ASSHTO Example Strut and Tie

Denis Mitchell, McGill University
Michael P. Collins, University of Toronto

Shrinivas B. Bhide and Basile G. Rabbat,
Portland Cement Association
530 k
545 k
585 k
5.00'
5.00'
2.43'
7.57'
0.5'
k
-867
stirrup
band
1
= 5.00'
2
= 5.00'
3
= 5.00'
8.132'
0k
13.7
-1075 k
stirrup
band
-1
8.132'
H
J L
-1653k -1653k
F
stirrup
band
1653 k
-1075 k
8.132'
0k
-538
-585 k
325 k
6.291'
1653k 1653k
18
0.75'
1653 k
47.0
-1
0k
5.074'
15
403 k
0k
843 k
-5
522 k
-7
4
3.858' 4 k
-585 k
0k
250'
AASHTO LRFD Strut-and-Tie Model

Design Examples
1.57' 2.43' 2.43' 1.57'
9
18
6.2
Direct all correspondence to:

Shrinivas B. Bhide
Portland Cement Association
5420 Old Orchard Road
Skokie, Illinois 60077-1083
Voice: 847.972.9100
Fax: 847.972.9101
E-mail: sbhide@cement.org
ENGINEERING BULLETIN EB231
AASHTO LRFD
Strut-and-Tie Model
Design Examples
Denis Mitchell, McGill University; Michael P. Collins, University of Toronto; and

Shrinivas B. Bhide and Basile G. Rabbat, Portland Cement Association

847.966.6200 Fax 847.966.9781
www.cement.org
An organization of cement companies to improve and
extend the uses of portland cement and concrete through
market development, engineering, research, education,
and public affairs work.
KEYWORDS: AASHTO LRFD Specifications, anchorage, bearing stress, B-region, bridge, compressive strut, concentrated
load, concrete, crack control reinforcement, dapped end, deep beam, development length, D-region, equilibrium, factored load,
footing, geometric discontinuity, hammerhead, limiting compressive stress, moving load, nodal region, node, pier, pile cap, posttensioned, prestressed concrete, prestressing steel, principal tensile strain, reinforcing steel, resistance factor, shear, St. Venants
principle, stirrup, Strut-and-Tie Model, tension tie, transfer length, truss model, wall pier
ABSTRACT: The strut-and-tie method (STM) prescribed in the AASHTO LRFD Specifications is explained. Disturbed regions of
structures resulting from geometric or force discontinuities where STM must be used are identified. A step-by-step procedure for STM
is provided. Five detailed design examples are also provided; they include: (1) Design of cap beam, (2) Design of footing, (3) Design
of pile cap, (4) Design of dapped end region of girder, and (5) Design of hammerhead pier.
REFERENCE: Denis Mitchell, Michael P. Collins, Shrinivas B. Bhide, and Basile G. Rabbat, AASHTO LRFD Strut-and-Tie Model
Design Examples, EB231, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, USA, 2004, 58 pages.
Portland Cement Association (PCA) is a not-for-profit

organization and provides this publication solely for the continuing education of qualified professionals. THIS PUBLICATION SHOULD ONLY BE USED BY QUALIFIED PROFESSIONALS who possess all required license(s), who are
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of the
information provided herein, and who accept total responsibility for the application of this information. OTHER READERS
SHOULD OBTAIN ASSISTANCE FROM A QUALIFIED
PROFESSIONAL BEFORE PROCEEDING.
Cover photos:
I-25/I-40 Big-I Interchange, Albuquerque, New Mexico,
winner of the 2002 PCA Bridge Design Awards
Competition. (IMG15512)
PCA AND ITS MEMBERS MAKE NO EXPRESS OR

IMPLIED WARRANTY WITH RESPECT TO THIS PUBLICATION OR ANY INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN. IN PARTICULAR, NO WARRANTY IS MADE OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE. PCA AND ITS MEMBERS DISCLAIM ANY
PRODUCT LIABILITY (INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION ANY STRICT LIABILITY IN TORT) IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION OR ANY INFORMATION CONTAINED HEREIN.
Portland Cement Association 2004

First edition
WARNING: Contact with wet (unhardened) concrete,
mortar, cement, or cement mixtures can cause SKIN
IRRITATION, SEVERE CHEMICAL BURNS (THIRD
DEGREE), or SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE. Frequent exposure may be associated with irritant and/or allergic contact dermatitis. Wear waterproof gloves, a long-sleeved
shirt, full-length trousers, and proper eye protection when
working with these materials. If you have to stand in wet
concrete, use waterproof boots that are high enough to
keep concrete from flowing into them. Wash wet concrete, mortar, cement, or cement mixtures from your skin
immediately. Flush eyes with clean water immediately
after contact. Indirect contact through clothing can be as
serious as direct contact, so promptly rinse out wet concrete, mortar, cement, or cement mixtures from clothing.
Seek immediate medical attention if you have persistent
or severe discomfort.
Printed in U.S.A.
ISBN 0-89312-241-6
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

any form without permission in writing from the publisher,
except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in a
review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.
EB231
iii
Preface
In an effort to advance the state of the art, the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications have
introduced several new concepts and design methods. They include the use of limit states design
principles, reliability-based factored load combinations and, for concrete structures, new shear design
methods and the introduction of a general strut-and-tie design model. These new methods are significantly different from those included in the Standard Bridge Design Specifications.
By 2007 all bridges receiving federal aid will have to be designed by the LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications. States have begun the transition from the Standard Specifications to the LRFD
Specifications. The purpose of this bulletin is to assist bridge engineers in the proper application of
the new strut-and-tie model for the design of disturbed regions of bridge components. The emphasis
is placed on how to use the specifications. This publication also should be a valuable aid to educators and students.
While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy of the design examples presented, PCA
would be grateful to any reader who brings any typographical or other errors to our attention. Other
suggestions for improvement are also most welcome.
Shri Bhide
Engineered Structures Department
iv
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the following individuals without whose help the publication of this
bulletin would not have been possible:
Jian Zhou and William Cook for preparing the drawings. Dale McFarlane, Diane Vanderlinde, Caron
Johnsen, and Cheryl Taylor, PCA, for the word processing, layout, and formatting of the document,
and David Bilow, PCA, for technical review.
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. Visualize Flow of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Sketch an Idealized Strut-and-Tie-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Select Area of Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Check Nodal Zone Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5. Check Strength of Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6. Provide Adequate Anchorage for the Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Example 1 Design of Cap Beam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Example 2 Design of Footing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Example 3 Design of Pile Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Example 4 Design of Dapped End Region of Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Example 5 Design of Hammerhead Pier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
vi
vii
Introduction
The purpose of this bulletin is to provide bridge designers with representative examples illustrating the use of
strut-and-tie models in accordance with the AASHTO LRFD Specifications (AASHTO 2004). Although the
concept of modeling the flow of forces in structural concrete members using struts and ties was used in the early
1900s (Ritter, 1899; Mrsch, 1909), design procedures using strut-and-tie models only recently have been
codified (CSA, 1984; AASHTO, 1994, and ACI, 2002).
In the design of reinforced and prestressed concrete elements, there are two types of regions: flexural (bending)
regions (B-regions) and regions near discontinuities (D-regions) (Schlaich et al., 1987; Collins and Mitchell,
1986). Within flexural regions, it is accurate to assume that plane sections prior to loading remain plane after
loading and that the shear stresses are distributed in a reasonably uniform manner over the effective web area. For
the design of B-regions, a sectional design approach is used. In this approach it is not necessary to address how
the forces are introduced into the member. Strut-and-tie models are used primarily to design regions near
discontinuities or
D-regions. These regions have a disturbed flow of stresses and hence plane sections do not
remain plane and the shear stresses are not uniformly distributed over the effective shear area. For the design of
these regions it is important to consider how the forces are introduced into the member. Discontinuities are caused
by abrupt changes in cross-sectional dimensions (e.g., the presence of openings or dapped ends) or abrupt changes
in applied forces (e.g., support reactions, large concentrated loads and post-tensioned anchorage zones). For
flexural regions, the AASHTO LRFD Specifications (5.8.1.1)* permit the use of either traditional sectional
models (5.8.3) or the strut-and-tie model (5.6.3). For regions near significant discontinuities, the use of the
strut-and tie model is required (5.8.1.2). A concentrated load which causes more than 50% of the shear at the
face of the support and is closer than 2d from the support face is a situation that requires a strut-and-tie model
(5.8.1.1).
If we consider the case of a simply supported beam of depth h, subjected to a concentrated load applied at
midspan, there will be three disturbed regions, one adjacent to each support and one centered at midspan. The
regions near the supports will be about h long while the disturbed region near midspan will be about 2h long
(St. Venants principle). When the distance between the applied load and the support is less than about 2h, the
disturbed regions will overlap. For typical girders (without geometric discontinuities) where the span is often
about 18h, the presence of the disturbed regions has very little influence on the overall behavior of the member
and hence the localized influence of these regions normally is ignored in design. However, if the span of the beam
is less than 4h, all of the beam will be a disturbed region and hence the overall behavior will be influenced
strongly by the disturbed flow of stresses. For this case the strut-and-tie model is used for design.
Figure 1 illustrates some examples of disturbed regions with the flow of stresses modeled with concrete
compressive struts and the tension ties provided by reinforcement. The compressive struts are shown with dashed
lines while the tension ties are indicated with thick solid lines. Figure 1(a) shows a simply supported B-region in
which the principal compressive stress trajectories will be essentially parallel. This flow is modeled by diagonal
struts. In the D-region near the support, the principal compressive stress trajectories fan out from the support.
These fanning compressive stresses can be represented by a diagonal strut along the centerline of the fan. The
strut-and-tie model uses straight-line compressive struts that are assumed to act along the center of the flow of the
compressive stresses. Each vertical tension tie represents the tension forces in a number of stirrups over a certain
Article numbers of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications are preceded by the symbol
1
length of the member. The length of this stirrup band usually is taken as between 0.8h to about 2h, depending on
the geometry and loading.
D-region
with fanning
compressive
stresses
B-region
with uniform
compressive
stresses
tension tie
(a) Simply supported beam
(b) Pier cap
(c) Deep beam
(d) Wall pier with concentrated

loads
Figure 1. Examples of D-regions modeled with struts and ties.
Figure 1(b) shows a double-sided corbel, with the flow of the compressive stresses into the corbel modeled by
concrete compressive struts. The tension tie along the top of the corbel is required for the equilibrium of the truss
formed by the strut-and-tie model. Figure 1(c) shows a deep beam subjected to a concentrated load at midspan.
The entire beam is a D-region, in accordance with St. Venants principle. The flow of forces into the beam is
modeled using compressive struts from the applied load into the support reaction areas. The tension tie for such
beams typically consists of several layers of reinforcing bars or post-tensioned tendons. Figure 1(d) illustrates the
fanning compressive stresses resulting from concentrated forces being applied to the top of a wall pier and the
resulting tension ties required for equilibrium.
The flow of compressive stresses can follow a curved path as shown in Figure 2(a) as the compressive struts
widen between the loading and reaction plates. This curving of the compressive stresses causes tension
perpendicular to the flow as shown by the inclined tension ties in Figure 2(b). Instead of using curved
compressive struts, the AASHTO LRFD Specifications prescribe simple straight-line struts to model the flow of
compression and additional uniformly distributed horizontal and vertical reinforcement (5.6.3.6) to control
cracking in the disturbed region (Figure 2[c]). It is noted that slabs and footings are exempt from the crack control
reinforcement requirement (5.6.3.6). For these types of members the diagonal compressive stresses are usually
considerably lower in magnitude than those for regions such as dapped ended beams, hammerhead piers, or deep
beams.
crack control
reinforcement
(a) Flow of compressive

stresses
(b) Tensions due to flow of

compressive stresses
(c) Assumption of straight

compressive struts
Figure 2. Straight-line struts and required crack control reinforcement (adapted from Schlaich et al., 1987).
The main steps for design of a D-region can be summarized as follows:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Visualize flow of stresses

Sketch an idealized strut-and-tie model
Select area of ties
Check nodal zone stresses
Check strength of struts
Provide adequate anchorage for the ties
The steps required to design a D-region, such as the deep beam shown in Figure 3, are given below:
1. Visualize Flow of Stresses
Visualize the flow of the compressive stresses in the D-region, and idealize the flow with straight-line struts.
Determine the locations of tension ties required for equilibrium. In sketching the truss, made up of struts and ties,
make suitable assumptions for the positions of the centroids of the ties, allowing sufficient space for placement of
the required reinforcement.
2. Sketch an Idealized Strut-and-Tie Model
Sketch the strut-and-tie model in the form of a truss idealization. In modeling bridge girders subjected to moving
loads, it is convenient to space the nodes of the truss such that the truck axle loads can be applied directly to the
nodes. Determine the forces required in the struts and ties due to the applied factored loads. For moving loads one
should consider different positions of the axle loads to achieve the maximum design forces for a particular
member.
If the member being designed is statically indeterminate (e.g., a two-span continuous deep beam subjected to
point loads in each span), a realistic strut-and-tie model also will be statically indeterminate. The support
reactions for this indeterminate truss can be found from elastic analysis of the actual member, and the internal
forces in the truss model then can be determined from statics. Alternatively, stiffness values can be assigned to the
members of the truss and hence the forces in the members and the reactions of the truss can be determined by
analyzing the statically indeterminate truss. For this analysis the stiffness of the ties can be taken as the axial
stiffness of the reinforcing bars and prestressing steel (e.g., E s A st + E p A ps ) that the tie represents. The stiffness
of a strut may be taken as the cross-sectional area of the strut multiplied by the concrete modulus and the area of
any compression steel multiplied by the steel modulus (i.e., E c A cs + E s A s + E p A ps ).
nodal zone
0.85 f c'
_ fcu
fc <
0.75 f c'
tension tie
develop tension
tie force over
this length
(a) Strut-and-tie model
truss node
tension tie
effective
anchorage
area
(b) Truss model
Figure 3. Strut-and-tie model and idealized truss model for deep beam.
3. Select Area of Ties
Choose the required area of reinforcement in the tension ties to ensure that the factored resistance in the ties
equals or exceeds the required factored force in the ties (5.6.3.2 and 5.6.3.4.1).
4. Check Nodal Zone Stresses
Compare the nodal zone stresses with the nodal zone stress limits. Because of the dimensions of the struts and the
reinforcement making up the ties, the truss joint, or node, represents a nodal zone with finite dimensions
(see Figure 3). The nodal zones serve to transfer the forces between the ties, the struts, the support reaction areas ,
CCC node
CCT node
CCT node
CTT node
(a) Deep beam
(b) Dapped end
lb
lb sin + ha cos
da
ha
0.5 ha
lb sin + da cos
lb
(c) Strut anchored by bearing plate

and reinforcing bars (CCT node)
Stress limit = 0.75 fc'
(d) Strut anchored by bearing plate

and strut (CCC node)
lb sin + ha cos
ha
0.5 ha
lb
lb
(e) Strut anchored by two tension

ties (CTT node)
(f) Continuous beam support

(CCC node)
Figure 4. Types of nodal zones and dimensions of struts.
and the loaded bearing surfaces. The nodal zones occur at the intersections of the truss elements and at the loading
points and support reaction areas. It is important to allow for the transfer of forces without overstressing the
5
concrete in the nodal zones. In many practical cases it will be necessary to spread the tie reinforcement into
several layers so that the nodal zone stress limit is not exceeded in the effective anchorage area (see Figure 3[b]).
The integrity of the nodal zone is checked by comparing the normal stresses applied to the boundaries of the nodal
zone with the specified nodal zone stress limits. The compressive strength of the nodal zone depends on the
tensile straining from intersecting tension ties and on confinement due to the presence of transverse
reinforcement. The nodal zone stress limits in the AASHTO specifications (5.6.3.5) depend on the number of
ties that are being anchored in the nodal zone. Figure 4 illustrates a number of typical nodal zone conditions and
their corresponding stress limits depending on the presence of compressive struts (indicated by C) and tension
ties (indicated by T).
5. Check Strength of Struts
Compare the factored resistance of the struts with the calculated factored loads in the strut members (5.6.3.2 and
5.6.3.3). The nominal resistance of the strut is determined by multiplying the limiting compressive stress, f cu , by
the effective cross-sectional area of the strut, A cs . The limiting compressive stress depends on the angle, s ,
between the compressive strut and the tension tie and the tensile strain, s , in the tie where it crosses the strut.
The limiting compressive stress is given as:
f cu =
f c'
0.85f c'
0.8 + 1701
in which the principle tensile strain in the concrete, 1 , is taken as:
1 = s + ( s + 0.002 ) cot 2 s
where s is the smallest angle between the compressive strut and the tension tie and s is the average tensile
strain in the concrete in the direction of the tension tie. For a tension tie consisting of reinforcing bars, s , can be
taken as the tensile strain due to factored loads in the reinforcing bars. As shown in Figure 5, the limiting
compressive stress, fcu, reduces significantly as the angle, s , becomes smaller. A strain value of s of 0.002
would correspond to a tie yielding in tension at the location where it crosses the centerline of the strut. If the
tension force in the tie changes as it crosses the strut, then s may be taken as the value of the strain where the tie
meets the centerline of the strut. For example if the tie is developed within the width of the strut, the tensile strain
in the tie might change from 0.002 at the inner edge of the strut to zero at the outer edge of the strut, resulting in
an s value of 0.001. For a tension tie consisting of prestressed steel, s can be taken as zero until the
precompression in the concrete due to the prestress is overcome. Figure 5 illustrates the influence of s and s on
the limiting compressive stress, fcu. It can be seen that even struts at very shallow angles (e.g., 20) can resist
significant stresses ( 0.297f c' ) if the tie is prestressed.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
s = 0
fcu /f'c
0.6
s = 0.001
0.5
s = 0.002
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
s
Figure 5. Influence of s and s on the limiting compressive stress in a strut.
Figure 6 shows two specific examples of calculating fcu for cases involving reinforcing bars as ties. For the two
cases shown, if the strain s is 0.002 at the inner edge of the strut, and it is conservatively assumed that this strain
reduces to 0.001 at the centerline of the strut, then the limit on the compressive strength of the struts, fcu, changes
from 0.68f c' for the case where s equals 45o to 0.30f c' for the case where s equals 25o (see 5.6.3.3.3).
1
1
s = 45o
s = 2 5o
(a) s = 45 o
(b) s = 25o
fcu = 0.68 fc'
fcu = 0.30 fc'
Figure 6. Examples of determining fcu..
If the strut is anchored by a bearing area, the cross-sectional dimensions of the strut will be influenced by the
length of the bearing area, the dimensions of the adjacent ties or struts, and the inclination of the strut (see Figures
4[c] and 4[d]). If the strut is anchored only by reinforcement, the effective dimensions of the strut are related to
the reinforcement details as shown in Figure 7. The strut bears against the longitudinal reinforcing bars which in
turn are anchored by the stirrups. It is assumed that the effective width of the strut across the thickness of the
member can extend a distance of up to six times the diameter of the longitudinal bar anchored by the stirrups (i.e.,
6d ba ) (see 5.6.3.3.2).
X
<6dba
la sins
<6dba
dba
6dba
<6dba
s
la
6dba
dba
Section X-X
Figure 7. Influence of reinforcement details on effective cross-sectional area of strut.
6. Provide Adequate Anchorage for the Ties
Provide sufficient anchorage for the ties (5.6.3.4.2) so that they can develop the required tie force. The tie
reinforcement is anchored by appropriate development length, hooks, headed bars, or other mechanical anchorage
so that it is capable of resisting the calculated tension in the reinforcement at the location where the centroid of
this reinforcement crosses the edge of the adjoining strut. At support reaction areas, a conservative approach is to
provide enough embedment or mechanical anchorage so that the required tension force can be developed at the
inner edge of the bearing (see Figure 3[a]). Where the distance, x , available to anchor a tie consisting of straight
reinforcing bars is less than the development length, l d , (5.11.2.1), it may be assumed that the stress developed
in the reinforcement is f y ( x / l d ) . Where the tie consists of pretensioned strands and the distance, x, available to
anchor the tie is less than 60 strand diameters ( 60d b is the assumed transfer length) (5.11.4.1) from the free end
of the strand, the stress in the strand may be taken as f pe [x / (60d b )] , where f pe is the effective stress in the
prestressing steel after all losses.
It should be appreciated that the strut-and-tie model is a so-called lower bound approach. It is possible to
postulate a number of different strut-and-tie models which will all provide safe paths for the loads to reach the
supports. The model that can carry the loads with the least internal energy, that is, the stiffest model involving the
most direct load path and minimizing the amount of tie reinforcement, will provide the most realistic and the most
efficient design.
U.S. Customary Units are used throughout the examples given in this bulletin. The purpose of providing the
design examples is to illustrate some of the features of the strut-and-tie design method, rather than to provide
complete final designs. Only the AASHTO LRFD Strength-I limit state has been considered in the examples. For
complete designs, other strength loading cases may have to be accounted for and serviceability requirements
would have to be satisfied.
References
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, first edition 1994, second edition 1998, third edition 2004,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA.
ACI, 2002, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-02) and Commentary (ACI 318R-02),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 443 pages.
Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., 1986, A Rational Approach to Shear Design The 1984 Canadian Code
Provisions, ACI Journal, Vol. 83, No.6, Nov.-Dec., pages 925 to 933.
CSA Standard A23.3, 1984, Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings, Canadian Standards Association,
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 281 pages.
Mrsch, E., 1909, Concrete-Steel Construction, McGraw Hill, New York, (English translation by E.P. Goodrich),
368 pages.
Ritter, W., 1899, Die bauweise hennebique, Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Vol. 33, No. 7, pages. 59 to 61.
Schlaich, J.; Shfer, K., and Jennewein, M., 1987, Towards a Consistent Design of Reinforced Concrete
Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 32, No. 3, May-June, pages. 74 to 150.
Example 1 Design of Cap Beam

The cap beam shown in Figure 1.1 is 3 ft wide and spans 30 ft between the centers of the supporting columns. The
precast pretensioned girders sit on neoprene pads, which in turn are resting on concrete bearing blocks having
dimensions of 18 x 30 in. The loads acting on the top surface of the beam include factored dead loads, and
factored lane, and truck loading, including an allowance for impact. The specified concrete compressive
strength, f c' , is 4 ksi and the specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi.
Design the cap beam using the AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
Figure 1.1. Details of cap beam.
Calculations and Discussion

For each of the outer two girder loads, the distance between the center of the applied load and
the face of the supporting column is less than twice the overall height of the cap beam; hence
the region between these two loads is a D-Region and will be designed using the strut-and-tie
model.
1-1
Specification
Reference
5.6.3.1
Example 1 (contd)
Step 1 - Draw Idealized Truss Model and Solve for Member Forces
The idealized truss model shown in Figure 1.2 represents the flow of forces in the cap beam.
The dashed lines represent compressive struts and the solid lines represent tension ties. The
point loads at the locations of the bearings have been increased to account for the factored selfweight of the cap beam. For example, the tributary factored self-weight of the beam at Nodes B
and D is [1.25 0.15 (4.5 3 10)] = 25.3 kips , plus an allowance for the bearing block and
bearing, giving about 26 kips. Similarly the factored self-weight of the beam, bearing block, and
bearing at Node A is about 18 kips. For simplicity the moment in the column will be neglected
for the design of the cap beam, i.e., the axial stresses will be considered uniform at the top of
the column pier.
In order to allow for the placement of the tension reinforcement and to account for the depth of
the concrete compressive struts, it has been assumed that the centroids of the top and bottom
chords of the truss are located 4 in. from the top and bottom concrete surfaces. In establishing
the horizontal locations of the nodes of the truss, Nodes A, B, and D are located directly below
the applied loads, while node C is located halfway between nodes B and D. Node G is located
directly below node B, and Node H is located directly below Node C. Although a single node
could be used to represent the column support, it is somewhat more accurate to represent the
column support by two Nodes, E and F. Node E is responsible for supporting the 267 kip load
from the cantilever, while Node F is responsible for the 434 kip load from the loads in the span
(i.e., 285 + 298 / 2 ). The positions of the two resultant compressive forces in the column (Nodes
E and F) have been chosen such that a uniform compressive stress exists in the column. To
achieve this, the width of the column has been subdivided so that the width 2 0.48 ft is
carrying the 267 kip force and the width 2 0.77 ft is carrying the 434 kip force. The resulting
factored forces in the truss members are determined by satisfying equilibrium (see Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2. Truss idealization and member forces.
1-2
Specification
Reference
Example 1 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Step 2 Check Size of Bearings
The limiting concrete stresses under the bearings depend on the conditions at the nodal zone.
Node D is a CCC node with a limiting stress of 0.85f c' and Node A is a CCT node with a
5.6.3.5
0.75f c' .
Because Node B anchors the horizontal Tie A-B and the vertical Tie
limiting stress of
B-G (representing the uniformly distributed stirrups), it will be designed as a CTT node with a
limiting stress of 0.65f c' .
The critical bearing stress occurs at Node B caused by the girder load and hence the minimum
bearing area can be determined as:
bearing area required =
Pu
0.65f c'
259
= 142 in.2
0.65 0.70 4
With dimensions of 18 x 30 in., the bearing block has sufficient area (540 in.2 ) .
Step 3 Choose Tension Tie Reinforcement
(a) Top reinforcement over column
The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A st , in Tie AB is:
A st =
Pu
295
=
= 5.46 in. 2
f y 0.9 60
5.6.3.4.1
Use 6 No. 9 bars, A s = 6.0 in.2

(b) Bottom reinforcement at midspan
The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A st , at midspan is:
A st =
Pu
605
=
= 11.20 in.2
f y 0.9 60
Use 12 No. 9 bars, A s = 12.0 in.2

(c)
Stirrups
The vertical tension Ties, BG and CH, each must resist a factored tension force of 149 kips.
This tension force can be provided by stirrups within a certain length of the beam as indicated
by the stirrup bands in Figure 1.2.
Using No. 5 stirrups with 2 legs, the number of stirrups, n, required in each band is:
1-3
Example 1 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Pu
149
=
= 4.45
A st f y 0.9 2 0.31 60
n=
Hence, the required spacing, s, within the 5-ft band is:

s
60
= 13.5 in.
4.45
Try No. 5 double-legged stirrups at 12 in.

Step 4 Check Capacity of Struts
Strut FB carries the highest compression force (671 kips, see Figure 1.2). Also, this strut is
anchored at Joint B which also anchors tension Tie AB and Tie BG. Hence this is the most
critical strut. The limiting compressive stress in the strut, f cu , usually is controlled by the
tensile strain in the tie which is at the smallest angle to the strut. From the geometry of the truss
idealization, the angle between tension Tie AB and Strut FB is 40.3o. The tensile strain in Tie
AB is:
s =
Pu
295
=
= 1.695 10 3
A st E s 6.0 29,000
285
kips
18" bearing
s = 1.69510
-3
295
kips
8"
40.3
217
kips
s = 0.84810-3
49.7
671
kips
s = 1.65710-3
149 kips
18 sin 40.3 + 8 cos 40.3
= 17.7
Figure 1.3. Details of strut near Node B.
Note that since Member BC is in compression (see Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3), it will have a
small compressive strain. Because there is a large tensile strain in Tie AB and a relatively small
1-4
Example 1 (contd)
Specification
Reference
compressive strain (say zero strain) in Member BC, it will be assumed that at the center of Strut
FB, near Node B, that
s = 1.695 10 3 + 0 / 2 = 0.848 10 3 .
Therefore, the principal strain, 1 , can be determined as:
1 = s + ( s + 0.002) cot 2 s = 0.848 10 3 + 0.848 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 40.30 = 4.81 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
and the limiting compressive stress, f cu , in the strut is:

f cu
f c'
4
=
0.85f c' =
= 2.47 ksi 0.85 4 = 3.40 ksi
0.8 + 1701
0.8 + 170 4.81 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
Note that the tension strain in Tie BG is:
s =
Pu
149
=
= 1.657 10 3
A st E s 2 0.31 (60 / 12) 29,000
Hence from this tie 1 would need to be:
1 = s + ( s + 0.002) cot 2 s = 1.657 10 3 + 1.657 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 49.7 0 = 4.29 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
As this is less than 4.81 10 3 this tie does not govern the compressive capacity of the strut.
The nominal resistance of the strut is based on the limiting stress, f cu , and the strut dimensions.
The strut width is computed in Figure 1.3 at 17.7 in. and the strut thickness can be
conservatively taken as the bearing block dimension, namely 30 in. Hence,
5.6.3.3.1
Pn = f cu A cs = 2.47 17.7 30 = 1312 kips
5.6.3.3.1
The factored resistance of the strut is:

Pr = Pn = 0.70 1312 = 918 kips 671 kips required
5.6.3.2
Therefore, the strut capacity is adequate.

Step 5 Check Anchorage of Tension Tie
The top No. 9 longitudinal bars must be developed at the inner edge of the bearing at Node A.
An embedment length of 36 + 9 2 in. cover = 43 in. is available to develop the bars (see
Figure 1.1). The basic development length for a straight No. 9 bar is 34 in., but with a top bar
factor of 1.4, the required length is 48 in. Therefore, it is necessary to provide hooks at the end
of the bars.
1-5
5.6.3.4.1
5.11.2.1.1
Example 1 (contd)
Specification
Reference
It is also necessary to check if the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective
anchorage area, which is 2 x 4 = 8 in. in depth. The nodal zone stress to anchor the tension tie
is:
fc =
295
= 1.024 ksi
2 4 36
For this nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is:
f c = 0.75f c' = 0.75 0.70 4 = 2.1 ksi
5.6.3.5
Therefore, the nodal zone stress in the anchorage area is acceptable.

Step 6 Provide Crack Control Reinforcement
(a) D-region (region near discontinuity)
Due to the presence of the concentrated loads at A and B, which are within a distance less than
the member depth from the faces of the column, the zone between Nodes A and B will be
considered as a D-region (St. Venants principle).
For disturbed regions (D-regions) the AASHTO LRFD Specifications require that crack
control reinforcement in the form of an orthogonal grid of reinforcement on both faces be
provided. The minimum ratio of reinforcement to gross concrete area is 0.003 in each direction.
For a spacing of 12 in. this requires:
5.6.3.6
A s = 0.003 12 36 = 1.30 in.2

Therefore, use 4 No. 5 horizontal bars at 12 in. spacing and 4 legs of No. 5 stirrups at 12 in.
spacing, giving A s = 4 0.31 = 1.24 in.2 in the D-region (this is within 5% of the required
area).
(b) B-region (flexural region)
The region between Nodes B and D is considered to be a B-region because the concentrated
load being transmitted in this region is more than twice the member depth from the supporting
column. As such this flexural region can be designed using the strut-and-tie model but the
detailing requirements of the sectional design procedures for flexural regions must be satisfied.
Hence it is appropriate to use the minimum transverse reinforcement requirements of 5.8.2.5.
Although two-legged No. 5 stirrups at 12 in. spacing are required for strength (Step 3[c]), it is
necessary to ensure that minimum shear reinforcement is provided to control inclined cracking.
5.6.3.1
5.8.1.1
5.8.2
5.8.2.5
Assuming a stirrup spacing of 12 in., the minimum area of stirrups shall not be less than:
A v = 0.0316 f c'
b vs
36 12
= 0.0316 4
= 0.46 in.2
fy
60
1-6
5.8.2.5
Example 1 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Since A v = 2 0.31 = 0.62 in.2 , an amount greater than minimum has been provided.
Use double-legged No. 5 stirrups at a spacing of 12 in. in the B-region.
Step 7 Sketch the Required Reinforcement
The resulting reinforcement of the cap beam is shown in Figure 1.4.

D - region
B - region
4 legged No.5
6 No.9 stirrups at 12"
2 legged No.5
stirrups at 12"
4 No.5
2 No.5
6 No.9 top
12 No.9
2 No.9 top
4 legs of No.5
closed stirrups
@ 12"
4 No.5 typ.
2 No.5@12"
2 No.5 typ.
each face
12 No.9 bot
12 No.9 bot
Figure 1.4. Reinforcement details of cap beam.
1-7
Example 2 Design of Footing

Design the footing supporting the column shown in Example 1 (see Figures 1.1 and 2.1). The square spread
footing is 9 x 9 x 3 ft. thick. The specified concrete compressive strength, f c' , is 4 ksi and the specified yield
strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi.
Design the footing using the AASHTO LRFD strut-and-tie method.
Figure 2.1. Footing dimensions.

Traditionally, footings are designed as flexural regions by checking the moment capacity at the
face of the column and checking the one-way and two-way shear capacities at the appropriate
critical sections. While this procedure leads to satisfactory designs, a more accurate model for
the flow of forces in the footing results if the strut-and-tie method is used (see Figure 2.2).
The idealized truss model shown in Figure 2.2 represents the flow of forces in the footing. The
dashed lines represent compressive struts and the solid line represents the tension tie.
In order to allow for the minimum 3-in. concrete cover and an assumed bar size of 1 in. for the
tension reinforcement, the centroid of the tension tie has been taken as 4 in. from the bottom
surface of the footing. It is further assumed that the centroid of the top compressive strut is
located 2 in. below the top surface of the footing.
In determining the loading on the footing it is necessary to account for the factored self-weight
of the column. The factored dead load of the column is [1.25 0.15 (2.5 2.5 11)] = 12.9 kips.
It is noted that footings are designed for the factored net pressure due to the applied column
loads only. The weight of the footing and pressure from the soil surcharge are transmitted
directly through the footing thickness and are resisted by equal and opposite soils pressures.
2-1
Specification
Reference
Example 2 (contd)
Specification
Reference

2.50'
3.166'
3 238 kips = 714 kips

1/62.5 = 0.416'
2"
-79.3kips
-85
-88
38.3
-1
05
-1
k ip
28
2.5'
4"
1'
1'
1'
1'
1'
1'
1'
1'
P = 79.33 kips
100.5
100.5
169.2
169.2
tension force
required for
moment only
tie force
from
strut-and-tie
model
206.3
206.3
238 kips
Hence they are neglected for the design of the footing. From the loading given in Figure 1.2, the
factored load on the footing, including the factored self-weight of the column, is
267 + 285 + 298 / 2 + 12.9 = 713.9 kips. As assumed in Example 1, the moment in the column
will be neglected for the design of the footing. The factored soil pressure on the bottom of the
footing is assumed to be uniform. The soil pressure is applied to bottom Nodes A through I,
spread at 1-ft. intervals. Nine reaction forces of 79.3 kips equilibrate an applied column load of
713.9 kips (say 714 kips). To simulate the fanning of the compressive stresses in the footing it is
necessary to choose the number and position of the nodes near the top of the footing. Three top
nodes, each carrying one-third of the applied column load, have been used as shown in Figure
2.2. The positions of the three resultant compressive forces in the column (Nodes J, K, and L)
have been chosen assuming that a uniform compressive stress exists in the column. To achieve
this, each force of 238 kips in the column occupies a width of 2.5 / 3 = 0.833 ft.
2-2
Example 2 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Solving the statics of the truss, the member forces shown in Figure 2.2 are determined.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the required tension tie forces in the bottom reinforcement from this strutand-tie model. Figure 2.2 also shows the variation of tie force if it is assumed that the tie force
results from flexure only, that is a tie force equal to the moment calculated at each section
divided by a lever arm of 2.5 It is important to note that, except for the location directly under
the column, the tie forces required by the strut-and-tie model considerably exceed those
required for flexure alone. The increased tie force is due to the fact that the inclined
compression, which is carrying the shear, causes tension in the reinforcement.
The required area of tie reinforcement, A st , which is a maximum in Ties DE and EF, is:
A st =
Pu
238.0
=
= 4.41 in. 2
f y 0.9 60
5.6.3.4.1
In components subjected to flexure, the amount of reinforcement provided must be adequate to

develop a factored flexural resistance, Mr , at least 1.2 times the cracking moment unless an
amount of reinforcement capable of carrying 1.33 times the factored moment is supplied. The
factored flexural resistance required to resist 1.2Mcr, using the modulus of rupture, fr , of
0.24 f c' ksi, specified in 5.4.2.6 is:
5.7.3.3.2
5.4.2.6
bh 2
9 12 36 2
0.24 f c' = 1.2
0.24 4 = 13,437kip - in = 1120 kip - ft
6
6
The corresponding minimum area of flexural reinforcement can be determined by dividing this
factored flexural resistance by the product of flexural lever arm (2.5 ft), and the factored yield
strength of the reinforcement giving:
M r 1.2M cr = 1.2
A s,min =
1120
= 8.30 in.2
2.5 0.9 60
The AASHTO specifications indicate that this minimum amount need not be supplied if 1.33
times the required resistance is provided. Hence, increase the tension tie reinforcement to:
A st = 1.33 4.41 = 5.87 in.2

Use 8 No. 8 bottom bars in each direction ( 6.32 in.2 provided).
Strut AJ carries the highest compression force (128 kips, see Figure 2.2) and has the smallest
angle of inclination from the tension tie. Figure 2.3 shows the details of the strut near Node A.
2-3
5.7.3.3.2
Example 2 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Figure 2.3. Details of strut near Node A.
From the geometry of the truss idealization, the angle between tension Tie AB and the Strut AJ
is 38.3o. The tensile strain in Tie AB is:
s =
Pu
100.5
=
= 0.548 10 3
A st E s 6.32 29,000
The strain, s , in the tension tie crossing the strut varies from a maximum at the inside face of
the strut to zero at the outside edge of the strut. Hence, it will be assumed that at the center of
the strut, at Node A, s = 0.548 10 3 + 0 / 2 = 0.274 10 3 .

The principal strain, 1 , can be determined as:
1 = s + ( s + 0.002 ) cot 2 s = 0.274 10 3 + 0.274 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 38.30 = 3.92 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
and the limiting compressive stress, f cu , in the strut is then:

f cu =
f c'
4
0.85f c' =
= 2.73ksi 0.85 4 = 3.40 ksi
0.8 + 1701
0.8 + 170 3.92 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
Multiplying this stress by the area of the strut, the nominal resistance of the strut is thus:
5.6.3.3.1
Pn = f cu A cs = 2.73 7.4 9 12 = 2182 kips

With a capacity reduction factor for compression in strut-and-tie models of 0.70, the factored
resistance of the strut is:
2-4
5.5.4.2.1
Example 2 (contd)
Specification
Reference
It can be seen that the factored resistance of the strut greatly exceeds the required factored force.
This will often be the case in large, lightly reinforced members.
It is noted that Nodes J, K and L represent the CCC node where the column frames into the
footing. The compressive struts in this region are not crossed by any tension ties. In addition,
there will be some vertical reinforcement passing through the column-footing interface. This
node and the struts in this region are not critical.
The No. 8 bars are required to develop a force of 100.5 kips at a distance of only 12 in. from the
edge of the footing (see Figure 2.3). Note that the stress in the 8 No. 8 bars at this location is
only:
fs =
5.6.3.4.1
100.5
= 15.9 ksi
8 0.79
With the provision of a 180o hook, as often used for reinforcing bars in footings, the distance
from the critical section to the end of the hook is 12 3 (cover) = 9 in. This detail will be
sufficient to develop the relatively small stress in the bars.
It is necessary to check if the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective anchorage
area, which is 2 x 4 = 8 in. in depth. The nodal zone stress to anchor the tension tie is:
fc =
100.5
= 0.12 ksi
2 4 9 12
5.6.3.5
For this CCT nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is:
f c = 0.75f c' = 0.75 0.70 4 = 2.1 ksi

Therefore, the nodal zone stress limit in the anchorage area is considerably below the limit.
It is noted that slabs and footings are exempt from the crack control requirements of 5.6.3.6.
The requirements for minimum flexural reinforcement of 5.7.3.3.2 have been satisfied in
Step 2.
2-5
5.6.3.6
5.7.3.3.2
Example 2 (contd)
The resulting reinforcement of the footing is shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4. Reinforcement details of footing.
2-6
Specification
Reference
Example 3 Design of Pile Cap

Design the pile cap supporting the pier shown in Figure 3.1. The square pile cap is 12 x 12 x 4 ft. thick. The 653
kip pier load acting on the top surface of the pile cap includes factored dead loads, factored truck and lane
loadings, and an allowance for impact. The specified concrete compressive strength, f c' , is 4 ksi and the specified
yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi. There is a 2-ft overburden on the pile cap with a unit weight of 110
pcf.
Design the pile cap using the AASHTO LRFD strut-and-tie method.
Figure 3.1. Pile cap dimensions.

Traditionally, pile caps are designed as flexural regions by checking the moment capacity at the
face of the pier and checking the one-way and two-way shear capacities at various critical
sections. For deep pile caps special investigations typically are conducted to justify higher shear
stresses on the critical sections. A more accurate model for the flow of forces in the pile cap
results if the strut-and-tie method is used (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2 shows the idealized truss model for the pile cap. For the design of the pile cap it is
important to appreciate the three-dimensional flow of forces from the pier to the piles. The load
applied to the top of the pile cap includes not only the factored pier load but also the factored
weight of the pile cap and the soil overburden. Hence the total factored load applied to the top
of the pile cap is 653 + 1.25 (0.150) (12 x 12 x 4) + 1.3 (0.110) (12 x 12 3 x 3) 2.0 = 800 kips.
3-1
Specification
Reference
Example 3 (contd)
Specification
Reference

200 kips
3' = 0.75'
200 kips
3'-0"
2"
3'-0"
38.7
250 kips
6"
200 kips
4"
200 kips
25
0
200 kips
ki p
s
9'-0"
250 kips
200 kips
200 kips
force in strut
= -406 kips
200 kips
The total factored load at the top of the pile cap has been applied at four points (E, F, G, and H),
located at distances equal to the pier dimension divided by four from the pier faces, to simulate
uniform compressive stress in the pier. It is assumed that these four loads will be transferred to
the support reaction areas of the four piles by four inclined compressive struts, indicated by
3-2
Example 3 (contd)
Specification
Reference
dashed lines in Figure 3.2. The inclined compressive struts, spreading from Nodes E, F, G, and
H, to Nodes A, B, C, and D, respectively, just above the piles, cause tension in the Ties AB, BC,
CD, and AD indicated by solid lines. To define the geometry of the truss, it is assumed that the
centroid of the tension tie reinforcement is located 4 in. above the top of the piles to allow for a
3 in. concrete cover and a bar size of 1 in. Nodes E, F, G, and H are assumed to be 2 in. below
the top surface of the pile cap to allow for the dimensions of Struts EF, FG, GH, and EH. Nodes
A, B, C, and D are located directly above the centers of the piles.
Solving the statics of the truss, the member forces shown in Figure 3.2 are determined. The
elevation view is useful in determining the tension tie force required in Tie AB. The isometric
view is useful in visualizing the complete three-dimensional truss and for determining the forces
in the compressive struts.
Step 2 Check Nodal Zone Stress Limits
The nodal zone at the pier-pile cap interface has a stress of:
fc =
800
= 0.62 ksi
36 36
This is considerably below the nodal zone stress limit for this CCC node of
0.85 f c' = 0.85 0.70 4 = 2.38 ksi
5.6.3.5
Furthermore, the pier vertical bars would extend some distance into the pile cap along with the
pier ties. This would increase the resistance of this nodal zone.
The stress in the nodal zones immediately above the piles is:
fc =
200
= 0.78 ksi
16 16
These nodal zones immediately above the pile caps have tension ties in two directions passing
through the nodal zones (CTT node) and hence have a reduced nodal zone stress limit of
0.65 f c' = 0.65 0.70 4 = 1.82 ksi . Therefore, the dimensions of these nodal zones are
adequate.
5.6.3.5
All four tension ties have a factored tension force of 250 kips. Hence, the required area of tie
reinforcement, A st , is:
A st =
5.6.3.2
Pu
250
=
= 4.63 in.2
f y 0.9 60
5.6.3.4.1
In components subjected to flexure, the amount of reinforcement provided must be adequate to

develop a factored flexural resistance, Mr , at least 1.2 times the cracking moment unless an
3-3
Example 3 (contd)
amount of reinforcement capable of carrying 1.33 times the factored moment is supplied. The
factored flexural resistance required to resist 1.2Mcr, using the modulus of rupture, fr, of
0.24 f c' ksi, specified in 5.4.2.6 is:

M r 1.2
5.7.3.3.2
5.4.2.6
bh 2
12 12 48 2
0.24 f c' = 1.2
0.24 4 = 31,850 kip - in. = 2654 kip - ft
6
6
The corresponding minimum area of flexural reinforcement can be determined by dividing this
factored flexural resistance by the product of flexural lever arm (3.0 ft), and the factored yield
strength of the reinforcement giving:
A s,min =
Specification
Reference
2,654
= 16.4 in.2
3.0 0.9 60
It should be noted that the total area of this flexural tension reinforcement, A s , will be provided
by the reinforcement in the two parallel tension ties, e.g., Ties AB and CD (in Figure 3.2).
Hence the area of tension tie reinforcement required to ensure that the factored flexural
resistance is at least 1.2M cr is equal to 16.4 / 2 = 8.2 in.2
On the other hand, the amount of reinforcement required to resist 1.33 times the factored loads
is:
A st = 1.33 4.63 = 6.16 in.2

As the amount of reinforcement required to resist 1.33 times the factored loads is less than the
amount required to resist 1.2M cr , this smaller amount will be provided. Choose 8 No.8 bottom
bars for each of the Ties AB, BC, CD, and AD shown in Figure 3.2 ( 6.32 in. 2 provided).
Struts AE, BF, CG and DH each carry a compression force of 406 kips (see Fig. 3.2). In order to
determine the nominal compressive resistances of the diagonal struts it is necessary to
determine the effective cross-sectional area of these struts in the critical region near the
intersection of the tension ties and the pile reactions (e.g., Joint A in Figure 3.2) and the limiting
compressive stress that these struts can carry. In making these calculations it should be
appreciated that the actual flow of forces from the pile cap into the bearing areas of the piles is
complex and that the ability of these highly stressed struts to carry the loads is considerably
enhanced by the confinement provided by the surrounding mass of concrete that has been
presumed to be unstressed. Because of this confinement it is appropriate to make simplifying
assumptions when estimating the cross-sectional area of the struts.
3-4
Example 3 (contd)
As shown in Figure 3.3, it will be assumed that the compressive stresses from the head of the
pile disperse into the pile cap at a 45 angle. This results in the effective bearing area at the
middle plane of the tension tie reinforcement being a square with side dimensions of 24 x 24 in.
(see Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3. Dispersion of compressive stresses above pile.
The vertical rise of the diagonal strut from A to E is 3.0 ft, while the horizontal distance from A
to the point directly below E is 3.75 2 = 5.30 ft (see Figure 3.2). Hence, the angle between the
centerline of the strut and the horizontal square bearing area is 29.5 (see Figure 3.4).
The cross-sectional area of the strut can be estimated by first looking at the section passing
through the vertical plane (Section 1-1) shown in Figure 3.4. From geometry, it can be
determined that the area of this vertical plane is 411 in.2. It will be assumed that the crosssectional area of the strut, which is inclined at 29.5o from the vertical plane, is thus
411 cos 29.5 o = 358 in. 2
3-5
Specification
Reference
Example 3 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Figure 3.4. Details of strut near Node A.
The limiting compressive stress, f cu , in the strut depends on the principal tensile strain, 1 , in
the concrete surrounding the tension ties.
The tensile strain in Tie AB is:
Pu
250
s =
=
= 1.364 10 3
A st E s 6.32 29,000
3-6
5.6.3.3.3
Example 3 (contd)
Specification
Reference
The tensile strain in this tie will reduce from 1.364 x 10-3 at the inner edge of the effective
bearing area to a strain of about zero at the outer edge of the effective bearing area. Hence for
investigating conditions near the centerline of the strut, the value of s will be taken as (1.364 x
10-3 + 0)/2 = 0.682 x 10-3. This is the tensile strain in direction AB and a similar tensile strain
exists in direction AD. Because of symmetry the same tensile strain exists in direction AC and
BD.
The angle between the plane of the tension ties and the diagonal strut is 29.5o and so the
principal strain, 1 , can be determined as:
1 = s + ( s + 0.002 ) cot 2 s = 0.682 10 3 + 0.682 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 29.5 0 = 9.06 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
and the limiting compressive stress, f cu , in the strut is then:

f cu =
f c'
4
0.85f c' =
= 1.71 ksi 0.85 4 = 3.40 ksi
0.8 + 1701
0.8 + 170 9.06 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
Multiplying the limiting compressive stress by the area of the strut, the nominal resistance of the
strut is thus:
Pn = f cu A cs = 1.71 358 = 612 kips
5.6.3.3.1
With a capacity reduction factor of 0.70, the factored resistance of the strut is:
5.5.4.2.1
Pr = Pn = 0.70 612 = 429 kips
5.6.3.2
As this exceeds the required factored load in the strut of 406 kips, the strut capacity is adequate.
The No. 8 bars are required to develop a force of 250 kips at the inner face of the precast piles.
The inner faces of the effective bearing areas are at a distance of 18 + 12 = 30 in. from the
outside face of the pile cap (see Figures 3.1 and 3.3). Hence, allowing for a concrete cover of 3
in., a distance of 27 in. is available as the embedment length. The stress in the 8 No.8 bars at
the inner faces of the piles is:
fs =
5.6.3.4.1
250
= 39.6 ksi
8 0.79
The basic tension development length, l db , is 30 in. As these bars are not required to develop
their full yield stress, the development length can be reduced to (39.6/60) x 30 = 20 in. While it
is possible to meet the anchorage requirement using straight bars, 180o hooks will be provided
on the ends of the bars to make it possible to develop the full yield strength of the bars. This
traditional practice results in pile caps that are less sensitive to misplacement of reinforcement
3-7
5.11.2.1
5.11.2.1.3
Example 3 (contd)
Specification
Reference
and to factors which may reduce bond strength. Alternatively, headed bars could be used to
ensure positive anchorage and direct bearing on the nodal zone.
It is also necessary to check if the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective
anchorage area. The standard hooks have an inside bend diameter of 6 in., giving out-to-out
dimensions of 8 in. for the hooks. Considering the beneficial effects of the hooks, the effective
depth of the nodal zone anchoring the ties will be taken as the distance from the bottom of the
nodal zone to the centroid of the ties (4 in.) plus the hook dimension (8 in.). The nodal zone
stress due to anchorage of the tension tie is:
fc =
5.11.2.4
250
= 0.87 ksi
12 24
For this CTT nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is:
f c = 0.65f c' = 0.65 0.70 4 = 1.82 ksi
Therefore, the tension ties with hooks are spread out sufficiently in the nodal zone.
Step 6 Check Minimum Reinforcement Requirements
It is noted that footing-type elements are exempt from the crack control requirements of
5.6.3.6.
5.6.3.6
The requirements for minimum flexural reinforcement of 5.7.3.3.2 have been satisfied
in Step 3.
5.7.3.3.2
The resulting reinforcement of the pile cap is shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6.
3-8
Example 3 (contd)
Specification
Reference

square column
3'-0"3'-0"
4'-6"
4'-6"
3" clear
8 No. 8 bars
24
3'-6"
6"
8 No. 8 bars
16"16"
precast
pile
9'-0"
Note: hooks to be placed in vertical plane

Figure 3.5. Reinforcement details of pile cap using 180 hooks.
square column
3'-0"3'-0"
4'-6"
4'-6"
3" clear
8 No. 8 bars
24
3'-6"
6"
8 No. 8 bars
16"16"
precast
pile
9'-0"
Figure 3.6. Reinforcement details of pile cap using headed bars.
3-9
Example 4 Design of Dapped End Region of Girder

The dapped end region of an interior girder of a single lane ramp structure is shown in Figure 4.1. The precast,
pretensioned girder has a total length of 100 ft and spans 97 ft. 2in., center-to-center of bearings. The girder
consists of a 54-in. deep AASHTO IV girder and an 8-in. thick deck slab. The girders are spaced at 10 The end
region, 56 in. in length, is solid with a width of 26 in., that is, equal to the width of the bottom flange of the girder.
As shown in Figure 4.2, the girder is pretensioned with forty-two 0.5-in. diameter low-relaxation strands (36 with
a straight strand profile and 6 draped strands). The harping points are located 33.33 ft from each end of the beam.
The specified concrete compressive strength, f c' , is 8 ksi for the girder and 6 ksi for the deck slab, and the
specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is 60 ksi.
In addition to the self-weight of the girder and deck slab, the girder must carry a 2-in. concrete wearing surface, a
superimposed dead load (including utilities) of 0.334 kips/ft, the Design Lane load, and the Design truck load
(HL93).
Design the dapped end region using the AASHTO LRFD strut-and-tie method.
Figure 4.1. Details of dapped end.
4-1
Example 4 (contd)
Figure 4.2. Details of pretensioning strand.
4-2
Specification
Reference
Example 4 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Step 1 Determine Factored Loading
A concrete unit weight of 0.15 kcf has been assumed. Table 4.1 summarizes the loading:
Table 4.1 Girder Loadings
Component
Loading
(klf)
Strength-I
Load
Factor
(3.4.1)
1.25
Factored Loading
(klf)
Precast girder
0.822
Deck slab
Solid block (26 in. x 54
in.)
1
1.463 (over solid
block region only)
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.829 (over solid
block region only)
Dap region (26 in. x 27

in.)
0.731 (over dap

region only)
1.25
0.9138 (over dap

region only)
Superimposed dead load

(wearing surface)
0.25
1.5
0.375
Superimposed dead load

(utilities, etc.)
0.334
1.5
0.501
3.4.1
1.0275
The Design Lane Load is 0.64 klf and the Design Truck has axle loads of 32 kips, 32 kips, and 8
kips, with axle spacings of 14 ft. The tandem axle load consists of two axle loads of 25 kips
each, spaced 4 ft apart. For this case the tandem axle load will produce a smaller shear at the
support than the design truck and hence does not control the design.
3.6.1.2.4
3.6.1.2.2
3.6.1.2.3
For a girder spacing, S, of 10 ft, the live load distribution factor for shear in interior beams is:
0.36 +
S
10
= 0.36 +
= 0.76
25
25
4.6.2.2.3
Using a load factor of 1.75 results in a factored lane loading for an interior girder of:
3.4.1
1.75 0.64 0.76 = 0.8512 klf

Using a load factor of 1.75 and a dynamic load allowance factor, IM, of 1.33 results in factored
axle loadings of:
1.75 32 0.76 1.33 = 56.6 kips
and
1.75 8 0.76 1.33 = 14.15 kips
With the truck positioned as indicated in Figure 4.3, the maximum shear (reaction) is
determined to be 319 kips.
4-3
3.6.2.1
Example 4 (contd)
Figure 4.3. Determining maximum shear.
Using St. Venants principle, the disturbed region due the geometric discontinuity caused by the
dapped end would extend about the total depth of the member, that is, 62 in. from the end of the
full-depth solid block. The axle loading close to the support region also causes a disturbed
region.
The strut-and tie model for the end region of the beam is shown in Figure 4.4. The beam already
has been designed for flexure and shear in the B-region. In order to allow for the placement of
the tension reinforcement, the centroid of the Ties CF and FH is assumed to be 4 in. from the
bottom surface. This corresponds to the centroid of the bottom three rows of strands. The
centroid of the top Struts BE and EG is assumed to be 2 in. from the top of the deck slab.
Node A is positioned at the intersection of the line of action of the reaction and the centroid of
the tension tie above the support. In establishing the horizontal location of the Tie BC it is
important to be aware of the reinforcement detailing requirements. It is prudent to spread out the
vertical stirrups forming the tie to provide: a reasonable width of nodal zone at Node C and a
sufficient length of this nodal zone to provide a reasonable embedment length for Tie CF.
For Tie BC, try using sets of 4-legged No. 5 closed stirrups. These stirrups will be placed at a
spacing of 4.0 in. with the first stirrup set located 2.5 in. from the face of the dapped region. It
will be assumed that 8 stirrup sets will be needed for Tie BC. Therefore, the centroid of Tie BC
will be at a distance of 16.5 in. from the end of the full depth of the solid block. Node E is
chosen close to the end of the thickened block, 62 in. from the end of the full-depth solid block,
that is, at the end of the disturbed region. The remainder of the beam is divided into
approximately square panels, 56 in. in length, to provide nodes at the locations of the axle loads
(3 panel lengths equal 14 ft). Node F is located directly below Node E. Tension Tie AD is
assumed to be anchored at Node D by the two diagonal compressive Struts (BD and CD).
The loads applied to the node directly above A and to Nodes B and G represent the factored
dead loads from the tributary areas centered on these nodes. The load at Node E represents the
factored dead load plus the 56.6 kip factored axle loading caused when the rear wheel load is
positioned at Node E to provide maximum tension in Tie BC. It is noted that if the truck load
were closer to Node B then some of the truck loading could be transferred by direct strut action
into Node A, hence reducing the force in Tie BC.
4-4
Specification
Reference
Example 4 (contd)
Specification
Reference
The resulting factored forces in the truss members determined from equilibrium are listed in
Table 4.2.
11.0 kips
73.5 kips
15.7 kips
18.7 kips
2"
2"
29"
56"
4"
27"
39
310 kips
4"
16.5"
21.9"
33.5"
56"
45.5"
Figure 4.4. Truss idealization.
Table 4.2 Forces in Truss Members (Tension is Positive, Compression is Negative)
Member
AB
BC
AD
CD
DE
BD
BE
CF
EF
EG
FH
Force, kips
-456.8
503.8
345.4
-649.0
-365.0
-276.3
-178.9
409.1
209.8
-409.1
618.9
4-5
Example 4 (contd)
Specification
Reference
The limiting concrete stresses under the bearing depend on the conditions at the nodal zone.
Node A is a CCT node with a limiting stress of 0.75f c' . While the reaction force at A
calculated for the truck rear axle located over Node E is 310 kips (see Figure 4.4), the reaction
at A will be somewhat higher, namely 319 kips when the rear axle load is directly above the
bearing (see Step 1 and Figure 4.3).
5.6.3.5
Hence, the minimum bearing area required at Node A can be determined as:
Pu
0.75f c'
319
= 101.3 in.2
0.75 0.70 6
The 18 x 18-in. bearing with assumed spreading at 450 through the 3-in. bearing block (see
Figure 4.2) gives an effective bearing area of 24 x 24 in., which has sufficient area (576 in.2).
(a) Tension Tie BC
The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A st , in Tie BC is:
A st =
Pu
503.8
=
= 9.33 in.2
f y 0.9 60
5.6.3.4.1
Using 8 sets of 4-legged No. 5 stirrups results in an area, A s = 8 4 0.31 = 9.92 in.2 . Closed
stirrups will be used to provide adequate anchorage of this reinforcement and to provide
anchorage for the Struts AB and CE.
(b) Tension Tie AD
The required factored tie force in AD (see Figure 4.4 and Table 4.2) is 345.4 kips for the case
where the truck rear axle load is at Node E. The tension force in Member AD will be somewhat
higher if the rear axle load is placed at Node B. For this case the reaction at Node A becomes
315.5 kips. Hence the tension in Member AD becomes:
Pu = (315.5 11.0)
33.5
= 351.8 kips
29
This axle load position is the critical case for the force in Tie AD and the force in Strut AB.
The tension force in the 6 slightly inclined strands will contribute to the required tie force.
Allowing for a 3-in.-thick bearing block, the distance from the end of the beam to the inner edge
of the bearing is 17 + 9 + 3 = 29 in. The transfer length of the -in. diameter strands is 60
strand diameters, that is, 60 0.5 = 30 in. Assuming a value of prestress after all losses of 162
ksi ( 0.6f pu ), the force contributed by the 6 strands in the dap region, assuming that the prestress
4-6
5.11.4.1
Example 4 (contd)
force varies linearly from zero at the end of the beam to a maximum at the transfer length is
therefore:
Pstrands =
Specification
Reference
5.8.3.2
29
162 6 0.153 = 143.8 kips
30
Additional reinforcing bars will be required to carry the difference between the required force of
351.8 kips and the force carried by the strands, that is, 351.8 143.8 = 208.0 kips . Therefore,
the area of reinforcing bars to make up this difference is:
A st =
Pu
208.0
=
= 3.85 in.2
f y 0.9 60
5.6.3.4.1
Therefore, use 5 No. 8 bars, A s = 3.95 in.2 . To provide adequate anchorage of this
reinforcement, provide either heads on the bars or use 90o bend hooks at each end. The bars
must be capable of developing their yield force at the inner edge of the bearing area at Node A
and must be anchored beyond Node D so that the tension force can be transferred to Struts DB
and DC (see Figure 4.4).
(c) Tension Tie CF
The force required in Tie CF is 409.1 kips (see Table 4.2). The distance from the ends of the
straight strands to the inner edge of the nodal zone at Node C is 33.5 in. (see Figure 4.5). As this
distance exceeds 60 strand diameters, the strands are capable of developing a stress of 162 ksi.
The bottom three rows of strands (30 strands) are capable of providing a force of:
Pstrands = 162 30 0.153 = 743.6 kips

Because this force exceeds the force required, no additional reinforcing steel is required.
4-7
5.6.3.4.1
Example 4 (contd)
Specification
Reference
503.8 kips
14"
649 kips
width of strut
= lb sin + h a cos
= 33.5 sin 51 + 8 cos 51
= 31.1"
39
51
409.1 kips
ha
= 8"
4"
2.25"
2.5"
7@4"
lb = 33.5"
6dba = 3"
Figure 4.5. Details of strut near Node C.
(d) Tension Tie EF
The vertical tension Tie EF must resist a factored tension force of 209.8 kips (see Table 4.2).
This tension force can be provided by stirrups within a stirrup band that is assumed to start at
the edge of the closed stirrups making up Tie BC and ending halfway between Nodes F and H.
The distance from the last stirrup of Tie BC to Node F is 45.5 14 = 31.5 in. (see Figures 4.4
and 4.5). Hence the length of the stirrup band is 31.5 + 28 = 59.5 in.
Using No. 4 stirrups with 4 legs, the number of sets of stirrups, n, required in this band is:
n=
Pu
209.8
=
= 4.86
A st f y 0.9 4 0.20 60
5.6.3.4.1
Hence the required spacing, s, within the 59.5-in. band length is:
s
59.5
= 12.2 in.
4.86
Use 4-legged No. 4 closed stirrups at 12 in.
4-8
Example 4 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Strut CD carries the highest compression force (649 kips, see Table 4.2). Also, this strut is
anchored at Joint C that also anchors tension Ties BC and CF. Hence, this is the most critical
strut. From the geometry of the truss, the smallest angle between the strut and the adjoining
tension ties is 39o . The tensile strain in Tie BC is:
s =
5.6.3.3.3
Pu
503.8
=
= 1.751 10 3
A st E s 9.92 29,000
1 = s + ( s + 0.002) cot 2 s = 1.751 10 3 + 1.751 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 39 0 = 7.471 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
f cu =
f c'
6
0.85 f c' =
= 2.90 ksi 0.85 6 ksi = 5.1ksi
0.8 + 170 1
0.8 + 170 7.471 10 3
1.69" 6db
6db 6db
6db
6db
5.6.3.3.2
6db 1.69"
clear cover on stirrups

= 1 3/8"
db = 0.5"
effective thickness of strut = 2 4.69 + 2 6 = 21.4"
Figure 4.6. Effective thickness of diagonal struts.
From Figure 4.5, the cross-sectional dimension of the strut in the plane of the beam is 31.1 in.
and from Figure 4.6 the effective thickness of the strut is 21.4 in. Hence, the nominal resistance
of the strut is:
4-9
5.6.3.3.3
Example 4 (contd)
Pn = f cu A cs = 2.90 31.1 21.4 = 1930 kips
Specification
Reference
5.6.3.3.1

Pr = Pn = 0.70 1930 = 1351 kips
5.6.3.2
As the factored resistance of the strut exceeds the factored load in the strut, 649 kips , the strut
capacity is adequate.
Step 6 Check Anchorage of Tension Ties
The details of the anchorage of the stirrups near the top of the beam must be such that they are
effective in transferring their tension to the diagonal struts. At these locations the effective
bearing area will be enhanced if closed stirrups rather than open stirrups are provided. Closed
stirrups also provide superior anchorage. The horizontal reinforcing bars which constitute Tie
AD have either hooks or heads and have sufficient anchorage (see Step 4). The pretensioned
strand was used for tension ties and the variation of force over the transfer length was accounted
for in assessing the force capability of this reinforcement.
It is necessary to check that the tension ties are spread out sufficiently in the effective anchorage
area. Node C is a CTT node, which is 8 in. in depth (see Figure 4.5). The nodal zone stress to
anchor the tension tie force in CF of 409.1 kips is:
fc =
409.1
= 2.39 ksi
8 21.4
For this CTT nodal zone, the limiting nodal zone stress is:
f c = 0.65f c' = 0.65 0.70 6 = 2.73 ksi
5.6.3.5
Therefore, the nodal zone stress limit in the anchorage area is acceptable.
It is assumed that the B-region has been designed using sectional design procedures and that at
least a minimum amount of stirrups has been provided in the girder. The D-region is assumed to
be in the solid block region, with the B-region starting 62 in. from the end of the full-depth (62in.-deep) solid block (see Figure 4.7).
For disturbed regions (D-regions) the AASHTO LRFD Specifications require that crack
control reinforcement in the form of an orthogonal grid of reinforcement on both faces be
provided. The minimum ratio of reinforcement to gross concrete area is 0.003 in each direction.
For a spacing of 9 in. this requires:
A s = 0.003 9 26 = 0.70 in.2
4-10
5.6.3.6
Example 4 (contd)
Therefore, use 4 No. 4 horizontal bars at 9 in. spacing and 4 legs of No. 4 stirrups at 9 in.
spacing, giving As = 4 0.20 = 0.80 in.2 in the D-region.
The resulting reinforcement of the dapped end beam is shown in Figure 4.7.
4-11
Specification
Reference
Example 4 (contd)
4 4 legged
No. 4
closed stirrups
@ 9"
D-region B-region
5 No.8
headed
bars
8 4 legged
No. 5
closed stirrups
@ 4"
4 4 legged
No. 4
closed stirrups
@ 9"
No. 4
long. bars
@ 9"
4 legged No. 4
stirrups @ 9"
No. 4
long. bars
@ 9"
4 legged No. 5
closed stirrups
@ 4"
Figure 4.7. Reinforcement details of D-region of dapped end beam.
4-12
Specification
Reference
Example 5 Design of Hammerhead Pier

The hammerhead pier shown in Figure 5.1 consists of a rectangular pier and a variable depth cap beam that
supports 5 lines of precast, pretensioned girders. The girders sit on neoprene pads, which in turn are supported by
concrete bearing blocks having dimensions of 18 x 36 in. The Strength I factored loads acting on the 5 bearing
blocks include allowances for the factored self-weight of the cap beam.
The specified concrete compressive strength, f c' , is 4 ksi and the specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel is
60 ksi.
Design the hammerhead pier using the AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
Pu = 545 k
Pu = 530 k
2'-6"
10' - 0"
Pu = 585 k
10' - 0"
Pu = 545 k
10' - 0"
Pu = 530 k
10' - 0"
2'-6"
18"
4'-6"
0.2432
4'-6"
1.000
cap beam
3'-6" wide
20'-0"
fc' = 4 ksi
fy = 60 ksi
cover = 2.5" main bars
= 2.0" stirrups
8'-0"
rectangular
column
8'-0" 3'-6"
Figure 5. Details of hammerhead pier.

The three central loads are located at a distance which is less than twice the member depth from
the supporting reaction. Hence the central 20 ft of the hammerhead pier is a D-Region and will
be designed using the strut-and-tie method. The outer portions of the hammerhead pier are
flexural regions (B-Regions) which can be designed for shear using either the sectional model
or the strut-and-tie model. For this example, the strut-and-tie model will be used.
5-1
Specification
Reference
5.6.3
5.8.1.1
Example 5 (contd)
The idealized truss model shown in Figure 5.2 represents the flow of forces in the hammerhead
pier. The dashed lines coincide with the centerlines of the compressive struts that represent
compressive stresses in different areas of the concrete. The solid lines coincide with the
centroids of tension ties, which represent tension forces in different groups of reinforcing bars.
Under the action of the girder loads the ends of the cap beam will bend down causing tension
near the top face of the hammerhead pier and compression near the sloping bottom faces. To
allow appropriate room for placement of the longitudinal reinforcement, it has been assumed
that the centroid of the tension tie near the top face is located 6 in. below the top face. To
provide an appropriate space for the concrete compression zone, it has been assumed that the
centerline of the bottom compression strut is located 9 in. above the sloping bottom face and is
parallel to this face. The compression force in the pier is represented by 3 vertical struts. The
central strut carries the 585 kip load, while the outer two struts carry 1075 kips each. Assuming
that the pier is subjected to uniform compressive stresses, the width of each outer strut must be:
1075
8 = 3.14 ft
585 + 2 1075
Hence the centerline of the outer struts will be 0.50 3.14 = 1.57 ft from the outer faces of the
pier.
The distributed stirrups in the cap beam are represented by the vertical tension Ties AB, CD,
EF, and GH. To solve the statics of the truss model it is convenient to know the lengths of these
4 truss members. As can be seen from Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2, the vertical distance between
the top tie, ACEG, and the bottom strut, BDFH, increases by 0.2432 ft for every additional foot
travelled away from the free end of the cantilever. As shown in Figure 5.2, the resulting lengths
of the 4 vertical ties are 3.858 ft, 5.074 ft, 6.29 ft., and 8.132 ft.
The member forces shown in Figure 5.2 were determined by the method of joints. Thus at Joint
A, the vertical component from Member AD must push the joint upwards with 530 kips. The
member must also push the joint to the left with a force of 530 5.00 / 5.074 = 522 kips . The
square root of the sum of the squares of these two components is the force in Member AD,
namely a compression of 744 kips. Member AC must have a tension force of 522 kips to
balance the horizontal component of Member AD. Considering horizontal and vertical
equilibrium for Joints D, C, F, E, H, and G enables all of the member forces to be computed.
5-2
Specification
Reference
Example 5 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Figure 5.2. Truss idealization.
It is of interest to note that the vertical component of the compression force in the sloping
bottom strut, BDFH, carries a significant portion of the vertical shear force. Thus if Member
BDFH were horizontal, the forces in Members CD and EF, which represent the tensions in the
stirrups, would both be 530 kips, rather than 403 kips and 325 kips, respectively.
The concrete in the vicinity of Joint E, that is nodal region E, must anchor vertical Tie EF and
horizontal Ties EC and EG. The bearing stress on such a region (CTT node) is limited to
0.65f c' . Hence the minimum bearing area required to support the 545 kip load is:
Pu
0.65f c'
545
= 299 in.2
0.65 0.70 4
Therefore, the bearing area chosen, 18 x 36 in., is satisfactory (648 in.2).

Step 3 Design Reinforcement for Main Tension Tie ACEGI
(a) At the highest tension locations, EGI
The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A st , is:
5-3
5.6.3.5
Example 5 (contd)
A st =
Pu
1653
=
= 30.61 in.2
f y 0.9 60
Specification
Reference
5.6.3.4.1
Use 20 No. 11 bars, A st = 20 1.56 = 31.2 in.2
Figure 5.3. Layout of 20 No. 11 top bars near pier.
As shown in Figure 5.3, the required 20 No. 11 bars can be provided in 2 layers of 10 bars. If
No. 5 stirrups are used the centroid of the 20 No. 11 bars will be about 4.7 in. from the top face.
Hence the assumption that the centroid of the tension tie would be 6 in. below the top face was
conservative.
(b) At lowest tension location, AC
The required area of tension tie reinforcement is:
A st =
Pu
522
=
= 9.67 in.2
f y 0.9 60
5.6.3.4.1
Therefore, use 8 No. 11 bars, A st = 8 1.56 = 12.48 in.2 .

(c) Development of bars
The development length for a straight top horizontal No. 11 bar with f y = 60 ksi and
5.11.2.1
f c' = 4 ksi is 82 in. If 90o hooks with at least 2.5 in. of side cover are used the development
length is reduced to 19 in. Hence terminate the 10 bars in the lower layer at a location 19 in.
5.11.2.4
5-4
Example 5 (contd)
Specification
Reference
beyond point E. Terminate the remaining 10 bars with 90o hooks at a location 27 in. beyond
point A.
Step 4 Design Tension Ties Representing Stirrups
Try using No. 5 stirrups with 4 legs (see Figure 5.3).

(a) Stirrup spacing required for Tie CD
Vertical Tie CD has the highest tension. Hence the number of stirrups required in stirrup band 2
(see Figure 5.2), is:
n=
Pu
403
=
= 6.02
A st f y 0.9 4 0.31 60
5.6.3.4.1

s
60
= 9.97 in.
6.02
Try a spacing of 9 in.

In the flexural region between A and E the minimum transverse reinforcement, assuming a
stirrup spacing of 9 in., is:
A v = 0.0316 f c'
b vs
42 9
= 0.0316 4
= 0.39 in.2
fy
60
5.8.2.5
Since A v = 4 0.31 = 1.24 in.2 , an amount greater than minimum has been provided in stirrup
band 2 (see Figure 5.2). While No. 5 stirrups with 2 legs could be used in stirrup band 1, which
will be governed by the minimum area requirement, it would be more practical to continue the
4-legged No. 5 stirrups at a spacing of 9 in. throughout this region.
(b) Stirrup spacing required for Tie EF
Vertical Tie EF must resist a tension of 325 kips. Hence the number of stirrups required in
stirrup band 3 (see Figure 5.2), is:
n=
Pu
325
=
= 4.85
A st f y 0.9 4 0.31 60
5.6.3.4.1

s
60
= 12.37 in.
4.85
5-5
Example 5 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Try a spacing of 12 in.

For crack control in this disturbed region, the ratio of reinforcement area to cross-sectional area
shall not be less than 0.003 in both the vertical and horizontal directions. Hence:
5.6.3.6
A st
0.003
bs
Therefore:
s
A st
4 0.31
=
= 9.84 in.
0.003 b 0.003 42
Thus use No. 5 stirrups with 4 legs spaced at 9 in. throughout the length of the beam.
Step 5 Check Capacity of Bottom Strut BDFH
The highest compressive force in the bottom Strut BDFH is 867 kips in Member FH
(see Figure 5.2).
As this strut will be crossed by vertical stirrups, the compressive capacity of this strut may need
to be reduced. The area of Tie EF is (60 / 9) 4 0.31 = 8.27 in.2 . Hence the strain in this stirrup
under the 325 kip tension is:
s =
Pu
325
=
= 1.36 10 3
A st E s 8.27 29,000
As the smallest angle between the strut and the tension tie is 90 - 13.7 = 76.3o, the principal
strain, 1 , can be determined as:
1 = s + ( s + 0.002 ) cot 2 s = 1.36 10 3 + 1.36 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 76.30 = 1.56 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
And, the limiting compressive stress, f cu , in the strut is:

f cu
f c'
4
=
0.85f c' =
= 3.76 ksi 0.85 4 = 3.40 ksi
0.8 + 170 1
0.8 + 170 1.56 10 3
5.6.3.3.3
The centroid of the strut was assumed to be at 9 in. vertically from the bottom face
(see Figure 5.2); hence the thickness of the strut perpendicular to the sloping bottom face is
2 9 cos 13.7 o = 17.5 in. The nominal resistance of the strut is:
Pn = f cu A cs = 3.40 42 17.5 = 2499 kips
5.6.3.3.1
5-6
Example 5 (contd)
Specification
Reference
Pr = Pn = 0.70 2499 = 1749 kips
5.6.3.2
As the factored resistance exceeds the 867 kip compression due to factored loads, the strut
capacity is adequate.
While the truss geometry could be adjusted by reducing the thickness of the bottom strut and the
member forces recalculated, the changes in forces will be rather small, resulting in perhaps the
saving of only one bar in the main tension tie. Thus the original conservative assumptions are
acceptable.
Step 6 Check Capacity of Diagonal Struts of AD, CF, and EH
Of the three diagonal struts crossing the web, AD, CF, and EH, Member EH has the highest
compression. The details of the member at end E, where it crosses the tension ties, are shown in
Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4. Details of Strut EH near Node E.
The strains in Ties CE and EG due to factored loads are shown in Figure 5.3. For determining
the strut capacity, the average value of these two strains has been assumed,
giving s = 1.85 10 3 .
5.6.3.3.3
5-7
Example 5 (contd)
Specification
Reference
1 = s + ( s + 0.002) cot 2 s = 1.85 10 3 + 1.85 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 47.0 0 = 5.20 10 3

f cu =
f c'
4
0.85 f c' =
= 2.38 ksi 0.85 4 = 3.40 ksi
0.8 + 170 1
0.8 + 170 5.20 10 3
The cross-sectional dimension of strut EH in the plane of the pier is 19.6 in. (see Figure 5.4),
while the effective thickness of the strut at end E could be conservatively taken as 36 in. which
is the width of the bearing block. However, the good anchorage conditions provided by the No.
11 bars in the corner of the stirrups enable the effective thickness of the strut to be increased.
5.6.3.3.3
5.6.3.3.2
As can be seen from Figure 5.3, the center-to-center distance of the vertical stirrups across the
42-in. width of the hammerhead pier is 12.5 in. As this distance is less than
2 6d ba = 2 6 1.410 = 16.9 in. , the full 42-in. width of the pier cap is effective. Hence the
nominal resistance of the strut is:
Pn = f cu Acs = 2.38 42 19.6 = 1959 kips
5.6.3.3.1

Therefore, the strut capacity is adequate.

In Step 4, the stirrup spacing was adjusted to satisfy the crack control requirements for
reinforcement in the vertical direction, but crack control reinforcement also must be provided in
the horizontal direction. The vertical spacing between these horizontal bars must not exceed 12
in. If this maximum spacing is used, the area of horizontal bars in each layer needs to be:
A st = 0.003bs = 0.003 12 42 = 1.51 in.2
Therefore, use 4 No. 6 horizontal bars at 12 in. spacing ( 4 0.44 = 1.76 in.2 provided), arranged
as shown in Figure 5.5.
5-8
5.6.3.6
Example 5 (contd)
Specification
Reference
The resulting reinforcement for the hammerhead pier is shown in Figure 5.5. For clarity the pier
reinforcement is not shown.
20 No. 11
10 No. 11
10 No. 11
4 legged No.5
stirrups at 9" cc
4 No. 6 bars
at 12 cc
4 No.6 bars
Figure 5.5. Reinforcement details for hammerhead pier.
5-9
5-10

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EB231

ASSHTO Example Strut and Tie

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ASSHTO Example Strut and Tie

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Denis Mitchell, McGill University

Michael P. Collins, University of Toronto

AASHTO LRFD Strut-and-Tie Model

1.57' 2.43' 2.43' 1.57'

Direct all correspondence to:

ENGINEERING BULLETIN EB231

Denis Mitchell, McGill University; Michael P. Collins, University of Toronto; and

5420 Old Orchard Road

Portland Cement Association (PCA) is a not-for-profit

PCA AND ITS MEMBERS MAKE NO EXPRESS OR

Portland Cement Association 2004

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

(a) Simply supported beam

(b) Pier cap

(c) Deep beam

(d) Wall pier with concentrated

Figure 1. Examples of D-regions modeled with struts and ties.

(a) Flow of compressive

(b) Tensions due to flow of

(c) Assumption of straight

The main steps for design of a D-region can be summarized as follows:

Visualize flow of stresses

(b) Truss model

3. Select Area of Ties

4. Check Nodal Zone Stresses

(b) Dapped end

(c) Strut anchored by bearing plate

(d) Strut anchored by bearing plate

(e) Strut anchored by two tension

(f) Continuous beam support

Figure 4. Types of nodal zones and dimensions of struts.

in which the principle tensile strain in the concrete, 1 , is taken as:

fcu = 0.68 fc'

fcu = 0.30 fc'

Figure 6. Examples of determining fcu..

Figure 7. Influence of reinforcement details on effective cross-sectional area of strut.

6. Provide Adequate Anchorage for the Ties

Example 1 Design of Cap Beam

Figure 1.1. Details of cap beam.

Calculations and Discussion

Calculations and Discussion

Figure 1.2. Truss idealization and member forces.

Calculations and Discussion

Step 2 Check Size of Bearings

The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A st , in Tie AB is:

Use 6 No. 9 bars, A s = 6.0 in.2

The required area of tension tie reinforcement, A st , at midspan is:

Use 12 No. 9 bars, A s = 12.0 in.2

Calculations and Discussion

Hence, the required spacing, s, within the 5-ft band is:

Try No. 5 double-legged stirrups at 12 in.

Figure 1.3. Details of strut near Node B.

Calculations and Discussion

Therefore, the principal strain, 1 , can be determined as:

1 = s + ( s + 0.002) cot 2 s = 0.848 10 3 + 0.848 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 40.30 = 4.81 10 3

and the limiting compressive stress, f cu , in the strut is:

Note that the tension strain in Tie BG is:

Hence from this tie 1 would need to be:

1 = s + ( s + 0.002) cot 2 s = 1.657 10 3 + 1.657 10 3 + 0.002 cot 2 49.7 0 = 4.29 10 3

Pn = f cu A cs = 2.47 17.7 30 = 1312 kips

The factored resistance of the strut is:

Therefore, the strut capacity is adequate.

Calculations and Discussion

Therefore, the nodal zone stress in the anchorage area is acceptable.