FormativeFeedback:AnAnnotatedBibliography

Brookhart,S.M.(2011).Tailoringfeedback.
EducationDigest,
76(9),3336.
SusanBrookhart,educationconsultantandformerprofessorandchairoftheDepartment
ofEducationalFoundationsandLeadershipatDuquesneUniversity,reviewsgeneral
principlesofeffectivefeedback.Shethenprovidesteacherwithstrategiesforproviding
feedbacktotwocategoriesofstudents:strugglingstudentsandsuccessfulstudents.
Brookhartslistoffiveprinciplesalignswiththesevenkeyprinciplesreferencedinother
articlesonthetopic.Incontrasttomuchoftheotherliterature,Brookhartsuggests
providingselfreferencedfeedbackratherthanrubricbasedfeedback.Shedetailsthe
powerofprovidingfeedbackthatpointsoutindividualprogresscomparedtoprevious
workratherthancomparedtotherubric.Thiscanbeespeciallypowerfulforstudents
whomightfeelthattherubriccriteriaarefarbeyondtheircapability.Teacherswhoare
startingtoexplorethetopicoffeedbackwouldfindthisarticletobeveryuseful.

Fluckiger,J.,Tixier,Y.,Pasco,R.,&Danielson,K.(2010).Formativefeedback:Involving
studentsaspartnersinassessmenttoenhancelearning.
CollegeTeaching
,58,136140.
TheteamofFluckinger,Tixier,Pasco,andDanielsonprofessorsattheUniversityof
NebraskaatOmahasharetheirexperiencewithandanalysisoffourfeedbackstrategies
usedintheircollegelevelcourses.Thefirststrategy,threecolorgroupquizzes,aimsto
trackproduct,process,andproduct.HattieandTimperley(2007)agreethatfocusingon
thesethreeareaswhengivingfeedbackenhancesstudentlearning.Midtermconferencing
isthesecondstrategyexploredbythegroup.Third,theteamfocusedonstudentrevision

ofquestionsandstatementsaboutthecontentofthecourse.Lastly,thegroupexplored
usingonlineblogassignmentsandcommentstoprovidemoretimelyfeedbackonwork.
Thesestrategieswerewarmlyreceivedbystudentsandimprovedbothstudent
achievementandclassroomclimate.Anyteacherlookingfornewfeedbackstrategies
couldapplyoneofthetechniquesstudiedinthisarticle.

Hattie,J.,&Timperley,H.(2007).Thepoweroffeedback.
ReviewofEducationalResearch,
77(1),81112.
JohnHattie,authorandDirectoroftheMelbourneEducationalResearchInstituteatthe
UniversityofMelbourne,andHelenTimperley,ProfessorofEducationattheUniversity
ofAucklandinNewZealand,investigatetheeffectivenessofvariousformsoffeedback
andtheireffectsonstudentachievement.Theyclarifythemeaningandpurposeof
teacherfeedbackintheclassroom:tofillthegapbetweenwhatstudentsunderstandand
whattheyaimtounderstand.HattieandTimperleygoontostresstheimportanceof
threequestionsforguidingfeedback.Studentsneedtoknowwheretheyaregoing,how
theyaregoingthere,andwheretogonext.Teacherscanfocusonfourlevelsoffeedback
tohelpstudentsfillthegapbetweencurrentunderstandinganddesiredunderstanding:
feedbackaboutthetask,feedbackabouttheprocess,feedbackaboutselfregulation,and
feedbackabouttheselfasaperson.Thechallengeforteachersistodifferentiatetheuse
ofallfourlevelsoffeedbacktomeettheneedsofindividualstudents.

Hatziapostolou,T.,&Paraskakis,I.(2010).Enhancingtheimpactofformativefeedbackon
studentlearningthroughanonlinefeedbacksystem.
ElectronicJournalofeLearning,
8(2),111122.
ThanosHatziapostolouandIraklisParaskakis,SeniorLecturersandResearchersin
ComputerScienceatCITYCollegeinGreece,clarifythemeaningoffeedbackby
breakingitintotwocomponents:thecontentofthefeedbackandmethodusedto
communicateit.Theirresearchonfeedbackfocusesonmethodsofcommunication,
specificallythewaysinwhichtechnologycanbeusedmosteffectivelytoprovide
meaningfulandusefulfeedbacktostudents.Toevaluatetheeffectivenessofonline
feedbacksystems,theauthorslookedatacombinationofthreeareasoffeedback:the
keysofcontent,themethodofcommunication,andtheelementsofmotivation.While
muchoftheotherliteraturefocusesonthekeysofcontent,fewfocusontheelementsof
motivationmentionedinthisreview.Thesemotivationalelementsattention,relevance,
confidenceandsatisfactionensurethatthefeedbackreachesthestudentandismost
likelytobeusedbythem.Theauthorsconcludethatthehighestqualityfeedback
combinesallofthecomponentsoffeedbackinawaythatensuresitwillbeusedby
students.Teacherswhowanttorefinetheirfeedbackpracticeswouldbenefitfromthe
specificstrategiespresentedinthisarticle.

Juwah,C.,MacfarlaneDick,D.,Matthew,B.,Nicol,D.,Ross,D.,&Smith,B.(2004).
Enhancingstudentlearningthrougheffectiveformativefeedback.
TheHigherEducation
AcademyGenericCentre
.Retrievedfrom

http://ctlt.illinoisstate.edu/downloads/modules/design/
enhancing_learningthrough_formative_feedback.pdf
TheteamofauthorsfromtheHigherEducationAcademyattheUniversityofGlasgowin
Scotlandlookatformativefeedbackacrossalldisciplines.Muchoftheirresearchis
basedinahighereducationsetting,buthasimplicationsforK12educationaswell.In
linewiththeotherliterature,theseresearchersreiteratethesevenprinciplesofgood
feedback.Theteamarguesthatmanypeopleinhighereducationseefeedbackasa
transmissionmodelinwhichteachersonlyroleistotransmitfeedbacktostudents.In
contrast,theyassertthataconceptualmodelwhichfocusesonthestudentperceptionand
useoffeedbackismuchmoreeffective.Therearethreekeysthatleadtoeffectivenessin
theconceptualmodel.Studentsmust1)understandthegoal,2)comparetheir
performancetothegoal,and3)engageinactiontoclosethegap.Thismodelisexplored
inmuchoftheliteratureonfeedback.Thisteamgoesbeyondtheotherliteratureby
presentingcasestudiesandalistofexamplesandstrategiesrelatedtoeachofthe
principlesoffeedback.Theirresearchisrichwithresourcesforhighereducation
teachersandcanbeapplieddirectlytotheworkofK12teachersaswell.

Leahy,S.,Lyon,C.,Thompson,M.,&Wiliam,D.(2005).Classroomassessmentminuteby
minute,daybyday.
EducationalLeadership
,63(3),1824.
DylanWiliamandSiobhanLeahyarethedirectorsoftheLearningSciencesDylan
WiliamCenter.TogetherwithChristineLyonandMarnieThompsonoftheLearning
andTeachingResearchCenter,theteamexploresfivestrategiestoimprovestudent

learning.Thestrategiesinthisstudysynthesizethemanyprinciplespresentedacrossthe
literatureonfeedback.Thegroupfocusesonthesevenkeysofgoodfeedback,theneed
forclarityaroundlearninggoals,andtheimportanceofstudentmotivationand
selfesteem.Thefirstpowerstrategyinvolvesclarifyingandsharinglearninggoals.The
secondstrategyaimsatbuildingeffectiveclassroomdiscussions,questions,andleaming
tasks.Third,thegroupfocusesonprovidingfeedbackthatclosesthegapbetweencurrent
progressandthedesiredgoal.Fourthisamotivationbasedstrategythatactivates
studentsastheownersoftheirownleaming.Lastly,teachersareencouragedtofind
waystoencouragestudentstoberesourcesforoneanother.Theresearchteamconcludes
thatthesefivestrategiesleadtoincreasedstudentthinkingwhichisthemostimportant
goaloffeedbacksinceitleadstoincreasedachievementmorethangrades,points,or
traditionalfeedback.Thisarticleisusefulasanoverviewforteacherswhowanttobegin
learningmoreaboutfeedback.

Nicol,D.J.,&MacfarlaneDick,D.(2006).Formativeassessmentandselfregulatedlearning:a
modelandsevenprinciplesofgoodfeedbackpractice.
StudiesinHigherEducation
,
31(2),199218.
DavidNicol,EmeritusProfessorofHigherEducationattheUniversityofStrathclydein
Scotland,andDebraMacfarlaneDick,educationaldeveloperattheUniversityof
Glasgow,describethevariousproblemsintheuseofatransmissionviewofformative
feedbackmentionedinsomeoftheotherliteratureonfeedback.Theysuggesta
conceptualmodeloffeedbackthatfocusonacombinationofbothinternal(student)and

external(teacher)feedback.Assuggestedinmuchoftheotherliterature,theystatethat
studentsandteachersmustfocusonthreeconditionsnecessaryforstudentstobenefit
fromfeedback:1)aclearunderstandingofwhatgoodperformanceis,2)theabilityto
comparecurrentperformancetogoodperformance,and3)toolsandstrategiesthatcan
helpstudentsclosethegapbetweencurrentandgoodperformance.Inadditiontotheory
andresearch,theyprovideanexhaustivelistofprinciplesandstrategiestohelpteachers
improvetheselfregulationskillsoftheirstudents.Theconclusionoftheirworksuggests
thatteachersreflectonthelistofsevenprinciplesandselectoneareatoimproveand
refinetheirpractice.

Shute,ValeriaJ.(2008).Focusonformativefeedback.
ReviewofEducationalResearch,
78(1)
153189.
ValeriaShuteistheMackandEffieCampbellTynerendowedprofessorofeducationat
FloridaStateUniversity.Inherliteraturereview,shefocusesonthedeliveryoffeedback
asthecoreofitseffectiveness.Withoutproperdelivery,sheargues,feedbackdoesnot
improvelearningoroutcomes.OneareaShuteexploresisthecognitivemechanisms
triggeredbyfeedback.Shesaysthatfeedbackcancausethreekindsofresponse:itcan
signalagapinlearning,itcanlessencognitiveload,anditcanprovidedirectionfor
correctiveactions.Likeotherliteratureonthesubject,Shuteexplorestheroleof
motivationinthefeedbackprocess.Sheliststwotypesofmotivationthatcanbespurred
byfeedback:acquisitionandavoidance.Studentswilleitherbemotivatedtoachieve
somethingortoavoidsomethingundesirable.Shuteconcludesherliteraturereviewwith

alistofprescriptivestrategiesbasedontheresearch.Herextensivelistofstrategies
wouldbemostusefulforK12teacherswhoareattemptingtoimprovetheirfeedback
practices.

Wiggins,G.(2012).Sevenkeystoeffectivefeedback.
EducationalLeadership
,70(1),1016.
GrantWigginswasthePresidentofAuthenticEducationinHopewell,NewJersey.His
articlein
EducationalLeadership
givesteachersageneraloverviewofeffectivefeedback
practices.Heintroducesthesevenkeystofeedbackthatarementionedinmuchofthe
otherliteratureonthistopic.Inaddition,herespondstothecommonargumentthat
teachersdonothaveenoughtimetogivefeedback.Learning,heargues,requiresless
teachingandmorefeedback,soitisimportantforteacherstoevaluatethewaythatthey
prioritizetimewithstudents.Lastly,heclarifiescommonmisconceptionsaboutfeedback
byexplainingthedifferencebetweenadviceandfeedbackandthedifferencebetween
gradesorevaluationandfeedback.Thisarticleisagreatstartingpointforteachers
hopingtolearnmoreaboutusingqualityfeedbackintheirclassrooms.

Zhu,C.(2012).Providingformativefeedbacktostudentsviaemailsandfeedbackstrategies
basedonstudentmetacognition.
ReflectingEducation,
8(1),7893.
ChangZhuisaprofessorintheDepartmentofEducationalSciencesattheVrije
UniversiteitBrusselinBelgium.Hisresearchfocusesontheeffectivenessofelectronic
feedbackstrategiesandevaluatestheirusefulness.Inhisresearch,Zhuaimedtoanswer
twomajorquestions:(a)Dostudentsofdifferentmetacognitivelevelspreferdifferent

typeofformativefeedbackstrategies?(b)Whataretheeffectsofteachersformative
feedbackstrategiesonstudentlearning?Inresponsetothefirstquestion,Zhusresearch
foundthatlowerachievingstudentspreferedmoreconstructiveandelaborative
commentsinamoreimmediatetimelinethandohigherachievingstudents.Bothgroups
ofstudentsbenefittedfrompersonalizedfeedbackthatmatchedtheirfeedback
preferences.Zhuconcludesthatprovidingtherightkindoffeedbackforeachstudentis
significant.Inordertodothis,teachersmustengagestudentsintheprocesssothatthey
cancommunicatethetypeoffeedbackthatworksbestforthem.