Signals Strictly speaking, this section could also be assigned to the previous one, Controllers can of course also be classified according (o the type of input and output signals. This is also-the case in DIN 19225, and an overview of the various controllers is provided in Fig. 1.7. For clarity reasons and because of the significance for practical control engineering, a separate section is reserved in this book which does not consider all controllers listed in the DIN standard but only explains those most commonly encountered in the industrial environment of programmable controllers. All SIMATIC control products operate intemally with digital signals, Analog input modules (e.g. 0...10 V, 4...20 mA) and digital modules or function modules (e.g. modules with SSI inputs, counter modules, ete.) convert these values into digital signals either directly or using software functions in order to process them further in the CPU ina real or integer format or as any other digitally coded information, 1.4.1 Controller Input Signals Digitized analog input signals are used in control engineering (actual value, setpoint input), Fig. 1.8 schematically shows a typical signal, The negative range of values is only used occasionally. The most frequent application for controls is the standardized range 0...100%. Counter signals are also encountered, but are of rather secondary importance in the practical control engineering associated with programmable controllers, Representatives of these1 Introduction and Overview ‘Table 1.2 Relationship between the symbols in the DIN 19226 standards and the designations used SIMATIC for control engineering products Symbol meaning | DINTI6 | SIRART [SIMATICST | Sta00 | SIMATIC and pest! 19221 Sampling time, t CGE 1S SAMPLET | Sample time ssamapling interval Setpoint ® SP SPa ‘SP ‘Seipoint ‘Actual value x wv PVA Pv Process value Error signal, «0 id ER ER Ervor signal, eyative death system err Manipatated wn y TAN Ma TMIN | Loop manipulated variable value Proportional gain wp. ‘GAIN Ke GAIN Gain Reset tle, late- 7, Te 1 1 ™ Revel time sgralaction time Rate time, deriva-| 7, Te 1D cy W Rae tine tive action time Delay thie, time 7; TH TAG TMLAG | Delay time constant Dead time 7 T Desa lime Delay i Delay time Recovery ime Ty Recovery time Motor positioning cy MIRAIM | MTR_IN Motor manipalied time value Period 1p PERLIM | ONjenca Pulse generator perio time "Refer the optional conte eapinecring packages (Stanlard PID Cont, Moxiar PID Coulton ipa in STEP, sl the contol enginering faction modules (FM 388, FM 488} rr the SIMATIC range + Refer the cond engiaceing function Blacks (CTRL_PID. CTRL.S, ein the PCS7 tna iteren The rio DF » TDYTM_LAG i also speed instead of TM_LAG, a" ae Digital sampling contrtiers, oy ane sampling Ye Dig seria coved al Dt praca soon ienback Quasicontinuous (win ose) Digital incremental controllers Figure 1.7 Overview of various controllers according to DIN 19225 types of signals include the recording of actual values for speed controls an hydraulic tur- bines and the control of heat quantities in building automation, Fig, 1.9 shows the pulse signal response of a serial-coded, binary signal.1.4 Controllers and their Signals ‘Signal (%) 100 50 0 50 Time [s] 100 ° 02 oa 06 08 10 Figure 1.8 Digitized analog signal, continuous value and time-discrete Binary signal Time(s] ° 0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 1.9 Serial-coded, binary signal (counter signal) 1.4.2 Controller Output Signals Continuous controllers A controller with a continuous output signal is required to drive analog actuators (0...100%, 0...10'V, 0...20 mA or 4...20 mA). This output function represents the basic form of all further controller output functions. The analog value calculated by the control algorithm is output in the set range standardized from 0%...+100% (in individual cases also -10% s+110%) or -100%. ..+100%. The SIMATIC controllers always work according to the position algorithm. The speed algorithm known from SIMATIC SS is no longer executed in the SIMATIC S7. The position algorithm calculates a continuous, analog ouput signal; the speed algorithm calculates a differentiated output signal and thus outputs positioning increments. The limits of the manipulated variable output can be uscr-modified by means of the parameters “Upper limit value” and “Lower limit value”. Fig. 1.8 shows a digitized analog signal of continuous value and time-discrete. This stepped signal is so fine in modem control systems that the response is quasi-analog. ‘Two-step controllers ‘Two-step controllers (without feedback) are frequently understood to be pure limit signal transmitters with adjustable hysteresis as shown in Fig. 1.10. This type of controller does not belong to the group of PID controllers, and is extremely easy to implement using open-loop control technology equipment. They are only referred to here for completeness reasons and. will not be dealt further in this consideration. 251 Introduction and Overview PID switching controllers The PID switching controllers are often designated as controllers with pulse/pause-modulated or pulse-width-modulated analog signals or, according to the DIN 19226 standard, as “controflers with discontinuous output signal”, A differentiation is made between PID switching controllers with two-step action (also referred to as pulse controllers in the Figure 1.10 Response characteristic of a two-step switching controller SIMATIC terminology) and PID switching controllers with three-step action. The controlled system including the acwator determines which of these two controllers is used. The PID switching controller with two-step action is used for controlled systems with a non-integral response, and the PID switching controller with three-step action for actuators with an integral response, It is not always easy to immediately recognize whether an actuator or the process response is self-imegrating or not. An integral (holding) response may be hidden somewhere in a sequence of physical conversions (clectrical energy into rotation, rotation into position, position into temperature etc.), and this determines the selection of the controller output structure. Establishment of the structure to be selected is the task of the commissioning engineer or the mechanical engineer, If the physical effect of linked actuators or the system response is unclear, clarity can be achieved by measuring the system following a pulsed change. ‘The following cases are shown in Fig. 1.11 + Following the temperature rise in the triggered state, the temperature falls again in Case 1 following switching-off, and approaches the value again (coom temperature). The energy inserted into the system is not retained. Through radiation and losses, the system strives to achieve its original energy level. Such a response would be exhibited by an electrical heatcr triggered by a relay. This is thercfore a non-integrating system response. * In Case 2, the system remains at the generated temperature level, or is even increased slightly (the unit is warmed up). The energy inserted into the system is retained. Such a response could be generated by a motor-driven heating valve, These valves adjust the flow ‘opening by means of a spindle drive which remains in its current position when the drive motor is stopped. The integral response of this system is generated by the actuator.1.4 Controllers and their Signa 20 40 60 80 100 Time {min} Figure 1.1L Testing of system response for integral action Note: ‘There ate also’ three-step pulse controllers with heavofticool and pulse: width modulation (e.g. on a plastics extruder). This is actually a split-range controller (see Section 7.5) with pulse generators for heating und cooling. PIDs 1g controllers with two-step action This is a switching controller with two-step action (or output response with pulse-width modulation). In the DIN 19226 standard, this signal generation is referred to as a discontinuous analog signal. As shown in Fig. 1.12, a controller with an analog output passes on this value LMN to a series-connected pulse-width modulator. This in tum converts the analog value into a binary signal which is wired to a switching, non-integrating actuator (Case 1), These are usually switching actuators with only two positions (Open/Closed, OOM, etc.). These include contactors, relays, triacs, solenoid valves and electric strip heaters. ‘The response of this signal generator means that a lot of energy is inserted into the system if the triggering is permanent, The pulse-width converter divides the time axis into equally large sections (period PER_TM), and varies the on and off durations within these sections. ‘The smaller this period can be made, the faster a new analog value can be mapped in binary form. Limits apply to this as a result of the conversion accuracy, since the rising and falling edges Of the pulse sequences must be controllable in a grid of period/100 if the accuracy requirement is 1%. One refers to the resolution at the binary output. The control modules or hardware controllers exhibit a significant advantage here compared to the software versions, since they can resolve the digital output to a few milliseconds or even less, whereas the software versions are linked to the cycles of the imterrupt levels and therefore already require a significant portion of the processor capacity just for the pulse generation,1 Introduction and Overview [ Zy inn AG iy Sigral QPOS_P J Monipuiated variable LAN in f%] 100 80 5] oo 405 205 aPpos_p 100 Tirme fin] 100 0.1-PER_TM 0.8PER_TM 0.9:PER_TM Figure 1.12 Punetion of a pulse-width modulator which generates a two-step action for non actuators from an analog manipulated variable signal (LMN) of a PID controller PID switching controllers with three-step action A switching controller with three-step action triggers actuators with an integral response (Fig. 1.11 Case 2). Fig. 1.13 shows a PID controller with series-connected signal generator with two binary outputs for “increase” (QLMNUP) and “decrease” (QLMNDN). Examples of stich actuators include motor-actuated potentiometers, motor-driven valves and dampers, turning dampers ete. This type of switching controller has been increasingly applied since the introduction of modular control structures in the software for switching controllers. A continuous controller is then followed by a software module which calculates pulse-width modulation depending, on the applied signa! (LMIN) and outputs binary signals. A position feedback signal (from the process or simulated) can be connected to the parameter LNMR_IN on this function block. ‘The pulse-width converter (pulse-width modulator) then operates as a subordinate position control circuit which receives its position setpoint from the series-connected (PID) controller, compares this with the position feedback signal from the process, and then calculates the pulse wielths for open/increase and close/decrease, ‘The response of this signal generator only inserts energy into the one or other positioning nput varkable changes. The faster the actuator can follow the input, the direction if the shorter the posi pulses, This signal generator therefore requires the actuator runtime MTR_TM (the duration from completely closed to completely open (40 in the example)) to calculate its positioning increments.1.4 Controllers and thei Binary signal QUMNUP Binary signal QUMNON 4 Manipulated variable Position feedback: LMNR_IN 100 -| LMM in Pa) eo QLMNDN 0 20 40 80 100 Time fs} Figure 1.13 Function of a pulse generator which generates a three-step action for inte grating actuators from an analog manipulated variable (LMIN) of a PID controller2 Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC S7 Figure 2.1 Examples of SIMATIC control products and field devices 2.1 Summary of SIMATIC Control Products Table 2.1 provides a coarse overview of the control products belonging to the SIMATIC $7 range. Table 2.2 lists control products from the SIPART DR process controller range which can be connected to a host SIMATIC S7/C7/PCS7/WinAC via the Profibus interface. The electric compact controllers of the SIPART DR range are ready-to-use control units for many applications, Their large set of functions means they can do much more than just loop control. Exemplary features are their high flexibility and simple handling. All these control units have a separate operator interface for local operation, and optional interface cards for PROFIBUS DP connections. They can therefore be completely integrated into the SIMATIC world, 2.2 Selection of Control Product The decision to be made by a planning engineer conceming the controller to be used ina particular project is unfortunately frequently influenced by external pressures. The budget,£6 SEIECTON OF LONG) FTOCUCE Table 2.1 Summary of SIMATIC $7/C7 control functions! ‘Type | Delivery form OM TEP ‘omponent of S integral autotuner (V4 and higher) PID controller for simple conirol (asks; up to 8 independent controls PID Control | SW [Component of STEP 7 Simple control also in STEP 7 inSTEP7 [Pid goniroller for simple contro tasks PID Control [SW _ [Component of CC Simple control also in CFC anCEC PID controller for simple comirol tasks, corresponds to PID Control in Step? PID Tempera- [SW] Component of STEP 7, V5. SP 3] Low interconnection overhead, simple ture Control and higher (FBs and parameteriaa- | handling in STEP7 tion SW) PID controller with imegral pulse generator and self-tuning, specially designed for temperature contol Standard SW. ] Optional packages: FBs, parame- ] Ready-to-use control structure with Simple PAD Contrat terization software, electr manual | and convenient parameterization S.cxamples PID controle with predefined control structures for simple to medium contol tasks, SW al packages: FB, parame- n software, electr. manual Minimum memory requirements with muvximus flexibility tuntime, 12 examples. ‘Modilar FBS for complex control asks or mii num memory requirements and minima ‘SW Optional package: FBs incl, elec] Online vel-optinization for all PID con- tronic manual rollers FR; for oaling self-oplimization of PID temperatre controllers, cai be combined with ‘Standard oF Modilar PID Control and FM x55, 3 examples HW | Function module “2PULSI able in the ET 2008, * walle Highly exact and fast pulse-widih modula tion ‘2-channel module which can output distributed, pulse-width-modulated values in con- junction with software controllers, e.g. for triggering semiconductor contactors FM355C HW ]FM355.C. FM 355 § with configu: | Backup capability FM ASS S ration package for FM 355 Madlle with predefined control structares and hackup capability for CPU at Stop or CPU failure, PID controller for universal application as well as self-tuning fuzzy temperature ‘controller, taitored onboard VO. FM355.2C [HW [Controller module with configura- ] Specialized for temperature control, fast FM 355.2 tion package commissioning, high accuracy ‘Enhanced module with integral self-optimization of controlled systems for temperature, ‘also for heating/cooling as well as funher functions; control zone, continuous distribution ‘of P-component fo setpoint branch and feedback branch, high-accuracy analog inputs FM455.C FM 455 S HW. TPM 455 C, FM 458 S, with config- ‘uration packuge for FM 455 Backup capability integral online self tuning for rapid commissioning of eonteot structures ‘See FM 355 C/FM 355 5 "Source: Siemens AG: Loop contol with SIMAFIC — Product Brief Issue 2008 machine construction specifications and end customer requests frequently thwart the “better technical solution”, However, such pressures will not be considered in the following ¢labo- rations, and the ideal case of free decision-making will be assumed. The decisive criteria for selecting the contro! product are; 312_ Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC $7 ‘Table 2.2 Summary of SIPART range which can be used in SIMATIC S7 ‘Application (Funetion Industrial controller for] SPC' controller with up to 5 setpoints, either continuous: machine and equipment |or discontinuous outputs, scheduler, various predefined construction applications | contro! structures. Process controller for sim- | SPC/DDC" controller with 2 setpoints, either continuous ple closed-loop controls | or discontinuous outputs, various predefined control struc~ tures Process controller for eom- | SPC/DDC' controller with facility for optional connection plex closed-loop controts | of setpoint, either continuous of discontinuous outputs, Various predefined control structures 2 independent SPC/DDC' program controllers with optional connection facility for all process values, either [continuous or discontinue outputs, predefined and expandable control structures SIPART DRI9 SIPART DR21 SIPART DR22 SIPART DR24 ‘multifunction unit Process controller with complex closed-loop ‘con- ‘wo tasks, "The abbreviations SPC and DDC are operating modes of process connie and are explained in sore det i the Section “Operating medes of «process controler” + Requirements of the process (control structures, dynamic performance and possibly influences by other process variables) + Connection system (PROFIBUS or central, analog /O connection) * Quantity framework and dynamic performance requirements of the control system + Requirements of the actuators and sensors used * Control quality requirements + Safety requirements (e.g. backup strategies) * Operation, visualization and data management requirements (validation) + Requirements for flexibility and subsequent modification of a plant during runtime. wultancous consideration of all these conditions usually already fails during the planning phase of a project because the required information cannot be obtained from the end customer. The only choice available to the planning engineer is to use empirical values as the basis for product selection. A section of a decision tree for hardware or software products is shown as an example in Fig, 2.2. Only when the elementary questions of the decision tree have been answered and an unequivocal (neutral) decision is still not possible should price be used as the criteria for deciding which version is to be used in the quotation or order, Unfortunately a complete decision tree cannot be printed here since the pos: s of the various plant configurations are too versatile to permit definition of a generally applicable procedure, Controlled systems are available in practice which can only be optimally handled using fuzzy logic and neural networks. These systems and products experienced a boom in the 1990s. The enthusiasm for them has been noticeably reduced in the meantime since the extremely difficult tuning and optimization is only mastered by very few specialists. Therefore these products will not be dealt with any further in this book. Information on Fuzzy Control++ and NeuroSystems can be found at: www.industry.siemens.de/itps/it4industry/main_start.htm,Selection of Control Product Backup response Two-step response an on-integrated + Software Hardware product! arctyare B sotware produ product Novtral “nia cry motel Figure 2.2 Extract of the decision tree for whether the control should be implemented using hardware or software products 2.2.1 Connection System Direct, central /O connection ‘The connections from the process to the controller (hardware or software) can be carried out using conventional analog cables. The actual value is recorded by the sensor, and its measured signal can be connected via a shielded analog cable to an input channel on the central unit of the PLC or to the process controller. The manipulated variable (analog or binary) is output by one of the controller's output channels, and connected to the actuator via signal cables, In addition to the high wiring overhead with a central connection system, problems frequently occur in practice (e.g. EMC) which will be considered in more detail in the next section. If the process is located in a hazardous area, a greater effort is required in order to observe the explosion protection requirements. In such a case it is absolutely necessary to use Ex-compatible field devices and the PROFIBUS-PA bus system (see Fig. 2.3). The abbreviation “Ex” stands for subject to explosion hazard or explosion-proof, The hazardous areas of a plant must be treated particularly carefully and conscientiously, for faults in one of these areas may result in extreme damage to persons or the environment. 332 Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC ST Isolation EExi Powor supply Terminal block dist |[ dist. ][ Dist Re Th j 3 a y Figure 23 Comparison of central and distributed connection systems. The example on the left shows central control via analog and binary cables, that on the right shows the greatly simpler fieldbus system with PROFIBUS-DP and PROFIBUS-PA in the hazardous area Connection using fieldbus system With the field device system, the process controller is connected to the sensors and actuators via a fieldbus, In the next chapter, Fig. 3.18 shows an example of an intelligent field device, the SITRANS P, as a representative of the wide selection of field devices belonging to the SIEMENS product range (see also Table 2.3). There are several reasons in favor of using intelligent field devices and fieldbus technology: * Reduced cabling requirements * Lower probability of cabling faults + Simple commissioning * Local display and also local operation if necessary * Simple and safe use in hazardous areas Central configuration of field devices using SIMATIC PDM (Process Device Manager) ‘Table 2.3 Selection of field devices for connection to PROFIBUS Product ‘Application SIMOCODE. Motor protection and control device SIMOVERT Frequency converter for variable-speed AC motors sIPOS Power reversing switch module for actuators SIPART DR ‘Autonomous industrial and process control units STTRANS P Pressure transmitters SUTRANS OP Differential pressure transmittersSelection of Controt Product * Central programming * Simplified maintenance and validation of the plant, According to the VDI/VDE directive 3517, “validation” is defined as the formal and syst atic proof that there is a high probability that a process will permanently produce a product with the defined specification and quality. The qualification comprises the formal and sys- tematic proof that areas and equipment (for example the production plant and process control technology) are suitable for the intended tasks. When planning such plants itis necessary to consider in detail the division of individual DP segments for the event that a segment may fail, The availability of important actuators/sensors must be guaranteed. 2.2.2 Quantity Framework and Dynamic Performance of a Control Loop In addition to the number of controllers, the definition of the sample time (constant interval between the function calls) of the individual controllers and their supplementary functions is important when estimating the quantity framework. The number of required controllers must be initially defined, and whether they have to master fast processes. This is necessary for assessment of the memory requirements in the CPU, Table 2.4 shows block sizes and their execution times for a number of selected functions and two different types of PLC. Please note that new devices and releases are being continuously developed, and that the current values may have to be obtained from the responsible departments or from the Internet. Memory requirements and execution time for “n” controls can be calculated as follows using the values specified in Table 2.4: Main memory requirements = © “FB length” +n E “Instance DB length” (2.1) Execution time = ‘Execution times” Q Example ‘Three temperature controls (three-step control) and two pressure controls with analog control are to be implemented in an $7-315. The Standard PID Control software package is to be used. In order to define the sample times, it is necessary to estimate the dominating time constant for each control loop. Technical processes almost always consist of a series of successive dynamic transmission elements, Well-attenuated controlled systems which cannot oscillate can be approximated by a PTI element, The time constant of this approximation efement is referred to as the dominating system time constant (7) or also the equivalent time constant (7,). The positioning speed of the actuator must be smaller (significantly >> factor 5 for correct control) than the dominating system time constant (equivalent time constant T;, or, with pure delay systems, the delay time 7;,, see Section 9.2.3). In many reference books, definition of the sample time is according to the following rule of thumb: CYCLE =0,1 +7; (2.3) ‘As shown in the next section, the type of actuator used makes a significant contribution. If the configuring engineer is forced to use a non-integrating actuator because of physical demands, the sample time of the controller is far less important than the sample time of the 352 Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC S7 ‘Table 24 Important quantity frameworks! of a few selected functions Product lock FB | Instance J Execution time |” Execution time engi | DB length | in $7-300° in ST-400° in | infkbyte} | Approximate | Approximate kbyte] values in {ms} | values in {ms} PID Control | FBAL“CONT_C* 1s os om 006 “Integral —_ | FB42“CONT_S” 19 03, os 007 control” — | FB43“PULSEGEN” | 1,1 02 ol 0.001 PID Control | FBI °CONT_C” 24 Os le Os in CFC-300 | FB2 “CONT_S” 25 03 20° 019° FB3 “PULSEGEN" Ls oz | 03* 0.04 PID FBs8“TCONT_CP” | 79 an Te O12 0.18 ‘Temperature | FBS9“TCONT_S” 19 a 07 0.083 Control “Integral control” Standard | FBI “PID_CP” 75 0s ois PID Control | FB2 “PID_ES” 1s os 017 FC2*LP_SCHED™ 10 0.02 Modular | FBI3“LMNGEN 16 0016 PID Control | FBIS"LMNGEN.S” 2.6 005 FBI9*PID™ 16 0.05 FB20"PULSEGEN” | 1,1 0.01 FB25 “SP_GEN” 07 002 FcI“tPSCHED” |) 003 FB “TUNING C™ 43 0.13 0.22 i ~ oF 0.3 On - od 02 0. FM 355.2 18 o2 | = " Names rounded ff under typical * Cenminvous controller with typical parancter acting _somins (not wor ase Vale). * Contin onto withtypical parame setings and entolr oeiiaton. }ePUMS-2AGI0 ‘There re frther FBs for FM SSSTFMASS, but en ae specially einaged HePU S16 28K fortuppon dunng conmisioning and are at present ne program rg cpus runtime sepu ais One job pulse output, and the larger part of the process resources must be provided for processing the pulse output (see Table 2.5). Although software controls have the facility for executing the pulse generation and the controller in separate time interrupt levels, the software controllers rapidly reach the limit of possible applications, The planning engineer then has no choice but o use a closed-loop control module or an external pulse generator, for example the SIMATIC-2-PULSE module for ET 2008, The function modules FM 355/FM 355-2 and FM 455 provide a resolution down to | ms at the digital output, The lower this sample rate for the pulse output, the faster and more exact the mapping of the controller's analog output value, This is shown in Fig. 2.4, Example: ‘A metal container is to be heated up very rapidly using a triac-controlled electrical heater. ‘The customer specifies that a dominating system time constant of 8 s was measured on comparable machines. According to the above equation, the controller can therefore be calledSelection of Control Product Table 2.5 Calculation for example in Section 2.2.2 Block Fileagth in | Instance DB | Qty. ‘Equation Rewuitin Ukbytel length in kbste} Ikbyte} FBI“PID_Cr* 73 0s 2 | 1742-05 47 PID_ES” 1s os 3 | 7543-05 90 SCHED 10 02 1 | 1041-02 12 | te [189 Block Execution time Qh Equation | Result in [ms] inv [mas] FBI-PID_CP WB 2 2 26 FB. I Ls 1! eis Ls FC2 "LP SCHED" O13 1a 1-90.13 0.13 | | Total: 42% "The tee temperatre corr cies are nsiboted sing the “LP anyone te together with a remure conti (se Sexton * Wort case consideration under the prerequisite that the cycle distributor is ct sus tht al lochs are calle in ce task. HED ach that oly one tenaperature contrler is called without hesitation in the 800-ms cycle, which is no problem for current CPUs with the load- ing of a normal user program, ‘The period PER_TM of the pulse output should then also be in this time grid since it is not sensible to make this value significantly higher because an analog value output by the con- roller will only be mapped via the digital output following expiry of this time. In order to achieve an accuracy of at least 1% at the controller output, this output value must also be mapped in 1/100 steps. This means that the falling edge of the pulse output (see Fig. 2.4) must also be adjustable by the pulse block in the 8 ms grid, The result is that the pulse output following the controller must be called in this grid to guarantee this. However, this is a demand which is « problem for certain CPUs, particularly if several control outputs have to be processed (split range or several parallel control loops). In this case, the use of a function module is unavoidable. It is hardly possible to provide a generally applicable rule of thumb for when software controls are more appropriate than solutions with function modules. Both versions are justifiable. In the case of controls with low dynamic performance requirements, i.e. not with slow controls, high number of control loops (>8 with SIMATIC 7-300 and >16 with SIMATIC $7-400) and low control engineering demands, the software solutions are advantageous. Function modules are advantageous where the actuators and system response are still unclear during the planning phase, where higher demands are placed on dynamic performance, safety functions, control quality and/ oraccuracy. If the planning engineer has the possibility for influencing selection of the actuator, the demand from the viewpoint of the control engineer is always for analog-driven, telligent actuators or field dey since these are casier to commis: Figure 2.4 Representation of the problem ‘of resolution of the digital out- t puts of a temperature controller PER_TM on a non-integrating actuator au2 Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC S7 Recommendation: ‘The period (PER_TM) of the pulse outpist should be set equal to or (0. multiple of the simple time (CYCLE or SAMPLE_T) (PID Control FB 41/43: PER_TM = CYCLE) 2.2.3 Quality Criteria and Accuraey of a Loop Control Control quality ‘The control quality ~ or also the accuracy of a loop control —is, generally speaking, a measure of the quality of a control or, expressed more scientifically, a measure of the sum of all error signals following a change in setpoint or the influence of a disturbance variable, Fig. 2.5 shows two different process reactions to the same jump in setpoint with different controller settings. ‘The “aggressive” controller setting has a gray background, the “cautious” setting is cross hatched, The larger the values of the areas between the setpoint and actual value, the poorer the contro! quality according to the linear quality criterion, Since both areas in Fig. 2.5 have approximately the same content, the two settings are equally good or equally bad. The cautious setting is used far more frequently in practice than the aggressive setting, particularly because of the smoother operation of the plant. In various theoretical control engineering papers, different criteria are defined for the control quality. In addition to the common “linear quality criterion” referred to above, there are also the “quadeatic quality criterion”, the “ITEA criterion” and the “extended quadratic quality criterion”, However, since these criteria are extremely difficult to determine in practice, they will not be considered any further here: Accuracy considerations of a loop consrot In order to judge which type of control is to be used, it i first necessary to provide a techni- cally meaningful clarification of the desired control accuracy. Each question to customers ‘Setpoint (%);, 100] Actua! valve (%] Figure 2.5 Evaluation of the contol quality of two dif ferent controller settings 38Selection of Control Product concerning the control accuracy is provided the stereotype answer of +0.1°C for temperature controls. With a real measuring range of 400°C. even a demand of + 1.0°C requires a stationary accuracy of 0.25%, which takes into consideration all errors of the complete chain (sensor, transmitter, analog-value acquisition, controller, output signal generation, manipulated variable conversion, actuator). The stationary accuracy does not have the same meaning as the control quality. Since every commercially available digital thermometer has a decimal value on its display, sustomer demand is also understandable, However, the question arises whether these displays really correspond to the exact value and how reproducible the results are, If the control accuracy demands made by the customers for the complete loop are really as strict as usually formulated through ignorance, they must be clearly informed that enormous invest- ‘ment costs must be expected. All elements in the chain of the control loop must then possess a comparable quality class. Every A/D converter with a 12-bit resolution and a measuring range of 420°C already makes a digitization error of 0.1°C, where with a PT100 measurement the errors resulting from sel warming due to the current flow (of approx. I mA) and from the current/voltage measurement (errorin the measuring resistors and temperature error) have not yct been considered. It iseven worse when using thermocouples which have to be compensated at the cold junction using PT100. The error chain is even longer in this case, and can result in extensive errors in the worst case, Various manufacturers of devices which process analog values often specify breathtaking error tolerances which have certainly only been checked at favorable test points, The SIMATIC errors and tolerance data, unless specified otherwise in the technical data, apply to the defined measuring range. It is clear to understand what the above-mentioned demands mean for the actuators. The gear play and the error in linearization must be almost equal to zero, the positioning speed must be able to follow the controller's analog signal almost without a delay, and the mechanics and design of the actuator must be free of wear. ‘These demands are only approximately satisfied by the proportional actuators. With such demands, low-price discontinuous actuators are eliminated right from the start. Note: ‘The control qu: actuator and the sensor, It is ba valu tly dependent on the mounting location of the that both the recording of the measured \d the actuator must be as elose as possible to the primary position of ph order to avoid physical compensation or conversion processes on th from the actuator/sensor to the position of action; om 2.2.4 Safety Requirements When planning a control system, it is necessary to take into account any failure, availability or safety strategies, In such a case it may be necessary to use backup controls. Ifno faults are present, the host software controller is working, and exchanges process values with a subordinate standby controller, which operates more or less as a distributed inpuvoutput device in this mode (see Fig. 2.6). If the CPU or the communication fails, the subordinate controller takes over control of the process, and continues to control the plant orat least keep it in a safe operating state. A differentiation is made here between SPC and DDC backup modes (see 392 Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC S7 2.2.5 Operation and Visualization In addition to the customer demands concerning which process values and control parameters are to be monitored or even modified by which employees during subsequent operation, questions frequently have to be clarified during the planning phase concerning which values are to be processed in trend curve displays and long-term archives. Particularly in the food and pharmaceutical industries, long-term quality proof, validation of process data and repeatability of a control result are increasing in importance. Process control systems (c.g. PCS7) are preferable in such a case to SCADA systems (supervisory control and data acquisition), SCADA systems are therefore autonomous (software) applications which are usually connected to a programmable controller via a bus system and read/write the PLC's database and perhaps also store and update these data in an own database. Compared to this, process. control systems have uniform data management. 2.2.6 Complexity and Flexibility If customer demands for flexibility and subsequent modification of the control system during runtime are placed when planning a loop control, modular control systems (e.g. Modular PID Control in association with CFC Version 5 or higher, as shown in later in Fig, 4.9) are to be preferred. However, if the customer prefers clearer and fixed loop controls (standard control circuits), predefined controls (see Fig. 2,7) should be selected, SIMATIC Modular PID PROFIBUS-DP Control Control room ‘ya SIPART =| ORz2 Figure 2.6 SIPART controller as backup controller of a high-quality control structure with Modular PID Control in SIMATIC S7-400 2.2.7 Tuning Aid: PID Self-Tuner Using additional function blocks in the PLC (TUN_ES for step controllers and TUN_EC for continuous controllers), a PID controller can be expanded to a self-tuning controller. PID controllers can then be optimized online. The PID Self-Tuner is specially designed for temperature controls, but can also be used for pressure, flow and level controls. A prerequisite is a stable and asymptotic transient response with delay. Processes are therefore excluded which already oscillate without a controller, and processes without compensation, Use with extremely large delay or dead times is also inadvisable, At the moment, the PID Self-Tuner (Version 5.0.1) can be used for PID Control, Standard PID 402.2 Selection of Control Product rosie — Figure 2.7 ‘Configuration GUI of Standard PID Control. The predefined structure results ii iple and clear controller. Modifications to individual functions (e.g. the PID controller) ean be carried out by double clicking the corresponding block Control, Modular PID Control, PID Control (integrated in STEP 7, FB CONT_C, FB CONT_S, and FB_PULSGEN) as well as for FM 355/FM 455. The PID Self-Tuner is integrated in the PID Temperature Control FB 58 and FM 355-2. However, it should be remembered that a controller equipped with the PID Self-Tuner is not an adaptive controller. Self-tuning controllers (such as e.g. the PID Self-Tuner) determine the control parameters from the process values according to a defined procedure of system identification, Following checking of the results, the parameters are then automatically transmitted to the controller. Further self-tuning can be triggered using another step change in setpoint with a defined minimum value, On the other hand, adaptive controllers permanently determine new control parameters from the process values, and can therefore react immediately to changes in the system response during operation. Standard products for adaptive controls are not currently available in the SIMATIC range, and must be implemented if required either using modular functions at the application level or purchased from other vendors, The company of i.p.2.s.-Systeme in Frankfurt supplies e.g. an adaptive state controller ADCO as a function block for SIMATIC $7, and this has been tested by Siemens and included as a partner product in the Siemens catalog. When compar- ing the results from automatically tuned controllers with those of controllers individually adapted to the plant by experienced control engincers, the automatic solutions are sometimes worse if certain secondary conditions for the identification procedure are violated. 2.2.8 Controllers with Integral Tuning Aid ‘The PID Self-Tuner as a separate function block can be combined extremely Alexibly with various controllers. Interconnection of the controller and tuner is complex, however, and frequently results in errors, Therefore two controllers are now offered with integral self-tuning. at2 Planning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC S7 Gave Recorder “| wseai30_/ "ts.32:00 Recording of dota Upto reg port ‘Generation ‘ofrmodel etermewton of conto! parameters the optimization has already been completed at the turning point (black circle), and the final PID controller drafted ‘The wning procedure (cf. Fig. 2.8) itself is a further development of the Self-Tuner with the following advantages: + The final PID parameter set is already determined at the turning point. The intermediate phase 3 is omitted with careful Pl control, itis not necessary to wait for a stationary final state. ‘+ The initial state need no longer be exactly stationary, states with a constant gradient (constant fall or rise in temperature) are also accepted. * The facilities for post-adaptation at the working point have been extended. Temperature PID Control in STEP 7 For the first time, all three function blocks required for a typical temperature controller are now combined in one single block: a PID controller with control zone, online tuning procedure, and pulse generator, This drastically reduces the wiring overhead and the number of interface parameters relevant to the associated PLC program, All three components are optimally matched to one another, resulting in a solution with the simplest possible handling for the user (Fig, 2.9). A second version of the block provides a PI step controller. Both the blocks and the associated parameterization tool belong to the standard scope of STEP 7. FM 355-2 This further development of the FM 355 closed-loop control module has been specially designed for temperature controls, It contains a PID controller with integral tuning procedure similar to the Temperature PID Contro! in STEP 7. However, additional functionalities mean that it is suitable for the mid and upper performance ranges: R2.2 Selection of Control Product or Fase F ie 2 iacemeatis a — fae mee 3 dey ont $| : £2e ies =) | Gee = < Figure 2.9 ‘Temperature PID Control in STEP 7: a new, integral function block ‘TCONT_CP replaces the combination of three previous blocks 16:43:00 = 4 [aided al ons reo Figure 2.10 Attenuation of the P-component on changes in setpoint: a) No P component in the feedback, Jarge jump in manipulated variable (arrow), overshoots too large: b) P component 20% in the feedback, optimum response to change in setpoint; c) P component completely in the feedback, zo jump in manipulated variable, setting time too long 4BPlanning of Loop Controls with SIMATIC $7 * Active heating and cooling, i.e. a PID controller triggers two different actuators (split range) depending on the sign of the system deviation. Since the two actuators can respond differently, separate identification of the heating and cooling responses is also required for the self-tuning, resulting in different parameters (controller gain, period of pulse generation) for heating and cooling. This functionality is not present with any of the other control products. An application example is plastics extruders which are heated by electric strip heaters. via semiconductor relays, and cooled by fans via mechanical contactors. * Continuous distribution of P component to setpoint branch and feedback branch. With all other controllers, the P component can be transferred (if at all) by one bit completely into the feedback. The continuous distribution permits exactly apportioned attenuation of the effects of the P component with jumps in setpoint, and thus an optimum response to changes in setpoint (Fig. 2.10). + AMD conversion with 14-bit resolution, results in a significant increase in measurement accuracy with a conversion time of 100 ms. + Temperature compensation when using thermocouples is possible by an internal comparison of an external Pt 100 ora parameterized cold junction temperature, 2.3 Advantages of Software Controllers and FMs Advantages of software controllers * Software controllers ean be repeatedly used in a CPU without extra charge + When using software controllers there is no communications overhead to control modules * Cost advantages exist if analog /Os are present and with a higher number of cantrol loops + Switching operations in the user program can be simply incorporated into modular software structures + Special functions (e.g. steam characterist ply in software solutions, , h.x diagram, ete.) can be integrated more Therefore loop controls of modular design provide a maximum of flexibility. ‘Conditions of use and license rights for software products Parameterization sofiware Parameterization software must be purchased separately for each workstation, Multiple licenses or copy licenses are not offered for parameterization software. Runtime software Single licenses are’ required for runtime software (Function blocks for use in CPUs) en purchasing a software package (e.g. Standard PID Control FB), a single is included which permits use of the function blocks on exactly one CPU. Additional runtime licenses must be purchased for use of the FBS on further CPUs, and are available at a lower price, In each case, the conditions of use and license rights are specified on the software certificate enclosed with the respective product.2.3 Advantages of Soft are Controllers and FMs Advantages of control modules and process control units * Function modules are designed for higher dynamic performance, control quality and safety function demands, Function modules are particularly required for controllers with pulse generators for non-integrating actuators depending on the system time constants of the process. + Complete control structures are present on most modules and need only be enabled using, structure switches, This is frequently supported by configuration tools. + The diagnostics capability of the FM modules means that the CPU can react faster to urgent events, + Theanalog-value processing is tailored to control requirements (e.g. atransmitter fault can set a controller to safety mode without a special user program having to be present in the CPU), + Modifications are extremely simple during commissioning. Additional functions are parameterized using enable bit + The SIPART FM 355/455 function modules possess a backup capability (SPC backup — see Section 5.5). + Special versions for temperature controls with the associated optimization tools turn hard- ‘ware controllers into specialized sector controllers (¢.g. FM 355-2). The function modules sometimes contain complex functions which cannot be implemented. in the CPU for capacity reasons (e.g, adaptive filter, correction computer, etc). Summary As far as costs and space requirements are concemed, constellations (number of controllers, sensor type, actuator type and speed requirements) are available for both versions which provide a cost advantage for the one or other version. Although it can be said that both versions are probably equally expensive when considering all applications, it is worth calculating in individwal cases which of the two types of controller should be used, provided the technical demands are satisfied. 4s3 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System 3.1 Influence of Final Control Elements on Control System Agreat deal has already been written in the introduction concerning remote-controlled final control elements and actuators, This clearly indicates how important the influence of the actuator response is on the control system. It even frequently occurs in practice that the actuator has the largest influence on the complete response of a system, and the controller is mainly occupied with controlling the actuator's influence. Unfortunately, the attempt is made when planning to save actuator costs (and therefore at the wrong place), and the “sav- ings" in hardware costs are then counteracted many times on site and during commissioning, From the contro! engineering viewpoint, two aspects are important for actuators. On the one hand, the response in the contro! loop depends on the type of actrator drive, and on the other by the physical effect on the medium to be controlled. The auxiliary energy used is decisive for the type of drive. A differentiation is made between clectromechanical drives/actuators, drives with pneumatic supply, and drives with hydraulic supply. References [4], [6] and [7] provide detailed data and information on final control elements and positioners especially for process engineering plants. A number of important terms will be explained in more detail below. Anatog final control elements From the control engineering viewpoint, analog final control elements comprise proportional actuators, integral actuators and field devices. The proportional actuators are those with analog control by the standard control engineering signals 0...10 V, @...20 mA, 4...20 mA. As far as the controller is concerned, it is unimportant whether the positioning gnal is converted electrically into control energy or by means of an analog, electropneumatic positioner (I/P converter). The term “proportional” refers to the conversion of the control signal to a mechanical variable (e.g. position). A proportional actuator on a ball valve which is controlled by 20% gen- crates an opening angle of 20% of the mechanically adjustable range. However, this does not automatically generate 20% of the maximum possible flow. This means that proportional actuators may certainly exhibit a physical transmission response which is not linear and therefore have to be linearized according to the data provided by the vendor (see also Section 9.1.4). The following can be mentioned as examples of proportional actuators: + Stroke actuator: single-seat control valve with V-port plag + Three-flange housing and pneumatic diaphragm drive + Plug valve with electromechanical actuator * Electric ball valve with spring-loaded, single-action and double-action part-tum actuator and sliding valve.}.1 Influence of Final Control Elements on Control System With these actuators, the positioning time is an important factor when planning the control loops. The dynamic performance of a control loop can be greatly influenced by the working. speed of the positioners or the operating times of the control valves. ‘The field devices (see also intelligent actuators) are usually proportional, lincarized actus tors. They are often equipped with their own (subordinate) positioners, operating elements, and a programming or parameterization interface, Although these actuators are relatively expensive, an increasing number of such devices is offered on the market every year. The use of such actuators frequently pays for itself through the lower commissioning and servicing costs. The following can be mentioned as examples of such intelligent actuators: frequency converters (SIMOVERT), e.g. for operation of a fan, SIPART, SIPOS, SITRANS ete., and digital electropneumatic positioners. The positioning time is also important with these actuators, and must be taken into consideration when planning the control loops. Binary (switching) actuators Binary switching actuators are divided according to the control engincering viewpoint into mechanical (two-step) actuators, electronic (two-step) actuators, and integrating (three-step) actuators with and without position feedback. Mechanical (two-step) actuators are switching elements which only recognize the input states “0” and “1” (onfoff, openiclosed). These elements are not self-integrating, this means that the applied positioning energy is not stored when the control signal is removed again. But careful: such a switching element can of course be used in a chain of elements in which cone has an integrating response. When using in a controller with a pulse-width-modulated, binary output signal, the number of possible switching operations must be considered. Even when using relays with a service life of more than one million switching operations, such a combination will result in very short joy in the control system, With a period of 100 ms, this limit is already reached after a few days. Such mechanical actuators cannot therefore be used for a non-integrating system response, For actuators of this type, observation of the minimum pulse duration (and minimum interpulse period) is important for the service life of the actuator and its control units. The commissioning engineer can find these data in the data sheets provided by the vendor, Table 3.1 shows typical default values. Electronic (two-step) actuators are also switching elements which only recognize the input states “0” and “I” (on/off, open/elosed), but which are suitable for the control of non-integrating system responses because of their wear-free design, Representatives of this type included triacs and eleetronic relays (e.g. solid-state relays) which can directly control electrical heaters without further physical conversion. The minimum pulse duration is therefore unimportant for this type of actuator. Antegrating (three-step) actuators with position feedback are switching elements with wo binary inputs which only recognize the states “0” and “1” (as shown in the state table in Fig. a1. Such devices usually convert the electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic positioning energy into a mechanical stored variable, In this case as well, observation of the minimum pulse duration is an aspect important for planning and commissioning, Asa result of the rotary motion of the motor in Fig. 3.1, the spindle moves the yoke, and the valve opening becomes larger or smaller depending on the motor’s direction of rotation. If the motor is stationary, the plug remains in its current position, and the opening is not 473 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System Postion feedback (optional) Rod CCW/Open/increase Flow opening Figure 3.1 Mechanical design of an integrating actuator changed. The spindle therefore functions as a mechanical integrating element. The displa onthe mechanical scale must agree with the analog output signal of the controller (manipu- Jated variable). Therefore the position feedback is returned to the controller, and the position of the plug corrected if necessary via the binary inputs "OPEN"/*CLOSE” (see Fig. 3.2). For the actuators with analog feedback, generation of the signal in the controller is actually very simple. The basic principle is a subordinate position control loop with the analog manipulated variable from the PID algorithm as the setpoint, and the actual position value (position feedback). The positioner basically consists of a comparator or also a subordinate controller which controls the binary outputs (Open or Close). This type of actuator is encountered less and less in practice, since the effort required to obtain the analog position feedback is considerable (signal converter in actuator, wiring, separate analog input on controller). An integrating (iree-step) actuator without position feedback will now be considered, In machine and small plant construction, the somewhat higher investment costs for actuators Position feedback Controller, Lc Figure 3.2 Principle of an integrating actuator with position feedback ‘Closed Analog } manipulated ' Integrating variable ! actuator 483.1 Influence of Final Control Elements on Control System Controller Analog Valve manipulated, variable Integrating actuator Figure 33 Signal flow with integrating actuators without position feedback with position feedback with the associated additional wiring overhead, or the costs for intelligent actuators, are frequently avoided. Cheap actuators are then used where limit the accuracy have to be accepted, When using such actuators, the controller has to simulate the position (more or less exactly). To achieve this, the outputs (Open and Close) in the controtler are connected internally to a (simulation) integrator. The speed with which the integrator must be increased or decreased must be matched to the runtime — the time from the closed position (0%) up to the open position (100%) — of the actuator to be simulated. The integrator is only activated by the controlled binary output for Open or Close. The simulation procedure shown in Fig. 3.3 includes great uncertainty. The integrator (function block with gray background in Fi which simulates the actuator position, does not have a link to the actual position of the actuator, and the two values (actuator position and simulated position) could diverge from one another. For example, if the actuator is limited or blocked by a torque elutch as mechanical limit protection, or if a mechanical intervention is made on the actuator itself, the actual position Manipulated variable in [9%] Althis position, Simulation value in (%] _ the true and simulated y ipulaled 100-4 Manipulated y acabee cones variable from aa 204 controler in) ss : 404 \ A 100 Timo [s} 0 20 40 60 80 100 Time [s} Figure 3.4 Synchronization function for actuators without position feedback 493 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System value and the simulated value diverge from one another. Inaccuracies in specification of the runtime, gear play and changes in the actuator mechanics as a result of aging are further reasons why the simulation may not always correspond exactly to the true position, There are therefore approximation procedures for synchronization, ‘The simple synchronization procedure assumes that the actuator is synchronized if the internal integrator is at the limit of its internal range (0% or 100%) and leaves the corresponding control bits active in this position. The feedback is via the process. This procedure functions with or without binary feedback signals (actuator open/closed). The principle is shown in Fig. 3.4. The Fig. shows how two values which are diverging become synchronized again via the process and controller if the direction control rem: mnary at the Timit of the ulation value. A. prerequisite for this procedure is that the actuator has a wear-free electrical and/or mechanical limit switch-off. If it is established during commissioning that the controller repeatedly carries out this synchronization, this is a clear sign that the value for the actuator runtime has not been correctly recorded or set. Such procedures are of course associated with a limited accuracy. An improved procedure is integrated in Standard PID Control, where the position simulation and the | component of the controller are calculated by the same integrator. 3.1 Contactors, Relays and Semiconductor Relays Contactors, relays and semiconductor relays are representatives of switching (two-step) actuators. Contactors and relays have a finite number of switching operations (e.g. 10°) and a finite response time with an onder of magnitude of 2-10 ms. Table 3.1 lists a number of switching times for various switching elements. Semiconductor relays have a finite response. time (although very short) which depends on the line frequency since the passage through zero is decisive for it when using alternating current, ‘Table 3.1. Switching times for various switching clements [From Te (Power) contactor 100 ms 1000 ms (Auxiliary) cont SO ms 200 me Relay 20 ms 100 ms. Solid state relay Toms - Thyristor switch 10 ms = 3.1.2 Control Valves and Gate Valves: Pneumatic, electropneumatic and electric drives are used for control valves and gate valves. Pneumatic drives are characterized by their ruggedness, very high approach dynamics, and the very high positioning forces they deliver, If the auxiliary energy (compressed air) fails, they automatically assume a defined position. In practice, the pneumatic drives are often connected in series with a so-called /P converter (e.g. 0.4...2 bar) which generates the control air for the pneumatic valve drive from a stan- 503.1 Influence of Final Control Elements on Control System Straight-way valve ee Three-way valve 7 > — Figure 3.5 Ex: ples of the different design of various valves dard analog signal. If this I/P converter is fitted in the valve, one refers to an electropneumatic drive, Electric drives have the advantage that they do not require a further auxiliary supply (c.g. compressed air). They usually convert the drive energy directly into.a position viaa gear unit. Electric drives are generally slower than pneumatic drives, and require special output functions (pulse/pause converter) of the controller. Fig. 3.5 uses an example of control valves for water (VDE directives 2173 and 2174) to indicate that it is important for both planning and commissioning engineers to know that the response of an actuator can play a significant role for the control system and for the setting of the controller, and that the used actuators must always be considered exactly prior to commissioning. With a closed straight-way valve (see Fig. 3.5), no flow is present. With a closed three-way valve, the full flow is still present, except that the liquid leaves the valve via a dif ferent output than with the valve open. AA differentiation is basically made between plug valves, diaphragm valves and ball valves: All these valves are characterized by the k, value and the K,, value. The k, value The flow (in m'fh) of water (at 4. sstriction is referred to as the &, value ofa valve. This applies under the prerequisite that a differential pressure of | bar is present at this restric The K,, value ‘The absolute k, value (catalog value) of a control valve at the rated stroke (100%) is referred to as the X,, value. During mass production of the control valves, the effecti present at 100% stroke can differ by + 10% from the envisaged K,, value. values Valve characteristic A valve cl Abas acteristic is understood to be the dependency of the A, value on the valve stroke, c differentiation is made between two valve characteristies: the equal-percentage char- SI3_Actuators and Sensors for a Control System Kin [% of Ka Stroke in [1 0 20 40 60 80 100 Fated stroke Figure 3.6 Valve characteristics a) Shut-off valve) Linear characteristic for positioning ratio Sv = 50, ©) Equal-percemtage characteristic Sv = 25 and gradient n=3.22 4) Equal-percentage characteristic Sv = 50 and gradient n= 3 acteristic and the linear characteristic. This has non-negligible effects on the control system depending on selection of the actuator, especially if the working points change significantly. ‘The larger the flow becomes in an extensive pipe system, the larger the pressure loss through flow resistances. The relationship between flow and pressure loss through flow resistances can be approximately deseribed by a quadratic characteristic. This can be compensated using equal-percentage valves. Fig. 3.6 shows the two types of characteristic. The different characteristics indicate that large differences can result in the system response simply through selection of the type of valve, The intention of compensating such a non-linearity (at the controller output of at the input to the system) using a linearization function at the input can only function if no further non-linearities or effects of disturbance variables — which could influence the working point of the actuator —are present in the rest of the system. However, this is seldom the case in industrial applications, It would therefore be ideal from the control engineering viewpoint if the commissioning engineer could linearize a non-linearity in the actuator at the controller output, and a non-linearity of the sensor at the controller input. Note: Overdimensioning of actuators — and particularly of valves = is frequently the reason why control systems do not work correctly or why controtlers cannot be adjusted, [fan actuator is ordered “one size lange” because of planning doubts, it may be the case that it operates almost permanently at the lower limit and therefore possibly in an extremely non-linear range. Iti ideal for the controllerif the working point of the actuator is at relatively large openings (in the range 40. ,.95% in the above example), 3.1.3 Dampers and Butterfly Valves Dampers and butterfly valves for liquids and gases (e.g. air) basically consist of pivoted disks or louvers which provide a greater or lesser resistance to the flowing medium. These often 323.1 Influence of Final Control Elements on Control System have a very non-linear characteristic, The rotary movement of the damper results in a sinu- soidal non-linearity, The drives of the damper mechanics are usually very slow rotating actuators with an adjustable operating angle. The drives usually switch off automatically at the ends of the range. Damper drives are widely used in building automation, Switching (two- step) actuators were previously used almost exclusively. Nowadays, proportional damper drives are more important, Unless specified otherwise by the vendor, a minimum pulse dura tion of 2 100 ms is recommendable For the switching (two-step) actuators, Fig.9.1 shows an example of a damper characteristic. 3.1.4 Solenoid Valves Solenoid valves are representatives of mechanical switching (two-step) actuators. They are less suitable for controlling processes, especially for controlling the flow of liquids. Solenoid valves in pipes through which liquids flow result in substantial knocks which can present a higher mechanical load for the complete pipe system. They are either connected downstream of gate valves and closed at a defined limit of the gate setting, or they are used to control gas- cous media. In process engineering, the dosing of liquids is extremely important (see Section 3.1.6). Unless specified otherwise by the vendor, a minimum pulse duration of 2100 ms is recommendable for the solenoid valves. 3.1.5 Variable-speed Pumps and Motors Pumps and motors can hardly be used as actuators for control systems without further auxiliary units, Simply switching on and off does not permit a process (0 be controlled exactly, Together with a frequency converter, an adjustment unit for variable-speed gearing or other continuously adjustable equipment acting on the speed or torque, (three-phase) motors and. pumps open up a wide range of possible applications in control engineering. The auxiliary unit is decisive for the type of actuator, and not the motor or pump itself. Variable-speed drives are used to control mass flows (pumps), for pressure controts (venti- lators and extruders), and for handling and supporting engineering processes (stirrers, cen- trifuges, humidifiers, cleaning equipment ete.) 3.1.6 Dosing Actuators ‘The dosing of liquids can be implemented using pumps or valves controlled by apportioning. functions, Dosing from graduated vessels is also possible. ‘The comments in Section 3.1.5 also apply to dosing pumps. Pumps for continuous dosing of liquids are controlled by adjusting the stroke and the stroke rate, and can also be used for discrete dosing. Dosing pumps have very low dosing errors, and their analog control and the frequently encountered intelligent field technology do not place any particular dynamic performance requirements on the control system. Dosing using valves with software dosing functions (e.g. the technological function block “DOSE” from PCS7 with advanced switch-off, follow-up dosing and correction functions) is carried out together with a shut-off valve in pressurized systems (see example in Section 333 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System 10), Throttle controls or even PID flow controllers are frequently used upstream in the piping system because of non-constant pressure conditions in order to achieve exact switching-off of the flow of liquid. Control of the shut-off valve places significantly higher dynamic performance requirements of this dosing function depending on the speed and accuracy req ments. ‘The dosing of solid particles and bulk materials is significantly more problematical in practice than the dosing of liquids. Solid particles can be apportioned volumetrically or gravi- metrically. Volumetric dosing counts defined partial volumes and stops the dosing drive when the defined number has been reached; gravimetric dosing is carried out by continuously filling a tank whose change in weight is used to control the drive. A differentiation is made between filling and emptying. The problems when dosing solid particles are usually associated with the mechanical system or the specific properties of the bulk materials, and Jess with the control itself. The following can be used as final control elements for dosing bulk materials: + Vibration feeder + Star feeder + Screw feeder + Conveyor belt scale ete. Many of these final control elements are “only” controlled using single-stage or two-stage motor actuators, 3.2 Influence of Measurement Technique on Control System SIMATIC with its software controllers, process controllers and universal controllers generally masters all standard analog signals of O...10'V, 0...20 mA, 4,..20mA as well as PT100, N1100, NI1000 temperature signals and the most common thermocouples. In addition, many standard analog modules can process further signals (c.g. =10 V...+10V, 0...50 mV). With these controllers and analog modules, free selection is possible for each channel or in groups of four channels with the above-mentioned standard signals. The recorded analog values are converted, and available internally as both standardized (0...100%) and physical (e.g. 0...420°C or in K) variables. Like with the final control elements, there are also linear and non-linear sensors. The non- incar sensors include the PT100, NI100, N11000 sensors and the group of thermocouples. Non-linear sensors are usually passive elements whose transmission response is linearized on the module or by the software. Fig. 3.7 shows a number of the most common non-linear sensors, Most analog input modules of the SIMATIC $7 range provide corresponding linearization functions on the module, Universal controllers and function modules usually also provide ready-made linearization functions for the most common sensors. Special sensors must be tinearized by the user. The permanently increasing number of linearized sensors available on. the market are frequently designed as active sensors with their own linearization, electrical isolation and/or level conversion. $43.2 Influence of Measurement Technique on Control System sop Thermat ems. in {mV} Fe-Const 200 0 = 200400 600. 800 10001200 1400 Figure 3.7 Example of non-linear transmission function for thermocouples When connecting sensors, faults are frequently made in practice which can lead in the simplest case to the complete fuilure of the analog input. In such a case, troubleshooting is relatively simple, More complicated ~ and significantly more dangerous for persons, environment and process — is the case where the analog input determines a value which does not correspond to the true value. Here are a number of important fundamentals which must be observed when planning, installing and commissioning the analog value acquisition func tion: + Unused or deactivated analog inputs (and not the analog outputs as frequently incorrectly carried out) should be brought to the same potential using appropriate measures (ground- ing or connection together of the chassis ground). In the case of high-resistance inputs, additional short-circuiting of the inputs is meaningful. Please observe the respective description in the manuals, * Analog cables (particularly all voltage signals 0,,.10 V, thermocouples, PT100) must be shielded, and the shiekts must be grounded with a large-area contact and close to the module, + Inthe case of differences in the ground potential of only a few mY, the shield may be connected at just one end, otherwise at both ends. * The routing of analog cables must be separate from that of the power eables as far as possible. * Cable lengths must not be greater than the maximum lengths defined in the technical specifications of the modules. + The mounting location of sensors is often a factor which determines the controllabi control quality of a process. A number of important types of sensor and their modes of operation will be described below. 3.2.1 Signals from Directly Connected Thermocouples ‘Thermocouples (abbreviation TC) are sensors which utilize the different potential of two dif ferent metals (metal alloys) if these are electrically connected at one end and if different temperatures are present at the beginning and end of the conductors. The larger the temperature 383 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System ‘Table 3.2 List of the most common thermocouples and their standards ‘Thermocouple [Type ‘Standard Fe-CuNi L DINAB7I0 CuCuNi u DIN 43710 Cu-CuNi T TEC 584 Pant | 1 EC $84 Part | ‘i K EC 584 Part 1 NiCr-CuNi E IEC 584 Part 1 PUIORH-Pt 8 IEC S84 Part 1 PUBR-Pt R IEC 584 Part 1 PGORH-PtORH B TEC $84 Pan | difference, the larger the detectable difference in voltage, The relationship between the difference in temperature (machine/cold junction) and the difference in voltage is not linear, Fig. 3.7 shows how different the relationships can be for different combinations of metals (DIN IECS84 Part 1), The various thermocouples are named in practice by their specific abbreviations (type designations, see Table 3.2). In contrast to the limited temperature mea suring range of resistance thermometers and contact thermometers ~ where the temperature dependence of the electric resistance of a conductor made of metal alloy or semi-condueting materials is used as the measuring effect — various thermocouples can record temperatures far above 1000°C. A differentiation is also made between grounded and non-grounded thermocouples. In the former case, the potential of the measuring tip is identical to that of the machine base. Grounded and non-grounded thermocouples frequently require different connection systems at the analog input. In practice, confusion frequently occurs at this point. The installation guidelines and the wiring information of the individual products must be observed exactly. Determination of the cold junction temperature, as already mentioned, is extremely important when determining the temperature using thermocouples. The cold junction is the terminal at the transition from the two different metals (e.g. iror/constantan) to a uniform cable metal (e.g. copper/copper) (see Fig. 3.8). Faults are also frequently made here in practice which result in significant falsification of the result. ‘The cold junction temperature is logically determined using a different measuring principle which does not require a cold junction temperature. The use of PT100 elements is most common, ‘Cold junction ‘Analog module i Machine! fy , (1st terminal connection) are Copper Tron a” Channel x Copper Constantan Messing to) Temperature compensation | PF100 Figure 3,8 Connection principle of non-grounded thermocouple with temperature compensation 563.2 Influence of Measurement Technique on Control System Cold junction fachine! ‘Analog module (1st terminal connection) ine Universal controller em] } | extemal heater {eg 30°C) bane Thermal insulation Figure 3.9 Connection principle of grounded thermocouple with constant cold junction temperature ‘A somewhat older method for defining the cold junction temperature which is hardly used nowadays is to keep the cold junction temperature constant using an external heater (see Fig. 3.9), In this case, a thermally insulated terminal strip is held at a constant (relatively high) temperature using a heater. The constant (in the shown example: 30°C) can then be used as the basis in the analog-value acquisition for calculating the temperature of the measurement tip. A further possibility is temperature acquisition using a compensating box, where the box is connected into the measuring circuit for a number of modules, e.g. ET 200S. This box contains a measuring bridge circuit to which an external voltage must be connected and which delivers a compensation value to the input module (Fig. 3.10). For a more detailed description, refer to the manuals on the S7-300 and S7-400 modules and the ET 200S distributed VO system. Important note: Problems with thermocouples may occur during (long-term) opera tion due to corrosion of the measuring tips (especially with non-floating thermocouples), This finally results in triggering of the module's open-circuit monitoring funetion, but this type of thermocouple destruction is not usually a sudden event. The slow erosion results in increasing contact resistances which can lead to significant errors in measurement, The small voltage values of the thermocouples mean that such sensors are sensitive to electromagnetic interferences. This must be taken into account when routing the cables, when determining the mounting location, and in the shielding measures. Modules are also available with an internal cold junction, permitting thermocouples to be connected directly or via corresponding extension leads. 3.2.2 Signals from Directly Connected Resistance Thermometers In contrast to the differential voltage measurement principle of thermocouples, resistance thermometers determine their value by measuring the resistance of particular alloys which deliver different resistance values when the temperature changes. The most important representative is the PT100 sensor. 73. Actuators and Sensors for a Control System Cold junetion Pais Compensating box ] Constantan Ech ee CY Ls Comp + M ins i i—M Figure 3.10 Connection principle of thermocouple using compensating box In order to measure the resistance, a constant current is converted into a temperature-dependent voltage and connected to the module. The cold junction is therefore omitted for such types of sensor, and they are also far more resistant to corrosion than thermocouples, The Current applied to the resistance thermometer is subject to a contradictory compromise: on the one hand, the current must be selected as small as possible to prevent self-heating of the sensor, and on the other hand, it must be as high as possible in order to obtain as large a measured signal as possible. To support the measuring accuracy, separate conductors should be used to apply the current to a resistance thermometer, and should be routed up to the sensor head and connected there. This is referred to as a four-wire system (Fig. 3.11). Modules also ‘Analog module ee Universal controtlor Machine! us plant 7 Channel x a 1mAé PT100 {Is connection head Figure 3.11 Connection principle of a PT100 sensor with four-wire system PT100 connection head Figure 3.12 Connection principle of a PT100 sensor with three-wire system 583.2 Influence of Measurement Technique on Control System: exist with a three-wire system which measure the line resistance and take this into account in the calculation. The same accuracy is then achieved as with a four-wire measurement. The smallest falsifications are to be expected from the line resistance, If the negative con ductors for the measured signal and for application of the current are connected together, the result is the three-wire system, where increased limitations in accuracy have to be accepted, A three-wire system is shown in Pig. 3.12. PT100 ‘The PT 100 sensor (see Fig. 3.13) has its name from its platinum alloy which delivers a nominal resistance of exactly 100.Q. at 0°C. The PT 100 sensors do not have such a good dynamic performance as thermocouples for fast temperature systems since they are usually of larger size. PT100 sensors also have a non-linear characteristic which is defined in DIN 43760 and TEC 584-1 and has to be linearized. It should be noted, however, that various universal con- rollers do not utilize the complete DIN range in order to keep the overhead for application of the current within acceptable limits. Corresponding data can be found in the technical descriptions of the controller modules and analog input modules. Figure 3.13 PT100 sensor PT500 and PT1000 The PTSOO and PT1000 sensors have the same basic design as a PT100 sensor, except for the corresponding nominal resistance (500 (2 and 10002 respectively) at 0°C. These sensors are used where lange accuracy demands exist. The influences of the line resistances are significantly less because of the higher resistance values. In addition, the same accuracy can be achieved witha significantly smaller applied current and therefore with reduced self-heating, NHI00 and NI1000 ‘The NI100 and NILO0O sensors are also resistance thermometers (DIN 43760) with a nominal resistance of 100.2 and 1000.22 respectively at 0°C. However, these sensors are of sec~ ondary importance in industrial applications, and have therefore been removed from the standard by the standards committee. 3.2.3 Standard Signals (0...10 V, 4...20 mA or @...20 mA) Flow, pressure and weight sensors as well as other process engineering analyzers, and also temperature measurements to an increasing degree (contact measurements or pyrometer measurements), are frequently equipped with their own transmitters which deliver standard signals (( 0, 4...20 mA or 0...20 mA). From the viewpoint of PLCs and process con- 39,3 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System Transmitter Figure 3.14 Connection principle of a four-wire transmit Ine Transmitter Figure 3.15 Connection principle of a two-wire transmitter trollers, a differentiation is made between two basic types of transmitter. The four-wire transmitter is powered by an external supply and shown in Fig, 3.14. The two-wire transmitter (Fig. 3.15) receives its power from the power supply of the analog input module or universal controtler. 3.2.4 Measuring Principle of Analog Acquisition In general measuring technology, various procedures are known and described for acquisition of measured values and signal processing in digital computers, control units and process control systems (see [9]). Measured-value acquisition is characterized by input amplifiers, filters, multiplexers and the analog/digital converter (A/D converter). The measuring prin ple of the A/D converter in particular can have effects on the control system because of its specific advantages and disadvantages. Three of these known procedures are mainly used in the SIMATIC, and are briefly described here: Integration or dual-stope procedure An older and certainly widest spread measuring principle for A/D conversion with analog inputs (for SIMATIC signal modules) of process and universal controllers is the integration procedure, also referred to and described as a dul-stope A/D converter in [9] (see Table 3.4), Although this procedure is relatively slow, it is extremely resistant to interferences in industrial environments. Electromagnetic interferences are particularly present there with a multiple of the line frequency, Measurements have shown that 400 Hz plays a particularly dominating roll in the interference frequency spectrum in Europe. With the integration procedure, the measured value is integrated over a (line) full wave of 20 ms at 50 Hz, Discharging of the integrator is carried out by means of a reference signal.3.2 Influence of Measurement Technique on Control System ‘Table 3.3 Extract from the technical specifications of the SM 331 analog input module, AI8 - 12 bit, taken from the reference manual “S7-300, M7-300 automation system/module data” ‘Analog-value generation Measuring principle Integrating Integration time / conversion time / resolution ¢per channel) '* Parameterizable ‘Yes + Integration time tin ms) 25 1628 20 100 * Basic conversion time (in ms) 3.0 17 2 102 The duration from commencement of the discharge up to complete discharge is evaluated as a measure of the applied signal. This principle automatically eliminates the interfering frequencies since negative and positive interfering pulses compensate one another, As a result of the long determination time for a new analog value (20 ms with a line frequency of 50H, and 16.7 ms with 60 Hz), this procedure is only suitable for relatively stow control systems (dominating system time constant 1-2 seconds. This is usually sufficient for most temper ature controls and the usual controls associated with process engineering. Instantaneous value coding A significantly faster measuring principle for A/D conversion with analog inputs for SIMATIC modules is instantaneous value coding. This procedure delivers the current measured value for SIMATIC S7 analog modules within a few microseconds (see Table 3.4) This type of analog-value acquisition is therefore suitable for fast controls such as speed controls, Problems may occur with these analog modules if the sensor or the analog-value lines are subject to electromagnetic interferences. As a result of beats, long-wave interferences may then occur as frequencies superimposed on the determined value. It is often very difficult to filter out these interferences using software algorithms, Successive approximation The term “successive approximation” describes the principle of measured-value acquisition. ‘The measured signal is approximated step-by-step. Initially coarse, and then in repeatedly smaller steps until the reference value approximately corresponds to the measured signal. ‘Table 3.4 Extract from the technical specifications of the SM 431 analog input module, AI8 + 14 bit, taken from the reference manual “$7-300, M7-300 automation system/module data” ‘Analog-value generation Measuring principle Instantaneous value coding Suppression of interfering frequency + Parameterizable for interfering frequency * Order Conversion time per channel Basic conversion time per channel Using comb filter 4002 60H, SOHz 6 0 48 10s 52s 613 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System Sigmacdelta procedure The modem but complex sigma-delta procedure for A/D conversion with analog inputs is based on an integrator with a series-connected and looped-back comparator (I-bit converter) that generates a Variable pulse time from which the measured value is derived. This is carried out in an LSI chip. This relatively slow measuring procedure allows a very high accuracy with high security at the same time (see Table 3.5). Use of this procedure is worthwhile with modules with high resolution requirements and for complex measuring tasks (temperature recording with direct connection). Filtering of the interfering frequencies is usually carried out on the module, and is implemented using a combination of hardware filters and complex. software filters. Table 3.5 Extract from the technical specifications of the $M 43] analog input module, AI8 - RTD - 16 bit, taken from the reference manual “7-300, M7-300 automation systern/module data” Analog-value generation Measuring principle Sigma-dcia (pipeline) Suppression of interfering frequency F1 He — S0He Conversion time / resolution « Updating time (8 channels...) <25ms + Updating time (1 channel, <8 ms Notes: Every emor in meastifeienndiecelly ciitersithe diiality-at the-prdcess:to be cols trolled, even if the controller indicates asettled state, 3.25 Resolution, Accuracy and Repeatability Significant variables for assessing an analog input, in addition to the coding time, are the resolution, accuracy and repeatability. It is frequently the case that these terms are confused in practice. Resolution of analog-value acquisition ‘The resolution of an analog input is the number of bits with which the measured signal is rep- resented within the module (¢.g. for the FM 355: 12 bits with a coding time of 20 ms, or 14 bits with 100 ms), or, according to (10), the resolution is the smallest change in measured value which can still be determined by the measuring equipment, Accuracy of anatog-vatue acquisition ‘The accuracy of the analog input (this is not the accuracy of the complete control system) is understood to be the accuracy in the representation of the measured value, This includes the errors of the signal input, conversion and digitization, and especially transmitter errors, This total error of the sequence always refers to the full-scale value of the representation. If the measurement is always within the bottom part of the measuring range, even a 14-bit conver sion will result in large inaccuracies in measured-value acquisition,3.3 Connection of Actuators and Sensors to the PLC Repeatability The repeatability of a result refers to the difference in the measured-value display following. repeated application of the measured signal to an analog input. It should be below 0.1 % of the full-scale value. The typical value for standard modules is < 0.1% of the full-scale range or < 0.1 K for temperature measurements, Note: With all software controls, it must be observed in the input standardization of ‘setpoints and actual values that a sensible measuring range is selected which is nevertheless as small as possible. With most hardware process controllers for temperature measurements (selection of sensor type for analog-value acquisition: PT100 or thermocouple), users have no further influence on selection of the measuring range (start-of- scale value/full-seale value). The analog modules offer a climate range in addition ( the standard range. The FM 355, FM 355-2 and FM 455 modules offer several ranges for this. 3.3 Connection of Actuators and Sensors to the PLC With SIMATIC S7/PCS7, the configuration and adjustment of directly connected or cen- trally connected sensors and actuators is by means of the SIMATIC Manager (type of signal and definition of measuring range), Exceptions are the analog modules for which the type of Example of definition of type of measurement and measuring range for an 8-channel input module using the "HW-Config” tool of the SIMATIC Manager 633 Actuators and Sensors for a Control System Figure 3.17 PDM screen form for adjustment of a SITRANS P analog-value acquisition (current, voltage etc.) must be additionally set using a coding element. With the SIMATIC Manager it is not only possible to use the hardware configuration funetion ~ also abbreviated to "HW-Config” ~ to configure and address the corresponding hardware, itis the case that all available modules are offered ina hardware catalog and can be selected by the user depending on the measuring principle required, For example, a different measuring principle or a different measuring range can be assigned within certain limits to each analog channel on an 8-channel analog input module (see Fig. 3.16), Furthermore, this screen form can be used to set the type of diagnostics monitoring if this is supported by the module. In SIMATIC $7/PCS7, the configuration and adjustment of field devices is carried out using SIMATIC PDM. It is possible to adjust the devices using the configuration sereen forms (Fig. 3.17) installed in the tool (the SITRANS P, shown in Fig. 3.18, is an example of the wide product range of SIEMENS AG). The SITRANS P transmitter of the DS series can Figure 3.18, Source SIEMENS AG: SITRANS P3.3 Connection of Actuators and Sensors to the PLC Figure 3.19 Controller parameterization of a S7-200 using the instruetion wizard PID. bbe used to measure different pressures, levels or flows. The DS series includes a special version for connection to PROFIBUS PA, which is a variant of PROFIBUS DP. Since the PROFIBUS PA has a lower transmission rate and therefore a smaller dissipated power, these devices can be used in a hazardous area, In the $7-200, the scaling of the analog input value (actual value) and the analog/digital manipulated variable in STEP 7-Micro/WIN is carried out using a special screen form in the instruction wizard PID (see Fig. 3.19)4 Representation of Loop Controls ‘The representation of control systems and loops in accordance with standards presupposes thatthe letters, graphic symbols and terms used in the control engineering documents and the GUIs of the visualization systems are uniform and standardized. ‘These are defined in various DIN directives, DIN 19227, Parts 1-5, DIN 28004 and DIN 19222 specify that the quoted standards are applied in process engineering plants, for example in the chemical industry, the ineral oil industry, in corresponding sections of power plants, iron and steel works, the building, mining and quarrying industry, the paper and cellulose industry, the food and bev- rages industry, gas and water engineering, air-conditioning, etc. In the following, a simplified example of a plant for the production of dispersion colors is to be used to demonstrate the various types of standardized representation for engineering processes, 4.1 Flowcharts According to DIN 28004 The representations of flowcharts of process engineering plants for actuators, sensors, equipment, machines, plant components and piping are defined in the DIN standard 28004 Part 1. ‘The flowcharts can be generally divided into basic flowchart, process flowchart and PI flowchart, Basic flowchart The basic flowchart as e.g, in Fig. 4.1 uses rectangles and connection lines to provide an abstract presentation of the fundamental effects and flows between the individual plant seetions and production sequences, —— Liquids Dosing oftiqués 13] Reaction -——> War | L____] waste Ripening Bulk material Dosing of solids Filing = $1) End product Figure 4.1 Example of a basic flowchart according to DIN 280044.1 Flowcharts According to DIN 28004 Process flowchart The process flowchart (part of a plant for the production of paints is shown in Fig, 4.2) sym- bolizes the process using graphic elements combined together by lines. Pl flowchart ‘The PI flowchart (Fig. 4.3) uses graphic elements to represent the technical equipment of a plant. As in the previous flowcharts, the graphic elements are connected by lines. The abbre- Viation “PI” stands for piping and instrumentation flowchart. The control system FRCA* 1 shown in Fig. 4.3 is a flow control with registration of the controlled variable and fault messages in the control room when the upper and lower limits are reached the control system FQIS* 41 is a volume meter with preset quantity, and the control system TRCA.1 is a temperature control with recording and fault message when a lower limit is reached. See Fig, 4.5 Figure 4.2 Example of a process flowchart according to DIN 28004 674 Representation of Loop Controls NK a6 O Nea NK 48: NP at Figure 4.3 Section of a PI schematic of a process engineering plant used to manufacture paints 4.2 Planning Documents According to DIN 19227, Part 1 Identification of the individual tasks of the process control technology (PCT) is carried out by letters defined in DIN 19227 Part 1. They are used in the PI schematics to define the measurement point which can be described by the type of input variable, its processing, the location and its path of action, Fig. 4.4 uses three examples according to DIN 19222 to show how the electrical, measuring and control technology tag symbols (in Germany called EMSR-tag symbols) are presented: such a symbol is identified in the top part by the tag letters and in the bottom part by the tag designation (number or combination of numbers/letters), Classification letters ‘The classification letters are defined according to DIN 19227, Part 1, Table 3, and an extract shown in Fig, 4.6, They define the measured variable (input variable) and its processing, id are divided into initial letter, supplementary letter and successive letter. Fig. 4.5, left, -ntifies a differential pressure controller according to DIN 19227, Part 1. The process val- f the differential pressure controller are visualized in the control room. Fig. 4.5, right,4.2 Planning Documents According to DIN 19227, Pant | x] Figure 4.4 ‘Three examples; temperature sensor (left, flow controller (center) and cascade control for temperature and flow (right) represents a flow controller according to DIN 19227, Part 1, whose measured value (actual valuc) is subject to lower limit monitoring, which can send fault messages, and whose process values are recorded. Itis evident that the supplementary and suecessive letters are mutually excluding in the table “Classification letters for electrical, measuring and control technology” in Fig. 4.6. In the classification used above for the flow controller, the letter “R” is in the second position. However, there is no entry for “R” in the column for the supplementary letter, It must there~ fore be a successive letter with the meaning “recording” All further letters are then automatically successive letters. In the case of limit monitoring functions, the “+” and “~" symbols can also be used for the upper and lower limits. Refer to the control system FRCA* 11 in Fig. 4.3. (Enon EEE exer Low limit hd ‘Successive lettor A: Successive letter C: Fault message Automatic contro! —${$T—~TT Successive latior C: Successive letter t: Automatic control Display Supplementary eter R: : not present It Supplementary letter D: This is therefore a successive letter nce ‘Successive letter R: Recording Initia etter P: Initial letter F: Pressure Flaw Figure 4.5 ‘Two examples of an electrical, measuring and control technology tag: pressure controller (left) and flow controller (right) 694 Representation of Loop Controls ‘Automate control i a g a ali eal | & ay ‘Material property, quaiity vrata rayne Ps Integra, total Figure 4,6 Extract from “Classification letters for electrical, measuring and control technology” of DIN 19227, Part |Table 3 4.3 Controllers in the Configuration GUI 4.3.1 Software Controls in STL Text Representation Fig, 4.7 shows a section of the programming present in the software package “Modular PID Control”. The programming of this example was carried out using the standard programming editor of STEP7 in the statement list representation (STL). The right-hand part of the STL editor contains the elements and functions of the libraries. Following purchase and correct installation of the software package “Modular PID Control”, the listed blocks can be installed and called there in the modular user control structure in text form. Values are provided for the functions (e.g. PID controller) using the parameter bars of the blocks, or linked into other functions using transfer parameters. This linking is carried out using either global resources (e.g. bit memories and data block elements) or local variables (stack variables). 704.3 Controtlers in the Configuration GUI ike Figure 4.7 Extract from the program “Example01" of Modular PID Control, FCS0. 4.3.2 Modular Controls in CFC Representation Fig. 4.8 shows an extract of the control product “Modular PID Control” in the graphic representation of the CFC. Version limitations exist for the use of Modular PID Control in the CFC representation (e.g. Modular PID Control cannot be used with CFC Version 4.xx), In addition to the clearer and more technology-based display possibilities for simple closed- Joop controls up to complex control structures, representation of the configuration in CFC provides further advantages, In this graphic representation, the selected call level and the implemented call sequence of the individual software blocks can be recognized in each individual function call, and can be modified separately for each block (more details later in Sec- tion 8), A control structure with elements in different chronological call levels can therefore be output in one display with several pages, without the signal flow extending over different program sections as is the case with the STL representation, The CFC representation of the control structure is therefore far clearer. ‘A further important advantage of the CFC representation is the automatic documentation of such graphic tools provided the basic idea of the graphic interconnection is also consistently implemented, This means that the use of global resources is omitted when generating the program, Parameters which are not required or not used can also be suppressed in CFCs. "4 Representation of Loop Controls Figure 4.8 Graphic representation of a single control loop using SIMATIC CFC with functions from the Modular PID Control Figure 4.9 Example of the parameterization GUI of Standard PID Control n4.3 Controllers in the Configuration GUI 4.3.3 Parameterization of Compact Loop Controls SIMATIC provides configuration tools for ready-to-use controls (e.g. “Standard PID Con- trol” or “FM 355”) with which the structure switches can be displayed on the Windows desktop and used in full-graphic mode for settings. The controller is set by selecting the PID symbol. A dialog window is then opened with which the corresponding function block can be accessed and visualized, Operator access and the visualization of such a compact controller is always associated with an instance data block (DB) which is scanned at the beginning of a dialog with the corresponding controller, In Fig. 4.9, this is the DB 101. as shown in the title line. 4.3.4 Configuration of PID Controllers in the S7-200 Up to eight PID controllers can be used in the S7-200, which are defined and parameterized using the STEP7-MicroWIN configuration software and the wizard (“Instruction wizard PID”), and automatically entered in the user program in the form of subroutines (Fig. 4.10). In this configuration desktop, the transfer parameters generated using the wizard can be linked to further function blocks (€.g. setpoint ramp, automatic/manual mode, calculation of manual manipulated variable etc.). Re lpel ele eewin] way Figure 4.10 Configuration form in the STEP 7-Micro/WIN program for a PID controller in $7-200 (in this example without manual/automatic mode) n4 Representation of Loop Controls 4.3.5 Configuration of PI Controllers in the LOGO! Logic Module Pi controllers can be installed in the LOGO! logic module. On the one hand, this can be carried out from the front display, or — recommended — using the LOGO! soft Comfort configuration software (see Fig. 4.11) Figure 4.41 Configuration form in the LOGO! soft Comfort program 4.4 Software Controllers in the User Interface Fig. 4.12 shows the standard user interface (loop display) of a simple PID process controller of STEP7 ("Standard PID Control”). Fig. 4.13 shows the standard user interface of a simple PID process controller in PCS7. ‘These detailed displays of individual functions in PCS7 are referred to as faceplates. The faceplate of the sofiware controller CTRL_PID has various representations (e.g. standard, maintenance, parameters, tend, messages. ete.) Fig. 4.13 shows the complete view of the faceplate CTRL_PID (LOOP). The six display elements in the working area commence atthe top left with the standard representation in which the setpoint, actual value and manipulated variable are displayed in decimal form, and the setpoint and actual value as bargraphs in addition, The user can define the type of setpoint input (internal/external and ramp function) at the top center, All messages (faults, limit vio~ lations, 1&C messages cle.) associated with this control loop are present at the top left. In the center, from left to right, is the list of control parameters GAIN, TN, TV, TM_LAG, HYST, DEADB cic,), followed by the parameters for alarm and warning limit monitoring of the actual value as well as the upper and lower limits of the setpoint and manipulated variable, and on the far left is the trend display including the possibility for text display of historical 444 Software Controllers in the User Interface Figure 4.12 GUI of the Standard PID ‘Control integrated as standard: in STEP7 (loop display) values, The operating window at the bottom right in Fig. 4,13 is reserved for batch mode uusing the Batch FTexibfe option package and is not used in this example. A standard exists for the design of user interfaces for controllers. DIN 19235 detines the ‘appearance of messages and operating states, and VDE/VDI 3699 regulates, inter alia, the colors of a controller loop display in the user interface. Figure 4.13 PCS7 representation of a dosing controller 34 Representation of Loop Controls 4.5 User Interfaces of Hardware Controllers 4.5.1 Operation of Control FMs The FM 355 and FM 455 function modules (see Fig. 4.14) belong to the hardware controllers, and do not have their own user interface. They can be accessed using standard operation of the associated CPU, using the operator interface (e.g, WinCC, PCS7 OS) or also directly Figure 4.14 Photo: FM 455 (left) and FM 355 (right) using an operator panel (OP) from the field (local operation) or by means of a programming device in the event of servicing. A programming device (PG) with STEP7 is used asa Windows application for programming, operation and monitoring, as well as for diagnostics of SIMATIC S7 components, ‘These user interfaces have an individual design depending on the particular display unit, and are connected to the controllers via the MPU/PROFIBUS interface. This particularly applies to the line-based text displays (TD) and the OP7 and OPI7 operator panels. No standards for generation of user interfaces are known for these. In PCS7, only the FM 355 and FM 355-2 are supported using corresponding blocks and faceplates. 4.5.2. Operation of LOGO! Logic Module ‘The definition and operator access of setpoints and parameters of the PI controller of the LOGO! logie module can be carried out using the front display and its keyset (see Fig. 4.15). PI controllers are only available as an additional function in LOGO! version OBAS and higher. The LOGO! logic module can be connected to the EIB bus system via an EIB/KNX communications module. Setpoints for external room temperature controllers or lighting control/ shading systems can then be defined. The logic module then becomes the operator terminal. 16 Figure 4.15 User interface of the LOGO! logic module4.5 User Interfaces of Hardware Controllers 4.5.3 Operation of SIPART Controllers. ‘The SIPART controllers have dominated the SIEMENS closed-loop control technology in the process engineering sector for many years. With the introduction of the PROFIBUS and PROFIBUS-DP fieldbus technology, these devices and the SIMATIC range have moved very close together. The SIPART field devices are an important component in the PCS7 process control system, and are part of the PCS7 standard library “Field devices”, Fig. 4.16 shows the user interface of a SIPART DR21 for which a corresponding OS faceplate also exists in Pcsz. em 5! Figure 4.16 a (User interface of the (ee ete) SIPART DR2I 15 Operating Modes 5.1 Summary of Operating Modes As already mentioned, the various controllers are not only identified by pure computing rules but also by their control mechanisms. The most important control facility of a controller is its mode selector. The manuaV/automatic mode selector is the most well-known in practice. If the controller is in manual mode, the closed control loop is opened, and the manipulated variable set manually. If the controller is in automatic mode, the control loop is closed and the manipulated variable is automatically calculated by the algorithm and output. Process controllers also differentiate further operating modes (see Fig. 5.1), The subordinate modes of manual operation describe the manner in which the manipulated variable is manually influenced — or to be more exact, how the actuator is controlled, The subordinate modes of ‘operation describe the type of setpoint input. Note: Not all of the operatingsmodes described: below) are implétiented in the ‘SIMATIC control products. In particular, the PI(D) controllers of thé SIMATIC $7-200 mini PLCs and LOGO! have a limited range of operating modes, Safety mode Safety mode is a manual mode, and switches the controller output to a parameterizable safety manipulated variable if a safety-relevant event occurs. Follow-up Follow-up is a manual mode, and switches the controller output to a manual manipulated variable which can be modified by the user. In the case of software controllers as used in the PCS7, follow-up means the output of a manipulated variable defined by the control program. Manual (from OS operation) Manual (from OS operation) is a manual mode, and switches the controller output to a value defined by the user, which in turn can be defined by a value set using an input/output value of a visualization system (faceplate). Blocking Blocking is a manual mode for hardware controllers and an automatic mode for software controllers, and freezes the current manipulated variable; the manipulated variable is blocked. 782.2 Manual and Automatic Modes: Operating modes (hardware) Operating mades (software) a“. ZN Automatic Manual Automatic anual ~ a ~ oe, | \> stating ni | \oscpuaon low-up Setpo ‘otow-up ope | satety mode ‘Ee. setpoint (CFC) Safety setpoint Safety mode: Safety setpoint (applicative via (applicative via oxt setpoint) follow-up) Figure 5.1 Sumnuary of process controller modes. Left: scheme of hardware controllers using example of SIPART controller; right: scheme of software controller using example of CTRL_PID of PCS7 SPC SPC is an automatic mode (setpoint control) of a control module or control software, Driving iseitherto a previously defined and fixed setpoint, orto a setpoint defined by a host computer or host control program, DDC DDC is an automatic mode (direct digital control) of a control module. The manipulated variable is defined by a host computer or a host contro! program, and the algorithm present in automatic mode “stumbers” in standby mode in the background (it listens in). The actual value acquisition is still active in DDC mode, and the host controtler can use this measured value. If there is a computer or CPU failure of the host PLC, the controller takes over in a bumpless manner, This type of takeover is also referred to as a backup response. The backup response of the FM 355 and FM 455 modules means that the respective FM continues to operate should the CPU fail or stop. Safety setpoint ‘The safety setpoint is an automatic mode of a control module which is applied in the event of a communication, computer or CPU failure. In the normal case, a host computer ora host control program passes on the setpoint to the module (follow-up control), In the event of a fault, the module does not control according to the last setpoint received but to a safety setpoint specially parameterized for this case, 5.2 Manual and Automatic Modes In addition to thi den from the user funetions. nany other functions are carried out in the controller which are often hid- id which make the individual controtlers appear to have highly different 5.2.1 Bumpless Manual/Automatic Switchover A bumpless switchover from manual mode to automatic mode is required in most plants. Without this function, an error signal in the first automatic cycle would make the controller 95_Operating Modes Figure 5.2 :xample of bumpless switchover from manual to automatic. The response of the controller output is shown following any manual adjust- ‘ment of the output value in manual mode and subsequent switching over Noautomatic mode where a constant error signal is present. There is no Auto jump at the time of switching over, = the controller continues without a Manual bump from the last manual output o 20 40 60 value react with a P jump and abruptly modify the output value by the calculated manipulated variable, This is usually undesirable and can have a negative effect on the process. In the event of a bumpless switchover from manual to automatic mode, the manual manipulated variable must be corrected in manual mode for PI(D) algorithms and written into the [component such that the manipulated variable does not jump following switching over to automatic. This is shown in Fig, 5.2, Expressed simply, the control algorithm is calculated backwards in manual mode, and the result constantly written into the | component according to Forme! 5.1. Y-P-Z 5.1) Y is the output value (manual manipulated variable), P the current value of the P component, and Z the current value of the fault input. 5.2.2 Bumpless Automatic/Manual Switchover Just like the bumpless switchover from manuall to automatic mode, the bumpless switchover from automatic to manual mode, as shown in Fig. 5.3, is a significant function of a practical process controller: In order to guarantee a bumpless switchover from automatic mode to manual mode, the current manipulated variable must be permanently written in automatic mode into the manual value. The value or the parameter for the manual manipulated variable is then a pure input field in manual mode and a pure output field in automatic mode, Con- troller-internal functions (such as manual/automatic switchover) in the function blocks (FB) read or write the same parameter depending on the particular operating state. These parameters must be written by means of an old/new comparison triggered by events, and otherwise read back and evaluated if necessary. Note: Neither the user program nor the user interfaces should ever cyclically write parameters such as the manual manipulated variable or the operating mode selector. 805.2 Manual and Automatic Modes 4 Manipuiates Automatic 100 ~] variable [%) adjustment 80 fo 60 4 Manual wo adjustment 2 | Le ee ° 20 40 ny Example of bumpless switchover from automatic to manual. The response of the con- ‘Operating mode | troller output is shown in automatic mode Auto with a constant erroe signal. A jump does not Time [s ‘occur at the time of switching over to man- Manual — 8 tual mode; the controller can now be manu- 0 20 40 60 ally adjusted from the last automati¢ value 5.2.3 Manual/Automatic Switchover not Bumpless In the case of temperature applications, there are also controtlers for which a bumpless switchover from manual to automatic is not required or is even undesirable. This mode is less complex for the controller since the controller algorithm need only be switched off during manual mode and, when switching back to automatic mode, simply continues at the position \terrupted when switching to manual mode. However, stopping of the controller is certainly not software-based bypassing of it but is switching to manual mode with ctual value). Bypassing of the controller would mean that the J component remains stationary, and that although the P component changes (A: when switching over from manual to automatic, an eptional component (the old I component) becomes active at the same time (see Fig. 5.4). Such an action usually results in problems and is not recommendable. Manipulates Automatic variable [%] /Sdhuctment 100 80 Manual adjustment 60 \ Figure 5.4 ‘0 Example of switching over from manual to automatic which is not bumpless, The 20 response of the controller output is shown following any manual adjustment to the ° ‘manipulated variable in manual mode and subsequent switching aver (o automatic Operating modo | mode with a constant error signal being Auto present. jump occurs at the point of Trias} switching over (P jump); the controller lana jjumps to the last automatic manipulated ° 20 40 60 variable 815_Gperating Modes 5.2.4 Automatic/Manual Switchover not Bumpless ‘This operating mode is not meaningful in association with “normal” manual process inter- ventions by the operating personnel, and is therefore not implemented with any of the known process controllers. The operating mode would mean that when switching the controller to manual the output would immediately drive to the last manual manipulated variable set, and therefore result in an undesirable change in manipulated variable for the process, Controllers, which do not have internal bumpless automatic/manual switchover must guarantee this through programming on the user interface or in the user program. 5.2.5 Automatic/Safety Manipulated Variable Switchover Switching over from automatic mode to the safety manipulated variable is exactly the response described in the last section, Upon the occurrence of a safety-relevant event (¢.g violation of upper temperature limit), the controller output is directly forced to a safety position, The output must change with a jump to the desired value. However, in contrast to the manual manipulated variable, the safety manipulated variable is not usually a process value +h can be changed by the user but is a parameter which is set once ora value defined by the control system (internal calculated value). 5.2.6 SPC or DDC/Safety Manipulated Variable Switchover When switching over from automatic mode (SPC mode or DDC mode) to the safety setpoint, only the setpoint active on the controller iy changed. The effect on the controlled systern is the same as would result from a normal change in setpoint from the user interface, Those who wish to avoid frequent changes in the manipulated variable can use the RAMP function (sce Section 6) in the setpoint branch. 5.3 Starting of (Software) Controller Following Restart/Cold Restart of CPU All changes in operating mode and switching procedures which influence the actual value usually result in unsteadiness in a compensated system, In particular the starting of a plant following a restart or cold restart of the PLC (e.g. following a power failure), as welll as operational switching off and on of the plant, result in the process controller having to reach the setpoint again as fast as possible and without large overshoots. There are various strategies to achieve such a response for a software process controller, each of which hay specific advantages and disadvantages, Which of the following possibilities is the best depends exclusively on the type of process and the requirements of the plant operator. The planning, or commissioning engineer must decide whether the setpoint is to be reached rapidly, possibly with slight overshoots, or rather cautiously. 5.3.1 Starting of Control Loop not Bumpless Starting of a control loop which is not bumpless does not require any programming or parameterization overhead during the planning phase (Fig. 5.5). If the PLC fails (OFF), the5.3 Starting of (Software) Controller Following Restar/Cold Restart of CPU Process value [%] Manipuiated = ~ variable on! Figure 5.5 Exumple of a controller or plant restart which is not bumpless fol- ° 20 40 60 lowing a power faiture manipulated variable is set ~ without any special measures ~ to 0" in the case of digital outputs and to “deenergized” in the case of analog modules. The actual value of the settled system strides towards a quiescent value. Upon return of the power, the controller recognizes a large error signal when called for the first time and reacts accordingly. The manipulated variable can suddenly jump to the maximum limit. The advantage of this procedure is that the controller reacts extremely rapidly and can compensate this fault to a greater or lesser extent depending on the settings of the control parameters. If suflicient "energy” is still present in the system when switching on again, an overshoot can be expected for such a fault. 5.3.2 Starting of Control Loop Bumpless Starting of a control loop which is bumpless requires programming or parameterization overhead during the planning phase. If the PLC fails (OFF), the manipulated variable is set = without any special measures — to zero, The actual value of the settled system strides towards a quiescent value. There are various possibilities for avoiding an overshoot: AUTO-MANUAL-AUTO switchover The controller is set to manual mode in the restart OB (OB100) (Fig, 5.6). This freezes the old maniputated variable (the manipulated variable prior to the power failure) when the controller is called for the first time. Following the first cycle in manual mode, the controller is then automatically reset to automatic mode again, Although the large error signal is recognized, a P step change does not take place. The controller then operates “gently” starting Process value [%] Manipulated Figure §.6 variable Example of a bumpless restart of the controller or plant following a power failure by means of AUTO-MANUAL- ° 20 40 60 AUTO switchover during starting Time [3]5_Operating Modes: with this manipulated variable, There is less danger of an overshoot with this procedure, but a slower transient response must be expected. Starting using a ramp function ‘The controller setpoint is set in the restart OB (OB100) to the value of the controlled variable (setpoint = actual value), and the RAMP function is activated (Fig. 5.7). More information ‘on this contro! function can be found in Section 6, When the controller is called for the first time, the old setpoint (setpoint prior to the power failure) or also a new value is defined. ‘Therefore an error signal is not detected when the plant is restarted since the ramp starts with the current actual value. The manipulated variable assumes the old position or the old manipulated variable prior to the power failure, and a P step change therefore does not take place. As the setpoint rises, the controller then also continues to operate “gently”. There is also less danger of an overshoot with this procedure, but a slower (asymptotic) response of the controlled system must be expected. Process value 100, 60 60 ° Manipulated Figure §.7 20 variable Example of abumpless restart of the controller or plant following ‘a power failure with application 0 20 40 60 of a seipoint ramp Starting with resetting of the I component Certain products (e.g. Standard PID Control) have their own startup switch (¢.g.: FB41 “CONT_C” of the parameter COM_RST). Using this, the internal [ component is set 0 a default value when the CPU is started, and this may lead to a switchover which is not bumpless (see Fig. 5.5) 5.4 Operating Mode Following Controller OFF/ON Controlled systems such as pressure, level or flow usually belong ~ if they do not have a large dead time - to the easily mastered systems since they have a linear and symmetrical response, Controlled systems for temperature are much more difficult to master since heating and cooling take place according to different differemtial equation systems. Mastering of such non-symmetries using linear PID controllers is certainly not easy. Particularly the restarting of a controller, whether following a power failure or an operational shut-down, requires a number of “acrobatics” with all linear PID process controllers to achieve the desired control results.5.4 Operating Mode Following Controller OFF/ON 5.4.1 Straight-forward Control of a Loop A number of thermal processes must only have very small overshoots (e.g. rubber presses) to prevent the material in the machine from burning. The machine should nevertheless reach its operating temperature as fast as possible in order to minimize energy costs and standstill times, Since the control parameters of these machines are often very difficult to determine and usually also depend on the working point, various compromises exist in such cases which largely satisfy these contradictory requirements: Selection of differem control parameter sets In order to heat up the machine rapidly, the “aggressive” control parameters (parameter set 1) are used as shown in Fig. 5.8. Parameter set 2 is set such that no overshoots occur, Fol~ lowing a defined time (possibly adjustable), the operating parameter set (parameter set 2) is selected, Setpoint [%]: actual value [%] Figure 5.8 Example of a parameter control for start mode of a controlled system for temperature A PD controller (without I component) has been shown to be particularly suitable. The switching over between two parameters sets should be carried out in a bumpless manner using a step controller (mode switchover: automatic-manual-automatic). Note: It is recommendable when switching aver control parameters between parame: ter sets | and 2 to store differences as small as possible for K,. Each “massive” change in X, results in a P step change with most PID process controllers. On the other hand, a massive change in the I component does not result in a step change. Starting in manual mode A further possibility for the controlled starting of a plant is starting of the controller in man- tual mode (the manual manipulated variable comes from control system logic) with subsequent switchover to automatic mode, However, itis known that itis very difficult to optimize PID process controllers using this method. The | component would have to be offset to a certain value when transferring, and this value also depends on the “energy content” of the controlled system. However, not usually known and is hardly reproducible on the plant. Our experience shows that it is inadvisable to use this mode.5_Operating Modes 5.4.2 Control with Feedback of a Loop ‘The controlled starting ofa machine or process from standstill is the simplest and most effec tive method in the case of optimum control parameters with the standard PID process controllers, provided the controller is correctly handled during the standstill phase (operating mode OFF). Note; In the standstill phase of the tichine or process (pause, failare of power supply, PID process controller should always be set to. OFF or at least to MANUAL mode, The I component is then handled in a defined manner and does not reach integral saturation. ete, The operating mode “Off” or “Block controller” can be set for the $7 controllers using the parameter “COM_RST". 5.5 Safety Modes Control processes exist, especially in process engineering applications, which must never fail. Even if a CPU fails, a controller must be able to continue its task, possibly also with reduced functionality. Various safety strategies exist for achieving this, but may also require high investments. One of the strategies is to provide a subordinate (hardware) controller as backup, 5.5.1 SPC Backup As already described in Section 5.1, SPC mode is an operating mode in which a setpoint is transferred to a controller. SPC backup mode means that a superimposed control (e.g. a host control structure) transfers.a cyclically updated setpoint to a subordinate (hardware) control ler. The subordinate controller operates in automatic mode. If the host control fails, the SPC backup controller continues to control using the last setpoint transferred. If the backup controller is able to carry out sign-of-life monitoring of the superimposed control, a safety setpoint can also be switched to active should the control fail. ‘The FM 355 and FM 455 are especially equipped for SPC backup functions in order to be able to execute safety-relevant engineering processes and in the context of PCS7. The FM 455 is not supported by PCS7. Since these modules do not have their own input facilities (with the exception of the communication function), a possibility was specially provided for these modules to permit local operation via Profibus. 5.5.2 DDC Backup During normal operation, the DDC backup controller is in a type of manual operating state. ‘The actual value which is read in is transmitted via the communication channel to the super imposed control in the host automation system which returns a manipulated variable to be ‘output for this controller via the same channel. See Fig. 5.9. New setpoints and possibly also control parameters are transferred cyclically from the control system in order to be able 10S Operating Modes 5.5.3 Safety Setpoint Asalready mentioned, the safety setpoint is an automatic mode applicable if there isa failure in communication with the host sety source. In this case, the controller does not control according to the last setpoint received but according to a safety setpoint especially parameterized for such a case. 5.5.4 Safety Manipulated Variable ‘As already mentioned in Section 5.2.5, the safety manipulated variable is a manual mode of the controller applicable on the occurrence of a safety-relevant event, In this case, the controller is forced to a specially set safety manipulated variable. 886 Functions of a Process Controller Process controllers can be basically divided into five significant components as shown in Fig. 6.1: Setpointbranch | Lr ‘Actual-value branch Genera of 1 Agorttn |_| Signal ouput Figure 6.1 This representation shows the five significant components of a standard process controller and their basic interconnections Note: Not all of the individual functions described below are implemented in the SIMATIC control products, In particular, the PI(D) controllers of the SIMATIC $7-200 LCs and LOGO! have a limited scope of functions. 6.1 Elementary Functions of the Setpoint Branch Most controllers, irrespective of whether they are software or hardware controllers, are nowadays connected to host HMI stations in SCADA systems (e.g. OP or WinCC) or control systems (e.g. PCS7), These systems usually provide facilities not only for visualization of the controllers but also for specifically influencing them — in other words, to operate them, Assignment of the setpoint is a special factor, In complete automation solutions, setpoints not only have a fixed value (fixed setpoint control) but are frequently also defined by host programs (c.g, follow-up controls with assignment of setpoint from recipe data management systems, Batch flexible V4/SIMATIC Batch V6 or fuzzy optimizations). 6.1.1 Internal Assignment of Setpoint With internal assignment of the setpoint, the active setpoint is assigned a fixed value from the user interface (e.g. PCS7 faceplate). The controller operates in this mode as a pure fixed setpoint controller whose setpoint is exclusively defined from the input panel of the user interface. A setpoint which is possibly assigned by the program (follow-up setpoint) remains unconsidered. 896 Functions of a Process Controller 6.1.2, External Assignment of Setpoint With extemal assignment of the setpoint, the active setpoint is assigned from the user pro~ gram (e.g. fuzzy). The controller operates in this mode as a slave controller whose setpoint is exclusively defined from the user program of the PLC or AS. A setpoint which is possibly present from the user interface (fixed setpoint) remains unconsidered. Progcam-controlled switching over from INTERNAL to EXTERNAL is possible for the SIMATIC controllers which have two setpoint inputs. 6.1.3 Setpoint Ramp In order to prevent sudden changes which result in the control loop becoming unsteady, various controllers offer the possibility of a setpoint ramp (see Fig. 6.2). This ramp function prevents a fast or sudden change in the input value (setpoint). The change in speed can often be defined by the user separately for changes in the positive direction (UPRLM) and in the negative direction (DNRLM). The ramp function therefore represents a limiting function for the change in speed in a particular direction. The change in speed is defined in the various SIMATIC products either absolutely [%/3] or standardized [s] referred to a 100% change. Setpoint [%) Defined ~ setpoint u(t) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 6.2 Example of a ramp function in the setpoint branch 6.1.4 Setpoint Limiting Each process controller offers the facility for limiting a setpoint to parameterizable values in order to limit incorrect inputs of the operator or command variable. 6.2 Elementary Functions of the Actual Value Branch 6.2.1 Filter Interferences on the actual value (c.g. superimposed high frequencies in the power supply, impermissible ground potential elevation, induction of glitches on the signal line, and other physical interferences on the actual value) can be compensated using software filter fane- tions, or at Ieast attenuated. A number of filters are available. The simplest and most frequently used filter is the 1st order delay element (PT element) shown in Fig. 6.3. A Ist order 906.2 Elementary Functions of the Actual Value Branch ‘Actual PV_TMLAG value [%] —, Figure 6.3 Istonder time delay element 0 20 40 60 80 (PTI element) delay clement is a transmission element whose monotonic step-forced response strives towards a steady-state condition, In contrast to higher-order delay elements, it does not have a turning point. The delay time is specified by the parameter PV_TMLAG. 6.2.2 Standardization ‘The input variables “Setpoint” and “Actual value” for generating the error signal must refer to a common, standardized value or be recalculated accordingly. They must therefore have the same physical dimension (e.g. percent or temperature in [°C}) and the same range of values. In order to achieve this, the actual-value branch (and often also the setpoint or disturbance value branch) has a standardization function, provided this is not already included in an analog-value acquisition function. The standardization basically functions using a standard mathematical linear equation. 6.2.3 Linearization The linearization function is used to convert non-linear physical relationships into a linear relationship, Examples of non-linear relationships are: + Measurement of flow rate of a liquid using the pump speed ‘+ Measurement of temperature value using a resistance value ‘+ Measurement of circular inlet guide vane position using a linear sensor, Such measured values must be linearized in order to process them. This means that cach value must be measured at different points and individually adapted. The simplest possibility for linearization is linear polygon-based interpolation. Input values (interpolation points) are determined at various working points, and the true physical results assigned to them, All intermediate values are linearly interpolated. Linear polygon-based interpolation is therefore a table of measured values with two columns. The more interpolation points present in the table, the more accurate the determination of the actually measured value, Section 9 “Com- missioning” shows how such a table is determined in practice. a1| N Figure 6.6 Disturbance Standard Pl or PID vanable controller structure desirable for all provesses, or contradicts the requirement for controller parameters which are gentle on the actuator. 642 PI or PID Algorithm with D Component in the Feedback Branch ‘The standard structure has been slightly changed in Fig. 6.7. The error signal is still multiplied by the proportional gain (P component), but the result is only used as an input for the integrator. The input value of the differentiator is derived from the actual value in this version, In this case, the actual value is negated, multiplied by the proportional gain, and this signal is used as the input variable on the differentiator. The disturbance variable is multiplied by a constant and then added to the output signal, ‘The designation “D component in the feedback branch” means that the differentiator is con= nected to the actual value (the value fed back from the process), With this algorithm structure, cach change in setpoint does nothave a direct effect on the D component. The controller does not react as extremely to a change in setpointas in the previous structure in Fig. 6.6. The D component only starts to react to the implemented change in setpoint through the reaction via the process. Setpoint HEE Actual value Manipulated variable P component —D component Figure 6.7 Pl or PID controller structure with D component in the feedback branch Disturbance: variableOA Elemeniary PUNCHONS OF The AIgOCIA 6.4.3 PI Algorithm with D Component in the Disturbance Variable Bbranch In Fig. 6.8, the D component is completely decoupled from the value of the error signal. The D component is only influenced by a connected disturbance variable. As in the two previous structures, the error signal is multiplied by the proportional gain (P component), and the result is only used as an input for the integrator. The input value for the differentiator is derived from any analog input value (disturbance variable). This process value is negated, multiplied by the proportional gain, and the result used as the input variable for the differentiator. This structure is also referred to as disturbance variable feedforward at the controller input. Disturbance variables must ofien be differentiated before being connected to the controller. The disturbance variable then only reacts for a limited time on the controller following a change. Combinations of the controller structures described above are possible. P component rome — OE | component sn | we vatiable ZL )}—> Figure 6.8 PI controller structure with D component in the disturbance variable branch 6.4.4 P Algorithms The P algorithm with automatic tracking of working point At first glance, there appears to be a contradiction in Fig. 6.9. A P controller which contains an | component? But this is correct! | components were previously frequently used as analog-value stores (with discrete configuration, e.g. in power plants), and its exactly this funetion which is handled by the integrator in the shown structure. The pure P controlter is frequently not just multiplication of the error signal by the proportional gain as suspected. Such ‘a structure would mean that, in the steady-state condition (EI .0), the control output (also, Figure 6.9 P controller structure with automatic tracking of working point 956 Functions of a Process Controller occasionally referred to as the regulation ratio) would also have the value 0,0. However, this is hardly ever usable in practice. It must be possible for a P controller to determine a working point at the output if the product of the error signal and the proportional gain results in a value of zero. Process controllers provide several possibilities for achieving this. One of these possibilities is automatic tracking of the working point in manual mode. It is assumed that the working point is accessed using the manual manipulated variable, and once this has been determined, a switch made to automatic mode, As shown in Fig. 6,9, the last manual manipulated variable set is saved in the analog-value store (integrator), and is retained like a constant offset until changed again by further adjustment of the manual manipulated variable in manual mode. This means that the integrator is not changed in automatic mode. ‘A water treatment plant can be mentioned as an application example for P controllers, where the level in a sedimentation tank is to be controlled by a process controller. [t must be possible to change the level using a manipulated variable adjuster (higher/lower). This problem can be solved extremely simply using such a P controller with automatic tracking of the working point. Note: The use of P(D) controllers without tracking of the working point will always sult in a steady-state deviation, The use of P(D) controllers with tracking of the work- 9: point will also result in a steady-state deviation if the controller is not present at the set working point. P algorithm with fixed working point Fig. 6.10 shows a further possibility of a P controller structure. It is assumed here that the working point is known and need not be changed anymore. It can be connected in the form of a constant “WP” or applied at the disturbance variable input. P component Pe wn Manipulated Figure 6.10 P controller structure with fixed working point 6.5 Elementary Functions of Signal Output 6.5.1 Limiting of Manipulated Variable Each process controller offers the facility for keeping the manipulated variable within parameterizable limits, Different functions are used to determine the response of a controller6.5 Elementary Functions of Signal Output at the limit or to determine the point in time at which this limit occurs. One possibility for limiting a process controller has already been described. This is the direction-dependent blocking of the I component at the limit - also referred to as anti-reset-wind-up~and serves to prevent integral saturation, In addition to blocking of the I component, the generation of the sum of the P, I, D and Z components is restricted to these limits. In the SIMATIC terminology, these limits are usually referred to as LMN_HLM and LMN_LLM. 65.2 Elementary Functions of Binary Signal Generation The functions for binary signal generation (pulse-width modulation) are implemented in separate function blocks (e.g. PULSEGEN FB43) and have already been described in detail in Section 1. The fact is worth mentioning that the controllers for integrating actuators in the SIMATIC world have their own controller algorithm (c.g. CONT_S FB42). Siemens has its own patent for this PID controller which operates without an own [ component. As a substi- tute, the algorithm uses the I component mechanically fitted in the actuator. This procedure provides advantages, e.g. the { component corresponds to the actual working point, as well as disadvantages, e.g. a position display is not possible if the position feedback is missing. 6.5.3 Limiting of Manual Manipulated Variable Each process controller offers the facility for limiting the manual manipulated variable to parameterizable limits (only limiting of the manipulated variable at the output for the prod- uucts PID Control and PID Temperature Control). This prevents incorrect inputs by the operator or extemal adjuster. Limiting of the manipulated variable of the controller output is always superimposed on this. This is the case with the products PID Control, PID Temper- ature Control, Standard PID Control and Modular Control, as well as with the PID_CNTRL controller of PCS7. 77 Control Structures In the previous sections, only internal controller functions were described. If several controllers or individual controllers with individual control functions are interconnected, one refers to control structures. Control structures are therefore produced by the extemal connection of individual process controllers and their accompanying function elements. Just like the basic circuits defined for open-loop control technology (star-delta starting circuit, Dahlander circuit etc.), there are also various basic structures for closed-loop control technology which be considered in further detail below using flowcharts, Note: Not all cointrol structures described below can be implemented using SIMATIC control products, It is decisive whether the respective controller inputs for structuring and/or the required operating modes exist on the corresponding controller, In particular, the PI(D) controllers of the SIMATIC $7-200 mini PLCs and LOGO! have a limited scope of structures. 7.1 Disturbance Variable Feedforward Disturbance variable feedforward (z feedforward) is used where influences from the process can be measured but not influenced (Fig. 7.1). There are basically two different methods for disturbance variable feedforward. On the one hand, the feedforward can be at the controller input, and on the other at the controller output. These two types of feedforward differ in the structure of the control algorithm. OPU Disturbance variable Setpoint Controlted - system Actual value Figure 7.1 Flowchart of a disturbance variable feedforward. Structure switches on the controller are used to select whether the feedback is at the controller input or output 98/.1 Disturbance Vanadle Feediorward Influence of disturbance variable G,(S) Figure 7.2 Determination of a disturbance variable feedforward. + The disturbance variable feedforward at the controller input is determined by influencing Of the setpoint or actual value dependent on the disturbance variable, + The disturbance variable feedforward at the controller output is cither determined by direct additive influencing of the manipulated variable or tracked previously via a differentiator. ‘The effect of the disturbance variable on the process can be estimated as a transfer function G,{(s) according to Fig. 7.2 if the controller is set to manual mode so that changes in the actual value no longer depend on changes in the manipulated variable but only on changes in the measurable disturbance variable z. From this knowledge, itis possible to derive an ideal disturbance variable compensation C(s) from the requirement that the effect Gs) +24 Cls) Gls) z= (Gls) + Cfs)-Gfs))-2= 0 of the interference for any response of z should be equal to zero. The disturbance variable feedforward should therefore approximate the transfer function Cs) =-G,s) G(s) as well as possible. In addition to knowledge of the disturbance variable transfer function, the inversion G"!/s) of the process dynamics is also required. Even if this is not perfectly possible, this equation nevertheless provides an approach for drafting of the disturbance variable feedforward. Example The following transfer functions are determined using the PCS7 PID-Tuner: a 2nd order model with a gain of 5 and a time constant of 100 s for the actual controlled system 5 Gs) = ———_, (100s +1)7 Control s and a 3rd order model with a gain of 2 and a time constant of 200 s for the effect of the disturbance variable G(s) = —, (2008 41) This results in the following ideal equation isturbance variable feedforward according to the above cs) =-—2 5 100s +1)" (2008+ 1) 3 In the stationary state, i sufficient to provide compensation using a factor C(s) = - 2/5 = const. ive. the “function” in Fig. 7.1 is a multiplication by 2 constant factor. Dynamic compensation which almost completely eliminates the interference even with changes in the control loop is possible through approximation of C/s) by means of a PT! clement, -2/5 OO) = S04 7 which can be implemented using a standard SIMATIC function block. However, if a system is encountered with an integrating response =e ls) = a9; and a Ist order disturbance transfer function with recovery Gs) = 2005 +1 the differentiator (with delay) already referred to above as an example results as the disturbance variable feedforward: 100s. C8) = = S057 7.2 Feedforward Control Feedforward control (or also precontro!) is similar to the z feedforward at the controller output, and assigns the manipulated variable a value transferred from the hast PLC. A known working point can be defined in this manner, and the dynamically set controller need “only” compensate any resulting differences, 1007 Control Structures Lol r Controted | Sep 5 J oyeom ‘PV Actual val Partial controlled system 1 Actual value Partiar controlled } | system 2 2) Actual valve Figure 7.5 Flowchart of a variable ratio control with two ratio controllers involved, A master controller (FRC 230) is usually available in order to control the total quantity in Fig. 7.5, and slave controllers (FFIC 231 and FFIC 232) to control each individual partial quantity (FR 231 and FR 232). The actual value of the total quantity (FR 230) is applied to the subordinate ratio controller, subjected there to an adjustable ratio factor, and the result of the ratio calculation applied as setpoint to these controllers, 7.4 Cascade Control ‘The structure of the cascade control basically consists of two (cascaded) controllers connected in series, A master controller connects its output value (manipulated variable) as a setpoint to a series-connected slave controller. This is shown in Fig. 7.6. Using this control ‘Slave controller TIC 1 Secondary controlled Main controled Ra ghancnd Manipulated variable Partiat Partal variable controlled controliog systom 2 system 1 Figure 7.6 Flowchart of analog connection of two controllers in a cascade control 1027.4 Cascade Control Figure 7.7 Process flowchart of a cascade control for temperature and flow structure, rapid compensation of the main controlled variable is possible following a change in the secondary controlled variable. Fig. 7.7 shows the process flowchart of a cascade control. The abjective of this circuit is to control the temperature of a tank. A controlled flow of steam to the heat exchanger is required for this, The temperature controller (TRC345) is the master controller in this example, and the flow controller (FRC 456) is the slave controller, The manipulated variable of the master controller is the setpoint for the subordinate slave controller. Calition: Cascade Controllers Suitable for practical se’ dre wore than just a simple series connection of two individual controllers, The mistake is often made of forgetting the mutual switching and mode influences. Pure series connections of controllers result in substantial difficulties in prac Forced functions for operating modes with cascade controller If, as shown in Fig. 7.8, the slave controller is switched from automatic mode to manual mode or internal setpoint, the master controller must also be forced to manual mode (but not vice versa) and tracked to the setpoint of the slave controller. If this is not carried out, the master controller automatically controls to one of the end positions to a faster or slower extent. If the slave controller is set to automatic mode again after a certain time, it will take a longer period until the system has settled through the reaction of the controlled system. The ‘Manual mode Slave controlior Manual mode Master controller CAS_ON Tblocking in negative direction Tlocking in positive direction Figure 7.8 Flowchart of binary connection of two controllers in a cascade control 1037 Control Structures omi n of such a forced function can result in significant oscillations even up to increasing oscil In the case of increasing oscillations, the amplitude gradually increases and ean result in oscillation between the two extremes of the measuring range. This particularly applies to controllers with I component. The same applies to safety mode (output of safety manipulated variable) on the slave controller, For example, this forced function is imple mented with the Standard PID Control by means of the connectable parameters QCAS and CAS_ON. In addition, the setpoint of the slave controller is retuned to the input CAS of the master controller. Direction-dependent blocking function with cascade controller A function of the cascade controller which is also indispensable is direction-dependent blocking of the I component on the master controller when the slave controller has reached the corresponding manipulated variable limit, Omission of such a function also results in significant oscillations in practice when the slave controller leaves its limit again. Many soft- \ware controls do not have direction-dependent blocking inputs since the function can be simply implemented at the application level using the blocking circuit shown in Fig. 7, In this case the two manipulated variable limits of the master controller are each applied to aan analog-value switch (AVS) and receive their switchover command from the two binary manipulated variable limit signals (Q_HL and Q_LL) of the slave controller. If the slave controller has not reached one of its manipulated variable limits, both AVSs are in the basic setting, and the constant values (LMIN_HLM and LMN_LLM) are applied to the master controller, Once one of the manipulated variable limits of the slave controller has been reached (e.g.: QL “Upper manipulated variable limit reached)”, the corresponding AVS switches over, and the current manipulated variable of the master controller is connected to the analog manipulated variable limit input HL. The master controller cannot then increase its manipulated variable any further, but can reduce it at any time should this become necessary through comparison of the setpoint and actual value. The master controller can operate again normally once the manipulated variable limit of the slave controller has been left. If the lower manipulated variable limit of the slave controller is reached, the other AVS is switched, and the master controller is limited in the negative tion, Correct connection of the master and slave controllers of a cascade all forced functions for the various modes is relatively complex for the user. and often results in faults, Therefore certain precautions have already been made within the function block CTRL_PID of SIMATIC PCS7 so that such a cascade control is easier to design. Special forced measures —— LMN_HLM Figure 7.9, Flowchart of direction- dependent manipulated ‘variable limiting of a master controller implemented at application level 1044.4 Cascade Control Figure 7.10 Design of a cascade control in SIMATIC PCS7 are required on the master controller, as described above, if the slave controller is no longer prepared to react to definitions of the master controller, i.e. exactly then when the slave controller is no longer in “Cascade” mode (= automatic mode with external setpoint), but is + in manual mode or + in automatic mode with locally operated, internal setpoint or + in tacking mode or + in optimization mode, i.e. controlled by an extemal tool for optimization of the controller parameters (see Section PID-Tuner).. ‘The master controller indicates this state in all cases by setting its output bit QCAS_CUT (“cascade cut”, ic. interrupted), In all these cases it must be guaranteed that the master controller running “to no avail” does not inflate its !component and that it can be activated again bumpless as soon as the cascade is closed again. This is achieved in that the master controller jis made to track the currently effective setpoint of the slave controller, i.e. the manipulated Variable output to be connected again in the future is set to the expected value at the other end of the connection. In addition to this, the direction-dependent blocking of the master controller shown in Fig. 7.9 should also be considered in PCS7 as soon as the slave controller has reached a manipulated variable limit. An example of the complete circuit for a cascade control is shown in Fig. 7.10. 10s7 Control Structures 7.5 Split Range Control Using split range controls, a controller can operate several actuators with different physical effects and different gains in parallel or sequential mode, Division of the manipulated variable range of the controller from the top to the bottom limit range is implemented using one or more split range functions, These functions are integrated in some of the SIPART control- Jers but are not integrated in the case of the software controls. Since this function must cope with very different requirements in the various sectors, the software controls offer it as a separate function whose input is simply connected to the manipulated variable of the controller, “Only” two split range functions are implemented in Fig. 7.11, but several functions of this type can be connected in parallel, + Manipulated | Kt q jvanatie | Z | oaeee Split functions | : =! Actual value Figure 7.11 Flowchart of a split range control In Fig, 7.12, the temperature in the boiler or reactor is regulated by a temperature controller TRC4S6, The setpoint is defined by means of a time scheduler KS457. The temperature pro- file requires active heating and g of the system, A heating medium (+120°C) and a cooling medium (+6°C) are available for this. The controller must now divide its control range 0...100% into two separate actuators which act in opposite directions and are provided with different dynamic performances and gains, Section 9: “Commissioning” deals with the structure and the settings for this task in more detail. Cooling medium Heating medium Figure 7412 Process flowchart of a split range control with two split functions 106J.7 Alternating or Overnde Control 7.6 Secondary Variable Control Secondary variable controls are procedures which use measured variables from a subsection of a controlled system to improve the control action. One type of secondary variable control has already been referred to ~ the cascade control. Further types of circuit are possible which are freely-configured by the user. Only one further example is mentioned at this point as to how one can approximate a cascade controller using a PI controller, see Fig. 7.13. Figure 7.13 Flowchart of secondary variable control with elastic secondary controlled variable A subsection of a controlled system (subsection 2 in Fig, 7.13) can be approximated us modular function elements (¢.g. D elements and PT! elements) in order to apply faults acting on the first subsection faster to the controller. The controller can be set more severely using such a circuit. 7.7 Alternating or Override Control In contrast to the split range control — where one controller operates several actuators ~ the override control consists of two or more controllers or control units which only operate one actuator, A selection unit or selection controller defines which of the involved controllers is permitted to control the actuator. The term “override control” should be more exactly called “selection control structure”. Firstly there are different types of override control, and sec- ‘ondly at least two controllers are involved in each override control. Examples of override controls can * Minimum selection * Maximum selec + Program-controlled switchover (e.g. following change in recipe) + Relay contact. Override controls are used in processes where completely different system responses occur as a result of plant or operating states, and therefore completely different demands on the controller. There are different structures for override controls which are sometimes also referred to as alternating controls or limiting controls. 1077 Control Structures Figure 7.14 Process flowchart of an override control An actual value can act on two or more controllers, and each controller on an actuator assigned to it or — as shown in Fig. 7.14 — two different actual values each act on separate controllers with an actuator which acts on the two systems via selection logic. Decisive for the override control is that only one controller accesses a system at any one time and that the other controller waits for being used, In the example shown in Fig. 7.14, the manipulated variables of the two controllers TRCS11 and TRCS12 are selected by an override control UCSI3 (e.g. MIN selection) and passed on to the actuator. The logic decides which of the two values is to be used, and passes on the selected value to the actuator. With this structure, the “standby” controller must not be left to its own resources, othe there will be jumps in the manipulated variable (and therefore instability in the control sy: tem) at the time of switching over because of the possibility of integral saturation, One way toa tegral saturation of the “standby” controller is to switch over to manual mode h corresponding tracking of the manipulated variable according to the currently active controller, This. control must either be carried out alternately (crosswise connection of manual manipulated variable inputs), or the two controllers alternately influence the parameters for manipulated variable ing (LIM) as shown in Fig. 7.15. In fault-free operation of the example shown in Fig. 7.15, the limiting setpoint is lower than the actual value at the end of subsystem 1. The limiting controller, which is most appropriately designed as a pure I controfier, attempts to close and is limited in the process to the manipulated variable of the master controller reduced by 1%. In turn, this value is transferred as the lower minimum limit to the master controller. The atte is not influenced by this and can control the system in both directions as required. If the power supply then fails in subsystem 1 for a limited time, the actual value will drop at the end of subsystem I. The error signal on the limiting controller becomes positive, and the controller will then increase the lower manipulated variable limit of the master controller until the current manipulated variable is reached, and beyond. As a result, the limiting controller displaces the master controller, and is naw decisively involved in the position of the controller output, In this displaced state, the manipulated variable of the master controller is forced to increase further, and more energy is inserted into the system, which naturally also influences subsystem 2. This forced increase in the manipulated variable of the master controller results in a further increase in the lower limit of the limiting controller. This mutual building up continues until the error signal on the limiting controller no longer positive. When the power supply retums on subsystem 1, the actual value increases at the end of subsystem I, and the error signal of the limiting controller becomes negative. It therefore reduces its manipulated value and also the minimum value limit of the master controller. In turn, this reduces its manipulated variable (which is not yet active) because of the strongly negative error signal. 108,7.8 Multi-variable Control ‘Subsystem 1 ‘Subsystem 2 UMIN; Manipuiated } variable Figure 7.15 Flowchart of a limiting control with minimum value limiting of the temperature at the end of subsystem I ‘The reducing manipulated variable leads in tun to a reduction in the minimum value limit of the limiting controller. This continues until the limiting controller returns control of the actuator (o the master controller again. In Fig. 7.15, this limiting control is minimum value limiting of the manipulated variable (e.g. freezing protection, or freezing controller) because it ("LL represents low limit), A prerequisite for minimum value limiting is equal signs for the proportional gain in both controllers. On the other hand, if the upper manipulated variable limit (“HL for high limit) is used on both controllers, one refers to maximum value limiting (e.g. jacket temperature limiting on Modular software blocks are ideal for implementing such structures since they permit all degrees of freedom (e.g. a subsequent change in structure can easily be carried out using CFC during commissioning). A corresponding example is shown in Section 10, 7.8 Multi-variable Control In more comprehensive technical plants, the problem frequently occurs that several physical processes operating in parallel have to be controlled although their “internal feedbacks massively influence each other. Such control processes are referred to as multi-variable con trols, For clarity reasons, we shall limit ourselves here to two-variable control. However, much more complex multi-variable controls occur in practice. Use of process controllers is no longer appropriate for such applications; special software packages are used which execute on their own process computers (or personal computers). Decisive for drafting of the controller for control systems with feedback is the direction of control action of the feedback. A differentiation is made between positive and negative feedbacks. The two types are explained below using examples, 1091.8 Mult-vaniable Control Figure 7.17 Process flowchart of distillation as positive feedback Actual valve Setpoint ‘Manipulated | pens variable Coupling Setpoint a> aS system 2| Manipulated Actual vaiue B variable Figure 7.18 Flowchart of multi-variable control with decoupling network pling between the two control loops is compensated, e.g. the effect of “Coupling 12” in Fig. 7.19 is compensated by the transfer function “KomPD_12". The multi-variable system is therefore divided into two single-variable systems which are approximately independent of one another and which can be handled using conventional PI controllers. However, this theoretically convincing solution requires a lange overhead for practical implementation. The ideal decoupling elements contain inverse functions of process dynam- 18 (€.8. Gyoqyp (1-2) = ~ Gy(1.2)/G,(1.1)) which cannot be implemented and which have to be approximated using appropriate numerical procedures for reduction of order. The simplified decoupling elements can then be implemented in many cases using additional PD controllers, or even reduced to statistical decoupling factors. If such decoupling control is required for a specific application, this can be requested from Siemens A&D GTS in Karlsruhe where a Matlab-based tool for computerized drafting is available, MtExamples: + Inthe glass industry, with furnaces and crucibles, the basic automation often only consists of flow controllers for combustion gas and air, whereas the temperatures in the liquid glass which are actually decisive for the product quality have to be manually adjusted by the ‘operators. + With chemical reactors, often only the primary reaction conditions such as temperature, pressure and supply of raw materials are controlled, whereas the variables decisive for the product quality, e.g. viscosity and density, can only be determined at larger intervals in the laboratory and are not controlled, + With distillation towers, often only secondary variables such as the supply of heating steam or the levels in the capacitor and sump are controlled, whereas the temperatures at the top and in the sump which are decisive for the product quality are difficult to control because of the strong feedback. An automation concept with the following properties is required in such cases or similar: tic consideration of the complete plant or relevant sections, ¢,g, chemical reactors, distillation towers, * Consideration of all feedbac in the process, + ‘Tre closed-loop contro! of economically relevant quality variables, even if these can only be indirectly influenced and not directly measured. + Largest possible flexibitity in the controller structure: + The number of manipulated variables and controlled variables may be very large in certain cases. *+ Direct assignment concerning which manipulated variable can influence which controlled variable best is difficult because of the complex feedback structure, + It is not guaranteed that the number of controlled variables exactly corresponds to the number of manipulated variables. + The number of available manipulated variables can change during operation so that the control system must be able to reconfigure itself fully automatically. + Mastering of complex process dynamics: long dead times, systems capable of oscillation, or systems without a minimum-pbase response. * Dynamic turbance variable feedforward if these can be measured but only act on the controlled variable following a certain delay. An explicit model of the disturbance transfer function is therefore required in addition to the system transfer function in order to compensate the effect of the disturbance, + Explicit consideration of limitations in manipulated variables and controlled variables in the sense of optimization. This is of particular interest if the optimum working point of a plant results as the intersection of various limitations, i.e. the plants are to be operated up to the permissible safety Ii * Different control targets should be assigned priorities in the sense of a hierarchy: safety has priority over product quality, product quality has priority over cost savit In practice, procedures of model-based predictive control are common for such tasks, possibly in combination with so-called soft sensors. A soft sensor replaces an actual sensor by software. It serves to indirectly calculate variables which cannot be measured directly,7 Control Structures future with ‘SP=945, future without contro! Feit TADTTERIP |Unihin SEIN. [Seed Figure 7.20 Model-based predictive controller INCA. CVs: Controlled Variables, MVs: Manipulated Variables, DVs: Disturbance Variables namely from other variables which can be directly measured, The procedures used include simulation, Kallmann filters and artificial neural networks. The functional principle of predictive controllers can be explained using Fig. 7.20. The controller monitors and records how the process has responded in the past. Since the controller internally possesses a complete model of the process dynamics with all feedbacks, it can look a little “into the future”, ie. make predictions for a certain period on how the process will react if the controller does not intervene ("future without control”), Furthermore, it can also simulate the future effects of various strategies for manipulation of the process using, the available manipulated variables (“future with control”), The best control strateg; selected using an optimization procedure, The strategy is therefore similar to that with a chess computer: various combinations of future movements are according to the effect, ‘There are many possibilities for formulation of the optimization criterio future error signal and the positioning requirement, limits can also be incorporated for manipulated variables and controlled variables (as secondary optimization conditions) as well as for other business administration criteria, The optimization task for the complete future prediction is solved online in each sampling step, but only the first element of the manipulated variable sequence determined is connected directly to the process. In the next sampling step, the future is shifted forwards, and the complete optimization carried out again (principle of “sliding future”), ens offers the mod tion requires a high In cooperation with the Dutch company IPCOS Technologies, Siem based predictive controller INCA. It is quite clear that online opti ie}48 Multi-variable Control ‘MPC station: Ore NT — SIMATICWince: PC, WinNT. PC, WinNT As 7 + Standard faceplates, also for MPC ire + Trends (eR) Once Ethoret, INCA suite oES suse Online: = * Scheduler e 7, CFC: actual value), the actuator should drive into a position corresponding to the percentage value of the error signal. If the setpoint is then increased, the actuator must drive further by the percentage value in the physical direction OPEN/INCREASE/PLUS. The direction of change of the actuator is not important, the change in the physical effect of the process waluc in the system is decisive. A temperature controller on a reactor whose actuator controls a cooling medium will resule in lowering of the temperature in the reactor when the control valve is opened. An increase in the setpoint on the controller must therefore result in closing of the valve, and thus lowering ‘of the manipulated variable. The direction of action of this controller must be set negative. Rs9.1 First Steps Position feedback {%] Original characteristic (actual value) / Manual manipulated variable in {%) 0 2 40 60 80 100 Figure 9.1 Graphic determination of a linearization curve using example of butterfly valve characteristic clarified whether real conditions comparable with the later production conditions actually exist during the test. Constant manual manipulated variables must be defined (c.g. com- mencing at 0% in 10% steps up to 100%), and an interval must be provided following each manual adjustment until the plant has reacted to the change and has settled. Each of these values (manual manipulated variable and determined actual value) is recorded in a table. Ifan original characteristic with larger linear sections has been measured, the x-axis values for determination of the polygon-based interpolation table should be set closer in the non- linear seetions in order to increase the accuracy. Inplementation of polygon-based interpolation In order to process a polygon-based interpolation table (see Section 6.2.3), it is necessary 10 produce an x,y-chart like that shown in Fig.9.2. The determined curve must then be mirrored using an entered 45° line. This is achieved by entering lines perpendicular to the mirror axis, on which the measured distances between the mirror axis and the determined curve are entered on the other side of the mirror axis, The resulting mirrored curve is the so-called lin earization characteristic. Position feedback |%] Manual manipulated variable in [%} o 2 40 60 8 100 Figure 9.2 Determination of polygon-based interpolation table values 1279 Commissioning of Process Controllers ‘Table 9.2 Poly gon-based interpolation table for Fig. 9.2 Polygon-based interpolation table | __ x-axis yanis Ts value 0% 0% 2nd value 10% 20% ind value 25% 35% 4th value 30% Be ‘Sth value 40% ih value In order to determine the coordinate points of the polygon-based interpolation table for this linearization characteristic, itis first necessary to define certain x-axis values (e.g. 0%, 10%. 20%, etc.). Starting from the x-axis, a line is drawn vertically upwards in the diagram up to the point of intersection with the linearization characteristic. The result is an associated y- axis value as shown in Fig. 9.2. These values are then entered into the polygon-based interpolation table (Table 9.2). In the shown example, the y-axis could also represent physical units. However, itis difficult for the commissioning engineer to define the values at approximately equal intervals and to measure the true physical value, 9.1.5 Adjustment of the Pulse Generator Stages When commissioning controllers with binary actuator control, a number of parameters must be defined or set by the commissioning engineer which are not always available or known, Integrating binary actuators In the case of integrating binary actuators, it is necessary to define the actuator runtime and the minimum pulse duration. It is extremely simple to set or determine the actuator runtime, Corresponding information can be found on the rating plate, or the time required between fully open and fully closed can be measured using a stopwatch. Note: Test the runtime of actuators in both directions, The runtime in both directions, but this may not be the case with older ac response is then non-symmetrical, usually the same jors and the system When setting the minimum pulse duration, the data provided by the manufacturer must be observed or, if these are not available, the values from Table 3.1 in Section “Actuators and sensors of a loop contro!” can be used. Non-integrating actuators In the case of non-integrating actuators, it is necessary to set the period and to enter it at the pulse output (e.g. PULSEGEN on parameter PER_TM). Independent of whether software or hardware controller, the period should be defined using the sampling time TA or CYCLE of the controller (see Table 9.4 in Section 9.3.2). However, for accuracy reasons, it should be ensured that the value is not too small, Two criteria are important: 128

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