Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010

Zeeman Effect and Lande g-factor

Harsh Purwar (07MS-76)
Amit Nag (07MS-19)
VI Semester, Integrated M.S.
th

Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata

Experiment No.: 4
Condensed Matter Physics Lab (PH – 324)

Objectives of the Experiment:

 To observe anomalous Zeeman effect in Mercury atoms from the light emitted by the hot mercury
atoms by the application of a strong magnetic field and using a Fabry-Perot interferometer.
 To find an estimate of the Lande g-factor 𝑔1 − 𝑔0 for a transition from a state labeled 0 to 1. Here
we observe a transition which lies close to 546.1 nm that is from 73 𝑆1 to 63 𝑃2 in Hg atoms.

Introduction:
The Zeeman Effect is the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of a
static magnetic field. This effect is named after the Nobel laureate Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman (1865-
1943), who got Nobel for discovery of this effect. Zeeman observed in 1896 that sodium's spectral pair of
D-lines would split when placed in an intense magnetic field in a laboratory. Working under his mentor
Lorentz, Zeeman confirmed Lorentz's model for electron orbitals by constructing a model for his
observations in the context of electron angular momentum. In addition, Zeeman was able to demonstrate
applications of his method such as measuring the magnetic fields around the sun by observation of spectra
at different points on the surface. This model was later modified to fit a quantum mechanical model which
utilized a meta-state to describe the energy splitting found when placing an atom in a magnetic field.
The Zeeman Effect is very important in applications such as nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (NMR), electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
Mossbauer spectroscopy. It has also been utilized in Atomic absorption spectroscopy to improve its
accuracy.

Theory:
As mentioned above Zeeman effect is the breaking of degeneracy in atomic energy levels due to
the interaction between the magnetic moment of an atom and an external magnetic field. The strength of
this interaction in each energy state depends upon the total angular momentum of the atom, given by,
𝐽 =𝐿+𝑆
where 𝐿 and 𝑆 are the orbital and spin angular momenta, respectively, and were 𝐽 can take values
from 𝐿 − 𝑆 to 𝐿 + 𝑆 . The z-component of 𝐽 is labeled by the quantum number 𝑚𝐽 , and is restricted
to discrete values, in integer increments, in the range given by
− 𝐽 ≤ 𝑚𝐽 ≤ 𝐽
Thus, there are 2 𝐽 + 1 allowed orientations of 𝐽. In zero magnetic field there is no energetically
preferred orientation of 𝐽, and the energy states of the atom are said to be degenerate in 𝑚𝐽 , which means
they are all the same.
The presence of an external magnetic field defines a preferred axis, namely the direction of the
field. Each allowed orientation of 𝐽 with respect to this axis is associated with a different energy, thus

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
breaking the degeneracy. An easily observable result of this is the splitting of a spectral line into several
component lines, the number of which depends upon the spin and orbital angular momenta in the initial
and final energy states involved in producing the spectral line.
The so-called normal Zeeman effect refers to the splitting of a spectral line into three components -
a phenomenon which was explained classically in terms of changes in frequency of orbit of an electron in
the presence of a magnetic field. This effect is observed in spectral lines for which the initial and final
energy states have zero spin angular momentum.

Figure 1: Normal Zeeman effect – only three lines of different frequencies are observed.

By contrast, the anomalous Zeeman effect refers to the splitting of spectral lines into more than
three components. The term `anomalous' was given because the phenomenon, which had been observed
since the late 1890s, was unexplained until the discovery of electron spin some thirty years later.
The energy of interaction between a magnetic moment 𝜇 and an applied magnetic field 𝐻 is given
by,
𝐸mag = 𝜇 . 𝐻
As customary, we choose the z-axis of our coordinate system to be along the direction of the applied
magnetic field 𝐻 which then gives,
𝐸mag = 𝜇𝑧 𝐻
or in terms of the z-component of the angular momentum
𝐸mag = 𝑔𝜇0 𝑚𝐽 𝐻 … … … … 1
where 𝑔 is the ratio of the magnetic moment of the whole atom to the fundamental constant called the
Bohr magneton, 𝜇0 . (The minus sign has disappeared since for electrons the direction of the magnetic
moment is opposite to the direction of the angular momentum.)

The 𝑔-factor for a free atom in a given state 2𝑆+1 𝐿𝐽 can be calculated according to,
𝐽 𝐽+1 −𝐿 𝐿+1 +𝑆 𝑆+1
𝑔 =1+ ………… 2
2𝐽 𝐽 + 1

As mentioned earlier, spectral emission lines which exhibit the normal Zeeman effect involve
transitions between energy states which have zero spin angular momentum, 𝑆 = 0. Thus, the orbital
angular momentum, 𝐿, and the total angular momentum are identical, and we have 𝑔 = 1 for both energy
states. The energy shift for a given value of 𝑚𝐽 , given by Equation (1), is the same in both the upper and

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
the lower energy state. In the electric dipole transition process (which is the dominant process for this
source) the change in 𝑚𝐽 is restricted according to the selection rule, Δ𝑚𝐽 = −1,0, +1.
As a result, when a magnetic field is applied the zero field line is observed to split into only three
separate components (each of which still have degeneracy).
Spectral lines which exhibit the anomalous Zeeman effect involve energy states with non-zero spin angular
momentum, 𝑆 ≠ 0. Electric dipole transitions do not involve a change in spin, but do involve a change in
orbital angular momentum according to the selection rule, Δ𝐿 = ±1
Because of this, the 𝑔-factors will be different for the upper and lower energy states, and the resulting
splitting of the zero field line in the presence of a magnetic field may be more complex.

Figure 2: Anomalous Zeeman effect – 9 lines of different frequencies are observed.

Fabry-Perot Interferometer:
The apparatus focuses on the ability to read small changes the energy of photons. This can be
achieved by employing a interferometer, in general a device which utilizes the interference effects of light
to measure small changes in the energy per photon of that light. In fact, interferometry is not limited to
merely photons, but can be achieved with any phase dependent quantum system such as a mass
interferometer which can theoretically measure incredibly small changes of acceleration in a system,
better than 10-5 m/s2. To observe the Zeeman effect in mercury, however, we concern ourselves primarily
with the 546.1 nm, 73 𝑆1 → 63 𝑃2 transitions. In this case we employ a Fabry-Perot interferometer to create
high-resolution interference patterns suitable for the measurement.
The Fabry-Perot interferometer is a special type of interferometer that utilizes two partially
reflective glass plates placed closely together with a layer of air in between. The glass plates may be coated
with a thin layer of silver in order to increase reflectivity between the two plates. These plates, when
placed exactly parallel to each other, create interference patterns by reflecting light multiple times within
the air cavity. Much care must be taken in aligning the plates properly to acquire useful data using a
kinematic mount to hold one of the plates. Ideally, when aligned, the interference pattern should have
little dependence on the angle at which one views the image.

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
Experimental Setup:
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup to observe Zeeman Effect is shown below.

S: Light Source (mercury lamp in our case).

H: Electromagnets properly connected to the power supply.
L1, L2: Convex lenses of appropriate focal length so as to obtain an intense & better resolved fringe
patterns.
P: Polarizer properly set so as to allow only 3 pi lines to pass through.
F1: IR filter.
F2: Filter, allows only wavelengths close to 546.1 nm (corresponding to 3 sigma lines) to pass through.
FP: Fabry-Perot etalon or interferometer with the distance between the reflecting surfaces = 3.995 mm.
C: Charge coupled device or CCD or video camera.

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
Procedure:
 The magnetic field was first calibrated to determine a relationship between the power supply
current (𝐼) and the magnetic field 𝐵 produced by the electromagnets using the Hall probe.
 The various optical components were fitted on an optical bench/train and were aligned properly
along a common axis. This could easily be done by turning on the mercury lamp and after a few
minutes when it is warmed up (about 5 minutes), the path of the beam is probed with a small piece
of white paper/card to check that the beam is passing through the center of each optical
component.
 After proper alignment and adjustment, circular interference fringes could be seen on the
computer screen as shown in Figure 3 using a charge coupled device (CCD) or a sensitive video
camera.

Figure 3: Interference pattern with approximately zero magnetic field.

 The interference fringe patterns are recorded/saved by varying the magnetic field or more
specifically by varying the current through the electromagnets say in steps of 0.5 A.
 These fringe patterns for various magnetic fields are then analyzed using a small MATLAB script
attached at the end of this report for the values of the following parameters:
o 𝛿𝑎𝑏 is the difference of the squares of the radial distance between the lines corresponding
to a fringe. 𝛿𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 2 − 𝑎2
o 𝛿12 is the difference of the squares of the radial distance between the two main fringes.
𝛿12 = 22 − 12

 Data collected is listed in a tabular fashion in the following section.

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010

Figure 4: Interference pattern showing the splitting of the main fringes into 3 distinct fringes for magnetic field
corresponding to 3.63 amperes of current flowing through the electromagnets.

Figure 5: Intensity profile of the interference pattern obtained above for magnetic field corresponding to 3.63
amperes of current flowing through the electromagnets.

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
Observations:

Table 1: For calibration of the magnetic field produced by the electromagnets with current passing through them.

Obs. No. Current through the Electromagnets (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss)
1 0 570
2 0.23 1070
3 0.44 1580
4 0.6 1980
5 0.81 2540
6 1.06 3230
7 1.25 3790
8 1.42 4280
9 1.61 4830
10 1.9 5630
11 2.11 6200
12 2.32 6760
13 2.42 7010
14 2.72 7790
15 2.96 8390
16 3.15 8880
17 3.39 9440
18 3.55 9830

𝑦 = 2672𝑥 + 469.3

Above calibration data was fitted linearly using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 model to get,

𝑚 = 2672, 𝑐 = 469.3

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
Table 2: For recording the position of the fringes (Attached MATLAB script was used for this) and corresponding
magnetic field (H).

Current Corr. M. Field Centre a b c 𝜹𝒊𝒋 𝜹𝒂𝒃 𝜹𝒃𝒄

S. #
(A) (Gauss) (Pixel #) (Pixel #) (Pixel #) (Pixel #) 𝒓𝟐𝒋− 𝒓𝟐𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒃− 𝒓𝟐𝒂 𝒓𝟐𝒄− 𝒓𝟐𝒃
1 600 626 646 *** 13260 11120
2 702 719 736 58497 11985 12563
3 781 795 809 60648 12040 12432
3.63 10169 358
4 844 857 870 58032 12805 13143
5 898 911 925 56808 14209 15680
6 954 965 977 62640 13233 14712
Average 59325 12922 13275

1 598 626 645 *** 14616 10811

2 706 721 737 61275 10875 12096
3 3.50 9821 351 778 794 807 59349 13920 11687
4 846 857 867 59787 11011 10220
5 954 962 976 117285 9712 17304
Average 74424 12027 12424

1 443 472 502 *** 6931 8940

2 602 625 642 64413 12673 10047
3 3.19 8993 338 706 718 731 62031 8976 10049
4 843 856 869 123924 13299 13637
5 1049 1058 1068 250076 12879 14500
Average 125111 10952 11435

𝑦 = 1.343 × 10−4 𝑥 − 1.102

𝑦 = 1.366 × 10−4 𝑥 + 1.118

Figure 6: The graph displays the relation between the strength of the magnetic field and both 𝛿𝑎𝑏 and 𝛿𝑏𝑐 .

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
As mentioned earlier the distance 𝑑 between the two reflecting surfaces in the Fabry-Perot
interferometer = 3.995 mm or 𝑑 = 0.3995 cm.

𝛅𝐚𝐛 𝛅𝐛𝐜
Magnetic Field (H) 𝚫𝛎𝐚𝐛 = 𝚫𝛎𝐛𝐜 =
S. # 𝛅𝐢𝐣 𝛅𝐚𝐛 𝛅𝐛𝐜 𝟐𝐝 𝛅𝐢𝐣 𝟐𝐝 𝛅𝐢𝐣
(Gauss)
(cm-1) (cm-1)
1 10169 59352 12922 13275 0.274 0.280
2 9821 74424 12027 12424 0.202 0.210
3 8993 125111 10952 11435 0.110 0.114

From the above fit we have,

Δ𝜈𝑎𝑏 = 1.343 × 10−4 cm−1 Gauss−1
Δ𝜈𝑏𝑐 = 1.366 × 10−4 cm−1 Gauss−1
So we have,
Δ𝜈𝑎𝑏 + Δ𝜈𝑏𝑐
𝑔1 − 𝑔0 = = 1.354 × 10−4 cm−1 Gauss−1
2
Whereas the theoretical value of 𝜇0 ℎ𝑐 = 4.669 × 10−5 cm−1 .

There is a good theoretical reason for this discrepancy involving the electronic spin in the system. In
the approximation given in the lab manual, spin of the electrons was not taken into account, leaving the
value S = 0. In reality, the strength of the spin magnetic dipole is of the same order of magnitude as the
angular momentum dipole. The net consideration of both spin and angular dipoles is called the Lande g-
factor, given by the equation,
𝐽 𝐽+1 −𝐿 𝐿+1 +𝑆 𝑆+1
𝑔𝐽 𝑛, 𝑙, 𝑠, 𝑗 = 1 +
2𝐽 𝐽 + 1

From this equation, we can make a better approximation for 𝑔1 − 𝑔0 as,

2+2−0 2+6−2 1
𝑔𝐽 7,0,1,1 − 𝑔𝐽 6,1,1,2 = 1 + − 1+ =
4 12 2
Thus, we end up with a factor of (1/2) for the difference in the splitting, giving a more acceptable
expected value of 2.335 × 10−5 cm−1 Gauss−1 . This value therefore is well within the bounds of error of
the experimental value.

Conclusions:
The anomalous Zeeman effect was observed and from the observations calculated value of the
Lande g-factor was found to be 1.354 × 10−4 cm−1 Gauss −1 .

References:
 Supplied User manuals and reading material.
 Wikipedia.org (http://en.wikipedia.org)

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 3 rd – 10th March 2010
Designed MATLAB Scripts:
Script 1:
Following MATLAB script plots the intensity profile of the interference pattern of all the images whose
filenames are contained in the variable ‘Fil’ and allows user to determine approximate centre of the
circular fringes to calculate the square radius.

Fil = ['3.63';'3.50';'3.19';'2.90';'2.60';'2.28';'1.99'];
for aa = 1:length(Fil)
im = imread([Fil(aa,:),'.bmp']);
im = double(im);
data = im(480,:,2);
data = smooth(data,3);
figure;
plot(data); grid; title(['For Current = ',Fil(aa,:)]);
l1 = input('Enter the lower limit: ');
l2 = input('Enter the upper limit: ');
[A,B] = min(data(l1:l2));
fprintf(['Center is at: ',num2str(B+l1),'\n']);
end

Script 2:
Following script is a bit complex and can be used for the determination of the centre of the fringes more
accurately. It uses the Image Processing Toolbox of MATLAB and determines centre by fitting a circle on
the boundary of the fringe.

im=imread('<filename>');
gr=rgb2gray(im);
the=graythresh(gr);
bw=im2bw(gr,the);
% bw=-(bw-1);
bw=imfill(bw,'holes');
imshow(im);
hold on;
fprintf('Enter the coordinates of approx. center (determined by eye estimation)\n');
c=input('x-coordinate: ');
r=input('y-coordinate: ');
init_val=bw(r,c);
val=init_val;
j=c;i=r;
while(val==init_val)
i=i-1;
val=bw(i,j);
end
x1=j;
y1=i+1;
B=bwtraceboundary(bw,[y1,x1],'SE');
x=B(:,2);
y=B(:,1);
abc=[x,y,ones(length(x),1)]\-(x.^2+y.^2);
a=abc(1); b=abc(2); c=abc(3);
xc=-a/2;
yc=-b/2;
plot(xc,yc,'.r');
hold off;
fprintf('Center is: (%d,%d)\n',round(xc),round(yc));

10 | Z e e m a n E f f e c t , E x p t . – 4