B COM Notes

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v
e
r
the past few years, computers have become a vastly popular
household item. The luxury of emailing messages as opposed to
charging up the phone bill is more appealing. Checking news,
weather, and sports via the Internet is a convenience that many
are taking advantage of.
We lives already getting influenced by technology and this is just
the beginning. Computers and Internet Today, We find computers
in use everywhere, whether we go to reserve a train ticket or to a
Bank. This is because it is faster and helps us complete our work
without mistakes/errors.
We are learning to read and write with computer games instead of
homemade flash cards. Childrens are reading their bed time
stories online instead of in bed with their parents. Slowly traditions
are being broken and the computer is becoming a childs learning
tool. Many parents are buying computer learning games instead of
board games and pop-up books. Children are an easy target for
adults who pose to be other children with similar interests. Sexual
offenders often chat online with children and then make plans to
meet them or slowly filter information about them.
Children are innocents and honesty on the computer can pose
some huge problems. They do not know any better and usually it
will only harm them in the end
Parents are leaving the learning up to the computers and spending
less quality time with their children. The most important learning
step for children is interaction with others. If they are sitting in front
of the screen all day, they do not learn to share, wait their turn, or
even something as simples as manners. Children need to be in
contact with other children, adults, and animals. They need to
experience things first hand not off a computer screen.
Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

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Email: Sajjad.Shakir@gmail.com
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One benefit of the computer age is that children are becoming

smarter. They are growing up computer literate and will have that
as a huge advantage. Computer literacy is becoming a huge job
qualification and feeling comfortable with one will put them a step
ahead.
Merits of Computers
Computer is a unique invention. It has many merits and demerits. These are
following
High Speed:
The real power of a computer is its speed. It can complete the processing of bulks of
data in billionth part of a second. We can think of the most efficient and most
intelligent person working throughout his life and completing a piece of work, on the
other hand computer can complete the same work in a second.
Versatile:
During different moments computer is busy doing different works. In one moment it
will be doing mathematical work, the second moment it will be preparing list of
college admission, the third moment it can print some document; while all of these
works are being done you enjoy music on it.
Accuracy:
Computer can do multiple pieces of work at the same time. It is satisfying enough
that all of the works will be completed with complete accuracy.
Reliable
Computer is the best source for supply reliable and accurate information. Chances of
errors are negligibly small. Personal liking or disliking of the operator does not affect
the results of computer. It makes objective conclusions.
Automation:
In short, everything. The computer is a tool and the software tells the computer what
to do. On most of the times computer completes the work automatically without
human intervention. Once the data and necessary instructions have been fed, the
computer is able to accomplish the results automatically.
Storage Memory:
Computer stores lager amounts of data in its memory. Information stored in memory
is never corrupted; it remains in original form. When requested the stored information
is available at great speed.
Demerits of Computers:
No Intelligence:

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Computer is a machine and it cannot think and decide like human being. It is the
operator that is important. It completes the work with accuracy and speed in such a
way that some people think it to be intelligent.
No Feelings or Emotions:
Computer is a machine therefore it has no feelings and emotions. It can never
become equal to the human beings because it has no heart and soul. It does not feel
boredom and fatigue, liking and disliking etc.
Congenial Atmosphere:
Computer can work properly in special atmosphere. Soundproofing, dust proofing,
air-conditioning, and cleanliness are necessary to improve its efficiency.
Special Language:
We can interact with computer only in its special language that consists of binary
digits (0, 1). Computer can understand data and information only in this language. It
is impossible for human beings to understand it.
Computer Virus:
Virus is real threat to computers. During the recent years some dangerous and
malicious viruses have challenged the life of computers. When virus attacks a
computer, it can destroy some or all of the software installed.
Rapid Changes
Field of computer is very challenging. Very rapid changes are taking place in its
hardware and software. Man has to accept this challenge. This scheme of things
requires high expertise and sound economy.
Very expensive:
Hardware and Software of computer are very expensive. Although computers are
getting cheaper but are still out of the reach of the common man.
Increased Idles:
Computer has mad map idle. Man has been confined too little computer cabins. His
has made man less adventurous. Piece of work that normally took months to
compete is being completed in seconds. Rest of time is beings uselessly.
Extensive use of Internet
Internet is the result of computer technology. Extensive use of internet creating
serious problems. Students spend much time on the internet at the cast of their
education. It has created emotional problem in the youth.
Moral and Ethical problems:

Extensive use of internet has created serious moral and ethical problems. There is
no check on the internet club owners. This is the outcome of computer technology.
This is a real threat to our educational system and even to the foundations of our
society.
Imperfect Machine:

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Computer is an imperfect machine. Its hardware and software are always changing.
New things are continuously being added to it. Something that was custom yesterday
obsoletes today.
Overall, we can benefit from computers if they are used wisely. Computers are the
wave of the future, but old fashioned learning techniques should not be forgotten. We
need to interact physically with other people and not learn everything from
computers.
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History of Computers
Abacus.
The history of computers starts about 5000 years ago with the birth of the
abacus.
It is a wooden rack holding horizontal wires with beads strung
on them.
These beads moved around, according to programming rules
memorized by user,
All regular arithmetic problems can be done.
Pascals Pascaline Calculator.1642

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Pascal invented a machine that had a system of gears.

A one-tooth gear engages
Its rotating the ten-tooth gear once every time it revolves.
It must ten revolutions to rotate the ten-tooth gear once.
Pascal calculator was not a commercial success because
these devices could not be built with reliable for practical use.
The German mathematician, Von Leibniz, produced a machine that was similar
to Pascals but more reliable and accurate.
Other mechanical calculators followed that ware refinements on the designs of
Pascal.
(Charles Babbage) Difference Engine

A mechanical calculating machine designed by British
mathematician Charles Babbage in the early 1820s.
The Difference Engine was intended to be a machine with a 20decimal capacity capable of solving mathematical problems.
Analytical Engine
The concept of the Difference Engine was enhanced by
Babbage in the 1830s in the design of his more famous
Analytical Engine,
It was the first general-purpose digital computer.
Use of Punched Cards by Hollerith:
In 1890, Herman Hollerith developed the first electromechanical punched card
tabulator.
The tabulator could read information that had been punched
into cards.
These cards were maintained in stack form.
Invention of punched cards opened the gate of modern data
processing.
IBM and other computer manufacturers came forward and started production of
punched-card using computers.
These computers could add, multiply and sort numbers.
Electronic Digital Computer (EDC)
The start of World-War II produced a large need of computer
capacity,
Especially for the military.
Developed between 1942 and 1946 for the U.S. Army by J.
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania,
New weapons were made for which large number of calculations was needed.
A 1,800-square-foot, 30-ton computer containing 17,468 vacuum tubes and 6,000
manual switches.
This was known as ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator). It is
considered to have been the first truly electronic computer.
It remained in operation until 1955.
The Modern Stored Program EDC
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In 1945 the mathematician John Von Neumann contributed a

new awareness of how practical and fast computers should
be built. According to Von Neumann theory
Data and program can be stored in the same memory.
Thus the machine can itself alter either in program or
internal data.
As a result of these ideas computing and programming became much faster, more
flexible, and efficient.
Advancement In 1950s - 1960s
In early 1950s two important engineering inventions changed
the image of the computer field. These inventions were the
magnetic core memories and the Transistor Circuit
Elements.
These machines were very expensive and were also
complicated to operate.
Mostly found in large computer centers, government, and research and
development laboratories.
Mostly worked on a single problem at a time.
During this period major computer manufactures began to offer a range of computer
equipment with different prices, as well as accessories such as:
Card Reader
Printer
Cathode-Ray-Tube (CRT)
These were widely used in businesses for such as:
Accounting, Inventory System, Payroll, Ordering Supplies, Billing
Classification of Computer
Computers come in many different sizes and range of power.
Supercomputer
Most powerful computer
Some of the largest
Built to process huge amount of data.
Fastest super computer can perform more than 16
million calculations per second.
These computer help analyze and forecast global
weather.
Nuclear scientists use these computers to perform complex and sophisticated
calculations etc
Super computer can cast tens of millions of dollars.
It consumes enough electricity to power dozens of homes.
Because of their size and cast only large corporations, universities, and
government agencies that can afford them use it.
Mainframe Computer
The largest type of computer in common use is the mainframe.
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Ability to simultaneously support many users connected to

the computer by terminals.
Each use works at a computer terminal. A terminal is a
monitor and a keyboard connected to a mainframe.
Can support thousands of terminals.
Single user can not utilize its full power.
These computers are basically used in networked environment.
These computers can store huge amount of data.
MiniComputers
Minicomputer is also known as midrange computer.
Mini computers got their name because of small size.
Serve up to 4000 connected user.
Its have less processing power than mainframe computer.
A device with monitor and keyboard is called terminal.it is also
known as dump terminal.
It has no processing power and can not work as stand alone computer.
It has be connected to the server.
Micro Computer
It was introduced in 1970.

Micro computer is also called personal computers.
In 1981, IBM called its first microcomputer the IBM-PC.
Design to be used by one person at a time.
Its consists one or more input/output devices, storage device, memory and
processor.
Popularity of microcomputer is the low price.
Use in business, education and almost every field of life.
Special Operating System.
Special pens and touch-sensitive screen
The price of PC is $500 to $5000.
Microcomputer Models
Pocket (Palmtop) Computer
Laptop (Portable computer)
Desktop Computer.
Pocket Computer
Also called palmtop because it can easily fit on hand

Pocket computer has to have small, light batteries that last a long.
Person can easily take it with him every time.
Laptop Computer
The cast of laptop computer is from $1000 to $2500.
All program and data on Portable computer.
Laptop and Desktop have same Operating System.
Have floppy drives, CD-ROM drives and re-writers, and
even DVD drives.
Full-size keyboard and a mouse or a touch-sensitive mouse pad.
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Screen is usually a large Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

More expensive than desktop computers.
Have battery pack that have to power the hard disk, CD-drives and
The batteries generally dont last as long as those in a pocket computer
and may recharging more than once a day, depending on the use.
Desktop Computer
Most common type of PC.
Its called desktop computer because its fit on a desk or table.
System unit OS placed horizontally on the desktop or table and monitor
OS placed on the system unit.
Other called tower model, both system and monitor are placed on the
table.
Two main types of desktop computer
The Macintosh Apple computers.

Personal Computer (PCs).
Most common Operating System (Latest
Windows Vista) although other OS are available.
THE GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER?

The major change in computer manufacturing technology is called computer
generation. The term generation was used to distinguish between changes
hardware technologies. But now a day, it has been extended to include both
the hardware and the software which together makeup a total computer
system.
FIRST GENERATION COMPITERS (1942-1958)
The beginning of the commercial computer age is from UNIVAC (Universal

Automatic Computer). First generation computer were
made for the special task. Each computer has different binary
coded program called machine language. This made the
compute difficult to program and limited its versatility.
The distinct features of first generation computers were:
VACUUM TUBES: Glass devices that can control and amplify signals.
OPERATING INSTRUCTION: Use to operate computer for specific task.
MACHINE LANGUAGE: Different binary coded programs for different
computes that told how to operate.
ADVANTAGES
Vacuum tube technology made it possible to built electronic digital

computer
At that time, these computers were the fastest calculated devices
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They could perform operation in milliseconds.
DISTAVANTAGES
These were not reliable

To big in size
Thousand of vacuum tubes that were used generating large amount of
heat.
Due to large amount of heat generation heavy air conditioning was
required
Often had serious hardware failures
Constant maintenance required
Cannot be moved from one place to another
All components were made by hand therefore making a single
computer took a lot of time
Commercial production of these computers was not possible
Almost no commercial use
SECOND GENERATION COMPUTER (1959-1964)
In 1948 Bell Laboratories developed the transistors,

vacuum tube were replace with transistors as a result the
size of computer reduce.
Transistors are more reliable then vacuum tube.
Second generation computer replaced machine language with assembly
language allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long difficult
binary code.
ADVANTGES
Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.

More reliable as compared to first generation computers.
They generated less heat as compared to the first generation
computers, therefore the cooling cost become less.
These computers were able to reduced calculation times from
milliseconds to micro second
Less possibility of hardware failure
These computers become smaller in size, therefore it was
comparatively easy to move then from one place to another.
There commercial use become more than that of a first generation
computers
DISADVANTAGES
Air conditioning reduced but still needed

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Often maintenance was required

Commercial production was difficult and costly
THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1964-1970)
The arrival of microelectronics technology made it

possible to integrate large number of circuit element
into very small surface to silicon known as chip.
This new technology was called integrated circuits
(ICs).
Another third generation developed includes the use of an operating
system that allowed machines to run many different programs at once with
the help of central program.
ADVANTAGES
Smaller in size as compare to previous Generations of Computer.

Even more reliable then 2nd generation of computer.
Less heat generations.
These computers were able to reduce calculation times from
microsecond to nanosecond.
Maintenance cost is low.
As these computers are small in size, therefore easily moveable.
Totally general purpose. Widely use for commercial applications.
DISADVANTAGES
Air conditioning still required in many cases.

Very highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of
IC chips.
FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTER
After the integrated circuit the only place to go was its

size .
SSI: (Small-Scale Integration) could fit 10 to 20
electronic components.
MSI: (Medium Scale Integration) could control 100 to 200 electronic
components
LSI: (Large Scale Integration) could contain 33million electronic components
VLSI:(Very Large Scale Integration) could contain billions of electronic
components
All ICs of different kinds were stored in a single chip this chip was known as
micro processors, does every processing.
ADVANTAGES
Smaller in size
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Very reliable
Heat generation is low
No air condition is required in most cases
Much faster in computation than previous generation
Hardware failure is minor
Easily portable because of their small size
Totally general purpose
Big memory
Cheapest among all generations
DISADVANTAGES
Highly difficult technology is required for the manufacturing of micro
processor chip
FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGE
In fifth generation ULSI (ultra large scale integration)

technology will be use.
Fifth generation computer will be able to accept spoken
word instruction and reproduce human reasoning .
Ability to translate a foreign language is also possible
with fifth generation computer.
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VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPUTER?

On the basis of design, characteristics and principle of construction, computer are
divided into three types
Analog computer
Digital computer
Hybrid computer
Analog Computer
Analog show quantity of specified value.
Analog computer is a device that is used to measure continuous values.
Example is a thermometer that measure the length of mercury another example is
analog clock.
Characteristics
Analog Computer works continuously
It has very limited memory
It can perform certain types of calculations
Analog computer is used for calculation and measurements of physical quantities
such as weight height temperature and speed.
Analog computer is used in engineering and scientific applications.
High accuracy
Low reliability.
Faster than digital computer.
Such computers are difficult to operate.
These computers are easy to develop.
These are all special purpose computers.
Examples of analog computer are thermometer, analog clock, and older weighing
machines.
Digital Computer
Digital mean is discrete.

With digital signal everything is described in two states i.e. on and off.
A digital computer is based on the rule of counting.
In fact digital computer use digital signal which can distinguish between just two
values 0 and 1.
Digital watches are good example of a digital computer.
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The further subtypes of digital computers are.

General purpose computer
Special purpose computer
General purpose computers
General purpose computer are those computers which can perform a variety of
different function i.e. our todays PC are general purpose computers which can
perform almost any task like word processing database management spread sheet
and all sort of imaginable tasks.
Special purpose computers
These type of computers are designed to do only one particular task. These
computers cannot do anything accept what they except what they are made for i.e.
The digital electrical watch can only be used for keeping time similarly the digital
speed meter of motor case can only be used for reading the current speed of the
car.
Characteristics
Digital computer works with discrete values It can work only with digits
It can store large amount of data
The speed of calculation is very high
Digital compute is widely used to calculate mathematical and logical operations
Its accuracy is comparatively low
Its reliability is high.
Digital computers are made of integrated circuits.
These computers have two states ON (1) and OFF (0).
They are mostly general purpose computers.
Examples of digital computers are digital watches, digital weighing machines,
minicomputer, mainframe and super computer.
Hybrid computers
A computer that combines the character of both analog and digital computer is known as
hybrid computer.
An example of a hybrid computer system is a cement plant where all calculation made by
digital computers and accordingly actions such as increase of certain material in the
furnace and increase or decrease of fuel for temperatures is performed by the help
Characteristics
Hybrid computers are very speedy.
These provide accurate results.
They provide input in both graphic and numeric form.
These are most reliable computers.
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit.

Its also called Processor.
Its Brain of Computer
It is a small chip made of silicon.
A computer cant work without it.
It is installed on the Main board /Motherboard.
All computers must have a CPU.
Most of the PCs contain a single processor
Each instruction tells CPU to process data.
CPU Performs all operation on data according to the given instructions.
It executes instructions and tells other parts of the computer what to do?
Most of the work consists of calculations and data transfer.
A CPU consists of the following three parts:

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).
Control Unit (CU).
Memory Unit.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit. (ALU)
ALU performs arithmetic and logic processes on data.

Arithmetic processes include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division etc.
Logical processes include comparison of data and deciding what is equal to,
greater or smaller than the other.
Bus
RAM
CU
Registers
Processor
ALU
Registers
Control Unit (CU).

CU is a most important part of a processor.
Its acts like a supervisor of the computer.
Its controls all activities of computer system.

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CU performs the following operation

It fetches instruction from main memory.
It controls all of the components of the computer system.
CU sends instruction to different units of computer system.
It manages to execute instruction on data.
It controls the flew of programs and IN and OUT of RAM.
CU places results of processing in Memory Unit.
Memory Unit.
Memory unit is an important part of the CPU
Its works as storage for the results of processing.
Its has high-speed storage areas called registers.
There is an instruction register that contains instructions to be executed.
Program register stores the program for the CPU.
These registers facilitate the movement of data and instructions between RAM,
CU, and the ALU
All of the results of processing are placed in the relevant memory places.
Processor Speed
The Computer Internal Clock
The computers operating speed is tied to the speed of the system clock. For
example if a computers clock speed is 800 MHz, it ticks 800 million times per
second.
A clock cycle is a single tick, or the time it takes to turn a transistor off and back
on again.
A processor can execute an instruction in a given number of clock cycles, as the
systems clock speed increases, so does the number of instructions it can carry
out each second.
Processing Speed
Processing speed of PCs is measured in MIPS (Millions Instruction per
Seconds).
The processing speed of Workstation and Mainframe computers is measured in
BIPS (Billions Instruction per Seconds)
Similarly the processing speed of Super Computer is measured in FLOPS
(Floating-point Operations per second)
if a computer system has processing speed of 100 MIPS, then that computer
system can execute 100 million instructions per second.
Cache Memory
Moving data between RAM and the CPUs registers is one of the most time
consuming operations a CPU must perform, simply because RAM, is mush slower
than the CPU.
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is similar to RAM, except that it is extremely fast
compared to normal memory, and it is used in a different way.
When a program is running and the CPU needs to read to data or program
instructions from RAM, the CPU checks first to see whether the data is in cache
memory. If the data is not there, the CPU reads the data from RAM into its registers,
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but it also loads a copy of the data into cache memory. The next time the CPU needs
that same data, it finds it in the cache memory and saves the time needed to load the
data from RAM. Since the late 1980s, most PC CPUs have cache memory built into
them. This CPU resident cache is often called Level-1
A cache is useful when RAM accesses are slow compared with the microprocessor
speed, because cache memory is always faster than main RAM memory.
Computers operate at very high speeds. Current CPU's operate at speeds of 400
million cycles per second or more. What this means is, every 2.5 nanoseconds, the
computer can execute a complete processing loop.
In modern computers, this means usually executing one or two instructions. This is
the speed you will see advertised on a computer--a Pentium III 400.
The problem is, while the computer can operate at this speed, it has to get the
program and data to execute from somewhere.
What happens is the program and data is loaded from the hard drive into RAM. From
RAM it is loaded into cache RAM, and from there it is executed by the CPU.
Hard drives are very slow compared to the CPU. RAM is much faster than a hard
drive, but still 4-5 times slower than your CPU. Also RAM is erased if the power goes
off. Cache RAM is extremely fast--it is capable of delivering data at or near the
speed of the CPU.
Cache RAM and normal RAM are very similar in the way they work. Cache is just
extremely fast, and expensive.
That is why there is so very little of cache RAM available--it is expensive. In order to
reduce the cost of computers, hard drives are used to store huge amounts of data
because they are so cheap--some drives cost less than a penny for a megabyte of
storage.
RAM is much more expensive--about a dollar for a megabyte of storage. This is over
100 times more expensive than a hard drives.
Cache RAM is a lot more expensive than regular RAM--about $15-20 per megabyte
of storage.
In order to reduce the cost of computers, engineers have designed controllers that
load data and instructions from the hard drive when they may be needed into RAM.
When they are not needed in RAM, something else is loaded. Then, as the
computer runs, whatever is needed for that time is loaded into cache. When the
controller does a pretty good job at predicting what is needed, the computer will
operate at close to its full speed. When the controllers don't do a good job, things will
slow down while the CPU waits for data to be loaded from the hard drive to RAM,
and then into the cache before it can continue.
Now, to anser your question, cache memory is where the computer gets the program
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and data it needs to execute. If the cache is slower than your CPU, your computer
will be slow. But if it is faster, your computer won't speed
up. So you want to make sure the cache is fast enough for your computer, but
getting faster cache memory is a waste of money.
Second, the amount of cache memory also affects the speed of your computer. In
general, the more cache, the faster your computer will go. Most computers have a
fairly small limit on the amount of cache RAM possible. Generally, make sure your
computer has as much cache RAM as it can handle.
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Computer
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INPUT DEVICES
Input unit consists of many input devices. These devices enable the operator to
provide input to the computer system. These devices play an important part in our
working with computer.
Type of Input Devices
There are many input devices.
Keyboard
Common or Regular Keyboards
Special Function Keyboards
Keyboards for special Persons
Pointing devices
Mouse
Trackball
Track pad
Touch Sensitive Screen
Optical Input Devices
Bar Code Readers
Scanner
Image Scanner
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
Game Controller
Joystick
Game Pad
MICROPHONE & Speech Recognition System
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Vision Input Systems

Sensors
Digitizer Tablet and Pen
KEYBOARD
Keyboard is the most common input device.
It is the primary input device.
Computer system is incomplete without a keyboard.
Following are the famous types of keyboard.
Common or regular keyboards
These are the most common type of keyboards. These manufacturer QWERTY
slandered. These give sound while working. These are most commonly used in many
of the government and private offices.
Special function keyboards
These keyboards are designed for special functions. For example the keyboards
used at fast food restaurants, PIA booking offices, and railways booking offices etc.
Operators press only one key to record the sale.
Keyboards for special persons
These keyboards are designed for special persons.
Special persons are handicapped, disabled, or blind.
Each key of these keyboards makes a sound when it is pressed.
In this way the disabled person knows which key was pressed.
POINTING DEVICES
The effectiveness of Graphical user Interface (GUI) depends on the users ability to
make a rapid selection from a screen full of graphics, icons or menus. In these
instances the pointing devices are used to change the position of the pointer over
icons quickly and efficiently. These devices are also use for drawing purpose. Mouse
is most commonly used pointing device.
Following are the some of the pointing
devices.
MOUSE
Dr. Douglas Engelbart invented mouse in
1963.
Mouse is the most common and the most
popular input device.
It is attached to the computer by its wire or linked via wireless remote connection.
When mouse is rolled across the desktop, it moves a pointer accordingly on the
computer screen.
Mouse is a point and draw device.
It has two buttons right and left.
A small rubber ball is in the bottom of the mouse.
The ball roll when move the mouse around on a flat surface.
Inside the mouse, rollers and sensor send signals to the computer, telling it the
distance, direction and speed of the ball.
The computer uses this data to position the mouse pointer on the screen.
Another type of mouse is the optical mouse.
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This mouse emits a beam of light from its underside it uses the lights reflection to
judge the distance, direction and speed of its travel.
TRACKBALL
This is a movable ball inserted in an external box or fixed in the keyboard. The
ball is rolled with the fingers to move the graphics curser.
If the mouse is upside down then it also takes the form of a trackball.
It is mostly supplied with portable PCs and workstations.
Most trackballs feature two buttons, although three buttons models are also
available.
TRACK PAD
The track pad is also called touchpad.
Many people feel difficulty to track pad then mouse or trackball.
They have no moving parts.
The movement of the finger across a small touch surface is translated into the
pointer movement on the computer screen.
The touch sensitive surface is 1.5 to 2 inch square so the finger never has to
move far. The
track pads size also makes it suitable for a notebook computer. Some notebook
computer models feature a built-in-track pad, rather than a mouse or trackball.
Track pads include two or three buttons that perform the same function as mouse
buttons. Some track pads are also strike sensitive, meaning you can tap the
pad with your fingertip instead of using its buttons.
Optical Input Devices
For a long time, futurists and computer scientists have had the goal of enabling
computers to see. Computers may never see in the same way that human do, but
new technologies allow computers to use light as a source of input. These tools fall
into the category of optical input devices.
BAR CODE READERS
The most common type of bar code reader is the flatbed model,
Which is commonly found in supermarkets and department stores. Workers for
delivery services, such as Federal Express,
Also use handheld bar code readers in the field to identify packages.
These devices read bar codes, which are patterns of printed bars that appear on
product packaging.
The bar codes identify the product and provide other information about it, such as
its price. The bar code reader emits a beam of light frequently a laser beam that
is reflected by the bar code image.
SCANNERS
This is a commonly used input device.
Scanner can read and understand the information on
printed matter and convert it into computer readable form.
All of the alphanumeric information is encoded and the
images are digitized into a form that is acceptable for the computer.
Scanners are equipped with the (OCR) Optical Character Recognition ability,
which is the ability to read printed information into a computer system. So
scanner is use for the following two purposes.
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IMAGE SCANNER
Image scanner (also called scanners) converts any printed image into electronic form
by shining light onto the image and sensing the intensity of the lights reflection at
every point. Color scanners use filters to separate the components of color into the
primary additive colors (Red, Green, Blue) RGB at each point. Red, green, and blue
are known as primary additive colors because they can be combined to create any
other color. Processes that describe color in this manner are said to use RGB color.
OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)
If you have scanned a text document, you might want to use Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) software to translate the image into text that you can edit. When
a scanner first creates an image from a page, the image is stored in the computers
memory as a bitmap. A bitmap is a grid of dots, each dot represented by one or
more bits. The job of OCR software is to translate that array of dots into text that the
computer can interpret as letters and numbers.
GAME CONTROLER
A game controller can be considered as an input device
because a computer game is a program, much like other
program.
It accepts input from the user, process data and produce
output in the form of graphics and sound.
Game controllers generally are of two types:
Game pad
Joysticks.
JOYSTICK
This consists of a vertical handle fixed on a base.
Its appearance is like the gear of a car.
It can move the graphics curser in the direction the handle is pushed.
It can be pushed back and forth, right and left.
There is a button on the top of the handle that is used to enter or to escape the
function.
Joystick can also work like other pointing devices.
Joystick is mostly used in computer games. But some joystick users actually
prefer using joystick rather than a mouse.
GAME PAD
A Game Pad is a small, flat device that usually provides two sets of controls, one
for each hand.
These devices, which are extremely flexible, are use to control many games. If
you do not have a joystick,
You can use a game pad to control most racing and flying games.
MICROPHONE & Speech Recognition System
With the use of these systems the human being has succeeded in establishing
speaking terms with the computers.
These devices are used to input devices are used to input voice of audio data in
the computers.
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These devices encode the voice data into computer acceptable format. Sales
personnel in the field, surgeons in the operation theatres, and workers on airports
etc. use such devices.
Microphone is a good example of Speech Recognition Systems.
Vision Input Systems

A computer does not see and recognize an image like a human being.
A digital camera is used to give computer the EYESIGHT.
It translates the images and photos into computer readable form.
The computer then accepts and stores them.
The computer system can send the photos to other places via the Internet.
Sensors
A sensor is a type of input device that collects special kind of data directly from
the environment.
The data is then translated into computer acceptable form and sent to the
computer.
You will not see these devices connected to a PC in an office, but these actually
exist all around us.
Sensors can be used for detecting all kinds of things such as speed, temperature,
weight, light, and current etc.
Beneath the pavement, for example, are sensors that detect the speed and
volume of traffic.
In aviation, sensors are used to detect and alert the pilots of sudden changes in
wind direction.
Digitizer Tablet and Pen
It consists of a pen and a pressure sensitive tablet.
Tablet has the size equal to the screen of the monitor.
When pen is moved on the tablet its movement is shown on the monitor.
This enable the user to perform pen based computing.
This is used for inputting drawing and handwritten data in the computer system.
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MEMORY OR STORAGE UNIT

This is the most important part of a computer system. This is used to store programs,
data audio, video, graphics and instruction etc. whatever we store in this unit is
stored in form of binary digits 1 & 0. Two types of memory used in computer.
Volatile Memory
Non-Volatile Memory
VOLATILE MEMORY
Kind of the memory on which data and the programs are washed out when
electric power is switched off.
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RAM is an example of Volatile memory where data is stored for temporary period.
NON-VOLATILE MEMORY
Type of the memory on which data and the programs are not washed out when
electric power is switched off.
ROM, CD-ROM and DVD-ROM are the example of nonvolatile memory.
We can also divide storage devices in fallowing two types.

Primary Storage Devices
Secondary Storage Devices
PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES
These are the temporarily storage devices.

These are used to store program, data and instruction during the processing
period,
The memory devices which are directly attached to the motherboard of the
computer.
Following are the two types of primary storage devices:

I.
RAM
II.
ROM
RAM (Random/Direct Access Memory) / Main Memory
This is a kind of primary memory and stores data temporarily during processing.
Computer can access data and instruction randomly
from RAM.
RAM is a kind of volatile memory.
RAM is read and writes memory
RAM is a memory chip and has no moving parts. It is
installed on the motherboard and links directly to the processor.
Most common technologies of RAM are following:

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory):
This stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory.

DRAM stores data in the form of an electric
Integrated circuits containing capacitors
Capacitors lose their charge over time, due to
DRAM may loss Results.
The chip is recharged or refreshed
continuously To recharge.
While a DRAM is being refreshed, it cannot
by the processor
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The recharging process thus decreases the processing speed of the computer.
This type of memory was used in old microcomputers.
DRAM used a small amount of electrical current..
SRAM (Sstatic Random Access Memory):
This stands for Static Random Access Memory.

In SRAM technology, memory cells are made from digital gates.
These gates can hold data without any need for
frequent recharging.
The computer processor does not have to wait to
access data from SRAM during processing.
The SRAM is therefore, faster as compared to the
DRAM.
It is also more expensive than DRAM.
However, SRAM requires more power as compared to DRAM. SRAM is used in
all modern computers Use of SRAM increases the processing speed of the
computer.
It is about 10 times faster than DRAM.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
That is used in PCs to hold POST commands.

is also known as BIOS (Basic Input/output System).
user cant change its contents.
It is a kind of non-volatile memory.
Micro program is a software that is use to write/load
program (system boot program) in ROM.
It is so designed that the information stored on it is of
permanent in nature and can be read only.
The data is stored on the ROM at the time of its
manufacturing.
The
Following is the variation of ROM

I.
PROM
II.
RPROM
III.
EEPROM (Flash Memory)
PROM:
This stands for Programmable Read Only
Memory.
User can store data and programs on it.
Once the contents are saved it become ROM,
because the recorded information cant be changed.
EPROM:
This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Its contents can
be stored, save and changed for two times.

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When stored and save for third time is become ROM.
EEPROM (Flash):
This stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory.
Data and programs can be stored and changed on it
many time as we wish.
as
Basic Units of Data Storage

No Of Pages (Text)
Byte
Collection of
1 KB
(KiloByte) consists of
1/2
1 MB(MagaByte)
500
consists of
8 bits.
1024 Byte
1024 (210)
1024 KB 1,048,576 (220)

32MB=32x1, 048,576
1 GB (GigaByte) consists of
(230)
500,000
1024 MB
1 TB (TeraByte) consists of
500,000,000
1024 GB1,099,511,617,776
1 PB (PeteByte) consists of
1024 TB
1 EB (ExaByte) consists of
1024 PB
1 ZB (ZettaByte)
consists of
1024 EB
1 YB (YottaByte)
consists of
1024 ZB
1,076,641,824
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

These devices are used to store data, program and instruction for permanent
basis. The content of secondary storage devices are loaded to RAM for the
purpose of processing. Secondary storage devices are widely used to store
large amount of data for future use. Secondary storage devices are slow in
speed as compare to primary storage devices. Secondary storage devices are
the type of non-volatile memory.
Following are the example of Secondary Storage Devices.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
Floppy Disk
Hard Disk
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V.
VI.
VII.
Optical Storage
CD-ROM
DVD-ROM
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape is the oldest storage medium used

to
permanently store large amount of data and
instruction.
This consists of a thin ribbon of plastic.
Disk cartridges are like small removable hard disk,
and can store up to 2 GB.
Magnetic tape systems offer very slow data access but provide large
capacities and low cost
Iron oxide is coated over it. The magnetic tape is a read and write device.
Its read and write speed is slower than other storage devices. Like sound
recording tape, the data and instruction on the tape can be recorded as
well as erased again and again.
The Magnetic Tape has to write data in serial form, that is one after the
other. Serial access is naturally slower than of direct access.
Magnetic Disk
Magnetic Disks are the most

secondary storage.
Magnetic Disk is a direct access
storage device.
popular medium for
A computer disk enclosed in a

protective case (hard
disk) or jacket (floppy disk) and coated with a magnetic material that
enables data to be stored in the form of changes in magnetic polarity
It searches records randomly. Read and write headers can read, write and
erase the sports that represent data on magnetic disk. Two types of
magnetic disks are used in computer.
Types of Magnetic Disk

Floppy Disk Drive
Floppy disk is most commonly used in the personal

computer as secondary storage device. It is also called
simply a diskette.
IBM invented the floppy disk in 1972. Its storage
capacity is very low.
Its not reliable.
Today the available floppy disk in most of computers is of 3.5 inch with
storage capacity of 1.44MB.
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A floppy disk is a read and write device.

Through floppy disk data and software can
easily transferred from one computer to
another.
A floppy disk is made of flexible plastic, which is
coated with magnetic oxide. T
he flexible disk is enclosed within a square
plastic jacket.
The jacket gives protection to the disk from dust
and heat. The floppy disk drive rotates the disk 300 to 400 round per
minute.
Hard Disk Drive
Hard disk is permanently fixed with the system unit. Therefore hard disk
also referred to as fixed disk.
It has large storage capacity.
It is from 1GB to 400GB or more. Hard disk is
usually 10 to 1000 times faster to access data as
compare to floppy disk
Hard disk contains several disks arranged on a
single rotating spindle. On both side of the disk
there is a coating of magnetic element.
Before using the hard disk is formatted.
On hard disk data is stored in the form of binary digits (0,1).
Hard disk spins continuously at a speed of more than 3600 rounds per
minutes.
A read and write head is there on each recording surface that can read
and write data on it.
Optical Storage Devices
CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

When data is being entered hot laser produce tiny spots
on
the disc surface.
LASER technology is used to store and to read data
from the disk.
It is a secondary storage device in which data is stored permanently.
CD-ROM drives can transfer data at speeds of up to 7800 kbps.
CD- ROM typically used to store software (program instructions) and audio and
video data, as well as text.
A CD-Recordable (CD-R) drive lets you record your own CDs, but data cannot be
overwritten once it is recorded to the disk
Now-a-days CDs are commonly used in personal computer to transfer data from
on computer to another like a floppy disk.
CD can store 700 MB of data.
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DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disk Read Only Memory)

A variation of CD-ROM is called Digital Video Disk Readonly Memory (DVD-ROM),
Used in place of CD-ROM in many newer PCs.
A DVD-ROM is similar to CD-ROM but its storage capacity
very high.
Standard DVD disk store up to 9.4GB of data.
Dual-layer DVD disk can store up to 17GB
The DVD-ROM drive is used to read information from DVD-ROM disk.
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SOFT COPY OUTPUT DEVICES

These devices are used to produce a soft copy of the output. Soft copy can only be
seen and heard. When power is switched off the soft copy is washed out.
Common soft copy output devices.
Monitor
Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector
Sound System
MONITOR:
The most common output device is the monitor, the window which you to see
whats being processed by the computer
It shows information on the screen when you
type.
This is called outputting information. Monitors
come in many types and sizes from the simple
monochrome (one color) screen to full color
screens.
It displays text as well as pictures in black and white or color.
To get the full benefit of today's software with full color graphics and animation,
computers need a color monitor with a display or graphics card.
Resolution and number of colors can be set by user.
Types of Monitor
Monochrome Monitor:
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A monitor that displays images in only one color

Black on white background (early monochrome Macintosh screens)
Amber or green on black background (early IBM monitors).
Now a day these monitors have become out of date.
COLOR MONITOR:
A video display device designed to work with a video card or adapter to produce
text or graphics images in color.
Unlike a monochrome display, have a screen coated internally with patterns of
three phosphors that glow Red, Green, and Blue (RG) when struck by an electron
beam.
It is capable of generating an enormous potential range of colors on a color
monitor
The monitor screen consists of an array of tiny dots called pixels (picture
elements).
Typical sizes of this array of pixels are 640 by 480 or 800 by 600 or 1024 by 768.
This is also referred as the resolution.
Each pixel can be independently illuminated by a color.
The number of colors displayable on a monitor can be 16 or 256 or 216 (high
color) or 224 (true color).
Four most popular monitors are fallowing.

CGA (Color Graphical Adapter) 4 colors
EGA (Enhanced Graphic Adapter) 16 colors
VGA (Video Graphic Adapter) 256 colors
SVGA (Super Video Graphic Adapter) 16 million colors
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
It basis of the television screen and the standard microcomputer display screen.
CRT display is built around a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns
whose electron beams rapidly sweep horizontally across the inside of the front
surface of the tube, which is coated with a material that glows when irradiated.
Each electron beam moves from left to right, top to bottom, one horizontal scan
line at a time.
To keep the screen image from flickering, the electron beam refreshes the screen
30 times or more per second. The clarity of the image is determined by the
number of pixels on the screen
CRT monitors are big in size so difficult to move. By contrast LCD are small in
size and light weight.
CRT monitors require a lot of power to run; therefore, they are not practical for
use with Laptop battery power.
Flat-Panel Monitors:

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A digital display that uses liquid crystal cells that

change reflectivity in an applied electric field; used for
portable computer displays and watches
LCD consists of a substance called liquid crystal and its
molecules shines in the presence of light
Disadvantage of LCD monitor is that their image can be
difficult to see in bright light.
A bigger disadvantage of LCD monitor is their limited viewing angle. That user
must face the screen nearly straight on to see the image clearly
Thin Film Transistor display use multiple transistor for each pixel.
Digital Light Projector:
To get the presentations onto the big screen,
Digital light projectors are becoming increasingly common.
A digital light projector plugs into one of the computers video output port and
then projects the video onto an external surface.
These small devices typically weigh only a few pounds and can display 16 million
colors at high resolutions.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector use a microchip containing tiny mirrors to
produce very sharp, bright images
SOUND SYSTEM:
Microphone is important
input device, similarly
speakers and similar
sound systems are output
devices.
This type of device output
data in the form of voice.
Data consisting of spoken
words and music can be
output from them. Like
monitor sound system
provide a temporary soft
copy.
Sound systems are especially useful to people who use their PC to catch videos or
listen music, or participate in online activities such as videoconferences or voice
chatting etc
The most complicated part of the sound output system is the sound card. The sound
card translates digital sound into electric current that is sent to the speakers.

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OPERATING SYSTEM
Os consists of the programs that manage all basic operation of

computer.
Computer cant do anything without OS.
OS must be installed on every computer.
Users interact with the computer through OS.
When computer is turned on, the OS runs and checks that all parts of
the computer are functioning properly.
Os manages all operations on computer after loading
Some popular OS DOS - windows - Unix - os/2 Linux etc
Functions of OS
OS performs the following functions:
Booting
Booting is a process of starting the computer.
OS starts the computer to work.
It checks the computer and makes it ready to work.
Memory management
It is also important function of OS.
Memory cant be managed without an OS.
Different programs and data execute in memory at one time.
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If there is no OS, the programs may mix with each other & the system
will not work properly.
Loading and execution

A program is loaded in the memory before it can be executed.
OS provides to facility to load programs in memory easily and to
extend.
Data security
Data is an Impartment part of computer system; OS protects the data
load on computer from illegal use modification on deletion.
Disk management
Os manages the disk space.
It manages the stored files and folders in a proper way.
Process management.
CPU can perform on takes at one time.
If there are many tasks, OS decides which task should set the cpu.
Devices controlling.
OS controls all devices attached to computer.
The H/W devices are controlled with the help of small software called
device drivers.
Printing controlling.
OS also controls printing function.
If a user issues two print commands at a time, it does not mix data of
these files and prints them separately.
Providing interface
User interface is used to intreact with the computer.
User interface controls how you enter data and instructions and how
information is displayed on the screen.
Two types of interfaces for user
GUI: (Graphical User Interface)
It consists of visual environment.
It is used to communicate with the computer.
It was windows, icons, menus and other graphical objects to issues
commands.
Command-Line Interface.
It provides command prompt to enter commands to interact with the
computer.
User types commands through keyboard.
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Flash memory
Flash memory is a special type of nonvolatile memory. It is often used in
portable digital devices for storage. Digital cameras, portable mp3 players,
USB keychain storage devices, and game consoles all use flash memory the
flash memory works by having actual switches store the binary values that
make up the data. Thus, on camera with a flash card, the picture is stored on
the card by turning millions of tiny switches on and off. Burring catastrophic
damage to the card, the picture is stored indefinitely.
Memory
The CPU needs to have millions or even trillions, in some computers of bytes
of space when it earn quickly read or write programs and data while they are
being used. This is called memory, and it consists of chips either on the
Motherboard on a small circuit board attached on the motherboard. This
electronic memory allows the CPU to store and retrieved data quickly.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
LAN and WAN were the original flavors of network design. The concept of "area"
made good sense at this time, because a key distinction between a LAN and a WAN
involves the physical distance that the network spans. A third category, the MAN, also
fit into this scheme as it is between LAN and WAN.
There are four types of computer networks.
TAN OR Tiny Area Network
This is used to represent very small networks.
Two, three, or maximum four nodes in a TAN.
TANs are popular in home and small offices.
They enable very limited concerns to share resources such as printer,
modem, and databases among various computers.
Example:
o The childs node and parents node in the home, and the managers
node and cashiers node in an office.
LAN OR Local Area Network
This is also called a Local Net.
It connects computers, which are situated in a local area such as a building,
an office, or a factory etc.
The distance separating nodes in the local net may vary from a few feet to a
few miles.
The local net, including all data communication channels, is owned by the
organization using it.
Because of the nearness of nodes in local nets, a company can install its own
communication channels.
Business organizations are connects more computers into local area network.
Example: Networks at the
o Offices of UBL Circle office,
o GPO,
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o
o
Packages Limited,
Bata Shoes factory etc
Characteristics
Typically connects computer in a single building or campus.
Developed in 1970s.
Medium:
o Optical Fibers,
o Ccoaxial cables,
o Twisted pair,
o Wireless.
High-speed networks (0.2 to 100 Mb/sec).
Topology typically buses or rings.
Man Or Metropolitan Area Network
This is used to serve the nodes scattered in a big city.
It can provide data communication services for an area of higher population.
Different offices of an organization situated in big cities can benefit from a MAN.
Example:
o Bata, Servis shoes companies can benefit from MAN to connect their
shops In big cities like Lahore, and Karachi etc.
Characteristics
Wan OR Wide Area Network

Developed in 1980s.
Generally covers towns and cities (up to 50 km)
This is used to connect nodes in widely dispersed geographic areas, such as
cities, states, and even countries.
Message routing is fast.
MAN depends on the transmission services of a common data carried to transmit
signals between nodes.
The services may include
o Telephone system,
o Microwave relays,
o Satellite
to transmit data across large distances.
Example:
o Network of City Bank,
o Toyota Corporation,
o American Express,
o P.I.A. etc.
Due to the benefits of WAN, the offices of the above companies, which are
scattered throughout the world, are as if situated in the same building.
Characteristics
Developed in 1960s.
Generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
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Medium:
o Communication circuits connected by routers.
Routers forwards packets from one to another following a route from the sender to
the receiver. Store-and-Forward
Hosts are typically connected to the routers.
Problems with delays if using satellites.
Typical speed: 20 - 2000 KB/S.
Note:- Like the Internet, most WANs are not owned by any one organization but
rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology of a network is the physical layout or shape of a network. There are five
basic types of network topologies.
1. Bus Topology
In this type of topology a single piece of
cable moves from node to node,
connecting all the nodes along the way all
of
the peripheral devices are attached along
the common cable. In a bus topology a
signal is transmitted to all nodes, but only
the destination node responds to this. Bus
topology is most appropriate when the connected devices are physically close to one
another.
Advantages
Bus topology is very simple
It can be easily configure.
It is very economical.
New nodes can be easily accommodated in bus topology
Unwanted nodes can be easily removed from the network.
Bus topology is a reliable transmission medium.
Disadvantages
If one of the nodes becomes inactive, all of the nodes beyond it lose their
network connection
There are chances of data loss in bus topology.
If a terminal becomes inactive, it is not so easy to locate it.
Transmission priorities cannot be implemented.
The balancing problem arises when users on a multiport line wish to
communicate.
2. Star Topology

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In this topology each node is connected to the central

hub by a separate cable. This central hub routes
communications between nodes of the network. The
message generated by a source reach the hub, which
then directs the message to the destination. Any
computer can communicate with any other computer
on the network.
Advantages
If one of the nodes becomes inactive, network connection affects only that
single node involved.
Central hub controls all of the communication of the net.
There are no chances of data loss in star topology.
This type of topology is more scientific in nature.
New nodes can be easily accommodated.
Unwanted nodes can be easily removed.
Disadvantages
This is expensive because it uses a central hub and a separate cable for each
node.
The central hub has to deal with the demands of all of the nodes as a result
this topology becomes complex.
Star topology is not reliable because with the failure of central hub all of the
network will fail.
Only the expert person can handle star topology.
3. Ring Topology
On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring).with all computers and devices
arranged along the ring. Data transmitted on aring
network travels from device-to-device around the entire
ring, in one direction. When a computer or device sends
data, the data travels to each computeron the ring until it
reaches its destination.
Advantages
This is an advanced topology.
It is scientific in nature.
There are no chances of data loss.
Central hub controls the flow of data.
Problem with one node affects the connection of only one node.
Disadvantage
Ring topology is expensive.
Problem with central hub affects whole of the net.
The network fails completely if the ring is broken in any way.
It is often difficult to add new nodes in this type of topology.
4. Mesh Topology

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In this topology the nodes of the network are directly

connected to each other by the pieces of cables.
Full Mesh
In a full mesh all nodes are connected to each other.
Partial Mesh
In a partial mesh some of these links are missing
and they have to communicate through
intermediate nodes.
Advantages
Mesh topology is very simple.
This is low cost.
This topology is easy to understand.
If one node becomes inactive, it does not affect others.
New nodes can be easily accommodated.
Unwanted nodes can be easily disconnected in mesh topology.
Disadvantages
Mesh topology is very old type of topology
If one of the nodes becomes inactive it becomes difficult to locate it.
There are more chances of data loss.
The cost of adding new nodes to the network rises very high as the number of
nodes increase.
5. Hybrid Topology
The above-explained different topologies are often mixed together to from a hybrid
topology. This topology combines the good qualities of two or more topologies. For
example, you can link the hubs of several star networks together with a bus and form
a bus-star network.
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WHAT IS MICROSOFT WORD? WRITE BENEFITS OF USING IT.

OR
DESCRIBE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROSOFT WORD.
MICROSOFT WORD:
Microsoft word is a word processing application.
We can create business document, important personal documents, letters,
applications and reports in it.
Word processor can manipulate text.
It can also be used to add images, sounds, charts and graphics in documents.
it can also be used to create documents for publishing on the World wide web.
Microsoft word provides us these benefits or characteristics.
Toolbars:
This feature is used to display shortcut buttons to make editing and formatting
quicker and easier in MS word.
Interface of word:
Microsoft word interface comes with menu bar, title bar, scroll bar (vertical and
horizontal), toolbar (standard and formatting), ruler, and status bar. When you will
open Microsoft word 2000 you will find all these things on the interface of Microsoft
word.
Title Bar:
This bar is at the top of a window and shows the application and the name of
document which is currently open.
Menu Bar:
This bar is below the title bar and it displays a list of commands. Most menus are
located on the menu bar at the top of the word window. You can
Status Bar:
We can use menus and toolbars to give Microsoft word instructions about what we
want to do. A toolbar can contain buttons with images (the same images you see next
to corresponding menu commands), menus, or a combination of both. Word includes
many built in toolbars that you can show and hide as needed. By default, the
standard and formatting built-in toolbars are docked side by side below the menu bar.
Undo and Redo:
Word provides an undo feature, which is used to remove the effect of last action. for
example, if a text deleted by a mistake, it can be recoverd back ion the screen by
using the undo command. Action can be done again by using Redo command.
Ruler:
The ruler is used for measurement of document.
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Header and Footers:

Header feature is used to automatically display text at the top of each page. Footer is
used to automatically display text at the bottom of each page.
Office Assistant:
The office assistant feature gives you tips during your work. It can be used to get
help about MS word.
Save as web Page:
Document can be save to to post internet. You can save save any of your documents
to display it on your website.
Merges:
It is used merges text from one file into another file.it is usefull to generate many files
that has same format but different data.
Table of Contents and Indexes:
MS word can also generate a table of contents and indes. It is based on special code
inserted in the document. It is vary helpful to writing books.
Auto Text:
MS word provides feature to store text permanently for using repeatedly.
Auto correct:
Auto correct is used to make correction to typing errors automatically.it can save time
during typing. it automatically detects and corrects misspelled word, grammatical
errors.
Thesaurus and Synonymous:
MS word has an excellent feature for finding words with similar meanings. You can
select any word from the list of suggested words. Thesaurus is used to find defferent
words. It displays the list of synonymous.
Set Password:
Word provide the facility to set a password on your documents. it stops unauthorized
use of your documents and provides protection of your data.
Word Art:
Word Art is used to create stylish text in a variety of shapes. It provide the facility of
stretching, coloring and shading your text.
Column:
Word allows dividing the page in the form of column. You can use any number of
columns in your document.
Writing styles:
Microsoft word provides us facility to write documents with different and font styles. It
is just like an electronic typewriter but it has many facilities to which a typewriter
cannot accommodate.
Spelling and grammar facility:
It also provides us facility to check spellings and grammar of the text, which we write
in a document.
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Tables and graphics:

We can also add tables, pictures, graphics, and drawings of different coolers in our
document with the help of Microsoft word.
Bullets and numbering:
Microsoft word provides us facility to apply bullets and numbers before the lines of
our document text, which makes our document more attractive and easy to read.
Drawing:
We can also draw simple drawings in Microsoft word by using its drawing tools.
Printing document:
We can get print of the document, which is prepared in Microsoft word with the help
of printer on a paper. WYSIWYG (What you see is what you get)
It means that the printed copy of the document will be similler as appears in the word
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1.
2.
3.
4.
MICROSOFT EXCEL
USING MICROSOFT EXCEL 2000
MAIN FEATURES OF MICROSOFT EXCEL 2000
WHAT IS MICROSOFT EXCEL? WRITE DOWN ITS FEATURES.
Microsoft excel is spreadsheet application software. This software is developed y

Microsoft Corporation and is provided in Microsoft office application suite. Microsoft
excel application is used to manipulate the numeric data of any small or big
organization. You can create small database with its help.
FEATURES AND BENEFITS OF EXCEL:
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The main features and benefits of Microsoft Excel are as follow:

Toolbars:
This feature is used to display shortcut buttons to make editing and formatting
quicker and easier in MS word
Title Bar:
This bar is at the top of a window and shows the application and the name of
document which is currently open.
Menu Bar:
This bar is below the title bar and it displays a list of commands. Most menus are
located on the menu bar at the top of the word window. You can
Status Bar:
We can use menus and toolbars to give Microsoft word instructions about what we
want to do. A toolbar can contain buttons with images (the same images you see next
to corresponding menu commands), menus, or a combination of both. Word includes
many built in toolbars that you can show and hide as needed. By default, the
standard and formatting built-in toolbars are docked side by side below the menu bar.
Undo and Redo:
Word provides an undo feature, which is used to remove the effect of last action. for
example, if a text deleted by a mistake, it can be recoverd back ion the screen by
using the undo command. Action can be done again by using Redo command.
Header and Footers:
Header feature is used to automatically display text at the top of each page. Footer is
used to automatically display text at the bottom of each page.
Office Assistant:
The office assistant feature gives you tips during your work. It can be used to get
help about MS word.
Save as web Page:
Document can be save to to post internet. You can save save any of your documents
to display it on your website.
Merges:
It is used merges text from one file into another file.it is usefull to generate many files
that has same format but different data.
Table of Contents and Indexes:
MS word can also generate a table of contents and indes. It is based on special code
inserted in the document. It is vary helpful to writing books.
Auto Text:
MS word provides feature to store text permanently for using repeatedly.
Auto correct:
Auto correct is used to make correction to typing errors automatically.it can save time
during typing. it automatically detects and corrects misspelled word, grammatical
errors.
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Thesaurus and Synonymous:

MS word has an excellent feature for finding words with similar meanings. You can
select any word from the list of suggested words. Thesaurus is used to find defferent
words. It displays the list of synonymous.
Set Password:
Word provide the facility to set a password on your documents. it stops unauthorized
use of your documents and provides protection of your data.
Word Art:
Word Art is used to create stylish text in a variety of shapes. It provide the facility of
stretching, coloring and shading your text.
Writing styles:
Microsoft word provides us facility to write documents with different and font styles. It
is just like an electronic typewriter but it has many facilities to which a typewriter
cannot accommodate.
Spelling and grammar facility:
It also provides us facility to check spellings and grammar of the text, which we write
in a document.
Tables and graphics:
We can also add tables, pictures, graphics, and drawings of different coolers in our
document with the help of Microsoft word.
Bullets and numbering:
Microsoft word provides us facility to apply bullets and numbers before the lines of
our document text, which makes our document more attractive and easy to read.
Drawing:
We can also draw simple drawings in Microsoft word by using its drawing tools.
Printing document:
We can get print of the document, which is prepared in Microsoft word with the help
of printer on a paper. WYSIWYG (What you see is what you get)
It means that the printed copy of the document will be similler as appears in the word
To control numerical data:
Microsoft Excel is used to control numerical data like accounts, financial reports,
statistical facts, ledger, and simple trial balance.
Storing information of inventory and stock:
Excel is also used to store the information of inventory control and stock control.
Preparation o invoices:
Invoices/ bills can also be prepared using Excel automatically.
Built In formulas and functions:
It provides us big range of arithmetic formulas and functions to manipulate our data.
It can automatically add, multiply, divide and subtract values.
Easy solution of mathematical problems:
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Its built- in functions provides us facility to solve complex mathematical and scientific
operations easily.
Presentation of data in graphs and charts:
It can also present data in shape of graphs and charts.
Cell address.
There are total 256 columns and 65536 rows in an Excel worksheet. Column labels
are from A and end at IV while rows start from I and end at 65,536.
ATATUS BAR:
Status bar shows the status of worksheet. It can also show the different operations.
Sheet tabs:
Sheet tabs are found at the left bottom corner of the worksheet. Sheet tabs show the
title of the sheet. When we create a new workbook in excel it will have three
worksheets, however we can add new sheets in workbook. We can enter new
worksheets in a workbook according to the RAM capacity. To navigate in worksheets,
click on the icon or label of the desired worksheet.
SCROLL BARS:
Scroll bars are used to move through worksheet horizontally and vertically. There are
two scroll bars in an Excel worksheet.
Vertical scroll bar
Horizontal scroll bar
To move through horizontally, use the horizontal scroll bar.
To move through vertically, use the vertical scroll bar.
Uses of MS Excel in Business

How MS Excel is Beneficial for an organization
The students of Commarce can use MS Excel in the following ways.
COMPUTERIZED WORKSHEET & WORKBOOK:
Different task in commerce are performed using worksheet and workbook. MS Excel
provide computerized worksheet and worksheet. it provide an easy and efficient way
of maintaining data in worksheet.
STOCK HANDLING:
MS Excel can be used to handle the stock of an organization. It provide to perform
complex calculations in stock management.
ACCOUNTS HANDLING:
MS Excel can be used to handle the accounting system of an organization.
Accounting system manages the daily transactions of an organization. Its used to
prepare balance sheet, trail balance, ledger and other information related to
accounts.
RECORD KEEPING:
Excel can be used in commerce for record keeping. An organization can manage
data in excel. It provide many facilities to store large volume of data easily and
efficiently.
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QUICK CALCULATIONS:
The data store in excel can be processed easily. Different types of calculation can be
performed on this data in less time.
AUTOMATIC RECALCULATIOIN:
MS Excel provides the facility of automatic recalculation. If the user applies some
calculation on data, it is automatically recalculated if the data is changed.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTAION:
MS Excel provides the facility of resenting data graphically. It provides different types
of charts. These charts display the data in an attractive and easy to understand way.
PREDEFINED FUNCAION:
MS Excel provides many predefined function to perform many tasks of commerce.
The has to put less effort in performing difficult tasks.
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WHAT IS WINDOWS 2000 PROFESSIONAL?

DISCUSS WINDOWS 2000 FEATURES.
WINDOWS 2000 PROFESSIONAL:
It is a high performance operating system that provides a lot of securities both in
networking environment and in business environment where a single user uses a
computer.
Windows 2000 is an operating system of Microsoft Corporation. It is based on NT
(New Technology for Networks). After the success of Windows NT 4.0, Microsoft
released its next product with some advance and powerful features with the name
windows 2000 professional
NT technology is used for networking. In networking we have to keep in mind
different problems like security, sharing of hardware and software etc. windows 2000
professional has all these features.
FEATURES OF WINDOWS 2000:
These are the different features of Window 2000:
Easy to use:
Windows 2000 is an easy operating system. Every one can use it and can get
benefits from it s without learning from any institute.
Easy networking:
Windows 2000 provides us facility to manage overall network in an easy and efficient
way.
Hardware sharing:
Different hardwares like printer, CD drive and hard disks can be shared in a
sophisticated and efficient way in windows 2000.
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Security:
Networks are built to share data and information but it also requires security.
Windows 2000 provides a very good and secure environment for networking. If we
compare windows 2000 with the Microsofts previous operating system then we come
to know that windows 2000 is really a good, efficient and most secure operating
system of Microsoft.
Hardware and software compatibility:
Windows 2000 provides a large list of software and hardware, which are compatible
with it.
Internet Access:
Internet access is much faster then ever in windows 2000.
Password Facility and Administrative Facility:
Windows 2000also provides us facility to manage users of network. Using
administrative facility of windows 2000 you can do this. In single user environment
windows 2000 provides you facility to protect your data by applying password on your
account.
How WILL YOU SELECT AN ICON,

CHANGE THE LOCATION OF AN ICON,
CHANGE NAME OF AN ICON, AND DELETE AN ICON.
Steps to select an Icon:
To select an icon from the desktop of a computer move the mouse cursor on the icon
to which you want to select.
Click the left button of the mouse.
Co lour of icon will change which means it is selected.
Steps to change location of an icon:
Click left button of the mouse on the icon of which you want to change the location.
Hold down left button of the mouse and drag mouse to new location of the desktop or
to folder where you want to move the icon of the desktop.
Release the mouse button after reaching at the Icon is moved now.
Steps to change name or rename an icon:
Move mouse pointer on the icon of which you want to change label or name.
Click the right button of the mouse.
Context menu or right click menu will appear.
Click on rename from it
Label of icon will highlight.
Now type new name through keyboard and press Enter button when finished.
Name of icon has changed.
Steps to delete an icon:
Move mouse pointer on the icon of which you want to change label or name
Click right button of mouse.
Context menu or right click menu will display.
Click on delete from it.
Icon is deleted.
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WHAT IS A FOLDER?
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOLDERS?
FOLDER:
A folder is just like cabinet that is used to store or manage files. Windows operating
system provides us facility to create a folder about a particular thing and then we can
store files or other folders related to the topic in that folder. By storing our files in a
folder we can easily locate and search our file.
Example:
Suppose a teacher is creating papers of students on the computer, he/she can
create a folder with the name Papers and in this folder he/she can create subfolder
with subject names like English, Chemistry etc. Now by managing his/ her files into
folders he/she can search and work with files easily.
TYPES OF FOLDERS IN WINDOWS 2000:
System folders:
These folders are created by the system automatically during installation of operating
System and during formatting of a floppy diskette or hard disk. These are also called
Root folders. These folders cannot be deleted by user and are represented by single
backslash.
User folders or subfolders:
The folders that are created by user of a compute are called user folders. The user of
a computer to store files and information creates these folders. And user can delete ,
rename and remove to these folders.
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WHAT IS WINDOWS EXPORER?

HOW WIL YOU OPEN WINDOWS EXPLORER:
WINDOWS EXPLORER:
Windows explorer allows us to view the contents of the drivers and folders in tree
structure we can easily navigate between files, folder and drives through explorer.
Files and folders can also be easily moved and deleted through explorer.
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Steps to open windows explorer:

Click on the start menu and select programs
From programs submenu select accessories.
From accessories submenu click on windows Explorer
OR
Move the mouse pointer over the start button.
Click on the Right button of the mouse.
A menu will display choose Explore from its.
Windows Explorer will open.
When we open windows explorer, Explorer window with two panes appear. In the left
pane we have drives and folders contains folders and subfolder and when we click
on this sign files and folders in tree structure are shown in left pane of the explorer
window.
Windows to show contents of a folder or a drive of a hard disk use the right pane of
Explorer window.
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WHAT IS INTERNET?
INTERNET
An internet is global wide Area Network, which is consist of more than one hundred
million Computer. It connects countries and continents with each other globally.
Internet is a global network of computers. We can also call Internet a network of
networks. It handles billions of bytes of data in every second around the world.
Internet computers:
Each computer connected to Internet can act s a HOST computer. A host computer
provides information in the form of text, audio and video films for other people to use.
Another type of the computer in the Internet is called SERVER. It is that allows the
user to connect with Internet.
Methods of communication:
In Internet there are three methods of communication, which are:
Satellite Communication
Fiber Optic Cable
Telephone Lines
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HISTORY OF INTERNET IN DETAIL.

THE HISTORY OF INTERNET:
Internet was started during the cold war between Russia and America in 1960. The
U.S. Air force wanted to communicate and order its forces. So a network of 4
computers was developed under this project.
ARPANET
As a result of cold war between Russia and America, Russia launched sputnik
satellite and in its answer America developed a network of 4 computers and gave it
name ARPANET. This network was designed for advance Research project Agency
(ARPA).
ARPA started working on a project, the basic purpose of the project, was to allow the
computers to share data remotely. The purpose of doing so was to connect military,
defense contractors and the universities involved in defense research.
PAUL BARAN:
Paul Baran, which was member of RAND Corporation, published a paper on
Distributed Communications Networks in 1964. This paper provided a theoretical
design for data transfer. This design had many features, which were incorporated into
the network we have today, these features are:
Decentralized storage of data
Digital Packets
Routes for transferring packets of data.
PROTOCOL:
Till 1970 there was no any protocol or set of rules for communicating in network. In
early 1970s the first protocol was developed as a standard for data transferring. This
protocol was called NCP (Network Control protocol).
DaRPA (Defense Advanced Research projects Agency):
In 1973 APRs name was changed to DARPA and now 37- host computer were
connected to ARPANET.
DARPA now start working in a new direction by thinking about a new protocol for both
data sharing on the same network and for interconnection of different computer
networks. The task for designing. Internetworking protocol was given to Stanford
Research Institute.
TCP/ IP:
A team of Stanford Research Institute which was led by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kan
start working on the project of designing internetworking protocol. During 1973-78
this team developed a suite of protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol
and Internet Protocol). This protocol was supported the interconnection of the
different computer networks. TCP/IP replaced the NCP in 1983 and now it was the
major Internet control protocol.
BITNET:
The ARPANET was created only for defense researchers and American military but
different universities students and professors also wanted to share information and
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resources with each other. DARPA did not allow them to use their network so these
universities start working on their own remote Computers network and they created
BITNET (Because Its Time Network) and CSNET (Computer Science Network).
These networks were used for academic and research purposes and linked IBM
computers and University Computer science departments.
WORLD WIDE NETWORK:
After the creation of BITNET and CSNET, the concept of Internet developed and
deferent universities and research institutions start working on a world global
network.
As a result soon in 1986 NSF Net was created and it linked academic researchers
across the countries with five super computer centers.
INTERNET:
Now Internet is collection of worlds small networks, which are connected with each
other. Anybody from any country of the world has an access to get and share
information on the Internet.
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CONNECTING WITH INTERNET

HOW CAN WE GET CONECTED WITH THE INTERNET?
CONNECTING TO INTERNET:
Internet has brought close to the people of different communities of the world. We
can use Internet for different purposes. But for using Internet different important
things are necessary.
NECESSARY THINGS TO GET CONNECTED WITH AN INTERNET:
The things that are necessary to get connected with an Internet are as follow:
A computer
Modem
Telephone
Connection of an ISP (Internet Service provider)
Web Browsing Soft ware.
A computer:
Remember that an Internet is a global network of computers. Different computers of
different countries are connected with its to provide you information and other
important things. You can get information from host computer through a computer. So
you must have a computer to get connected with Internet.
Modem:

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Modem is a device,
which is used to
connect our
computer with
telephone line. For
using Internet
install modem into
your computer. The
questions arises
that why is
necessary to install a modem into the computer? The answer is that a computer
through telephone line can access Internet and modem is a device, which enables us
to connect our computer with telephone line.
Telephone line:
After installing modem into your computer, connect a telephone line with the modem.
Connection of an ISP:
ISP stands for Internet service provider. ISPs have devices and the resources to
connect Internet directly and they provide services to uses of Internet by selling the
Internet connections. So you need to get an Internet connection from any internet
service provider. When we get connection of Internet from an ISP, it provides us an
ID, password and ID we can use the Internet.
Web Browsing Software:
There are millions web sites on an Internet. To locate any particular web site from
Internet software is required which is called Web Browsing software. Different web
browsing software are available in the market but the common are:
Internet Explorer
Netscape communicator
Opra
Firefox etc
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WHICH SERVICES AN INTERNET PROVIDES US?

WRITE PURPOSES OF USING AN INTERNET
WRITE BENEFITS OF USING AN INTERNET
USES OF THE INTERNET:
Billions of people have access to the Internet. They use it to get information, play
games and communicate messages to their friends and relatives. Many business
companies also use the Internet to advertise and sell their goods.
SERVICES OF THE INTERNET:
Internet provides us the following services:
World Wide Web (WWW) facility
Electronic Mail (Email) Facility
File Transfer Facility (FTP)
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Newsgroup Facility
Chatting
Electronic Commerce (E- commerce facility)
WORLD WIDE WEB:
A www or world wide web is a computer that is connected permanently to the
Internet. World wide web supports specially formatted document. These web pages
are also called Web pages. Each web page has a unique address, which is called
web site address or URL (uniform resource locator) or (Universal Resource Locator)
SERVICES OR BENEFITS OF WORLD WIDE WEB:
An Internet was developed with the purpose to share information but now-a-days
web sites are developed for many purposes. Some of them are as follow.
To provide or share information
To provide entertainment
Advertisement
Seeking and giving knowledge
Education
Selling and purchasing of goods
News
Encyclopedia
Air plan ticket booking
A web page can be used for getting information, selling of goods, and advertisement
of goods. We can get education on Internet and read news with the help of World
Wide Web
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WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANGES OF

INTERNET?
INTERNET:
An Internet was developed with the purpose to share information but now it provides
you a lot of advantages, some of them are given below:
Information: information is a big source of information of all type. You can find
information on any topic on Internet.
Sending and receiving E- mail: Internet provides you the facility to send letters or
messages anywhere in the world
Advertising business: Internet provides the facility to businessmen people to
advertise their goods and services globally
News: with the help of Internet, we can get updated news about any country of the
world and about hot issues any time.
Booking Air Tickets: Booking air tickets are an important advantage of Internet. You
can reserve any ticket of any parts of the world with its help.
Education:
With the help of Internet, you can apply for admission in any university of the world
and can also study virtually.
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Online Banking: With the help of Internet, account holder of a bank can check his
account and can also transfer money from his account to other accounts by sitting at
his home.
Chatting: Those who have no friends or who have friends in far areas can chat n
internet anytime and can discuss their personal issues.
DISADVANTAGES:
These are the disadvantages of Internet:
Different people on Internet try to hack data of information of others
Some PEOPLE ON Internet try to hack data of information of others
Purchase goods on Internet and generate fake Visa a card numbers that results into
big loss for companies.
Young age boys and girls waste their precious time on Internet in chatting.
Internet has increased the living expenses, as you have to pay for using it.
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WHAT IS FILE TRANSFER FACILITY FTP?

FTP:
FTP stands for File Transfer protocol. This protocol is used on Internet for sending
files. This facility is not for general public but for computer professionals. This facility
provides the following services:
Transferring different types of data files containing audio, video and graphics. Such
type of data files is not directly readable by human beings.
This facility allows a computer on the Internet to be a remote terminal. In this way,
one computer works directly on a computer, which is thousands of miles away.
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WAHAT IS NEWS GROUP AND CHATTING?

NEWS GROUP:
Internet also provides us facility of news groups. This facility is also called group
discussion facility and it enables us to take part in discussion of our interest. Through
this facility we can share and aware about the ideas of the different countries of the
world about a particular topic.
CHATTING:
Internet also provides us facility to chat with people of different countries of the world
by entering in chat rooms. Through chatting we can send and receive messages
instantly. There are different facilities for chatting some of them are MSN and yahoo
messengers. You can also use ICQ and MIRC for chatting.
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E.COMMERCE
WHAT IS E-COMMERCE? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER WITH THE
HELP OF EXAMPLES:
E-COMMERCE:
E.commerce stands for electronic commerce. It is a term, which means to carry out
financial transactions using Internet. With the help of Internet and e-commerce,
business can be carried out on international basis; goods can be sold and purchased
from anywhere in the world. The business using e-commerce is growing at a rapid
rate.
Examples of E- commerce:
Following are some examples of E- commerce activity:
Following are some examples of E- commerce activity:
Online education:
With the help of Internet, different publishers provide a list of their books on Internet
on their web sites. A person who browses web sites of publishers or universities can
place an order for books and can get online education from the web sites of
educational institutes or universities.
Online banking:
In online banking e- commerce, a customer of bank can check his account balances
and can also transfer his money from one account to another account.
Online shopping: we can sale and purchase goods on Internet with the help of Ecommerce. Manufacturers place a list of their products on their web page on the
Internet. They also place pictures, and prices of the items. Any one can surf the site,
and place order to purchase any item. The manufacturer then sends the purchased
goods through normal mail. This process is called online shopping.
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TERMINOLOGIES OF WWW
DEFINE THE DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES OF WORLD WIDE WEB.
TERMINOLOGIES OF A WEB PAGE:
A web page has different components and terminologies. Some common
terminologies of a web page or World Wide Web are as follow:
Web site:
A web site is a document, which can contain information in the form of text, graphics,
sounds, video or audio. This document is stored on a computer and this computer
permanently connects with the Internet. People from any where of the world can
access to this computer through Internet people from any where of the world can
access to this computer through Internet.
Home page:
A web page or a web site consists of a different pages but the starting page or the
page, which is loaded very, first when we open web site, is called home page.
This page contains links of other pages of the web site. We can open the other pages
of a web site by simply clicking on the link of the web pages.
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Links on hyperlink:
A link is also called a hyperlink and it is a connection from one page to another
destination such as another page or a different location on the same page. The
destination is frequently another web page, but it can also be a picture, an e- mail
address, a file ( such as a multimedia file or Microsoft office document), A hyperlink
can also be text or a picture.
Anchor:
It is a link that is used to open different parts of a web page.
Image Map:
It is an image or graphic, which contains one or more hyperlink. It is used to switch
between different documents of a web page.
Frame:
A frames page is a special kind of HTML page that divides the browser window into
different areas called frames, each of which can display a different page.
Table:
A table is made up of rows and columns of cells in which you can insert text and
graphics. You can use tables in web pages to present information or data of a web
page in the form of rows and columns.
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WRITE A NOTE ON SATHE FOLLOWING.

HTTP
URL
HTML
ISP
HTTP:
HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. Basically World Wide Web uses this
protocol.
The work of this protocol is to tell how a message is transmitted and what action
should be taken upon the message by web browser. For example, if we write URL on
web browser like:
www.geocities.com/ gmg pk
Then the web browser using the HTTP protocol should fetch a web page domain
name geocities.com/gmg-pk.
HTML:
HTML stands for hypertext markup language. This language is used to create
documents for WWW or web sites. HTML defines the structure and layout of a web
document using a variety of tags.
Tags:
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It is a directive to the web browser (a software that is used to display web pages) to
show text in specified format. Note once a document to Internet can easily have
access to the document.
URL:
URL stands for uniform resource Locator. It is also called universal Resource
Locator. Every file on the Internet has an address, which is called URL. Actually URL
represents an address of documents on the World Wide Web.
COMPONENTS OF A URL:
URL consists of two or more components. For example the URL bellow point the
two different files. Generally URL = protocol + Domain name+ Separator
Example: http://www. Yahoo.com
In the above URL
http
= protocol
//
= Separator
yahoo. = Domain name
com
= type of organization
First part of a URL indicates
which protocol is used and the
second part specifies the
domain name where the resource is located and the third part tells us the type of
organization of whichs web site we are using.
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS:
THE most common types of organizations are:
Edu
Org
Gov
Mil
Pk
Com
Net
Education
Organization non commercial
government
military
Pakistan
commercial organization
network provider
Use of URL:
A URL is basically a complete address of a web site.
We use URL on Internet for locating a specific domain.
Some Example of URL:
Following are some common URL:
www.yahoo.com
www.hotmail.com
www.google.com
ISP (internet service provider)
ISP stands for Internet service provider. It is a company that sells the access to
Internet to it users. There are different ISPs in the world. People get connection from
ISPs by getting its membership. Some common ISPs of Pakistan are:
Brain Net
Wol Net
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Fiber Net
Go Net
User of the Internet gets an identifying username and password and a phone number
from an ISP after getting connection. The username, password and phone number is
used to access Internet.
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WHAT IS A WEB BROWSER?

WEB BROWSER:
There are millions web sites on an Internet. To locate any particular web site from an
Internet a software is required which is called web browning software are available in
the market but the common are:
Internet Explorer
Netscape communicator
Opra
Firefox etc
Web browser software allow to user of the Internet to work together with the
information of web sites. All the web pages are developed by using a language,
which is called HTML hypertext markup language). Web browser soft ware
understands HTML is displays information of the web page according to the
instructions given by HTML.
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WHAT IS A SEARCH ENGINE?

SEARCH ENGINE:
Search Engines are applications or web sites over the Internet, which provide
facility to user of the Internet for locating a web page from World Wide Web
according to the given criteria.
Example:
Suppose you want to get information about History of Egypt but you dont know that
address of the web site where you can find information about its. You dont have
need to worry about, simply open any search engine and give your query (question)
to search engine. It will provide you a list of web sites containing information about
your query. The web site address, which also act as a search engines, are:
www.yahoo .com
www.google.com
www.altavista.com
www.msn.com
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEB SERVER AND WEB BROWSER

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A WEB SERVER AND
WEB BROWSER:
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A WEB SERVER AND WEB BROWSER:
A web server or WWW. Server is a computer that is connected to Internet 24 hours a
day. This computer contains web sites and the information that you browse on
Internet. It may be located any where in the world and you can access from any
where in the world.
Web browser is software that provides you that facility to locate a web browser or a
web site from Internet. Web browser also displays web pages or web site in the
format in which there are created because web pages consist of information that is
formatted using HTML (Hyper Text markup language) and web browser understands
HTML. With the help of a web browser you can interact with information on the web
page.
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===========================================================
WHAT IS AN EMAIL? Write its uses.E-MAIL:

E-Mail stands for Electronic mail. It is just like writing letters to some one with whom
we want to communicate. Internet provides us the facility to write and send letters to
the person living any where in the world with out any cost at an amazing speed in the
form of Email. Normally an email takes 2 to 5 second to reach at the destination them
with email to the world.
Example:
The following is an example of simple email address:
sajjad.shakir@gamil.com
COMPONENTS OF AN EMAIL ADDRESS:
Basically an email address has three parts, which are:
Name@ siteaddress. Type of web site
We explain components of an email address with the help of an example.
Join Mustafa @ hotmail.com (it is a valid email address) Name: it specifies the name
of the person or organization to which we are going to send message. It can be in
numbers and characters, usually it is based on the real number or nickname of the
person. In the above example join Mustafa is the persons name.
Site address:
It is the type of the server or Internet service provider or web site of which email
address holder is member. In the above example. Com is the type of the website .
com stands for commercial.
USES, ADVANTAGES AND IMPORTANCE OR AN E-MAIL:
An email provides us the following benefits:

Email is used to send letter via an Internet.
It is fast, flexible and reliable.
It is very cheaper to use almost free, even in Pakistan.
It is available all over the world where there is Internet.
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Using E-mail we can send or receive message from everywhere in the world.
E-mail gives us facility to send picture, sound, and video along with email
without any additional cost.
There are also many other features of an email.
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Computer Viruses
A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a
certain unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like displaying
a happy face on the user's screen at a certain time and date. It can also be very
destructive and damage your computer's programs and files causing the computer to
stop working.
The reason why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The most quoted
reason is simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based "smash the
machine" motivations, antiestablishment/anti-corporate actions, criminal intent, and
various others that range into the "conspiracy theory" realm.
Viruses take two basic forms
Boot sector virus which infect the section of a disk that is first read by the
computer. This type of virus infects the boot or master section of any disks that it
comes in contact with.
The second is a program virus that infects other programs when the infected
program is run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change themselves
(polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter.
Though viruses do not damage computer hardware there have been attempts to
create programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or lodge itself in
the computer's clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active
even months after the computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain
microchips (BIOS chip for instance). These microchips need to be modified under
normal computer use but the virus program can produce changes which cause them
to fail. Other viruses will affect the characters or images displayed on the screen
which may give the impression of monitor failure.
Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the computers it infects and can cost a
lot of time and money to correct it.
Computer viruses have been around for a long time, even before computers became
widely used and they will likely remain with us forever. For that reason computer
users will always need ways to protect themselves from virus programs. The main,
common feature of a virus is that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and
infect other computers.
A computer gets a virus from an infected file.
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The virus might attach themselves to a game, a program (both shareware and
commercial) or a file downloaded from a bulletin board or the Internet.
You cannot get a virus from a plain email message or from a simple text file! That is
because the virus needs to be 'run' or executed before it can take effect. This usually
happens when the user tries to open an infected program, accesses an infected disk
or opens a file with an infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message
is made up of text which does not execute or run when opened.
Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email messages
with HTML and attach scripts to them for various purposes and it is possible for a
malicious hacker to attempt to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML
Type of email message.

When you are accepting software or scripts on Internet sites or reading mail from
unknown senders it is best not to run a program from that site or sender without
checking it with an anti-virus program first
Protect Yourself
You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing is to get an anti-virus
program. Most reputable companies that create virus protection programs release an
evaluation copy that a Internet user can download for free and use for a certain
amount of time. This anti-virus program will be able to check your computer for
viruses and repair damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may
have to replace infected files that cannot be repaired.
The second thing you can do is purchase a copy of the program. The reason for this
is that viruses are constantly being created. When you purchase an anti-virus
program you are also purchasing periodical updates which keep your anti-virus
program up-to-date and able to deal with new viruses as they are encountered.
Commercial virus programs also allow the user to customize when and how the
program will check the computer for viruses. You will need to renew this updating
service periodically.
If you find that your computer has been infected with a virus use an anti-virus
program to clean your computer and make sure to check all the disks that you use.
This includes all the hard drives on your computer(s) and all your floppy disks and
CDs as well as any media that you save information on. Remember that the virus can
easily re-infect your computer from one infected file!
If you have to reload your computer programs, use the original program disks. You
may want to check your original disks before reinstalling the software. If your original
disks are infected contact the distributor to get replacements.
Always take the time to ensure that your computer is properly protected. Spending
money on a good virus checking program could save you hundreds of dollars and
lots of time later.
A discussion of viruses would not be complete without mentioning hoaxes. Malicious
people without programming skills will send out fake virus warnings causing people
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to take unnecessary measures which often cause your computer harm. One example
tries to get the unsuspecting computer user to delete an important system file by
warning them that it is a virus. A legitimate virus warning will provide a link to a
website operated by an anti-virus company with more information about that virus.
Don't forward a virus warning until you have check out whether it is legitimate.
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PRINTERS
Printers are the most commonly used output devices that can be found in almost all
computer centers. Printers are used to print important documents on paper. The
output, which is generated by a printer, is called Hard Copy, output device.
CATEGORIES OF PRINTERS:
Broadly there are two categories of printers:
Impact printers
This printer uses the familiar typewriter approach of hitting a character against paper
and inked ribbon.
Non- impact printers
These printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use thermal electrostatic,
chemical, and inkjet technologies. Theses printers move a print head across the
page.
Classification of printers
Printers are classified as
Character printer
Line printers
Page printers
Following are commonly used printers:
Dot Matrix printers:
Is an Impact Printer
Produces printed images when tiny pins on a
print head strike an inked ribbon.
When the ribbon presses against the paper, it
creates dots that form characters and graphics.
It contains nine to twenty-four pins.
A higher number of pins print more dots that
produces higher quality.
Cheaper dot matrix printer use 100 to 150 dpi.
Speed is 200 to 300 characters per minute.
Generate a lot of noise.
Do not produce a very high quality of print, especially when printing graphics.
Speed of this printer is also very slow.
The quality and price of dot-matrix printer depends on two factors.
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1. Number of dots per inch termed as DPI (Dot Per Inch)

2. Number of characters or words per minute
Dot matrix printer can print
100-150
DPI
200-300
character per minute
40-80
words per minute
Laser printers:
Non Impact Printer.
LASER stands for Light
Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
Laser Printer are also
called Page Printers.
Create image on paper by
Laser beam.
Laser throws magnetic
material powder on paper in the form of microscopic dots.
Density of these dots ranges from 300 to 2000 dots per inch.
Printing speed is from 5 to 300 pages per minute.
Faster than inkjet and dot matrix printers.
Color printing is costly.
Laser printer are mostly used in business field.
These are very high speed non- impact printers
That produce documents at the speeds of over 20,000 lines per minute.
The quality and cost of LASER printer deponents on two factors:
o Number of dots per inch (DPI)
o Number of Pages Per Minute(PPM)
There are three qualities of a LASER printer:
o Cheapest Quality LSSER printer:
o Middle quality LSSER printer:
o High quality LASER printer:
Inkjet printers:
These are non- impact character printers and
similar to LASER printer. In this type of printer,
ink is used in the shape of very tiny drops on
the paper to form a character.
Characteristics of these printers are given
below:
These printers work slowly as compared to
LASER printers.
Printing speed of these printers is 1to6 pages
per minute.
These printers are cheaper in initial cost and
quality of paper printing is same as laser printer but cost of per page is four times
greater than a laser printer.

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Suppose if a LASER printer page cost you 4

rupees. Remember bubble jet and inkjet are
the same printers.
PLOTTOERS:
Plotter is an important output device for
producing large drawings or images such as
construction plans for buildings or blue prints
for mechanical devices. Plotters have been
used in automotive and aircraft design,
topological surveys, architectural layouts and
other similar complex and voluminous drafting
jobs
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Software
Software or Program or Instructions that make hardware work.

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Computer program is a set of instructions given to the computer to solve a particular

problem.
Computer program specify a sequence of operations that computer will perform.
Major Categories
System Software (Operating System)
Which controls the workings of the computer, and applications,
Responsible for controlling and managing the actual operations of the
computer hardware.
Some operating system
MS DOS (Disk Operating System)
MS Windows 3.1
MS Windows 3.11
MS Windows 95
MS Windows 98
MS Windows NT (Server/Workstation)
MS Windows Me
MS Windows 2000 (Server/Professional)
MS Windows 2003 (Server)
MS Windows XP
MS Windows Vista
Unix

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Linux (Red Hat)
Linux (Penguin)
Apple Macintosh (MAC)
Sun Solaris
Computer Languages
There are many different computer languages available for writing programs. Each has its
strengths and weaknesses and must be assessed based upon need. A language that is
particularly well suited for one application may not work for another.
Types of computer languages:
Low Level Languages (Machine Language)

Provide the programmer with a high degree of control
Require detailed knowledge of the hardware
Two main types of Low Level Language

o
Machine Language (Binary Language)

A set of instructions coded so that the computer can use it directly without further
translation
It is 0s and 1s language
Efficient
Would be very difficult to debug
Machine dependent language
First Generation Language
Assembly Language
Very close to machine language
The Command are used in Assembly language represent by mnemonics
Different processor used different Assembly Language
Programming is Complex but its provide a much higher degree of control than
High Level Language
Programs written in Assemble Language codes are translated into machine code
by an assembler
Machine code cam also be converted back into assembly code using a
deassembler
Increased execution speed and direct programmer interaction with system
hardware
Machine dependent language
Second Generation Language
High Level Languages (HLL)
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Close to Human languages and far from machine language

These are Machine independent language
Third Generation Language
Consist of English words, basic mathematical symbols and few punctuations
charters
Each (HLL) has own language translator
History of some major (HLL)
FORTRAN
o Created in 1957 at IBM
o First HLL
o Stand for FORmula TRANslation
o Mainly used for scientific purpose
BASIC
o Stand for (Bingers All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
o Design for students
o Easy for bingers to use
o General-purpose programming
o Allow advance features to be added for experts
o Provide clear and friendly error messages
o Easy to debug
o Not require an understanding of computer hardware
COBOL
o Stand for (Common Business Oriented Language)
o Design for business computing
o Very popular among business community due to its simplicity
PASCAL (Scientist Pascal)

o It combined many of the best features of the languages in use at the time
o The combination of features input/output and solid mathematical features
made it a highly successful language
C and C++
o Developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs
o Very commonly used to program OS such as UNIX, Windows and MAC
etc.
o It is also very useful for compiler writing
o C++ was an extension of C using OOP (Object Oriented Programming)
concept
o C++ is most often used in simulations, such as games
Visual Basic (VB)

o First Visual development tool from Microsoft
o It is designed to compete with C, C++, Pascal and nay other well known
programming languages
o VB wasnt very successful until Microsoft released VB 2.0 in 1993
o People really started to discover the power of the language
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o
o
o
o
Java
o
o
o
LISP
o
o
o
o
VB 3.0 was become the fastest growing programming language in the

market
It is also known as professional programming language
Easy to understand
Easy to debug
Developed by Sun Microsystems

Used in consumer items such as cable receivers, VCRs, toasters and
also for PDAs
Provide powerful capabilities of network programming, internet application
and (GUI)
Stands for (LIST Processing Language)
It was design for Artificial Intelligence (AI) research
Its rules was different from ordinary languages
LISP has the unique ability to modify itself
Language Translators
Translate high or low-level language program into machine code.

Design by the language designer
Checks the program for errors, optimize the cod and generates machine
language code for that program
Types Of Translators
Assembler
An assembler is a program that translates an Assembly language
program into machine code
\Compiler
o A compiler is a program that translates a source (written in some
HLL) into machine code
o Compiler first reads the whole program before executing it
Interpreter
o A compiler is a program that translates a source (written in some
HLL) into machine code
o It translates and then executes each statement (line) in a program.
o Checks for possible errors and then execute that line
o If one of the line is executed repeatedly, it must be scanned and
analysed each time
o Greatly slowing down the solution of the problem at hand
Language Translation Program

A program that translates statements written in one programming language into
another programming language (usually from one high-level language into another).s
DATA AND INFORMATION

Data:
Collection of raw facts and figures is called Data.
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Data is collected from different sources.

It is input for processing.
Its not very meanningfull.
Its may consists of numbers, characters, sysmbles, pictures audio, vedio
etc
Types of Data
Data may be of the following types
Numaric Data.
Alphabatic. Data
Alphanumaric Data
Image
Audio
Vedio
Numaric:
Numaric data consists of numaric digits from 0 to 9.

Its also contain decimal point,
Numaric data may positive or nagitive.
Example
10, 20,9, 4848.098 etc..
Alphabatic Data
Its consist of capital letters from A to Z, small letters from a to z.

Punctuatioin marks and blank space.
Example
Sajjad Najum Shakir, Pakistan, Gujrat etc
Alphanumaric Data
Numaric data consists of numaric digits from 0 to 9.

capital letters from A to Z, small letters from a to z.
apecial characters like %, &, $ etc
Example
87%, $4980, H# 120/B etc
Image:
Its include Chart, gharafic, Pictures and drawings.

This fporm of data more comprehensive.
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Audio:
Sound is a representation of audio.

Audio data includes music, speech or any type of sound
Vedio:
Vedio is a set of full-motion images played at ahigh speed.

Vedio is used to display actions and movments.
Information:
The procesed data is called information.

Information is an organized and processed form of data.
It is more meannigful than data and used for making decisions.
Information is output of system.
This informationis can be used again in some other processing and will be
considered as data in that processing.
Examples:
1. In colleges and universities, the raw facts about students are stored on admission
forms.. if we want to find out a list of all students who live in Gujrat, we will apply
some processing on this data.This processing will give us the desird list. This list
is a form of processed data and will be called information.
2. An organization can use the opinion of the people as data and processe it to
genarat informatiin of its interest. For example: it can know that how many people
of the country are satisfied with the quality of its product and how many are
unsatisfied. Organization can use this information for the improvement of its
product.
===========================================================
===========================================================
LEVEL OF DATA PROCESSING
Data processing can be defined as a process of of converting data into

meaningful information.
Data is the input and information is the output of data processing system.
Data is just raw facts about something.
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Data is important but can not use for decision- making.

In order to use it for making important decision.
It must be converted in information.
This conversion consists of different steps and these steps collectively are known
as data processing.
Example:
1. If we want to get the list of all students who got A gade in exams, we will apply
some processing on marks of he students. This process will give us bew
information.(Output).
2. In census the data of the citizens of Pakistan Is collected and stored permanently.
this data can be used for different purpose like.
o To find out the literacy rate of the country.
o To find out total number of PhDs in the country. etc
Level of Data Processing
Data processing is an important function that converts data into meaningful

information.
In this process different calculations are performed
Now-a-days most of data processed is done using computers.
Before computers, data processing was done by human beings manually and
some time used calculator.
There are three levels of data processing:

Level 1 ( Manual Data Processing).
Level 2 ( Mechanical Data Processing).
Level 3 ( Electronic Data Processing).
Manual Data Processing

In manual data processing everything is done by hand.
All types of calculation, processing and operation, required to
convert data into information, performed by human beings.
No machine is involved at any stage.
This type of data processing was used before the invention of
computers and other mechine like calculators.
Example:
A bookseller runs his shop. During he day, he sells different books and
gets the prces of books from customers. He dtores the record of all
transactions as data ina registers. At the end of the day, he wants to
know the following information:
How many books I sold today
How much profit I got.
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How much books are remaining in the stock etc

To find above information, he will use the data stored in the register. He
will process the data using pen and paper to calculate total profit and
other information.
Mechanical Data Processing
In this type data processing, different calculations and processing is performed

using mechanical machine like calculators etc..
Less time consuming job than manual data processing.
Chances of error become far less than manual data processing.
Example;
In the above example it is very difficult for bookseller to process the data all by hand.
If he uses a calculator instead of just paper and pen, the process will become very
easy and will be complete very less time.
Electronic Data Processing
In electronic data processing, all calculations and processing is peformed by

computers.
The input of data is given to the computer, which convert dta into information by
applying the required processing.
Different software packages are used for data processing.
Takes less time than other data processing techniques.
More reliable than processing techniques.
Thats why most organization use electronic data processing now-a-days.
Example:
There are 1500 students in a college. The college has to maintain huge volume of
data. If we want to know the students who have not been submitted their fee. We will
have to search the forms of all students in manual data processing. It will take so
much time. But if we use electronic data processing, the same task will be done infew
seconds.
Advantages:
Its more reliable.

It is less time consuming.
Large amount of data can be processed easily.
More efficient.
More flexible.
Chances of error are less then other types of data processing.
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Data Processing Life Cycle

Data processing life cycle is a collection of steps required to converts data
into information.
Basically there are three steps in the cycle.
1. Input
2. Process
3. Output
There are many other steps related to these basic steps. The complete cycle
of data processing is as follows:
1. Collection:
In the step, the raw facts are collected from different sources.
2. Clssificatinon:
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The collected data is classified into different categories in the step. For
example, ina college, data of students and teachers will be classified in
two different categories.
3. Input:
In this step, the collected data is given to the computer as input for
processing.
4. Verification:
The data must be verified to make sure that it is correct and valid for
processing. For example: we should verify that marks of the students are
numeric digital not a character.
5. Coding:
The data stored in a computer in binary form. This step converts the input
data into binary form to store it in the computer.
6. Storing:
In this step, the data is stored in the computer. Different storage medies
are used to store the data like hard disk and tapes etc
7. Sorting:
Sometimes, it is easier to process data if it is sorted. In this step, the data
arranged in a particular sequence. For example: sort by marks, by date
etc
8. Processing:
In this step, all processing is applied on stored data. Different calculation
and function are used to convert the data into required information. For
example: we may need the following information from student data.
A list of all students who got A grade
A list of all students who did not submit their fee.
9. Summarizing:
In this step, only summary of the data can be used instead of whole data.
For example: people deposit money daily in bank. This amount can be
show total profit of bank in a month.
10. Output:
Processed data is called information (Output).in this step, processed data
is displayed to the user. it can be display on Monitor or Printer. New
information can also be store on disk for future use.
11. Retrieval:
If we store information on disk we can retrieve it later many time as we
want.
12. Conversion:
The information can be converted in different forms like charts, graphs.
Etc..
13. Communication:
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In this step, the information is sent to different places where it is required.

For example: the result of student is sent to the students home. A student
can improve his studies by checking his result.
14. Feedback:
In this step, we take the comments of different users about the data
processing and its output. This feedback is very important to improve data
processing system.
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Some Important Information

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Page 1 of 77

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

One benefit of the computer age is that children are becoming

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Moral and Ethical problems:

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Pascal invented a machine that had a system of gears.

(Charles Babbage) Difference Engine

In 1945 the mathematician John Von Neumann contributed a

Ability to simultaneously support many users connected to

It was introduced in 1970.

Also called palmtop because it can easily fit on hand

Screen is usually a large Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

The Macintosh Apple computers.

THE GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER?

The beginning of the commercial computer age is from UNIVAC (Universal

Vacuum tube technology made it possible to built electronic digital

They could perform operation in milliseconds.

These were not reliable

SECOND GENERATION COMPUTER (1959-1964)

In 1948 Bell Laboratories developed the transistors,

Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.

Air conditioning reduced but still needed

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Often maintenance was required

THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1964-1970)

The arrival of microelectronics technology made it

Smaller in size as compare to previous Generations of Computer.

Air conditioning still required in many cases.

FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTER

After the integrated circuit the only place to go was its

FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGE

In fifth generation ULSI (ultra large scale integration)

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPUTER?

Digital mean is discrete.

The further subtypes of digital computers are.

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU stands for Central Processing Unit.

A CPU consists of the following three parts:

ALU performs arithmetic and logic processes on data.

Control Unit (CU).

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

CU performs the following operation

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

Vision Input Systems

Vision Input Systems

MEMORY OR STORAGE UNIT

We can also divide storage devices in fallowing two types.

These are the temporarily storage devices.

Following are the two types of primary storage devices:

Most common technologies of RAM are following:

This stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory.

SRAM (Sstatic Random Access Memory):

This stands for Static Random Access Memory.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

That is used in PCs to hold POST commands.

Following is the variation of ROM

Prof Sajjad Najum Shakir, Government College of Commerce Gujrat

When stored and save for third time is become ROM.