Complete Grammar For First Certificate in English

Complete Grammar
For First Certificate in English
REPLACE WITH IMAGE
A Publication by Andrea V. @ Palaber
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
The Present Tenses.........4
The Past Tenses....23
The Future Tenses...37
The Conditional Sentences....... 49
The Passive Sentences........69
Gerund or Infinitive? .....84
Modal Verbs .........97
Reported Speech ...113

Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs ..124
The Sentence Structure ..156

Irregular Verbs ....179
Spelling ......184
Pronouns and Determiners ...194
Prepositions .....214
3
The Present Tenses
Speaking about the present
Do you know how many present

tenses exist in the English language?
Complete Grammar for FCE
The Present Simple

1. Permanent Truths and facts
We use the present simple to talk about permanent
truths and facts.
For example:
Water boils at 100 degrees.

Cats have four legs.
The sun rises on the east
2. Situations in the present
We use the present simple to talk about situations in the
present.
For example:
I work in a bank.
Peter lives in London.
She likes cats.
5
3. Regular, repeated activity

We use the present simple to talk about a regular,
repeated activity.
For example:
I get up at 7am.
She works from 9am to 5pm.
We use adverbs to say how often we do things:
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbial phrases of
frequency
always
usually
normally / generally
often / frequently
sometimes / occasionally
seldom
hardly ever/rarely
never
on Mondays
every day
once a month
twice a week
every year
in the afternoons
at nights
4. Referring to the future

We use the present simple to refer to the future,
especially to talk about timetables.
For example:
The plane arrives at 10 am.

The concert starts at 9pm.
The bus leaves at 4.15pm.
5. Clauses of time and condition
We use the present simple in clauses of time and
conditions referring to a point in the future.
It is used after: when, if, unless, before, after, until, as
soon as, whenever, etc.
For example:
I will give him the book when I see him.

If it rains, we will say at home.
As soon as we arrive home, I will make dinner.
6. Observations and declarations

We use the present simple to talk about observations
and declarations.
We use state verbs to express sentiments, states and
thoughts (not activities).
For example:
I hope he arrives on time.

Jonathan likes chocolate.
I agree with you.
7. Instructions
We can use the present simple to give instructions.
For example:
You heat the oil and fry the meat.

You turn left at the second street.
You mix the flour with the sugar.
8. Sports Commentaries, news headlines

We use the present simple in sports commentaries and
newspaper headlines.
For example:
Ronaldo passes the ball to Beckham.

And Smith takes the ball and hands it to Frank.
Ford dismisses 500 workers.
The Present Continuous

1. Actions in progress
We use the present continuous to talk about actions
which are happening at the moment of speaking.
For example:
Peter is watching TV at the moment.

We are cooking dinner in the kitchen.
What is happening in the street
2. Temporary actions in the present
We use the present continuous to talk about temporary
actions or situations in the present period.
We often use following adverbials: today, this week, this
year, these days, etc to refer to a period around
now.
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For example:
I am working from home these days. (but normally I

work in the office)
These days Peter is living in London. (but his home is in

York)
She is studying at university. (but she is not studying at

this very moment)
3. Situations in the process of changing

We use the present continuous to talk about situations
which are changing.
We often use the following verbs:
get, become, change, rise, increase, grow, fall, improve,

begin, start
For example:
The prices are rising.

Is your English improving?
We are getting tired.
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4. Planned future actions

We use the present continuous to refer to planned
future actions, especially with verbs which express
movement.
For example:
She is flying to New York on Wednesday.

We are driving to France next week.
Peter is travelling to the UK next month.
5. Repeated actions
We use the present continuous to talk about repeated
actions, especially if we are irritated or want to
criticise.
We often use: always, constantly, continually or never.

For example:
You are always talking on the phone!

He is constantly inviting his friends to the pub.
He is always coming late to work.
12
The Present Perfect

1. Relationship between past and present
We use the present perfect when:
- there is a connection between the past and the present:

I have read this book. (so I know it)
we give new information:
I have broken the vase. (so it is broken)
to talk about things people have done or experienced
and the exact time is not important and the action can
be repeated:
He has travelled to several countries. (not important
when)
3. With adverbials
We use the present perfect with adverbials which show a
connection between the past and the present:
already, yet, still, just, so far, up to now, ever, never,

recently
13
For example:
I have already finished the project.

Peter has lived in London and New York so far.
She has just completed her degree.
Have you ever been to New York?
I have never eaten a frog.
3. With time reference
We use the present perfect to talk about a period of time
which started in the past and continuing into the
present (and perhaps beyond).
We often use: today, this + morning/afternoon/week/year
, etc.
For example:
Ive travelled a lot. (in my life and can do it again)

I have taken two exams this week. (the week is not
finished)
She has written three emails this morning. (the

morning is not finished)
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4. In clauses of time and condition

We use the present perfect simple to refer to a future
action which will be completed.
For example:
I will send you an email after I have finished my

homework.
Can you give me a ring when you have arrived to the
hotel?
Once you have found your passport, you can travel
again.
5. With since, for, how long
We use the present perfect simple to describe how long an
activity is if the activity started in the past and
continues to the present or into the future.
We use: since, for and how long
For example:
I have lived in Beijing for 6 months.

He has worked for Microsoft since 1996.
How long have you had this car?
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6. With superlatives
We can use the present perfect simple with superlatives
to say that something we experience is the best/worst,
first, etc that has happened to us so far.
For example:
Its the best cake I have ever eaten.

Its the most expensive holiday I have ever had.
Its the first time I have been here.
7. For or since?
We use for to say how long an activity is (period of time).
We use since to say when an activity started.
For example:
For = duration
three months
a day
five years
two hours
a while
some time
Since = point in time

1999
June
last week
Christmas
I met you
the first day
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The Present Perfect
Continuous
1. Use and meaning
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about
actions which started in the past and continue up to the
present or beyond.
The present perfect emphasizes the duration and
continuity of the action.
For example:
She has been studying for three hours.

I have been working as a teacher for over ten years.
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2.For and since

We can use the present perfect continuous with for and
since.
For example:
I have been learning English for two years.

She has been wearing glasses since she was a child.
Joe has been watching TV for hours.
3. Present perfect simple or continuous?
Simple
Continuous
To focus on the result of

an activity:
To focus on the activity:
Ive read the book. (finished

reading it)
Ive been reading this book

since the morning. (still
reading it)
To focus on how many

times an activity has
happened:
To focus on how long an

activity is:
She has worked for three

companies.
Shes been working here for

five years.
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State Verbs
1. General description
Most verbs in English are dynamic. They can describe
habits or actions in progress. Dynamic verbs have
simple and continuous forms.
For example:
Habit: I often travel abroad.
Action in progress: I am watching television at the
moment.
State has no beginning or end, they describe states, not

actions.
Some verbs are always stative: belong, want
Some verbs can have state or dynamic uses:
weigh/weighing
2. Feelings and perceptions

Feelings: Like, love, prefer, hate, dislike, care, hope,
admit
Perception: Feel, hear, notice, see, smell, sound, taste

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We normally use these verbs in the simple tenses:
Do you see that woman in the park?

I love cats.
We often use can with see, hear , smell and taste:
I can smell something (at the moment)
Can you hear the music?
3. Wants
Wants and needs: want, need, wish, depend on, weigh,
come from, cost
I wish you good luck.

The room needs cleaning.
She wants to sleep.
4. Existence and possession
Existence: be, exist
Possession: belong to, own, owe, have, possess
Appearance: appear, seem, resemble, look
She is tall.
Who does this pen belong to?
It appears to be difficult.
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5. Thinking and believing

Knowledge: forget, realise, understand, know,
remember
Opinion: believe, doubt, imagine, suppose, think, expect,
agree, mean, deserve
If we want to say have an opinion, we can use think:
I think he is a nice person.

Other examples:
She doesnt understand your words.

I know Peter well.
I doubt he would like your idea.
6. Compositions and connections

Compositions: consist of, contain, have
Connection: come from, concern, cost, fit, suit
The presentation consists of five parts.

Maggie comes from Canada.
My friend has a Ferrari.
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7. Change in meaning
Some verbs can have a dynamic or state form with a

change in meaning.
I think you are right.
holiday.
(opinion)
I am thinking about my
(consider)
I can see you.

manager tomorrow.
(see with my eyes)
I am seeing the bank
This cake tastes good.

cake.
(has a good taste)
I was just tasting the
You look good.

(seem)
(meeting)
(testing)
What are you looking at?
(look with eyes)
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The Past Tenses
Speaking about the past
VISUAL HERE
Do you know how many past tenses

exist in the English language?
23
The Past Simple

1. Completed past actions
We use the past simple to talk about completed actions
and events in the past which are not connected to the
present.
For example:
We travelled to London by bus.

Peter finished his studies last year.
Jane bought some bread and then walked home.
2. Past habits
We use the past simple to talk about habits or repeated
actions in the past.
For example:
When I was young, I always spent the holidays with my

grandparents.
I went to work by bus when I worked in France.
She went to lots of concerts.
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3. Past situations at a concrete past time

We use the past simple to talk about actions or events at a
concrete past time or period of time.
For example:
I got up at 7am.
She worked from 9am to 5pm.
We met in 1995.
4. With for and ago
We use the past simple to refer to completed action in the
past with ago.
We use for to express the duration of a past action.

For example:
The plane arrived 10 minutes ago.

Joe lived in Peru 10 years ago.
The journey lasted for two hours.
I stayed in a hotel for five days.
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5. With when
We use the past simple to ask questions with when or
what time.
For example:
What time did you arrive home?

When did you start working here?
When did you meet your wife?
6. With adverbials
We can use the past simple with adverbials which refer to
the past.
We use:
last week/month/year
yesterday, earlier today, this week
a year/three days/ a few months ago
at two oclock, in 2003
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The Past Continuous

1. Actions in progress in the past
We use the past continuous to talk about an action which
was in progress in the past at a specified time.
We often use all to emphasize continuity: all night, all day,
al evening, etc.
For example:
We were watching movies all night.

I was working all day.
She was living in Paris in 1998.
2. Actions happening at the same time
We use the past continuous to express that two or more
actions were in progress at the same time.
We often use while.
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For example:
While Peter was playing on the computer, Julie was

reading a book.
Jack was jogging and Peter was weightlifting.
I was writing emails while the cake was baking in the
oven.
3. Actions interrupted by another action
We use the past continuous to express that an action in
progress was interrupted by another action. We use
the past simple for the action which interrupts.
We often use the following words: when, as, just as, while.
For example:
We were having dinner when the phone rang.

While I was walking home, I met Fred.
Just as she was leaving the office, the boss turned up.
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4. Repeated past actions

We use the past continuous to talk about repeated past
actions. We often use always, all the time,
constantly and continually to express criticism.
For example:
When she was young, she was always playing music at

night.
He was talking all the time.
Jack was always wearing a scarf.
5. Unfulfilled plans
We use the past continuous to talk about unfulfilled
plans.
We use: plan, hope, want, intend, to be going to, etc.
For example:
I was hoping to meet my friends at the weekend but

they were too busy.
She was planning to go on holiday but she didnt have
money.
Peter was wanting to phone his mum but he didnt have
time.
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6. Polite questions
We can use the past continuous for polite questions.
For example:
I was wondering if you could help me.

I was thinking that you might be able to help me.
I was hoping you could do something for me.
7. Background information
We can use the past continuous to give background
information.
For example:
It was getting dark and she was preparing dinner.

We were walking in town when the sun was setting.
Peter was going home and the sun was shining.
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The Past Perfect

1. Comparing past events
We use the past perfect when we want to emphasize that
one past event happened before another past
event.
The action which happened first uses the past perfect.
For example:
When I arrived at the station, the train had left. (the train
left before I arrived)
2. With when
If we want to emphasize that one action happened
before another, we can use when + past simple.
For example:
When she arrived at the party, everyone had left.

(past simple)
= everyone left before she arrived
(past perfect)
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3. With time expressions

We can use the past perfect with time expressions to
express that the action in the past perfect
happened before the action in the past simple.
We can use: when, before, after, as soon as, by the time,
the moment, immediately , till, until, etc.
For example:
When I had finished the project, I called my boss.

As soon as they had arrived to the hotel, they went to
bed.
She didnt know how funny he was, until she had met
him.
4. With adverbs
We can use the past perfect with the following adverbs:
just, already, never and ever .
For example:
Peter had already begun cooked dinner, when his wife

arrived.
She had just completed her first book, when the editor
contacted her.
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5. As the equivalent of the present perfect

We can use the past perfect as an equivalent of the
present perfect when we are looking back from
the past.
For example:
It was 2003 and she had just arrived to New York.

He had worked for T&T Co. for 5 years when he was
promoted.
6. With reported speech
We use the past perfect in reported speech when the
original sentence was in the past simple or in the
present perfect.
From past simple to past perfect:
I went to the cinema three times last week., he said

He said that he had gone to the cinema three times the
week before.
From present perfect to past perfect:
Have you ever been to New Zealand?, she asked.

She asked if I had ever been to New Zealand.
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7. With if, wish and if only

We use the past perfect in subordinate clauses to express
an unreal past situation.
For example:
I wish you had told me about the problem.

If you had told me about the problem, I could have
helped you.
If only she had sent me an email.
I would rather we had gone home on time.
8.Past simple or past perfect?
In most cases, we can use either the past simple or the
past perfect. The past perfect is used to show which
action happened first when it is important.
For example:
After I finished work, I went home. = After I had
finished work, I went home.
However, we must always use the past perfect when
we talk about unreal past situations (see previous
slide).
34
The Past Perfect
Continuous
1.Use and meaning
We use the past perfect continuous to emphasize the
duration of an activity in the past.
For example:
When I arrived home, Jane had been cooking for an

hour.
He was tired because he had been playing computer
games all night.
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2. With reported speech
We use the past perfect continuous in reported speech:

the present perfect continuous and the past continuous
become past perfect continuous.
For example:
I was walking in the park when I met her. he said

He said that he had been walking in the park when he
had met her.
I have been living here since 1985. he claimed.
He claimed that he had been living there since 1985.
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The Future Tenses
Speaking about the future
Do you know how many future tenses

exist in the English language?
Well, yes, there are 4 future tenses,
but we can talk about the future in
more than 4 ways. Find out in the
following unit.
37
The Future Simple

1. Facts or predictions
We use the future simple to express facts about the
future which do not depend on the speaker.
For example:
Peter will be 28 years old in December.

The elections will take place next year.
We can also make predictions about the future which are
not definite or arranged.
For example:
It will rain tomorrow. (weather forecast)

Real Madrid will win the match again. (I think)
2. Intentions and promises
We use the future simple to talk about intentions and
promises or decisions made at the time of speaking.
38
For example:
Ok, I will buy you an ice cream. (promise)

Ill have a cappuccino, please. (decision)
I will travel to New York one day. (intention)
3. Threats
We can use the future simple to express threats.
For example:
Leave me alone or I will call the police!

You will regret this!
4. Requests
The future simple can also express requests.
For example:
Will you, please, open the door for me?

Will you help me with the project, please?
39
5. Hopes and expectations

We can use the future simple to talk about hopes and
expectations.
It is used with verbs: expect, hope, think, assume, doubt,
suppose, believe, Im sure, I wonder, etc and with
adverbs: probably, hopefully, perhaps, possibly, etc.
For example:
I hope he will arrive on time.

Hopefully the plane will not be delayed.
Do you think he will phone?
6. Weather forecasts
We use the future simple in weather forecasts to predict
the weather.
For example:
Tomorrow will be rainy.

The snow will continue tomorrow.
It will be sunny and dry over the next few days.
40
7. Offers and suggestions

We use shall to express offers and suggestions.
For example:
Shall we have a pizza? (suggestions)

Shall I wash up the dishes for you? (offer)
Where shall we go on holidays? (asking for suggestion)
8. Use of shall
We dont use shall very often in modern English.
It is usually used to express offers and suggestions in
the first person singular (I) and plural (we) in
questions.
Shall I make you a cup of tea?

The negative of shall is shant (= shall not).
We can also use shall to express strong determination.
I shall tell him the truth!

41
The Future Continuous

1. Actions in progress in the future
We use the future continuous to describe an action in
progress in the future.
For example:
I will be having dinner at 6pm. (around 6pm)

We will be watching football in the evening. (all night)
2. Planned future actions
We use the future continuous to describe planned
actions or arrangements in the future.
For example:
I will be meeting my friends at the weekend.

We will be staying in a hotel while we are in New York.
42
3. Routine actions
We can describe routine actions and repeated, regular
events.
For example:
Ill be working Friday evening. (as normal)

Ill be seeing him tomorrow so I can tell him the news.
4. Polite questions
We can use the future continuous in polite questions
instead of the future simple (will).
Questions with the future continuous are more polite or
casual.
For example:
Will you be meeting him tomorrow?

Will you be helping out with the decorations?
43
5. Assumptions about the present
We can use the future continuous to express

assumptions about the present.
For example:
They will be landing in Tokyo now.

Its 7 oclock, she will be going home now.
44
The Future Perfect

1. Completed actions in the future
We use the future perfect to describe an action which will
be completed in the future.
It is common to use by + a time reference: by January,
by 2035, by next month, by the time you arrive.
For example:
I will have cleaned the whole house by the time your

parents arrive.
We will have arrived by 4pm.
They will have built the bridge by next year.
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2. With for
We often use for with the future continuous to talk about
the duration of a future activity.
For example:
By next month, I will have lived here for two years.

They will have been married for 40 years by the end
of this year.
3. Assumptions
We can use the future perfect to express assumptions
about the past or the present.
For example:
As you will have heard, we will be changing office. (I am

quite confident that you have heard it)
He will have woken up by now its 10 oclock.
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The Future Perfect
Continuous
1. Use and meaning
We use the future perfect continuous to talk about the
duration of an activity or event.
It is usually necessary to mention a time reference.
For example:
She will have been working for this company for 6

years in August.
I will have been studying Spanish for ten years.
47
2. With for
We usually use for to express the duration of a future
activity.
For example:
She will have been living abroad for 3 years by the end
of next months.
They will have been seeing each other for 2 months.
3. An activity leading up to a future time
We use the future perfect continuous to describe an
activity which leads up to another future activity.
For example:
When you arrive, I will have been cooking for hours.

She will be tired when you see her because she will have
been working hard.
48
The Conditionals
Hypothising
We are going to learn how to talk

about present, past and future
hypothesis.
49
The Zero Conditional

1. Form
The zero conditional is formed with:
main clause
if clause
present tense
present tense
Ice melts
You get sick
if you heat it.

if you eat too much.
if clause
main clause
present tense
present tense
If you heat ice,

If you eat too much
if melts.
you get sick.
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2. Meaning
We use the zero conditional to talk about general truth
and facts.
For example:
I always take a taxi if it rains.

If you freeze water, it becomes ice.
3. Other forms
The zero conditional can also be formed with when
instead of if.
For example:
When it rains, the weather turns cold.

I always order a takeaway when I work late.
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The First Conditional

1. Form
The main way of forming the first conditional is:
Main clause
If Clause
Future simple will
Present simple
I will stay at home
If it rains tomorrow.
If clause
Main clause
Present simple
Future simple will
If it rains tomorrow,
I will stay at home.
2. Meaning
We use the first conditional to talk about events which we
feel are possible.
For example:
If the sun shines tomorrow, I will go to the park.

She will be very happy if she hears the news.
If you play games all night, you will be tired in the
morning.
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3. With modal verbs

We can use the first conditional with modal verbs to add an
extra meaning. The extra meaning is always related
to the meaning of the modal verb.
The modal verb can be: may, might, can, could, should,
ought to, must.
For example:
If you eat your sandwich, you can play with your friends.
If you want a pet, you should be more responsible.
If you can talk to him today, will you give him my
regards?
4. If clause with other tenses
Depending on the meaning we want to express, we can
use the following tenses in the if clause: present
continuous, present perfect simple and present perfect

continuous.
For example:
If you are coming to the party, you will have to wear a

suit.
If she has received your letter, she will reply soon.
If Jim has been cleaning the house, he will be very tired
tonight.
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5. Main clause with other tenses

It is also possible to use the following tenses in the main
clause: be going to, future continuous and future
perfect.
For example:
If I finish work early, I am going to watch my favourite

film.
She will be sleeping all night if she gets very tired.
If he goes to Botswana, he will have visited 52 countries
in the world.
We can use the imperative in conditional sentences.
6. With the imperative
For example:
If you have a problem, please phone me.

However, we can replace the if word with and or or.
Affirmative sentences:
If you finish early, go home.

Finish early and go home.
Negative sentences:
If you dont stop shouting, Ill call the police.

Stop shouting or Ill call the police.
7. If + should
We can use should in the if clause to make the meaning
more polite or less likely to happen.
For example:
If I should see him, I will tell him the news.

If I should go to the concert, Id better get ready now.
If you should happen to find a mobile phone, its mine.
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The Second Conditional

1. Form
We form the second conditional the following way:
Main clause
If clause
Would + infinitive
Past simple
I would buy a sports car
If I won the lottery.
If clause
Main clause
Past simple
Would + infinitive
If I won the lottery,
I would buy a sports car.
2. Meaning
We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary or
improbable situations.
For example:
If you had more time, would you stay longer?

If I had a hot air balloon, I would fly around the world.
If she didnt like her job, she wouldnt work here.
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3. If clause + modals / past continuous

In the if clause, we can use the past continuous, could
or was/were to.
For example:
If I were to travel round the world, I would start in New

York.
If you could change your name, what would you choose?
If we were driving too fast, the police would arrest us.
4. Main clause + modals
In the main clause we can use the modals could and
might.
For example:
If we finished work early, we could go out in the evening.

If we had time, we might meet up with out friends.
57
The Third Conditional

1. Form
We form the third conditional the following way:
Main clause
If clause
Would have + participle
Past perfect (continuous)
I would have visited you

You would have passed
the test
If I had had the time.

If you hadnt been
partying.
If clause
Main clause
Past perfect (continuous)
Would have + participle
If I had had the time,

If you hadnt been
partying,
I would have visited you

You would have passed
the test.
2. Meaning
We use the third conditional to talk about
which did not happen. With the third conditional, we
express how we would like to change the past.
For example:
If I had won the lottery last week, I would have bought

that sports car. (But I didnt win the lottery so I didnt
buy that sports car.)
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3. Main clause + modals

It is possible to use
or
instead of would in the
main clause of the conditional sentence.
For example:
He
to the party if he
He
lots of friends if he
party.
to the
4. If clause + could
We can use
in the if-clause of the conditional
sentence.
For example:
If I
seen the carnival.
to New York yesterday, I would have
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The Mixed Conditional

1. Types
We can create mixed conditional sentences by mixing the
if-clause from one type of conditional sentence with
the main clause of another type of conditional
sentence.
For example:
1st
If I go to the party tonight,
2nd
If I had more money,
3rd
If I had studied harder when I was

young,
2nd
I wouldnt wear a suit.
3rd
I would have ordered a pizza.
2nd
I would speak Spanish now.
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2. Conjunctions
We can use the following conjunctions instead of if:
What if
If only
Assuming (that)
As/so long as
Provided/providing (that)
On (the) condition (that)
Imagine
Even if
Unless
Suppose/supposing (that)
For example:
Even if it rains, I will go jogging.

You can meet your friends, as long as you finish your
homework before.
Suppose you get the promotion, what will you do?
Provided that you finish all the work, you can go home
early.
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3. Inversions
In conditional sentences, we can use an inverted structure
instead of if.
1st conditionals
Should you have any questions. = If you should have

any .
2nd conditionals
Were I to meet him. = If I met him

3rd conditionals
Had you studied more. = If you had studied more..
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Future Time Clauses

Other ways
Sometimes in spoken English we express conditions in
other ways usually with extra words or the
condition is implied in the context.
For example:
I am sure youd enjoy dancing. Why dont you try it?

= If you tried dancing, you would enjoy it.
Dont tell Mike the news. Hed be furious.
= If you told Mike the news, hed be furious.
With a bit more time, he could have finished the project.
= If he had had a bit more time, he could have finished
the project.
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Future Time Clauses

1. What is it?
The part of a sentence which talks about the future is a
called future time clause or conjunction of time.
They are introduced by the following conjunctions:
when
after
until
before
as soon as
once
while
immediately
whenever
by the time
2. Use
If time clauses refer to the future, we usually use the
present simple or the present perfect after the
conjunction.
For example:
When I arrive home, I will phone you.
As soon as I have arrived, I will phone you.
I will phone you before I leave the office.
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3. Use with present simple

We use the present simple in the future time clause, if the
two actions in the sentence happen at the same time or
the emphasis is on the action.
For example:
When I see her, I will tell her the news. (at the same
time)
As soon as I hear something, I will let you know.
(immediately I will inform you)
4. Use with present perfect

We use the present perfect in future time clauses to show
that an action is completed before another action.
For example:
I will phone you after I have arrived home. (First I arrive
home, then I will phone you.)
As soon as I have finished my studies, I will travel
round the world. (First I will finish my studies, then I
will travel.)
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Wish, if only
1. Meaning
We use sentences starting with wish or if only if we
want to express a wish. If only is not so common and
more emphatic than wish.
We can wish something about:
the present:
I wish you were here. (but you are here now)
the future:
I wish he would help me with my project
tomorrow.
the past:
I wish I had travelled the world when I was
younger
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2. Wishes about the present

We use wish + past simple or wish + past continuous
to talk about a wish in the present.
For example:
I wish I had a small dog. (but I dont have a dog)

I wish I were/was taller. (but I am short)
I wish you were here. (but you are not here)
We can use were instead of was:
I wish I were younger.

We can also use could:
I wish I could drive a car.
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3. Wishes about the future

We use wish + would to express the following:
to talk about a future wish, for something to happen:
I wish he would arrive sooner.

I wish they would increase the speed limit.
to complain about a bad habit:
I wish you wouldnt smoke so much.

I wish you would stop lying.
4. Wishes bout the past
We use wish + past perfect to express a regret about
the past. It refers to something that we cannot change.
For example:
I wish I had studied more. (but I didnt)

I wish you had arrived on time. (but you didnt)
Peter wishes he had written down the girls number.
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The Passive sentences

Emphasizing action
Why do we need the passive voice?

Do we need it at all?
The answer is a resounding yes. Find
out why in this unit.
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The Passive Sentence

1. Forming the passive
The passive sentence is formed: be + past participle.
We always keeps the tense of the original active

sentence.
Active:
I write the letter.
She brought the cake.
Passive:
The letter is written.
The cake was brought.
The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of

the passive sentence:
Maria found a bird.
A bird was found by Maria.
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2. The simple tenses
How to form the passive in the present simple and in the

past simple:
In the present simple, the active verb becomes :
is/are + past participle (of the same verb).
Active: Peters cleans the house every Friday.

Passive: The house is cleaned every Friday.
In the past simple, the active verb becomes :
was/were + past participle (of the same verb).
Active: Peters cleaned the house last Friday.

Passive: The house was cleaned last Friday.
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3. The continuous tenses

How to form the passive in the present and past
continuous:
In the present continuous, the active verb becomes :
is/are + being + past participle (of the same verb).
Active: Peters is cleaning the house.

Passive: The house is being cleaned.
In the past continuous, the active verb becomes :
was/were + being + past participle (of the same
verb).
Active: Peters was cleaning the house.

Passive: The house was being cleaned.
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4. The perfect tenses

How to form the passive in the present and past perfect:
In the present perfect, the active verb becomes :
have/has + been + past participle (of the same
verb).
Active: Peters has cleaned the house.

Passive: The house has been cleaned.
In the past perfect, the active verb becomes :
had + been + past participle (of the same verb).
Active: Peters had cleaned the house.

Passive: The house had been cleaned.
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5. The passive with modals

How to form the passive with modal verbs:
modal verb + be + past participle
Active: Peters will clean the house.

Passive: The house will be cleaned.
Active: Joe can write the memo.
Passive: The memo can be written.
Active: Joe might bring the sandwiches.
Passive: The sandwiches might be brought.
6. The agent
Usually we omit the subject of the active sentence from
the passive sentence. However, if it is important for the
meaning of the sentence, we can include the agent at
the end of the passive sentence:
by+ who did the action
with + the instrument used to do the action
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For example:
Dinner was served by the waiter.

This house was built in 1885 by my grandfather.
The cake was cut up with a knife.
7. The uses of the passive
We use the passive if:
we dont know who did the action: The motorway was
built last year.
the action is more important than who did it: The
dinner has been prepared.
it is obvious who did the action: The bank has been
robbed.
in scientific texts: Water is heated to 90 degrees.
in reports and announcements: The new president has
been elected.
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8. Verbs with two objects

Some verbs can have two objects: a direct and an indirect
object. Both object can become the subject of the
passive sentence.
For example:
Joe gave me a book.
I was given a book by Joe.
A book was given to me by Joe.
Peter sent Sarah a letter.
Sarah was sent a letter.
A letter was sent to Sarah.
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Reporting Verbs
The structure
When we want to report what people say, believe, think,
report, etc., we use an impersonal passive construction.
1) it + is/was reported/said + that + clause
The television reported that a fire broke out in the centre.
It is reported that a fire broke out in the centre.
2) passive subject + is/was reported + to infinitive
or
passive subject + is/was reported + to have

participle
The television reported that a fire broke out in the
centre.
A fire was reported to have broken out in the centre.
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2. Reporting verbs
Examples of reporting verbs we can use:
assume, calculate, claim, consider, discover, estimate,

expect, feel, hope, know, prove, report, say, show,
think, understand, etc.
For example:
Dinosaurs are believed to have died out millions of years
ago.
Mr Smith is expected to arrive shortly.
The costs were calculated to be over the budget.
3. Continuous events
Look at the examples:
The neighbours think that Mr. Jack is living in Paris.
Mr. Jack is thought to be living in Paris.

The family believed that Frank was working for the CIA.
Frank was believed to be working for the CIA.

In these sentences is living and was working are
continuous tenses therefore their passive form is to be
doing.
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4. Earlier events
Study these examples:
The news reports that the president has been re-elected.

The president is reported to have been re-elected.
The teacher reported that Kate had cheated in the exam.

Kate was reported to have cheated in the exam.
In these examples, has been re-elected and had cheated are
actions which happened before reports and reported
therefore their passive form is to have done or to have
been done
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Double passive
Look at the example:
His friends feared that Joe was kidnapped.
Joe was feared to have been kidnapped.
As you can see, this sentence contains two passive parts:
was feared (this is the reporting part) and to have
been kidnapped (this is the original passive part).
This often happens when the original sentence contains a
passive part.
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The Causative
1. Form
When we ask or force somebody to do something for us,
we can use the following structures:
1) to have something done
2) to get something done
3) to get somebody to do something
For example:
Sue had her hair cut by the hairdresser.

I got my car repaired yesterday.
I will get my brother to fix the printer.
2. Use
Sometimes, the structure suggests difficulty or bad luck.
Have is more common in these situations
I had my car stolen.
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Sometimes it is unclear from the meaning if we asked

somebody to an action for us or if it was bad luck:
We had the hole garden dug up. (dug up can mean we

asked somebody to dig up the garden, or perhaps that
a dog dug in the garden and destroyed the plants)
3. Use
Get is more common in spoken English and have is
more common in formal English.
For example:
Ill get her to type up the document.

Ill have a meeting arranged for next Tuesday.
4. Needs doing
We often use an idiomatic expression which means that we
have to do an action:
need doing or need done
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For example:
I need to clean my shoes.

My shoes need cleaning.
You need to water the plants.
The plants need
watering.
Note: We dont mention the person who does the action.

Need done is a regional expression and is
generally not considered correct.
5. Get + past participle
We can often use get with a past participle to mean
become. Its meaning is similar to be + past participle.
We often use the following expressions:
To get married/divorced/dressed/hurt/done
For example:
She got dresses quickly.

His fingers got burned.
They got divorced last year.
I will get the letter typed up.
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Gerund or Infinitive?
Verb patterns
One of the scariest things for students

of English is to remember when to
use the gerund and when to use the
infinitive.
In this unit, we summarize it in a nononsense way.
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1. Gerund or infinitive?
When we want to use two verbs one after the other, or a
verb after an adjective, we can connect them in
different ways:
with a to infinitive
with a gerund (-ing)
with a bare infinitive (infinitive without to)
with a that clause
with a preposition + to infinitive
with an object + to infinitive
adjective + to infinitive
A good dictionary will always tell you which category a
verb belongs to.
2. Verb + to infinitive
The following verbs are followed by a to infinitive:
Afford / aim / appear / ask / attempt / choose /
deserve / fail happen / help / learn / manage /
neglect / offer / plan / prepare / refuse / seem /
tend / wait / want / wish
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For example:
Peter cant afford to buy a house.

We decided to buy an ice-cream.
Jack wanted to go for a walk.
He tends to smoke a lot.
3. Verb + to infinitive / that
Some verbs can be followed by a to infinitive or a that
clause:
agree
desire
learn
seem
arrange
expect
plan
threaten
decide
hope
pretend
wish
demand
intend
promise
For example:
They agreed to travel by car.

They agreed that travelling by car was a good idea.
They hoped to arrive early.
They hoped that the plane wouldnt be late.
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4. Adjectives + to infinitive
Adjectives are usually followed by a to infinitive verb.
(For exceptions, look at part 2.)
1. It + is/was + adjectives (+ noun) + to + verb
It is difficult to answer this question.

It is a difficult question to answer.
It is nice to see you.
2. Subject + is/was + adjective + to + verb
She is easy to talk to.

Frank was surprised to see us.
This question is difficult to answer.
3. It + is/was + adjective + for you + to + verb
It is nice of you to help me.

It was kind of him to organize the party.
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5. Verb + ing / noun

Some verbs can be followed by either a noun or a gerund
(verb+ing):
avoid
fancy
give up
miss
cant stand
delay
feel like
involve
postpone
dislike
finish
keep
practise
enjoy
help
mind
risk
For example:
I enjoy reading books. I enjoy this party.
He practiced dancing. He practiced his dance

moves.
I cant stand smoking. I cant stand cigarettes.
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6. Verb + ing / noun / that

Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund, a noun, or
a that clause:
admit
confess
mention
suggest
appreciate
deny
recollect
consider
imagine
report
For example:
He admitted stealing the jewellery.
He admitted that he stole the jewellery.
Jack mentioned meeting Fred in the street.
Jack mentioned that he met Fred in the street.
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7. Verb + preposition + ing

All verbs which have a preposition are always followed by a
gerund:
afraid of / apologise for / concentrate on /
congratulate on / decide on / dream of / get rid of /
forgive for / insist on / keen on / look forward to /
prevent from / sorry for / succeed in / suspect of /
stop from / thank for / warn against
For example:
Jack apologised for breaking the vase.

Phil succeeded in swimming across the channel.
8. Verb + ing = Verb + to infinitive
A few verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an
infinitive without any change in the meaning. These
are:
attempt / begin / continue / cant bear / dread
hate / intend / like / love / prefer / start
For example:
I began to read the newspaper.

I began reading the newspaper.
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9. Verb + ing Verb + to infinitive

In these cases the meaning changes depending on the
infinitive or gerund:
Verb + ing / inf
meaning
I remember visiting my grandma when I was a

child.
Please, remember to post the letter.
-Have a memory of it
- instruction to remember
I wont forget meeting him the first time.

Please, dont forget to lock the doors.
-Have a memory of it
- instruction to remember
I regret telling him my secret.

I regret to inform you that
-I am sorry that I did this.

-I am sorry that I will do
this
Last winter, I tried skiing but I didnt like it.

I have tried to call him five times.
-Experiment
-Attempt
He stopped reading and stood up.

He stopped to have a cigarette.
-finish doing it
-stop in order to so
something
Changing your country means learning a new

language.
I meant to call you but I didnt have time.
-Involve
-Intend
Fred went on talking about his job for hours.

After university, Jill went on to become a
lawyer.
-Continue
-The next thing to do
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10. Verb + bare infinitive

A small number of verbs are followed by an infinitive
without to:
Modal verbs this topic is discussed in a separate unit.
I should go. You must eat your food.

Help, let, make
She helped me (to) bake the cake.

Please, let me show you the new catalogue.
She made the children clean up.
But: The children were made to clean up.
(passive!)
Note: Help can be followed by to infinitive or the bare
infinite (without to).
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11. See / hear / feel, etc.

The following verbs can be followed by an infinitive without
to or a gerund with a small change in meaning.
1. see/hear/feel/etc. + object + verb = we focus on
the completed action
2. see/hear/feel/etc + object + verb+ing = we
focus on the continuing action
feel / hear / see / listen to / notice / watch
For example:
He saw the boy run across the road. (from beginning to

end)
He saw the boy running across the road. (part of the
action)
I heard him shout. (a short shout probably)
I heard him shouting. (the shouting continued)
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12. Verb + object + to or Verb + ing

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or by an object
plus to infinitive.
1. Verb + gerund
2. Verb + object + to infinitive
advise
forbid
allow
permit
encourage
recommend
For example:
He recommended travelling to Asia.

He recommended us to travel to Asia.
She forbade leaving the room.
She forbade the child to leave the room.
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13. Expressions
There are some expressions which always use the gerund.
1. have difficulty doing something
2. it is a waste of time/money doing something (to
is also possible)
3. spend time doing something
4. waste time doing something
5. Its no use/good doing something
For example:
I spent time talking to my neighbour.

Its no use learning Hungarian. Nobody speaks it.
Its a waste of time speaking to him. He never listens.
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14. Verb + (object) + to

Some verbs can be followed by a to infinitive or by an
object + to infinitive.
ask
expect
*invite
*persuade
*tell
would like
would hate
beg
*enable
*get
*remind
*warn
would love
help
*force
*order
*teach
want
would prefer
For example:
I want to go home.
I would like to leave.
I want you to go home.

I would like you to leave.
The verbs with a star (*) always follow the verb + object +
infinitive pattern.
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The Modal Verbs

Adding extra ideas
VISUAL HERE
The modal verbs help us express extra

ideas that other types of sentences
cannot.
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Obligation and Necessity

1. Obligation
We can use should, ought to, must, mustnt, need
(to), have to and have got to when we want to
express obligation.
Obligation
You should be careful.
You ought to be careful.
You must eat vegetables.
You mustnt drive fast.
Present
I need to phone Paul.
I have to wear a uniform.
I have got to see the
doctor.
Past
I had to work last Sunday.

You should have told me
the price.
You ought to have arrived
earlier.
You needed to call me.
No obligation
You dont have to get up
early.
He doesnt have to pay
rent.
I dont need to write to
her.
I neednt write to her.
He didnt have to write a

report.
You didnt need to call
me.
You neednt have called
me.
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2. Must and have to

must and have to/have got to
We prefer must:
to give orders and instructions
to show the speaker feels strongly about something
in public notices
We prefer have to:
to talk about rules and regulations
to talk about habits
have got to is more informal than have to.

For example:
I must go home now. (Its my decision.)

I have to work tomorrow. (It is outside my control.)
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3. Must and dont have to

mustnt means it is forbidden/prohibited. We can also use
cant to express prohibition.
dont have to means it is not necessary.
Synonyms of dont have to:
dont need to
neednt
havent go to
For example:
You mustnt play ballgames in the park. (It is not

allowed.)
You cant eat all the cakes! Leave some to the others, too.
You dont have to phone the client. (It is not necessary.)
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4. Should and ought to

should and ought to are used to express advice, opinion
or a polite instruction.
In the negative we say shouldnt and oughtnt to.
For example:
You should eat more vegetables. (In my opinion is it good

for you but you dont have to do it.)
You ought to see the doctor. (My advice is to see the
doctor but you have a choice.)
You shouldnt work so much.

5. Had better and to be to
We can use had better or had better not to give strong
advice.
For example:
You had better leave now.

He had better not be late!
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We can use to be to when we want to give a formal

instruction.
For example:
You are to arrive in the office at 8am sharp.
You are not to enter the premises.
6. Need (to)
In the present, we can use need as a main verb or as a
model verb. It means necessary.
For example:
I need to call mum. (main verb) - I need call mum.

(model)
I dont need to call her.
- I neednt call her.
Do you need to call?
- Need you call?
In the past tense we use the main verb form with to:
I needed to call. I didnt need to call.

But: neednt have done has a different meaning:
You neednt have brought the umbrella. (You brought
the umbrella although it was totally unnecessary.)
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Obligation in the past

When we talk about obligation in the past, we use had to
or needed to. In the negative we use didnt have to
or didnt need to.
For example:
I had to work last weekend. = I needed to work last

weekend.
(It was necessary and I did it.)
I didnt have to work yesterday. (It was not necessary.)

If something was necessary but the person didnt do it, we
use: should have done or ought to have done.
For example:
Im angry with Peter. He should have told me the truth!

(Although it was important, he didnt tell me the truth)
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Deductions
1. Certainty - present
To express that we are very sure about something in the
present, we can use must .
Youve worked all day. You must be very tired!

You must be the new boss. Nice to met you.
To express that we are sure something is not possible in
the present, we use cant and couldnt.
You cant be tired! Youve been sleeping all day.

It couldnt be true! He always lies.
Note: mustnt (obligation, uncertainty) is not the
opposite of must (prohibition)!
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2. Certainty - past
To express that we are very sure about something in the
past, we can use must have .
Jo didnt answer the phone. He must have fallen

asleep.
Well done fore passing the test. You must have
studied a lot.
To express that we are sure something is not possible in
the past, we use cant have/couldnt have.
He cant have lent you the money. Hes mean!

He couldnt have stolen the painting. He has an alibi.
3. Possibility - present
To express uncertainty or possibility in the present, we can
use may, might or could.
Wheres Jane? I dont know. She may be in kitchen.
Or she could be in bathroom. (The speaker is not
sure.)
Dont buy him that tie. He may not/might not like it.
Note: We dont use couldnt to express possibility.
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4. Possibility - past
To express possibility in the past, we can use may have,
might have or could have.
For example:
Why is that child crying? He may have lost his toy.

Where are the diamonds? They could have been
stolen!
5. Probability - present
To express probability or expectation, we can use will,
should (ought to) or to be bound to.
For example:
She will arrive soon. (I expect her to arrive soon
because she usually arrives at this time.)
She should be in Paris now. (I expect that the plane
has landed.)
Hes bound to be promoted. Hes the best. (I expect

that he will be promoted.)
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6. Probability - past
To express probability in the past, we can use should
have or shouldnt have.
For example:
He should have arrived to New York by now. (I

expect that he has arrived.)
He shouldnt have sold his car. He loves it. (I expect
that he didnt sell his car.
7. Ability - present
To talk about ability in the present, we use can and to be
able to.
For example:
Can Joe drive? No, he cant. He is too young.
I cannot sing at all.
I am not able to answer this question. Its too difficult.
Note: The negative of can is cant and cannot.
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can is used for general situations. to be able to is used

for more specific situations.
to be able to is also used for all the tenses.
I will be able to speak English next year.
8. Ability - past
To talk about ability in the past, we can use could and
was/were able to.
For example:
When I was young, I could run very fast.

I could always swim well, but that day I just wasnt
able to swim fast enough.
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Communication
1. Permission
Asking for permission:
Giving permission:
Can I open the window,
Yes, of course, you can.
please?
No, you cant use my
Could I use your phone,
phone.
please?
You may sit down.
May I sit down?
You may not enter.
Could is more formal and polite than can.

May is the most formal way of asking or giving permission
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2. Requests
We can make requests using the following modal verbs:
Can I ask you something?
Can you help me with this letter, please?
Will you get me some milk, please?
More formal ways of making requests:
Could I borrow you camera?

Could you make me a coffee, please?
Would you pass me the salt, please?
3. Offers
We can make offers in different ways:
Shall I open the door for you?
Can I get a cup of tea for you?
Would you like to have something to eat?
Would you like me to help you?
Why dont I go and get a sandwich for you?
I can write the report, if youd like me to.
I will take you to the airport.
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4. Suggestions
Ways of making suggestions:
Shall we order a pizza?
Lets go the cinema tonight.
Why dont we go out for a walk?
How about watching a movie?
What about watching a film?
We can go to Paris or to Rome.
We could go out tonight.
5. Orders and instructions
We can give polite orders buy using one of the following
expressions:
You must fill in the form immediately.
Can you, please, finish the report by tomorrow?
Could you post this letter, please?
Would you mind telling me the truth?
Another way of giving an instruction is to use the
imperative:
Stand up. Sit down. Open the door.
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6. Advice
We can ask for advice the following ways:
Shall I tell him the truth?

Should I talk to him?
Would you buy this car if you were me?
We can give advice in many different ways:
You must go and see the doctor.

You should/ought to eat more vegetables.
You shouldnt smoke.
You had better drive carefully.
You had better not arrive late.
You could call him.
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Reported Speech
Adding extra ideas
Reported speech is often called

indirect speech.
113
1. What is it?
Reported speech is when we report or repeat
somebodys words or sentences.
We can report directly by simply repeating the exact
sentence we heard:
Joe: It is very hot today.

It is very hot today, Joe said.
Or indirectly when report somebodys sentence from our
point of view:
Peter to Anne: I like your new dress.

Anne: Peter says that he likes my new dress.
2. What can we report?
We can report many different types of sentences:
Statements, thoughts, questions, instructions,
offers, advice, promises, suggestions
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For example:
Frank to Bill: Stop using my bike!
Frank told to Bill to stop using his bike.

You shouldnt smoke so much, said Fred.
Fred suggested that I shouldnt smoke so much.

Do you like blue cheese? , asked Mary.
Mary asked Phil if he liked blue cheese.

3. Tense change or not?
When we report somebodys sentences which relate to
the present, we do not have to change the tenses.
Usually the reporting verb (eg. say, tell) is in the
present.
Chris to Liza: I love you.
Liza to her friend: Chris says that he loves me.
When we report somebodys sentences which relate to
the past, we have to change the tenses. Usually the
reporting verb is in the past.
115
I went on an excursion around the city, said Bill.

Bill said that he had gone on an excursion around
the city.
4. Statements, thoughts, etc.
When we report somebodys words and thoughts, we have
to pay attention to the following:
Tense change
Pronoun change
Changing words of time and place
find details
in part 2.
Study the examples carefully:
I can swim very fast, said Frank.

Frank said that he could swim very fast.
I am going to travel to Paris next year, insisted Bill.
Bill insisted that he was going to travel to Paris the
following year.
116
5. Wh-questions
When we report somebodys question, we have to pay
attention to the following changes:
Tense change
Pronoun change
Word order change from question to statement
Look at the example sentences, and study how the word
order changes:
Where are you going? asked mum.
Mum asked where I was going.
When does the plane arrive? asked the passenger.
The passenger asked when the train arrived.
117
6. Yes/no questions
When we report somebodys question, we have to pay
attention to the following changes:
Tense change
Pronoun change
Word order change from question to statement
Add if/whether in reported speech
Study how the word order changes in yes/no questions:

Do you have a car?
She asked if/whether I had a car.
Have you ever been to New York?
He asked if/whether I had ever been to New York.
118
7. Reporting advice, promise, etc.

When reporting advice, command/instruction, promise,
request, warning, etc, we use:
Advise/ask/tell/warn, etc (+ pronoun) + the toinfinitive
Open, the door, please. He told me to open the door.

Can you help me? He asked me to help him.
You shouldnt smoke. He advised me not to smoke.
Ill will visit you. She promised to visit me.
We could do it for you. They offered to do it for us.

Dont tell him anything. She instructed me not to tell
him anything.
119
8. Suggestions
When we report suggestions and recommendations with
the word suggest, we can use four constructions:
Lets order pizza.
He suggested that we order pizza.

He suggested that we should order pizza.
He suggested that we ordered pizza.

He suggested ordering pizza.
Note: We cannot use to-infinitive after suggest!
120
9. Tense changes
When we report somebodys speech and the reporting verb
is in the past, we have to move the tense one step back
in time:
present simple
present continuous
past simple
present perfect (continuous)
past perfect
past continuous
am going to
will
can/could
may/might
must
mustnt
shall/should
past simple
past continuous
past perfect
past perfect
(continuous)
past perfect
past perfect
continuous
was going to
would
could
might
had to
couldnt
should
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10. Time, place word changes

When the reporting verb is in the past tense, we usually
have to change the following words:
today
tonight
tomorrow
yesterday
two days ago
next (week/day)
last (week/month)
now
here
come
this/these
ago
before
that day
that night
the next day, the following
day
the previous day, the day
before
two days before, two days
earlier
the following (week/day)
the (week/month) before
then
there
go
that/those/that
before
earlier
11. Other changes

In reported speech, pronouns can change depending on
the speakers viewpoint.
Peter to his son: I will buy you a video game.

Son to his friend: Dad said that he would buy me a video
game.
This/that/these/those may change to the. This/that
may change to it.
I love this ice-cream, said Clara.

Clara said that she loved the ice-cream.
Please, give me that book, asked Fred.
Fred asked me to give it to him.
12. Common reporting verbs:
admit, advise, agree, answer, tell, suggest, think,
demand, ask, report, remind, believe, imagine,
insist, wonder, beg, announce, command, forbid,
invite, tell, order, warn, teach, offer, want to know,
enquire, request, command, wonder, recommend,
refuse, threaten, swear, instruct, explain, remind
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Nouns, Adjectives,
Adverbs
Spea
VISUAL HERE
Do you know how many words are

there in the English language?
Well, according to the Oxford
dictionary, there are at least 250,000
distinct words in English.
124
Countable and
Uncountable
1. Countable nouns:
can be counted:
1 apple 2 apples 3 apples
have both singular and plural forms:
child children
car - cars
use a/an with the singular form:
a house, a cat, an elephant
can use some / any / many / a few:
some dogs, any banana
a few books, many people
125
2. Uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns are usually abstract ideas, liquid or
mass forms.
cannot be counted:
3 rices but: some rice/a bowl of rice
have only a singular form and followed by a singular verb

water, rice, sand, air, wine, cheese
The water is clear.
cannot use a/an:
a music, a blood, a furniture, an advice
can use some / any / much / a little:
some music, any advice a little water, much
damage
126
3. Nouns ending in -s
Plural nouns are nouns which only have plural forms.
They are followed by a plural verb.
Examples:
trousers, clothes, glasses, goods, feelings, jeans,

premises, surroundings, thanks, stairs, socks,
pyjamas, scales, pants
Where are your trouser? They are on the shelf.
Some uncountable nouns end in s but are
uncountable and use a singular verb:
Examples:
mathematics, physics, aerobics, genetics, measles,
linguistics, economics, classics, mumps
Mathematics is an interesting subject.
127
4. Group nouns
Group nouns or collective nouns are nouns which refer to a
group of people or things together. They can take either
a singular or a plural verb.
Examples:
government, army, company, crew, crowd, data
family, group, media, press, public, staff, team,
committee, gang, the BBC, the EU
My family is/are from Minnesota.

The team is/are very successful.
Some collective nouns only take the plural verb:
Cattle are microchipped.

The people are celebrating.
The police always arrive quickly.
128
5. Irregular plurals
Some countable nouns have irregular plural forms:

change in form:
no change in form:
calf calves
child children
man men
woman women
knife knives
half halves
shelf shelves
scarf scarves
leaf leaves
loaf loaves
tooth teeth
wife wives
mouse - mice
fish fish
aircraft aircraft
cod cod
deer deer
fruit fruit
sheep sheep
series series
species - species
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6. Change of meaning
Some words change their meaning depending on the

countable or the uncountable form.
Countable:
Uncountable:
a paper = newspaper
a wood = a forest
an experience = a particular
situation
a coffee = a cup of coffee
a help = a helping person
a hair = one piece
a work = a work of art
an exercise = a task
paper = the material

wood = the material
experience = in general
coffee = liquid
help = help in general
hair = all the hair on the had
work = in general
exercise = physical exercise in
general
130
7. Counting the uncountable
We can count uncountable things by using the following

expressions:
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
bit of bread
bunch of flowers
cup of tea
spoonful of medicine
loaf of bread
piece of news
pool of water
glass of coca cola
portion of meat
slice of cake
tub of butter
bottle of wine
a bag of flour
items of clothing
pieces of furniture
a bar of chocolate
a box of cereal
a can of beer
a drop of blood
a roll of toilet paper
a tube of toothpaste
a jar of jam
a block of ice
a kilo of fruit
131
8. Common uncountable nouns
Heres a list of common uncountable nouns. Study the list

carefully.
advice
baggage
behaviour
damage
electricity
experience
fun
hair
information
love
music
paper
travel
age
bread
company
duty
equipment
faith
furniture
health
knowledge
luck
machinery
rubbish
weather
anger
beauty
concern
education
evidence
food
growth
homework
justice
luggage
money
traffic
work
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Adjectives
1. What are adjectives?
Adjectives are words that describe nouns (objects,
people).
For example:
nice, good, beautiful, worried, insulting, continuous
Adjectives can go before
nouns:
Adjectives can go after some

verbs:
adjective + noun
verbs
a nice
a good
a beautiful
an insulting
seem
is
looks
feel
person
day
cat
remark
adjective
nice
good
beautiful
happy
133
2. Order of adjectives
Sometimes we need to use more than one adjectives. An
opinion normally goes before the fact:
Opinion
fact
An interesting Spanish
A beautiful
black
An interesting new
+ noun
movie
cat
idea
If we have several factual adjectives, we use the following

order:
size + age + shape + colour + origin + material + purpose + noun
a huge ancient round blue Japanese wooden
a small new ---------German
silver
an ---- old
square black
-----plastic
---tea
radio
table
spoon
button
134
3. Adding suffixes
Adjectives can be individual, unique words (nice, small) or
can be formed from other words by using suffixes or
prefixes.
- able: manageable, readable
- ible: flexible, edible
- ant: hesitant, distant
- ing: sleeping
- ic: energetic, apologetic
- ish: foolish, blueish
- ous: dangerous, famous
- ly: friendly, weekly
- al: political, musical
- ful: harmful, tactful
- les: harmless, careless
- ive: attractive, passive
135
4. Adding prefixes
We can form new adjectives by adding prefixes to words.
These prefixes create a negative meaning.
im-: impossible, impatient
il-: illogical, illegal
un-: undesirable, unattractive
in-: indispensible, indirect
dis-: dishonest, disabled
ir-: irreplaceable, irrational
pre-: pre-negotiated, preheated
Note: adding pre- to an adjective, does not create a
negative meaning.
5. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are created by using two words.
They are usually written with a hyphen.
bullet-proof, duty-free, long-distance, sugar-free,

hand-made
136
The second part is often a present or past participle. These

are often used to describe a person:
long-legged, curly-haired, self-centred, absentminded, ill-fitting, expensive-looking

We can also use prepositions to create a compound
adjective:
off-putting, built-up, cut-off, run-down, thrown-out

6. Adjectives of measurement
We can combine numbers with nouns to make compound
adjectives. They are used to measure different things,
ie. age, distance, etc.
For example:
a five-minute song (time)

a two year-old girl (age)
a ten-euro ticket (price)
a one-litre bottle (volume)
a three-kilo parcel (weight)
a fifty square metre house (area)
an hour-long meeting (duration)
137
7. Adjectives as nouns
Some adjectives can be used with the to refer to a group
of people. They function like a noun.
For example:
the blind
the accused
the bizarre
the homeless
the old
the deceased
the young
the famous
the poor
Some words are used as both nouns and adjectives

without changing their form.
For example:
English, Italian, German, Chinese, American, etc.

chemical, musical, right, dear, elder, fun, indoor
8. Adjectives after nouns
We can use adjectives after linking verbs. Here is a list of
the most common linking verb:
appear, be, become, come, feel, get, go, grow, turn,

keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay
138
Examples with adjectives:
The project is difficult.

She felt happy all day.
It turned dark quickly.
You look upset.
The witness remained silent
9. Adjectives after nouns
Some adjectives are used only after nouns. For example,
fixed phrases:
Secretary general, heir apparent, lieutenant major,

force major, court martial, etc.
After anything, something, anywhere, somewhere, etc:
anything interesting, somewhere quiet, something

nice, etc
For example:
Have you met anybody interesting lately?

Id like to go somewhere quiet this summer.
What would you like to have? Something nice and
sweet.
139
Some adjectives which end in able/-ible can go before or

after the noun without change in their meaning. They
usually go after the noun when combined with the words
only, first and last.
suitable, available, possible, imaginable , etc.

For example:
I will employ the first candidate suitable for the position.

(=first suitable candidate)
The only solution possible is to find a new manager.

(=the only possible solution)
10. Change in meaning

Some adjectives change their meaning depending on their
position.
elect, proper, present, concerned, responsible

For example:
a proper city = a real city

the city proper = the main part of the city
the concerned parents = the parents who are concerned
the parents concerned = the parents involved
140
11. -ed and ing adjectives

We can make adjectives from verbs by adding ing or ed
or by using the past participle form if the verb is
irregular.
-ing adjectives tell us how something makes us feel.
This movie is boring. (= It makes me feel bored.)

We had an exciting trip to the zoo. (= The trip made us
feel excited.)
We saw a real ghost! It was so frightening. (= We felt
frightened.)
-ed adjectives tell us how somebody feels.
Im tired.
He was interested in the idea.
She has always been terrified of spiders.
141
Some ed and ing adjectives are not connected to

feelings.
For example:
a sunken boat
a closed deal
a broken glass
a finished project
a written complaint
a sliding door
a moving part
a sinking feeling
a floating boat
a ringing phone
Other common ed / -ing adjectives:

disappointed / disappointed
amused / amusing
confused / confusing
142
12. Adjectives + prepositions

Here is a list of some common adjectives with
prepositions.
adjective
preposit
ion
nice, kind, cruel, intelligent, sensible, scared,

afraid, frightened, proud, ashamed, fond, full,
short
of
nice, kind, good, polite, friendly, cruel,

accustomed, used, married, similar, possible,
to
angry, furious, annoyed, happy, pleased,

about
upset, nervous, certain, excited, worried, sorry
surprised, shocked, amazed,
at/by
pleased, disappointed, satisfied, angry,

annoyed, busy, content, delighted, friendly,
occupied, bored, fed up, crowded
with
famous, late, ready sorry, responsible, suitable for

good, angry, bad, hopeless, useless,
at
keen, reliant
on
interested, involved
in
143
Adverbs
1. Use of adverbs
Adverbs give us extra information about actions:
category
examples
manner (how)
quickly, slowly, fast, rapidly, easily,

suddenly, badly
frequency (how
often)
always, frequently, often, sometimes,

never
degree (how
much)
very, a bit, rather, fairly, extremely,

quite, slightly
place (where)
in London, here, there, far away
time (when)
tomorrow, at 5 oclock, on Monday, in

July, daily, late
linking adverbs
as well, whereas, although, next
comment
honestly, frankly, sadly
144
2. Forming adverbs
On the one hand, adverbs can be single, independent
words or combination of words.
On the other hand, we can form adverbs from other words.
-from adjectives:
-from nouns:
slow slowly
quick quickly
easy easily
loud loudly
day daily
week weekly
hour hourly
friend - friendly
3. Spelling
Spelling of adjectives can change the following ways:
adjective
adverb
ending in a vowel
or l
calm
changes to -ly
calmly
ending in -le
probabl
e
changes to -ly
probably
ending in y
easy
changes to -ily easily
ending in -ic
periodic
changes to ally
periodically
ending in -ly
friendly
add extra
word
friendly
way
145
4. Confusing adjectives
Adjectives and adverb which are often confused.
adjectives:
adverbs:
fast = a fast train

still = still water
good = a good book
early = an early train
daily = the daily news
fast = run fast

still = stand still
well = cook well
early = arrive early
daily = shop daily
Similar looking adverbs:
hard/hardly
He worked hard. (a lot) He hardly worked. (almost
nothing)
Late/lately
The taxi arrived late. (not in time)
I met Jim lately. (recently)
146
5. Position of adverbs
Adverbs can go into different positions in the sentence.
Study the following table carefully.
position
adverbs
example
front
time adverbs
Yesterday I visited my
friend.
middle
frequency
adverbs
He often cooks dinner.
end
manner adverbs
place adverbs
time adverbs
She walks slowly.

They lived in Madrid.
He got up at 6 oclock.
manner adverbs
Slowly, I approached the

lion.
I slowly approached the
lion.
I approached the lion
slowly.
all
positions
147
6. Comparatives
Usually adverbs form their comparative and superlative
forms the same way as adjectives.
Short adverbs (1 or 2 syllables):
They add an er to the comparative form and an est to
the superlative form.
fast faster, fastest

near nearer, nearest
Long adverbs (2 or more syllables):
They add more to the comparative form and most to the
superlative form.
quickly more quickly, most quickly

carefully more carefully, most carefully
148
Comparatives and
Superlatives
1. Forming the comparatives and superlatives
As a general rule, the comparative adjective is created by
adding er at the end of the adjective. The
superlative adjective is created by adding est at the
end.
In the case of two or more syllables, we use the words
more and most to form the comparative and
superlative forms.
adjective
comparative
superlative
rich
strong
cool
dark
richer
stronger
cooler
darker
richest
strongest
coolest
darkest
beautiful
interesting
more beautiful
more interesting
most beautiful
most interesting
149
1) One or two syllable words ending in e:

safe safer safest
nice nicer - nicest
2) One syllable words ending in a short vowel plus
consonant double the consonant at the end of the
adjective
big bigger - biggest
sad sadder saddest
3) two syllable adjectives ending in y: the y
changes into an i:
busy busier busiest
happy happier happiest
4) Two syllable adjectives can have two forms:
clever cleverer / more clever cleverest / most
clever
150
2. Irregular forms
Some comparative and superlative adjectives are irregular.
Note: elder cannot be used in comparative sentences. We
cannot say He is elder than Kate.
adjective
comparative
Superlative
good / well
bad
few / little
little (size)
much/many/lot
far (distance)
far (extra)
old (people)
old (things)
better
worse
less
smaller
more
farther / further
further
elder
older
best
worst
lest
smallest
most
farthest / furthest
furthest
eldest
Oldest
151
3. Comparative sentence
When we compare two or more things, we can say:
X is bigger/better/safer/etc than Y
London is bigger than Leeds.

Henry is more/less intelligent than Rick.
The neighbours children are older than mine.
When two things are the same, we say:
X is as (so) big/good/interesting as Y
Your cat is as old as my cat.

Jack is so strong as Fred.
His car is not as expensive as your car.
152
4. The superlative sentence

If something is the best/biggest/most expensive, we say:
X is the best/nicest/most interesting in the
world/classroom/family
For examples:
James is the tallest in the class.

The McLaren F1 is the most expensive car in the
world.
Note: In a superlative sentences, we usually use in and
not of
5. As...as + adjective / adverb
asas + adjective or adverb
For example:
I would like to have as many apples as possible.
Phone me as soon as necessary.
153
as.. as + clause
For example:
Please, write me as soon as you can.
As far as I know, they have moved house.
6. The ... the
We can compare things by using the thethe structure:
The + older/better/etc + clause
For example:
The older I get, the more I know.

The richer he gets, the more unhappy he becomes.
The more relaxed he is, the more he talks.
154
7. Emphasis
We can add emphasis to comparative adjectives the
following ways:
much / far / a lot happier

many / far / a lot more / less / fewer
a bit/a little/ a little bit/ quite a lot bigger
We can emphasize the superlative forms the following
ways:
quite / nearly / easily / much / by far the most

expensive car
We can emphasize the as . as structure the following
ways:
Nearly / twice / three times as good as

For example:
My brother is quite a lot taller than you.

His house is by far the best in this street.
155
The Sentence Structure

Word order
VISUAL HERE
Word order is extremely important in

English.
156
Questions
1. Yes/no questions
Yes/no questions are those which can be answered with a
yes or a no. We put the auxiliary verb before the
subject.
Here is a table which shows how to form yes/no questions:
Auxiliary Subject
Verb/adject
ive
Compliment
Is
he
coming
to the cinema?
Are
you
happy
today?
Did
Peter
eat
the cake?
Will
Mary
buy
something?
Can
you
swim
in the ocean?
Doesnt
she
like
reading?
Havent
you
seen
my keys?
157
2. Short answers
We can give short answers to yes/no questions in two ways:
Using the same auxiliary verb as in the original
question:
Does he like cats?

Aren't they here?
Can you swim?
Yes, he does. / No, he doesnt.

Yes, they are. / No, they arent.
Yes, I can. / No, I cant.
With afraid/think/suppose/imagine, etc + so/not:

Does he like cats?
I dont think so.

I think so.
I hope so.
I suppose not.
I hope not.
158
3. Wh- (open) questions

Wh- or Open questions start with a question word and the
answer can vary according to the question word.
When we ask a question about the object or any of the
compliment, we put the question word first, then we
use the same question word order as in yes/no
questions:
Question
word
Auxiliary
Subject
Verb/adjec
tive
Where
did
he
go?
Why
was
the meeting
cancelled?
When
will
you
arrive?
What
is
your name?
159
When we ask a question about the subject, we keep the

original word order (affirmative order) but we replace
the subject with who:
For example:
Subject / Who
Rest of sentence
John
Who
is in London.
is in London?
Sarah
Who
went home by bus.

went home by bus?
He
Who
can swim.
can swim?
I
Who
have bought a house.

has bought a house?
160
4. Prepositions
It is important to keep the preposition of the verb when
we ask a question. Prepositions can go to two places:
At the front of the questions, before the question word:
At whom are you looking?

About which book did you talk?
At the end of the question:
Who are you looking at?

Which book did you talk about?
The two solutions are equal. Some people prefer the first
option, whereas some people prefer the second option.
Note: preposition + who becomes: preposition +
whom
161
5. What or which?
We use what when there is an unlimited choice:
What car would you like to buy? (out of all the existing
types)
What would you like to eat? (you can choose whatever

you want)
We use which when there is a limited choice:
Which car would you like? (out of those you can see here)
Which would you like to eat? (out of those you can see
here)
162
Question tags
We can turn a statement into a question by adding a
question tag at the end of the sentence.
Reasons for question tags:
a polite question
You couldnt post this letter for me, could you?

to check agreement
You are British, arent you?

to give instructions
Open the door, will you?

to make a suggestion or offer
Lets get a pizza, shall we?
163
Forming question tags

The form of the question tag always depends on the tense
of the sentence: we use the corresponding auxiliary
verb.
If the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
If the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative.
Statement
Question tag
He loves travelling,
doesnt he?
You will do the shopping,
wont you?
You didnt ask him,
did you?
They havent arrived yet,
have they?
You can swim,
cant you?
She shouldnt talk like that,
should she?
164
Special cases of the question tag

1. question tags for the imperative: will you? or wont
you?
Answer the phone, will you?

2. the first person singular (I): arent I?
I am too early, arent I?

3. the question tag for Lets: shall we?
Lets go to the cinema, shall we?

4. for everybody, somebody, someone, no one, etc, they
is used
Everyone is here, arent they?

5. for nothing, everything, anything, it is used
Nothing happened, did it?
165
Short agreements
To agree with positive statement, we use so + auxiliary
of the original statement.
I love ice-cream. So do I.
She is from the USA. So am I.
Peter failed his exams. So did Alex.
To agree with a negative statement, we use
neither/nor + auxiliary of the original statement.
I dont drink milk. Neither do I.

Anne hasnt arrived yet. Nor has Bill.
Phil cant dance very well. Neither can Jack.
166
Echo questions
Echo questions are short questions we use after we have
heard a statement. We use echo questions to confirm
what we have just heard and they do not need an
answer.
We form echo questions using the corresponding

auxiliary from the original sentence similarly to tag
questions. However, a positive sentence requires a
positive echo question and a negative statement
requires a negative echo question.
I have never been to Australia. Havent you?

I can sing and dance very well. Can you?
Everybody has arrived. Have they?
Note: The same special cases apply as with tag questions.
167
Linking Words
1. What are they?
Linking words are words that join two or more words,
sentences or clauses. Linking words are also called
conjunctions.
Linking words can express different ideas, for example,
- contrast: however, although, but
addition: and, more, besides
purpose: in order to, so that
reason: since, because
result: as a result, consequently
time: when, after, before, since, by the time, as soon as
condition: if, provided, as long as, unless
reason: because, since, as
purpose: to, in order to, so that
contrast: but, although, however, whereas
addition: and, besides, as well, too, also
result: so that, such a that, because of, consequently
manner: as if, as though
comparison: as as, than
place: where, somewhere, wherever
168
c) We use however and nevertheless to connect to

clauses or sentences. Nevertheless is more formal.
However can go at the beginning, middle or end of
the sentence.
For example:
I trust you. However, I wont tell you my secret.

I love animals. I dont like insect, however.
We prefer to cook at home. Sometimes, however, we eat
out.
He robbed a bank. Nevertheless, the police never caught
him.
d) Whereas and while mean on the contrary. They are
usually used in formal speech.
For example:
I like tea whereas Frank prefers coffee.

While I understand your point, I totally disagree with your
decision.
169
2. Linking words of contrast

a) Although, though and even though are synonyms
and are used to show contrast. Though can be used at
the end of the sentence:
For example:
Although it was raining, we went out for a walk.

Even though he left the house late, he could catch the
train.
He went to the party although he was tired.
I like cats. (But) I also like dogs, though.
b) In spite of and despite are used to express contrast.
We use them the following way:
in spite of
despite
+ noun
+ -ing
+ the fact that + clause + comma
For example:
Despite his success, he remained a shy person.

In spite of his success, he lives a quiet life.
Despite the fact that he succeeded in life, he is a shy
person.
170
3. The infinitive of purpose

a) We can use the to infinitive to express purpose
(why?).
For example:
I went to the shop to buy some fruits. (Why? To buy some

fruits.)
Peter studies hard to pass his exam.
She switched off the light not to waste electricity.
Note: The subject of the two verbs is the same: I went and
I bought.
Note: In the negative, we use not to.
b) If we want to express purpose, we can also use in
order (not) to and so as (not) to. They are the
formal version of to.
For example:
in order to
He turned the radio on
so as to
to
listen to the news.
She closed the window in order not to hear the noise.

We wrote down the address so as not to forget it.
171
c) If the grammatical subjects of the two parts of the

sentence are different, we use so, in order that and
so that.
For example:
I emailed the photos to Jane so that she could look at

them.
Frank cleaned the house in order that he could make
Jane happy.
We bought the tickets online so we could save money.
Note: We often use could in the second clause of the
sentence.
d) We use for to describe how something is used. We
have to use for+noun or for+gerund.
For example:
This switch is for the electricity.

This course is for learning about grammar.
I went to the office for a meeting.
We went out for a meal.
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4. Linking words of reason

A) because, as , since
When we want to express the reason for something, we
can use because, as or since. They have the same
meaning but usually because is stronger than as and
since.
They can start the sentence, or they can go in the middle
of the sentence. However, only because can start an
answer to a questions.
For example:
I made a sandwich because/as/since I was hungry.

Because/since/as I was hungry, I made a sandwich.
Note: Why did you make a sandwich?
Because/as/since I was hungry.
173
b) so, therefore
So and therefore mean for this reason.
Other expressions we can use: consequently, as a
result, because of that, hence.
For example:
I wanted to talk to my friend so I phoned her.

I wanted to talk to my friend. Therefore/Consequently,
I phoned her.
Compare:
I phoned my friend because I wanted to talk to her.
174
c) Due to, as a result, etc.

When we want to talk about the reason for something, we
can use the following expressions: due to, as a result
of, owing to, because of, on account of , thanks to
We have to use a noun or a gerund after these expressions.
For example:
He bought a Ferrari
due to
as a result of
owing to
because of
on account of
thanks to
his lottery win.

winning the lottery.
175
5. Linking words of result

a) so
To express the result of an action, we can use so. It shows
cause and effect.
so + adjective / adverb + that

so + many/much/few/little + noun + that
For example:
He was walking so slowly that he missed the bus.

She was so clever that she passed all her exams easily.
There were so many people on the train that we
couldnt sit down.
b) Such
Such is used in the same meaning as so but in the
following construction:
such + (adjective) + uncount noun + that

such + a(n) + (adjective) + singular count noun
+ that
such + (adjective) + plural count noun + that
176
For example:
It was such nice weather that we just wanted to sit in

the park.
He was such a nice person that he helped everyone.
They were such lovely people that we really enjoyed
talking to them.
c) too
Too means more than needed. We can use it to express
cause and effect.
too + adjective/adverb (+ to infinitive / for

someone)
too + many/much
too + many/much + noun (+ to infinitive / for
someone)
For example:
This house is too big for our family.

He is too shy to ask questions.
How many cars does Frank have? Too many.
177
d) Enough
Enough means sufficient. We can use it to express cause
and effect.
adjective + enough + (+ to infinitive / for

someone)
adverb + enough + (+ to infinitive / for
someone)
enough + noun + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
For example:
We had enough money to buy a huge pizza.

He run fast enough to cross the line first.
Peter had enough cups and plates for the party.
178
Irregular Verbs
Actions in the making
Irregular verbs are becoming regular!

Yes, its true. Its happening. Slowly
but surely.
179
1. Regular verbs
Regular verbs form their past and past participle forms by
adding ed to the end of the verbs.
For example:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
walk
love
hate
finish
walked
loved
hated
finished
walked
loved
hated
finished
2. Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms
differently from regular verbs. They usually do not use
the ed ending.
For example:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
think
Eat
thought
ate
thought
eaten
180
Some verbs can have both regular and irregular forms.

For example:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
dream
learn
dreamt/dreamed
learnt/learned
dreamt/dreamed
learnt/learned
3. All forms the same

In some cases, all the three forms (present, past and
participle) are the same:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
cut
put
read
hit
bet
burst
set
shut
cut
put
read
hit
bet
burst
set
shut
cut
put
read
hit
bet
burst
set
shut
181
4. Two forms are the same

Base form and past participle are the same:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
come
become
run
came
became
ran
come
become
run
Base form and past participle are the same:

Base form
Past form
Past participle
keep
mean
pay
feel
kept
meant
paid
felt
kept
meant
paid
felt
182
5. Ending in en
Sometimes the past participle can end in en. The -en
can attach to the base form or to the past form:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
choose
fall
speak
give
write
speak
shake
eat
chose
fell
spoke
gave
wrote
spoke
shook
ate
chosen
fallen
spoken
given
written
spoken
shaken
eaten
6. All forms are different

Sometimes all the three forms of the irregular verb are
different:
Base form
Past form
Past participle
go
see
grow
blow
shrink
sing
swim
went
saw
grew
blew
shrank
sang
swam
gone
seen
grown
blown
shrunk
sung
swum
183
Spelling
How to write correctly
VISUAL HERE
English spelling is very peculiar

because the language has taken
words from many other languages.
184
1. Adding s to nouns
Most nouns simply add an s to form the plural
book books, computer computers, cat cats, edge
edges
The exceptions are:
Add es to nouns ending in:
s or ss: bus buses, business businesses
x: tax taxes, fox foxes, box boxes
ch: church churches, match matches except:
stomach stomachs
sh: leash leashes, dish dishes
Nouns ending in o can add either s or es
zero zeros, studio studios, potato potatoes,
tomato tomatoes
But: ghetto ghettos/ghettoes, flamingo

flamingos/flamingoes
185
Nouns that end in a consonant + -y change the y to

ies
baby babies, story stories, country countries
Nouns that end in a vowel + -y (-ay/-ey/ -oy/ -uy) only
add s
monkey monkeys, tray trays, toy toys, day
days
Nouns that end in f or fe change to ves

knife knives, half halves
2. Adding s to verbs
Most verbs simply add an s to form the third person
eat eats, treat treats, sleep sleeps, work works
186
The exceptions are:

Add es to verbs ending in
ss: miss misses, pass passes
zz: buzz buzzes
x: mix mixes, tax taxes
ch: catch catches, watch watches, touch
touches
sh: push pushes, wash washes
o: do does, go goes, echo echoes
Verbs that end in a consonant + -y change the y to

ies
carry carries, try tries, study studies
Verbs that end in a vowel + -y only add s
pay pays, say says, play plays
187
3. Adding ing to verbs

Most verbs simply add an ing to the verb
eat eating, treat treating, sleep sleeping, work
working
The exceptions are:
Verbs that end in an e, lose the e
use using, smoke smoking, write writing
Verbs that end in ee, keep the ee

agree agreeing, see seeing
Verbs that end in ic change to ick
picnic picnicking, traffic trafficking
Verbs that end in ie, change to y
lie lying, tie tying
188
We double the last consonant if:

The verb has one syllable and ends in a
vowel+consonant
sit sitting, stop stopping, plan planning
except: play playing, show showing
The verb has two syllables and the second syllable is

stressed
begin beginning, admit admitting but differ
differing
The verbs ends in a vowel+l

travel travelling, equal equalling
189
4. Adjectives and Adverbs ending in -e

The adjective ends in -e + r/st (comparative and
superlative forms)
Fine finer, finest

late later, latest
The adjective ends in -e + ly (making an adverb)
nice nicely, close closely
The adjective ends in -le + ply / bly, etc. (making an
adverb)
simple simply, possible possibly
190
5. Doubling the final consonant.

We saw in a previous point above that if a verb has two
syllables and the second syllable is stressed, as well as
if verbs ends in a vowel+l, we double the final
consonant. However there are other situations when we
have to double the final consonant:
Word ends in vowel + consonant + -ing/-ed/-er/-est:
For example:
Stop stopped, stopping, stopper
put putting
big bigger, biggest
run runner, running
set setter, setting
6. Adding ed to verbs
Most verbs simply add an ed to the verb
help helped, treat treated, work worked
191
The exceptions are:

Verbs that end in an e, add d
use used, smoke smoked, like liked
Verbs that end in ee, keep the ee
agree agreed, free freed
Verbs that end in ic change to ick
picnic picnicked, traffic trafficked
Verbs that end in a consonant+y, change to ie
try tried, fry fried, reply replied
We double the last consonant if:
The verb has one syllable and ends in a
vowel+consonant
slam slammed, stop stopped, plan
planned
except: play played, show showed
192
The verb has two syllables and the second syllable is

stressed
regret regretted, admit admitted but happen
happened
The verbs ends in a vowel+l
travel travelled, equal equalled
193
Pronouns, Determiners
Replacing the noun
VISUAL HERE
Did you know? The longest English

word without a true vowel (a, e, i, o
or u) is "rhythm"
194
Pronouns
1. Pronouns
There are different pronouns in English depending on their
position in the sentence:
Subject pronouns
Object pronouns
Possessive
determiners
singular
plural
singular
plural
singular
plural
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them
my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
Subject pronouns replace the subject of the sentence and

object pronouns replace the object.
Possessive determiners show us possession and go in front
of the noun.
195
Study carefully this table of the English reflexive and

possessive pronouns.
Reflexive pronouns
Possessive pronouns
singular
plural
singular
plural
myself
yourself
himself
herself
Itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
mine
yours
his
hers
Its
ours
yours
theirs
We use reflexive pronouns to refer back to the subject of

the sentence.
Possessive pronouns replace a noun and show possession
at the same time.
2. Subject and object
Subject pronouns stand in subject position in the
sentence, and object pronouns stand in object
position.
Study the following examples:
Subject Verb
Object
He
saw
her.
We
met
them
I
heard
you.
196
3. Possessives
The possessive determiners always stand before the
noun. The possessive determiner + noun
combination can be either the subject or object of the
sentence.
Possessive pronouns replace the noun they refer to.

They stand alone and can be the subject or the object
of the sentence.
This is my book.
This is mine. / This book is mine.
Whose car is it? It is his car. or It is his. /The car is
his.
Their garden is huge! What about yours? Mine is
small.
4. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject
and they usually stand in object position.
I cut myself with a knife. He quickly washed himself .

197
We can also use reflexive pronouns to emphasise that the

subject did an action.
Look at the following examples:
Peter repaired the car himself.
We baked the cakes ourselves.
5. Each other, etc.

Look at the following examples:
Peter and Tom looked at themselves in the mirror.

Peter looked at himself (Peter) and Tom looked at
himself (Tom)
Peter and Tom measured each other / one another.

Peter measured Tom and Tom measured
Peter.
Peter and Sarah looked at someone else.

Peter and Sarah looked at a third person.
198
6. There or it?
Both there and it can be used in several different ways.
1. We use it to refer to specific things:
It is an expensive blue car.

2. We use it to talk about time, whether and distance:
It is 5 oclock. How far is it from the bank?

3. We use there to talk about the existence of a thing:
There are two people talking at the corner.

4. We can also use there in the meaning of a far place:
Yesterday I went there but I couldnt find anyone at

home.
199
Determiners/pronouns
Some words can be used both as pronouns and
determines. We are going to look at these words.
1. Some/any + body/thing
The following indefinite pronoun combinations are
possible:
some
any
every
body / one
thing
where
Somebody/one, something, somewhere are used in

positive sentences or in questions when we expect
a yes answer.
Anybody/one, anything, anywhere are used in
questions and negative sentences.
Everybody/one, everything, everywhere are always
followed by a singular verb.
200
2. One, ones
We use one and ones when we do not want to repeat a
countable noun.
The one is used instead of a countable singular noun:
Which car would you like? The one with 5 seats.

a + adjective + one is used to replace a countable
singular noun:
Id like a coffee, please. A strong one.

Ones is used instead of a countable plural noun:
I like your cakes, especially the ones with cream.

3. All, most, some
If we talk about general things, we use all/most/some
+ plural nouns:
All dogs have two legs. Most flowers are nice. Some
people are rude.
201
To talk about a concrete group of things or people, we

can say all/most/some of + the + noun:
All (of) the dogs in this town are dangerous. (note: of
is optional with all)
Some of the students in this school want to go to

university.
If we dont want to repeat the noun, we can use
all/most/some + of + it/the/us/you:
Wheres the cake? Sorry. I ate all of it.
4. Both, (n)either, none
Both/either/neither + noun refer to two things. Both
is followed by a plural noun + plural verb and
either/neither are followed by a singular noun +
singular verb.
Both girls are very pretty.

Either car is good for me. (= it doesnt matter which one)
Neither house is big enough. (= none of the two)
202
We can also say:
Both of the girls or both the girls

Either of the cars
Neither of the houses
Both/either/neither can also stand alone to refer to a noun:
Which one do you like? Both.

5. Each and every
Each and every have a similar meaning. But: each looks
at things individually and every looks at things
collectively.
Each + singular noun (+ singular verb)
Each book is useful. I like each book.

Each + of + plural noun/determiner (+ singular
verb)
Each of these books is good. I love each of you.

Every + singular noun (+ singular verb)
Every day is hot. They visited every museum.
203
Every one + of + the+ plural nouns/determiner (+

singular verb)
Every one of the flats has been sold.
I want to talk to every one of you.
6. Much, many, few, etc.
Study carefully the following table:
countable
uncountable positive
plural nouns nouns
sentence
much
many
few
lots, a lot,
plenty
(possible)
little
negatives
and
questions
Note the difference in the following constructions:
I have few friends/little time. (= not a lot, negative

meaning)
I have a few friends/a little time. (= some, positive

meaning)
204
7. All, whole
Whole means the entire. All can also mean entire or the
total available. Note the difference in the constructions.
the whole day / all day

the whole cake / all the cake
her whole life / all her life
his whole house / all his house
For example:
The whole day was a disaster. (=from beginning to end)

We were shopping all day.
He worked hard all his life.
His whole life was dedicated to his children.
205
The Articles
1. The definite article
The definite article is: the. It has only one form, the,
which is used for both singular and plural nouns:
For example:
the book, the house, the table

the sofas, the families, the children
The is also used for uncountable nouns:
the cheese, the air, the furniture

2. Use of the definite article
when something has been mentioned before:
Has he got a car? Yes. The car he has is expensive.

with of:
the colour of my skirt
206
when only one of something exists:
the President, the Pope, the moon, the sky

when referring to groups of people or nationalities:
the rich, the sick, the English, the Russian

when talking about species (in the context of biology):
The lion is a carnivorous animal.

when talking about musical instruments:
I play the guitar. He plays the piano.

with the media:
the press, the news, the radio, the papers, the tv

But: I watch television.
with superlatives and ordinal numbers:
the first, the second, the best, the only, the last
when talking about parts of the body:
He was hurt on the head.
207
when talking about geographical features

oceans, rivers, mountains:
the Themes, the Alps, the Pacific
regions:
the Middle East, the Sahara, the Amazon
groups of islands:
the Solomon Islands, the Caribbean
some countries:
the USA, the Ukraine, The UK, the United Arab
Emirates, the Netherlands
other:
the sea, the coast, the hills, the mountains,
the countryside
208
with the dates(only in speech):
the twentieth of July, October the fifth

talking about entertainment:
the cinema, the theatre, the opera, the museum

when referring to hotels and restaurants:
the Hilton, the Grand Hotel, the Oriental

with expressions:
the traffic, in the morning, in the afternoon

the metro, the doctor, the dentist, the hospital
the supermarket, the bank
209
3. The indefinite article

The indefinite articles are: a and an.
We use a in front of a consonant sound
a book, a table, a hotel, a moment

a tall father, a blue car, a nice pie, a fire
We use an in front of a vowel sound
an apple, an hour, an architect, an animal

an important decision, an efficient worker
The plural of a/an is zero or some/any
a cat cats, some cats

a cinema cinemas, some cinemas
4. The use of the indefinite article
when we mention something for the first time:
Hes just bought a house. Wow. Thats fantastic.

when we talk about one item of a group:
Id like to buy a car.
210
with adjective + noun:
We saw a huge, black panther.

when talking about somebodys job:
She is a high school teacher.
when talking about a kind/example of something:
We bottle a fine wine. (= a type of fine wine)

when talking about amounts:
a kilo of potatoes, a thousand litre of water

difference between a and one:
Id like a slice of cake please.

But: I wanted only one slice, not two!
when talking about frequency, price, distance
(meaning per)
5 miles an hour, two pound a kilo, twice a week
211
When talking about illnesses:
I have a cold. I have a headache.

I have a pain in my arm.
Except: flue, blood pressure and plural diseases
(measles, mumps)
With what and such when using singular, countable
nouns:
What a nice day!

Such a lovely dog.
5. The zero article
The zero article means no article.
For example:
I like travelling.
He eats meat every day.
We bought bananas.
212
6. The use of the zero article

with plural nouns when talking in general:
Katie likes exotic animals.

with uncountable nouns when talking in general:
Cheese is made from milk.

with names of people, places, companies, countries,
etc.:
Jack lives in London. I am friends with both Mary

and Peter.
with names of meals: have dinner, have lunch
with the names of some illnesses:
He has high blood pressure.

when talking about travelling: go by car/train
when talking about certain places where the

function of the place is the most important:
in hospital / at work / in prison / in bed

at school / at university
213
Prepositions
Do we really need them?
Do you know that there are more than

100 prepositions in English?
214
Prepositions of Time
1. Use of in
We use in with:
Months
in September
in may
Years
in 1996, in 1976
in 2004, in 2054
Seasons
in summer, in winter
in spring, in autumn
Centuries
in the 17th century

in the 21st century
in the Bronze Age
Main parts of the day
in the morning
in the afternoon
in the evening
215
2. Use of on
We use on with:
Days (especially with

the word day)
on Monday, on Friday
on weekdays
on Thursday morning
on a good day
on Christmas Day,
Dates
on 16th September
on 30th October
on the fourth of May
3. Use of at
We use at with:
Times
at 9am
at half past eleven
at 3 oclock
A point of time
at
at
at
at
at
Special days
(without the word
day)
at Christmas
at Easter
at the weekend
Expressions
at first, at last, at once, ect.
the start
the beginning/end
midnight
noon, at night
lunch time
216
4. In, during, while

In and during often mean the same:
in summer = during summer

in the night = during the night
During emphasizes the duration:
It rained every day during the holidays.

Both while and during refer to duration but compare:
During + noun
While + subject + verb + object
during the film

during the break
while we were watching the film

while I was having a break
5. Use of by
By means no later than.
Applications to be received by Friday the 20th June. (=

on or before Friday, not later than Friday the 20th June.)
by the end of the year / by 2pm on Tuesday / by Sunday
morning / by now / by the time you arrive home
217
6. Use of until
Until (or till) refers to the duration of an activity and
show how long something will continue. It means that
something continues until a moment in the future.
For example:
I will be in a meeting until four oclock this afternoon.
(=the meeting will continue until four, it will stop at four

oclock)
Examples:
until everyone arrives

until we get home
until the morning
7. Use of for, in
In shows how quickly something happens (how long it
takes to do something).
Dad will come home in four days.

The train journey finished in an hour.
218
For shows the duration of an action (how long in lasts):
For example:
We stayed in Birmingham for 2 days.

He went to Tibet for August.
8. Expressions
at
at midnight
at noon
at lunch time
at dusk/dawn
at the same
time
at present
at the time
at last
at the end
at night
In
in the morning
in the afternoon
in the evening
in half an hour
in a few minutes
in a moment
in a second
in time
in the present
in the past
on
on Wednesday afternoon
on Sunday evening
on a fine day
on my birthday
on the day of the wedding
on the day of something
on time
On New Years Day
on his anniversary
on time = punctual, exact time

in time = ok time, not late but almost late
in the end = finally
at the end (of something) = when something finishes
219
Prepositions of Place and
Movement
1. Use of in, at, on
in
at
on
refers to an area
or volume
refers to a point, refers to a

place or event
surface
in the building
in Europe / Asia
in London
in new York
in the garden
in the park
in the street
in the room
in bed
in hospital
in prison
in church
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
the airport
the bus stop
the bank
the library
home
church
school
a concert
a dinner
a meeting
a party
(address)
on the wall
on the screen
on the window
on the floor
on the door
on a page
on a sheet of
paper
on the bed
on the ceiling
on the ground
on the grass
on the beach
220
in
in a queue
in a row
in a line
in the sky
in the world
in the country
in the photograph
in a book
in a magazine
in a newspaper
in the world
in the corner
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
the top
the bottom
the end
the back
the front
the corner
sea
work
college
university
a dance
a wedding
on
on the right
on the left
on the left-hand
side
on the right-hand
side
on a menu
on a list
on the ground
floor
on the first floor
on a river
on the river
Thames
on the way
on a bus/plane
on the train/ship
221
2. The use of beside, besides, by
beside
s
in addition, as well as, except

Jack was at the party besides Frank and
Sally.
except
He invited everyone to his birthday party
besides me!
beside
next to
Our house is beside /by the post office
beyond, past an area or object

My friend went right by me yesterday
without saying hello.
by
using a vehicle
Jack commutes to work by car.
right next to, close

The hotel is right by the airport.
222
3. The use of between/among and like/as
between
among
between two people

among more than two people
like
as
means similar to
in the role of, function
Examples:
My room is between the kitchen and the living room.

The teacher divided the sweets among the students.
Phil works like a machine! (=he similarly to a machine,
perhaps fast, precise, etc)
My sister works as an accountant. (=she is an accountant
223
4. The use of near/on and above/over
near
on
not far
I live near the airport.
right next to, along a line
My uncle lives right on the motorway.
at a higher place (not touching)
The lamp is above the table.
above
at a higher level (general)
The sky above/over us is bright at night.
over
at a higher place (touching)

The blanket is over the bed.
224
Verbs with Preposition

1. The use of prepositions with verbs
In the English language, verbs are very often followed by a
preposition.
For example:
We are talking about the exam results.

Did you listen to radio this afternoon?
Scientists experiment with different chemicals.
Note: When a verb + preposition is followed by another
verb, this verb will use the gerund form.
For example:
We are talking about buying a new car.

She insisted on paying for the meal.
225
2. Verb patterns
Verb
Preposition
Object
We talked
They listened
about
to
the holiday
the radio
Verb
Preposition
-ing
She dreamed
Frank apologized
about
for
travelling.
being late
Verb
Prep
Object
Prep
Obj / -ing
He argued
We talked
with
to
his wife
the
manager
about
about
the cleaning.
the finances.
Verb
Object
Prep
Object / -ing
They blamed
We
congratulated
the student
them
for
on
breaking the window.

on their wedding.
226
3. Verbs with different prepositions

Some verbs can be followed by different prepositions.
Usually this involves a change in meaning.
Here are a few examples:
We talked to the boss.

We talked about the weather.
I am thinking about taking some time off. (considering)
What do you think of the new teacher? (Whats your
opinion?)
Ive just thought of a cool present for Jane. (the idea

came to my mind)
4. About and of
Think about = consider, concentrate on something
Think of = have an idea or opinion
What are you thinking about? (=whats on your mind?)

What do you think of the new boss? (=opinion)
227
Hear about= hear something new, news, new information

Hear of = to know about the existence of something
Hear from = receive information from someone
Have you heard about the accident last night?

Do you know Tom Cruise? Ive never heard of him.
I havent heard from Fred for months.
5. The use of for
Pay for something = when we buy something, we pay
for it.
Ask for something = if you want to have something, you
have to ask for it.
Apologise for something and say sorry for
something = if you do something bad or wrong, you
have to apologise/say sorry for it
Thank somebody for something = if somebody helps
you, you have to thank them for it.
Thank you for helping me yesterday.

I would like to pay for the drinks. How much are they?
I am really sorry for being late.
I apologise for the delay.
228
6. The use of on
Here are some examples of common verbs which always
use the preposition on.
depend on
rely on
spend on
congratulate on
concentrate on
insist on
I can always rely on my best friend for advice.

What do you spend your free time on?
We congratulated him on graduating from high school.
I cant concentrate on my work in this noise.
229
Nouns, Adjectives with
Prepositions
1. Nouns and adjectives with prepositions
Nouns and adjectives are often followed by a preposition.
Nouns take the same preposition as the adjective or verb
they are related to.
noun
adjective/verb
kindness of
success in
kind of
succeed in
successful in
decide on
object to
decision on
objection to
230
2. Examples of nouns with prepositions
relationship with
connection with
thanks to
debate about
insistence on
attack on
responsibility for
decrease in
contract with
damage to
discussion about
admiration for
decision on
excuse for
increase in
fall from
agreement with
reply to
information about
punishment for
advice on
respect for
delay in
call from
3. Examples of adjectives with prepositions

good at
married to
impressed with
famous for
scared of
capable of
bored of
embarrassed about
interested in
bad at
engaged to
angry with
responsible for
frightened of
sick of
fond of
successful in
excellent at
pleased with
keen on
suitable for
aware of
tired of
different from/to
influential in
231
Visit my website
www.palaber.org and sign up
for my interactive Grammar For
First Certificate in English.
www.palaber.org
PalaberEnglish
See you soon!

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