No Taxation Without Representation

Americas
Background
STAAR Review 1

Influences on the Declaration

John Locke influenced the DOI with his idea
of unalienable rights.
Locke stated these rights were life, liberty,
and pursuit of happiness.
Thomas Paine
leading voice for
complete & radical
separation from
England.
Authors famous
pamphlet, Common
Sense.

Jefferson
stole my
idea

The Constitution
In 1787 the Continental Congress wrote the U.S. Constitution. Ratified in
1789 after Bill of Rights was added.
Made the federal law supreme over any state law. - Supreme Law of the
Land
The Preamble -explains goals of Constitution.
starts with We the People
The Articles -establish the different parts of government and
responsibilities of each branch.
The Amendments -additions/changes to laws
First Ten Amendments -Bill of Rights
17 Amendments have been added
for a total of 27 Amendments

Legislative Branch
The Constitution set up our government with 3 branches.
Legislative - Executive - Judicial
Legislative - the Congress was established under Article I

Senate
2 Senators for each state

House of Representatives
based on a states population, bigger states = more reps,

Create our laws

Raise or lower our taxes
Declare war

Executive & Judicial Branches

Executive the President was established under Article II
Commander of the Military
Signs bills into law
Appoints Supreme Court judges

Judicial Supreme Court was established under Article III

Marbury v Madison gave Supreme Court the power of
Judicial Review, to determine if a law follows the
Constitution.
9 Justices on the Court

Principles of The Constitution

Limited Government powers are
limited by the Constitution.
Popular Sovereignty Consent to
be governed.
Federalism power is divided
between the federal govt. & states.
Separation of Powers federal
government is divided into three
separate branches.
Checks and Balances prevents any
one branch from becoming too
powerful.

What Are Americans ?

Alexis de Tocqueville : wrote Democracy in America
in which he tried to identify how the new Americans
were different from the European society.
Tocqueville had 5 values he found important to
Americas success as a constitutional republic:
Egalitarianism refers to equality in society.
Populism refers to the participation of the
common people in society.

King
Nobles
Middle Class
Poor
Europes Social
Classes

I know of no
country where the
love of money has
taken a stronger
hold on the
affections of men

Liberty refers to the protection from a tyrannical

government.
Individualism refers to the ability of people to
privacy, identity in a common group=Pluralism
Laissez-Faire refers to the hands off approach by
the government to our economy.

19th Century America

1803, 1812-1815, 1846-48, 1861-1865, 1865-1877
During the 1800s (19th century) the Industrial Revolution introduced the
factory system.
Manufacturing, especially in the North, became the primary source of
income. Population was urban-based.
The South also experienced growth- Cotton Kingdom. Population was
rural base, at least a third were slaves.
The West had fewer factories than the North or South. Transcontinental
Railroad was completed in 1869...frontier up for sale!
The rise of industry and the way the
government treated the different
areas would eventually led to a
Civil War.

Industrialization
During the
Gilded Age
STAAR Review 2

Technological Innovations

The Bessemer Process for making steel,

allowed for a boom in industry.
(Buildings, Railways, etc.)
Thomas Edison - use of electricity meant 24/7 productivity
Alexander Graham Bell would perfect the telephone in 1876
Electricity was used as a means of communication w/ telegraph.
Desire to build a transcontinental railway that connected the East coast
with the riches of California gold in the West.
Labor workers would organize into Labor Unions to gain higher wages,
better working conditions, and an 8 hour workday.

Population Growth
The USA experienced a rapid
population growth, as the population
jumped from less than 13 mil. to 76 mil.
in just 50 years, cities were crowded .
Americas Gilded Age was based on Big
Business entrepreneurs exploiting the
1) new technologies, 2) access to
resources, 3) wave of immigrants
arriving and 4) laissez-faire:
government doesnt interfere in
operations of free market.
New immigrants from Europe were
used as main pool of low wage, factory
workers.

The Conditions of Labor

Factories were appalling, unsafe
places to work with no safeguards
for workers.
The average workday was
long & dangerous:
10-14 hours a day
6 to 7 days a week
Wages $3 to $12 a week.
Women & children paid less.
Conditions were dangerous.

Captains of Industry
Most successful entrepreneurs became known as
Captains of Industry. Some called them Robber
Barons due to tactics used in factory & employment
practices.

Andrew Carnegie
Carnegie made fortune in steel mills in Pittsburgh, PA.
Vertical integration = buy out all related industries in
production chain.
Led rich in philanthropy, coined Gospel
of Wealth - libraries, & universities.

John D. Rockefeller
Rockefeller made his fortune in oil.
Rockefeller used horizontal integration = buying out
competitors to monopolize industry. (Controlled 90%
of oil industry)

Political Cartoons on Robber Barons

Robber Barons were accused of
unfair business practices
abusing labor w/ low wages & long
hours
having too much, influence on
government
Social Darwinism - Survival of the
Economic Fittest

Pros and Cons of Big Business

Manufacturing more
efficient = leads to large
quantities at low prices.
Large numbers of jobs for
a growing population.

Exploited workers with long

hours, low wages & unsafe
working environment
Corrupt influence on govt.

Rise of Unions
Labor class had no bargaining power >
workers could easily be replaced.
began to form unions & organized
strikes to demand better working
conditions.
Government was critical
towards unions - favored
business over labor class.

Major Unions & Strikes

Knights of Labor : national union of skilled &
unskilled workers. Opposed immigration viewed as competition for jobs.
American Federation of Labor founded by
Samuel Gompers; consisted of many unions
made up of skilled labor; weakened
because exclusion non-skilled workers
led to the creation of Industrial Workers of the World.
More than 20,000 strikes occurred between
1880 and 1900.Infamous strikes included:
The Haymarket Affair of 1886
Pullman Strike & Homestead Steel Strike

Laws Against Anti-Competitive Practices

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
The Interstate Commerce Act: prohibited unfair
and corrupt practices by the railroads.
First time Congress regulated big business.

Roosevelts Square Deal

good trusts (didnt harm public interests)
badSherman
trusts (created
monopolies)
Anti-Trust
Act (1890)
Lawnicknamed
aimed at stopping
monopolies
& trusts.
TR
the Trust-busting
president.
Marked a change in the attitude of govt
about abuses of big business.
Rockefellers Standard Oil : 1st monopoly govt ordered dismantled.

Political Machines
Overcrowding in cities forced immigrants
into run-down, crowded neighborhoods
and tenements cheap apartments that
lacked basic necessities.
Political machines were corrupt - took
advantage of immigrants...
get citizenship, food, furniture, jobs, paved roads IF
you paid the boss & voted for his politicians
Infamous political machine: Tammany Hall in
New York City, run by Boss Tweed

Xenophobia
1882 - Chinese Exclusion Act
was passed
1st federal law restricting specific
ethnicity from immigration into USA
Nativists hated on immigrants because
they felt immigrants:
increased the crime rate
took jobs away
would destroy American culture
Uh...sounds familiar maybe????

Dawes Act & Native Amer. Citizenship

As Great Plains were overrun, Native
Americans were coerced to
undergo Americanization.
Dawes Act (1887) abolished
Native American tribal units, took
away citizenship to those who
resisted assimilation and sold of
their lands. (similar to 1862
Homestead Act - but worse)
Most Native Americans not recognized
U.S. citizens. (14th Amendment?) until
1924 - American Indian Citizenship Act.

Progressive
Era

The Populist Party

The Grange Movement - unite farmers efforts
for economic & political reforms.
Munn vs. Illinois & Interstate Commerce Act.

1891- new political party gained support

of the common man
Wanted govt to end laissez-faire &
prevent poverty, injustice, & unfair laws.
Coinage of Silver
Govt Ownership of Utilities
Immigration Restrictions quotas
Graduated Income Tax tax wealthy at a
higher rate
Shorter 8 Hr. Work Day

Populists Influence
1892, 1896 & 1900 Elections Populists
supported William Jennings Bryan for
President. He lost & the Populist Party soon
faded, but
Left its mark on American history w/ the idea
of Third parties.
Third parties provide an outlet for minorities
to voice grievances or new ideas.
Many Populist ideas were later adopted by
the larger political parties, like a graduated
income tax.

Progressive Movement 1890 - 1920

Social Gospel Protestant Christians
calling for social reforms: Included
abolition of child labor, safer working
conditions, & banning alcohol. (Led to 18th
Amendment)
Muckrakers: Investigative writers who
exposed industrial & govt corruption;
examined unfair business practices, plight
of poor immigrants, other social injustices.
Much of the corruption in govt could be
traced to the Spoils System: gaving
jobs as rewards to ill-qualified people
who helped get a candidate elected.
When Pres. Garfield was assassinated by
a job-seeker, Congress had to act.

Civil Service Reform

Pendleton Act (1883) passed by
Congress created Civil Service
Commission: gave exams and
appointments based on merit.
Initiative voters could introduce bills.
Referendum voters could demand a bill
placed on ballot to be voted on.
Recall elected officials could be removed
by voters in special election.
Direct Election of Senators 17th
Amendment

Triangle Shirtwaist Factory

In March 1911, women and girls worked
on the upper floors in a sweatshop when
the floor caught fire and the doors were
bolted shut.
In all 146 people died...burned to death
or jumped.
Soon after the tragedy, Congress
passed laws sympathetic to unions:
Department of Labor
promote the welfare of working people
and improve their working conditions.
Child Labor Act Prohibited sale of
goods made by child labor.

Womens Suffrage Movement

1848, Seneca Falls - proclaimed
women were equal to men &
deserved suffrage.
In 1873, Susan B. Anthony attempted to
vote, was arrested & fined.
In 1874, Supreme Court ruled women
were citizens, but couldnt vote, because
voting wasnt a privilege of citizenship.
1890-National American Womens
Suffrage Assoc. forms, led by: Susan B.
Anthony & Elizabeth C. Stanton
19th Amendment, ratified on August 18,
1920- no state could deny a citizen right
to vote based on sex.

American
Imperialism

Spanish-American War: A Turning Point

Spanish-Amer War marked beginning of the US as a world power!
Many Americans wanted newly acquired territories should be annexed
(make a part of U.S.) these people called imperialists.
1890 - Japan relations 1st industrial nation in
Asia // Russo-Jap War.
Open Door Policy
in 1899 - keep Chinas
markets open to USA
Boxer Rebellion

America in the Caribbean & Panama

Spanish-Amer War gave US control of Puerto Rico & Cuba

US Military remained in Cuba - American businesses began to
invest O-LOT-O money via Platt Amendment-repealed in 1930.
Panama was a part of Columbia-refused to allow US build canal.

Pres. Roosevelt offered Panamanians independence if they would

allow US to build canal-sent warships to empower Panamanian rebels.

Speak Softly, Carry a Big Stick

Monroe Doctrine (1832) prevented further
European presence in Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt Corollary = Europe to stay away
aka Big Stick Policy
Pres.Taft choose Dollar Diplomacy- U.S.
banks gave loans to Latin Amer. nations. Example : U.S. lent money to Nicaragua.
Nicaragua cant repay loan.
US wanted to take over Nicaraguas railroad & banks
Nicaraguas govt refuses to allow this.
Pres. Taft sents the Marines.

Pres. Wilson refused to recognize new

Mexican govt. Claims Moral Diplomacy
When Pancho Villa entered contested US
territory. U.S. citizens are killed, Pres. Wilson
sends Punitive Expedition of 1916 into
Mexico to conduct manhunt.

World War I
The Great War
1914-1918

MAIN Causes of World War 1

WWI began in 1914 but it wouldnt be until 1917 till US joins.

There were 4 major causes of why the war happened:
1) M-ilitarism
2) A-lliances
3)
4)

I-mperialism
N-ationalism

Europe was divided into two alliances,

1)

Central Powers

2)

Allied Powers aka Entente

Germany Austria-Hungary, & Ottoman

Empire.

Great Britain, France, & Russia.

1)

Austria-Hungary used imperialism in

controlling several nations located in

WWI Beginnings
Archduke Ferdinand Austria-Hungary
while touring the Balkans, was killed by
a man from Serbia on June 28, 1914
Aust-Hungary declares war on
Serbia>> Serbia was allied w/ Russia

Russia declares war on Aust-Hungary

>>Germany was allied w/ Aust-Hungary

Take that
you
imperialist
@#$%@

The Archduke gets capped

So Germany declares war on Russia

A New Kind of War

New weaponized technologies - prolonged WWI w/ much bloodshed:

machines guns, poison gas, submarines, airplanes, & tanks
Trench warfare (Western Front) - separated by barbed wire &
landmines, the area between - no mans land
Because neither side could advance without catastrophic casualties a
stalemate drew out the war...

Causes of US Involvement in WWI

In 1914, US remained neutral. However, close
ties with Britain & France, & German aggression
toward US would lead to American involvement:
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare >attack on
civilian ships. (1915) Lusitania
Zimmerman Note > telegraph offered Mexico
a deal to join w/ Germany & invade US
US declares war on Germany Apr 6, 1917: Lacked military personnel
U.S. Congress passed Selective Service Act (draft), 3 mil. men to
served w/ AEF- American Expeditionary Force
commanded by General John J. Pershing

- Cost of the war, about $30 billion, was paid for with
increased taxes and the sale of War Bonds.

-During the war, liberties were violated - Espionage Actcrime to criticize the war effort. (Uh...1st Amendment and
freedom of speech was pretty much ignored)

-Over 6,000 arrested. Schenk v. United States (1919)

End of WWI
Germany, exhausted by war, agreed to an
Armistice (peace agreement) -Nov.11,1918
Pres. Wilson claimed war was a crusade
making the world safe for democracy.
Pres. Wilson unveils his Fourteen Points
European nationalities self-determination
League of Nation- organization to
mediate intl disputes to avoid war.
USA, France, UK, & Italy met to discuss
peace terms called Treaty of Versailles:
terms very harsh on Germany>
Lost colonies --Demilitarization --Accept blame War Guilt Clause >
make reparations (payments) These terms led to WW II.
USA Rejection of League of Nations
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge led opposition of US involvement
United States Congress refused to ratify Treaty of Versailles & USA
never joined League of Nations.

The
Roaring
Twenties

The

Post War America

America went into a period of isolationism.

Pres. Warren Harding - Return to Normalcy
Didnt join League of Nations & restricted immigration.
New fears of Communists, anarchists immigrants.
In 1917, Russians led by Lenin had a revolution
becoming a communist nation.
Red Scare - new wave of nativism
--Palmer Raids -- Sacco & Vanzetti
Immigration Acts -1921, 1924, & 1929
No Asians, strict quotas on new immigrants
Belief in superiority of Anglo-Saxon race Eugenics - purer race improved by breeding.

Return to Laissez-Faire
3 presidents- Harding, Coolidge & Hoover: focused less
on foreign affairs, more on prosperity at home.
Laissez-Faire brought back political corruption:
Ohio Gang - Spoils System
Teapot Dome Scandal - Cabinet
member took bribes for land leases
Rugged Individualism & Laissez-Faire
led to prosperity:
Rise of the Automobile - stimulated other
industries: oil, steel, advertising, rubber, etc.
Fordism - assembly line to mass produce.
New appliances like vacuum
cleaners, refrigerators, radios,
& motion pictures made spending
money easy and fun!

Age of Mass Consumption

Advertising stimulated demand.
Consumers began buying on credit.
Millions speculate & invest in stock market.
Progressive Era - Temperance Movement
pushed for eventual 18th amendment-ratified 1919
Prohibition -banned manufacture or distribution
of alcohol. People didnt care...they wanted booze!
Speakeasies & bootlegging formed due to
demand for alcohol - led to organized crime.
21st Amendment repeals (reversed) Prohibition.
Farmers suffered-European market was gone.

Emergence of New Values

- Scopes Monkey Trial >sensational
(Fundamentalism vs. Modernism)
-John Scopes taught evolution in his Tennessee
Biology class, was arrested and put on trial.
-1st trial to be radio-broadcasted Result> Scopes found guilty, fined $100
LITERATURE-AMERICAN REALISM
-A new group of writers, known as the Lost Generation, rejected the
desire for material wealth; believed they did not fit patterns of everyday
life after horrors of World War I
Changing Roles of Women
- In 1920, 19th Amendment gavE women right to vote.
- Booming economy created new jobs &
many women began working
outside the home.
- Independent young, urban
women became known as Flapperssymbolizing new freedoms many
women felt.

The Contributions of Harlem

New York City became the music publishing capital.
Tin Pan Alley - center of this activity.
Black Americans began moving to
Promised Land of Northern cities in search of jobs
in industrial cities & to escape sharecropping,
& deep racism of the South.- became known
as Great Migration.
1920s is often called the Jazz Age, because
of the importance of new forms of music (literature,
poetry, fashion, fine art) coming out of African
American culture - became known as the
Harlem Renaissance.

Great Depression
and the
New Deal

5 Causes of Great Depression

Overproduction: Manufacturers began
producing more than what was being bought.
People buying on credit...make-believe-money :(
Speculation: Stocks soared in value as people
bought A LOT of stocks hoping to get rich quick.
Buying on Margin: People bought stock putting down 10% & financed
the rest with a loan...but what happens if your stock fell?
Shaky Banking Methods:There were banks who invested their clients
money in unsound business investments.
Tariffs on International Trade: made foreign imported goods more
expensive (Smoot-Hawley Tariff). Foreign nations returned the favor...
crap...that back-fired!

Stock Market Crash

Black Thursday, October 24 - stock market
began to decline
Bankers rapidly bought stocks to stave crash.
If stock prices fell, people wont be able to payback
loans. People panicked and frantically sold off
stocks, which drove stocks into death spiral!
October 29, Black Tuesday - stock market
crashes.
Banks lost money...which didnt belong to them!
Banks closed > businesses closed > people lost
jobs...

No Mo Jobs, No Mo Money, No Mo, No Mo!

With
no
safety
net
such
as
____________
insurance,
nearly
one
of
every
four
Americans
were
unemployed.
____________
and
bread
lines
appeared
across
the
nation.
Homelessness
soared
as
___________
sprang
up
everywhere
and
were
called
Hoovervilles,
a
sign
of
disrespect
to
President
_______________.
Despite
high
unemployment,
the
federal
government
refused
to get involved, remaining true to the idea of a _______________ economy, or limited
government involvement in the economy. The president reasoned intervention would
reduce the incentive to work and undermine ___________ ____________that he
believed
had
made
America
great.
However,
he
did
cut taxes, increased _______________ on a massive public
project, the___________, and gave_______ to some banks and
businesses hoping money would soon _____________ to the
American people. By 1932, when _____________ entered office,
over ______________ businesses had failed and over
_____________ Americans were out of work.

trickle-down

federal spending

100,000

unemployment

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Herbert Hoover

loans

soup kitchens

shantytowns

rugged individualism

Hoover Dam

12 million

laissez-faire

Dust Bowl

Mechanized farming (since 1840s) chewed up

Great Plains.
Early 1930s - severe drought rolls on it.
Farmers & their families packed up, headed
west to California looking for work- Okies

Mexican Repatriation
750,000 Mexicans came during the 1920s
33,000 were allowed during the 1930s
During the Great Depression white American
farmers went after jobs that had been filled by
Mexican immigrants
Pres. Hoover signed Mexican Repatriation Act
- forced 500,000 Mexican-Americans to be
repatriated- sent to Mexico.
Can Hoover leave
already!!!

FDR a New Style of Leadership

In the First Hundred Days of office FDR
was able to get Congress to pass many
new laws.
Used the radio to speak directly to
American people in fireside chats.
FDRs wife Eleanor, served as FDRs
eyes & ears traveling U.S. in his place
Favorable legislation to help labor class
(Wagner Act), women & minoritiesUnion membership had its greatest
growth during 1930s.
Contentious relationship w/ Supreme
Court - Schechter v. U.S. & FDRs
attempt at Court-Packing

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

The 1932 presidential election saw Franklin
Roosevelt (FDR) win with his promise to bring an end
to the eras laissez-faire and implement a plan to bring
an end to the depression and put American people
back to work, called the New Deal- permanently
increasing the size & power of the federal government!
Your table will have 20 minutes to research identify, and
provide a visual for the following components on a poster
entitled- Roosevelts New Deal: Relief, Recovery, Reform
1) What New Deal Programs were used to bring RELIEF? (at
least two)
2) What New Deal Programs were used to bring
RECOVERY? (at least two)
3) What New Deal Programs were used to bring REFORM?
(at least two)

tinyurl.com/FDR-bohlin

tinyurl.com/FDR-turf

World War II
1941-1945

Origins of WW II & American Neutrality

The Rise of Dictators:
Stalin, Hitler, Mussolini, Empire of Japan
Failure of League of Nations & Treaty of Versailles
The failure of Appeasement with Hitler:
Giving into Hitlers demand hoping he would not
start a war...yeah...that would be epically dumb!
German invasion of Poland on Sept.1, 1939- used a new
type of warfare called Blitzkrieg lightning war
After Poland, Germany invades France...
As tension rose in Europe, USA passed series of
Neutrality Acts- prohibited Americans to be on
ships or from selling goods to nations at war.
American did sell resources, fuel to England on a cash-and-carry
basis. Later we would send
arms via Lend Lease Act

America Moves Toward War

Japan - had few natural resources & began
invading nations of Asia, particularly China.
U.S.A. cut off trade and froze Japans assets
December 7, 1941 - Japanese launched a surprise
attack on the American naval base at Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii- crippled the American fleet, it
destroyed most battleships, over 3,600 casualties.
Next day, Dec. 8, FDR asks Congress to declare war
against Japan...Germany & Italy responded by
declaring war against the U.S.

Americans At War: Homefront

Demand for labor in war effort would bring an
end to Great Depression.- from peacetime
production to wartime.
To raise money govt again used War Bonds
Victory Gardens and Rationing helped ensure enough resources were
available for the frontlines.
Govt concerned about espionage, created
Office of War Information (OWI).
Women and Minorities took over jobs
formerly held by men off fighting, also made significant
military contributions as well
Tuskegee Airmen served with distinction during
the war. Will help integrate military.
Navajo Code Talkers used their native tongue to
transmit coded military convo.

Internment of Japanese Americans

1942- FDR issued Executive Order 9066
requiring all Japanese Americans moved to
internment camps away from the West coast.
Supreme Court case of Korematsu v. U.S.
- upheld relocations on grounds that in
wartime constitutional liberties may be limited.

Normandy Invasion against Germany: D-Day

After successfully taking North Africa & Italy,
Allied Powers set goals on liberating France.
June 6, 1944 D-Day Allied troops under
command of General Dwight Eisenhower
began largest amphibious operation in history
as hundreds of thousands of troops
landed and took the beaches of
Normandy in northwest France.

Beginning of the End in Europe

On May 2, 1945, Germany surrendered and
war in Europe was over! Rather than being
captured Hitler committed suicide on April 30th.
This date is celebrated as VE-Day for Victory
in Europe.
Part of Hitlers Nazi philosophy was his
hatred of Jews & his Final Solution+6 million would die in Germanys
genocide of Jews in the Holocaust.
But the European Theater was not the
only front the US was fighting in...WWII
was not over yet...

The War in Asia and the Pacific

Japan had taken advantage of the US efforts
in Europe and soon control lands throughout
Asia & the Pacific.
1942- Japanese army captured the Philippines &
forced U.S. soldiers to surrender and march 60
miles during the Bataan Death March. Over 5,000
Americans died along the way.
Battle of Midway was turning point in Pacific.
Island hopping- to retake lands Japanese had
captured in the Pacific.
One by one, American forces took back the
Philippines, Guam, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.

Atomic Bomb & the End of WWII

1942, Pres. FDR sent a group of scientists to
New Mexico to develop 1st atomic bomb.
Manhattan Project was led by Robert
Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein.
On April 12, 1945 Pres. FDR died and VP Harry
Truman replaced him.
Truman told the Japanese to surrender or prepare to
be destroyed.
To avoid a larger loss of life Pres. Truman chose to
drop the bomb on Japan.
Hiroshima & Nagasaki were selected to be bombed both were destroyed with 230,000 people killed
instantly.
Japanese soon surrendered, on Sept. 2, 1945- war in
the Pacific was over, on V-J Day - Victory over Japan.

Little Boy was the

worlds first atomic
bomb

tinyurl.com/bohlinWW2
First Team to get all nine...GO!

The Cold War

1945-1991
(Early 1945-1961)

The Cold
War
THESIS: Although U.S.A. & Soviet Union were allies during World
War II, these world powers soon became rivals during was called
the Cold War- war of words, arms & technological oneupsmanship -led to frequent conflicts on every continent.
Opposing ideological systems between the U.S.A.(Capitalism &
Democracy) and the Soviet Union (Communism).

Yalta & Potsdam:Friends No More

In 1945 right before WWII ended \Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met
in Yalta:
formation of the United Nations.
how Germany would be divided up
nations liberated - free elections.
Later at Potsdam- right after the war
they disagreed...

The Cold War Begins

USSR saw capitalist governments in the
West as a threat:
buffer zone - set up communist
governments in satellite nations he
heavily influenced & controlled.
Churchill called it Iron Curtain-cutting E.
Europe off from freedoms of the West.
Greece & Turkey were threatened Truman offered military & financial aid.Promised to support any country for
Democracy as a way to CONTAIN
communism.- Truman Doctrine
Sec. of State George Marshall plan to aid war-torn Europe nations
as to keep them from becoming
Communist...yep-Germany & Italy too!
- Marshall Plan

Division of Germany After WWII-Germany was divided into eastern

bloc & western bloc.
Berlin - divided into West & East Berlin
In 1948 USSR attempted Berlin Blockade - US
responded with Berlin Airlift-flew tons
of food, fuel, & other goods into West Berlin
1961, Soviets built Berlin Wall- became physical
symbol of Iron Curtain- the geographic & political
separation of democracy from communism.
Concept of collective security - West Euro/US
form military alliances NATO & USSR/Eastern
Bloc form Warsaw Pact
Containment - working in Europe, but Asia
China becomes Communist in 1949
Korean Peninsula- split between USSR and US

Berlin: a Divided City

This map shows how Germany
was divided as a country.

This map shows how Berlin was

divided as a city.

This small white area shows

that the city of Berlin is located
inside of East Germany.

The Korean War, 1950-1953

Korea-former colony of Japan, was divided

at the the 38th Parallel line.
North Korea- communist supported by
China & U.S.S.R.
South Korea- democratic supported by U.
S.A.
1950, North Korea invaded the South.
U.S.- pass a resolution to send U.N. troops
(mostly Americans)to South Korea.
General Douglas MacArthur commands U.S.
forces- achieves surprise offensive against N.
Korea.
China sends a few (a million) troops to join the
fray! MacArthur threats to use
THE bomb on China...Truman fires him.
1953-Armistice is signed ending hostilities.
called for a DMZ, (demilitarized zone) as a

Thebuffer
Arms
Race
between
the two Koreas

Use of atomic bombs in 1945 to end WWII

triggered an arms race By 1949, U.S.S.R. had developed their bomb.
So long large standing armies...its about the
most biggest, baddest nuclear bombs

The Space Race

1957- The Soviets Launch Sputnik - worlds first
artificial satellite to be sent into space.
America started placing a higher emphasis
on science in schools...1st STEM push!
Advances in telecommunication, engineering,
medicine (polio vaccine) etc
The United States would eventually
out-pace the Soviets and had men
land on the moon in 1969.

Red Scare Numero DOS & a Boomin Good Time

Following WWII, America feared Communist ___________ from within the
US
leading
to
a
new
___________.
The
_______________
____________________, created by Congress, investigated private citizen,
professional athletes and ____________________ about possible Communist
_______________. Those identified as ___________, often had their
__________________ violated, were ___________ and often lost their jobs.
Senator __________________ claimed to have had hundreds of names of
communists, including people in______________________. His methods became
known as _____________, which created an air of fear and suspicion. In 1950, Julius
and _______________, two suspected spies, were charged with selling secrets to
the ___________ about how to make atomic bombs, and were found guilty and
executed.
Overall, though, the 1950s was a time of _______________. As millions of
___________ came home from the war, Americans could turn their attention to
work and raising families. Under popular President _________________, America
saw the formation of the ______________ system, allowing for travel and
___________ to take hold. And with the _____________, veterans and their
families took advantage and started a _______________, like the mass-produced,
suburban of ____________, New York! Good thing too...since the 1950s ushered in
the largest _____________ America has ever _____________!!

House Un-America Activities Committee (HUAC)

military veterans
economic growth
sympathies
blacklisted
commies
Joseph McCarthy
Ethel Rosenburg
GI Bill
Baby Boom
McCarthyism
constitutional rights
movie stars
government
consummated
Dwight Eisenhower
Red Scare
housing boom
suburbia
sabotage
Soviet Union
interstate highway system
Levitton

The Civil Rights

Movement
STAAR Review 12

Which event should be included on timeline?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Rosenberg's Executed for Spying

JFK Elected as President
Vietnam War Ends
March on Washington

This newspaper headline was a direct result

from which of the following events?
A.
B.
C.
D.

MLK organizes a March on Washington.

Jackie Robinson becomes 1st African American to play
professional baseball.
Supreme Court hands down Brown v. Board of Education.
Little Rock Nine banned from Arkansas high school.

The map shows that African American voter registration

increased dramatically from 1961 to 1966. What was a
primary reason for this increase?

1.
2.
3.
4.

End of Poll Taxes in 1965

Title IX
Immigration Act of 1965
Brown v. Board of Education

Civil War Amendments

During the early years of our nation, slavery but after the Civil War
things began to change with constitutional amendments:
13th Amendment (1865) abolished slavery
14th Amendment (1868) equal protection of citizenship.
15th Amendment (1870) gave all male suffrage
These amendments to the US Constitution
were the foundation of the Civil Rights
Movement of the Twentieth Century.

Brown v. Board of Education, 1954

After Civil War, Southern states passed laws
requiring segregation in public places, including
schools.Jim Crow Laws aka Black Codes.
Supreme Court decision of Plessy v. Ferguson
(1892-96) upheld the constitutionality of
segregation laws -Separate But Equal
Linda Brown, represented by NAACP Lawyer,
Thurgood Marshall won & Supreme Court Justice Earl
Warren Separate But Equal unconstitutional...and stupid!

Non-Violent Organizations
MLK preached non-violence.
civil disobedience (peaceful protest)
assassinated in 1968
NAACP Civil Rights organization.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC)
Radical Organizations
Malcolm X by any means necessary
Militant and radical separatism
assassinated in 1965
Nation of Islam (Black-American Muslims) said
Islam should be the religion of all African
Americans.
Black Panthers demanded right to determine
their own destiny.

More Civil Rights Whos Who

1947- Jackie Robinson

1948 - Integration of Military
1950 - Sweatt v. Painter
The Jerk-Faces:
Orval Faubus
George Wallace
Lester Maddox
Eugene Bull Connor
Advocates of Racial Equality:
Robert F. Kennedy
Billy Graham
Eleanor Roosevelt
Colin Powell
Vernon Baker

You all will complete a thinking map with the following components:
-Chronologically organize the events below with accurate dates
-You must include date, key figure(s), brief description of what took
place
The intent is to see how each of the events were related and
contributed to the greater Civil Rights Movement of the era.

March on Washington
16th Street Baptist Church Bombing
Voting Rights Act
North Carolina Sit-Ins
Selma to Montgomery March (Bloody Sunday)
Little Rock Nine
Murder of Emmett Till
Freedom Rides Start
Civil Rights Act
Birmingham Student Demonstrations
The Montgomery Bus Boycott

The Chicano Movement

Mexican Americans, aka Chicanos, faced
discrimination, racism, and exploitation in 1960s
America.
Hector P. Garcia-WW II veteran how advocated
for integration of latinos
Cesar Chavez - supported farm worker rights and
demanded increased wages and better working
conditions
Dolores Huerta - formed the United Farm Workers
(UFW) with Chavez. to gain increased rights.Later
worked for womens rights, immigration reform, and
the environment.
The Chicano Mural Movement -an
important way to support identity and justice
in Mexican American communities.

The American Indian Movement - AIM

Native Americans have been exploited
since the beginning of America.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibited
discrimination against Native
Americans, but many still felt they were
being mistreated by the government.
Using the slogan of Red Power, the
American Indian Movement was
founded to gain respect for their
heritage and their civil rights.

Turbulent Sixties &

Vietnam War
A Decade of Protest and Change

Kennedy Presidency, 1960 - 1963

1960 -John Kennedy (JFK) narrowly defeated Richard
Nixon - youngest President to date...
New Frontier Policy -JFK challenged US to ask not
what your country can do for you, but what you
can do for your country.
Medicare, Civil Rights, Education, & Peace Corps.
Soviet launch Sputnik in 1957, JFK announced US
would put man on moon...Neil Armstrong talks a
moon-walk in 1969- US spends tons in education to
advance technologies for space program!
Cuban Nationalist, Fidel Castro aligned with Russia
1961- The Bay of Pigs Invasion, US secretly training
Cuban exiles to invade Cuba...failed.
U.S. spy planes discovered Cuban missile sites for
nuclear weapons supplied by Soviet Union. Soviet
nukes 90 miles away from the USA...oh fudgsicles!
JFK orders naval blockade around Cuba to stop

small
One man,
for
step nt leap
ia
g
e
n
d
o
ankin
for m

Johnson Presidency, 1963-1969

JFK was assassinated Nov. 22, 1963-VP Lyndon
B. Johnson (LBJ) became the next President.
LBJs domestic agenda was called the Great
Society- war on poverty, wanted to expand
education, health care, & improve Civil Rights.
(Some compare w/ FDRs New Deal...uh, ok?)
Civil Rights Act , 1964 no discrimination
based on Race, Color, Sex, Religion, or
National Origin.
Voting Rights Act, 1965 enforced voting
rights, outlawed literacy test & poll taxes
Medicare Act, 1965 expanded Social Security
to help those over 65 years of age.
Urban Renewal to rebuild inner city slums &
assist poor with rent.
But despite LBJs efforts the Great Society failed
because of the cost of the Vietnam War.

Womens Liberation Movement

Betty Friedans The Feminine Mystique inspired
women to feel they should be able to compete for the
same jobs w/ equal pay.
Freidan helped form NOW, the National Organization for
Women, which helped expand a womans right to
education, employment.
SC decision - Roe V. Wade gave women right to an
abortion if they chose.
Title IX banned sex discrimination in education

Supreme Court Decisions

Mendez V. Westminster School District (1947) &
Delgado V. Bastrop ISD (1948) Under 14th
Amendment made it illegal to segregate
Mexican American children
Hernandez V. Texas (1954) ruled

LBJ

Youth Movement and Counterculture

Large numbers of baby boomers reached
their twenties during the 1960s and 1970s.
(Born in 40s & 50s)
In the 1950s Beat Generation had rebelled
against conformity with poetry and political
activism-represented an early form of what
would later become known as the counterculture.
Many youth in the 60s-70, adopted a spirit
of rebellion, objected mainstream,
conformist life-style of modern society, they
called the Establishment vs. Hippies - led
the counter-culture movement.
openly experimented with drugs and sex
which would discredit their political
stances

Vietnam War and US Involvement

Vietnam - once a French colony, in 1954 Ho Chi
Minh led Vietnamese victory over the French.
At Geneva Conference the nation of Vietnam was
divided:Ho Chi Minh (Communist) controlled North
& South Vietnam nation supported by USA
Pres. Eisenhower - Domino Theory states if a nation
falls to communism surrounding region will also fall.
The U.S. government felt that if South Vietnam
became communist then Laos, Cambodia, &
Thailand and maybe even Japan would fall.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 1964
North Vietnam attacks U.S. ship in the Gulf
of Tonkin off the coast of North Vietnam.
Congress voted to give Pres. LBJ powers to stop
North Vietnamese aggression.

Vietnam War and US Involvement

Pres. LBJ used the powers given under the Gulf
of Tonkin Resolution to escalate US
involvement
By 1968, over 500,000 men in South Vietnam.
New weapons like:
Napalm-highly flammable gasoline based jelly
that burned at 3,000 degrees
Agent Orange- a chemical used to clear thick
jungle to be able to see the enemy
In 1968, North Vietnamese launched a surprise
attack- Tet Offensive- became turning point in war
as it - demonstrated to American public even
though govt said victory within reach, war was
nowhere near done

A Growing Discontent: Anti-War Movement

1st war televised, daily on American TVmedia had great influence in shaping public
opinion.
Govt told Americans war was going well, but
press coverage of wars brutality & little US
progress created credibility gap- Americans
lost faith in governments reliability. (1971Pentagon Papers)
The Anti-war Movement was popular among
young Americans who objected the war...
they burned draft cards, marched on the
Washington, held rallies, and staged
demonstrations across college campus.
Those who supported the war were called
hawks while those against it were doves.
In 1969, national guardsmen opened fire on
student demonstrators- killed 4 college
students at Kent State University

Vietnam War Under Richard Nixon, 1969-1973

Richard Nixon (Republican) elected president in
1968 promised peace with honor in ending war
strongly influenced by Sec. of State Henry
Kissinger.
Vietnamization gradually withdrawal of
American troops to handover heaviest fighting to
South Vietnamese Army.
Bombing of Cambodia nations of Cambodia &
Laos to supply Viet Cong, Nixon bombs Cambodia
Diplomacy started negotiations with China to
pressure North Vietnam into a peace agreement.
1973, Henry Kissinger works out a cease-fire with
North Vietnam- US pulls out and North Vietnam
releases POWs.
By 1975, Saigon, the Souths capital city fell
as North Vietnamese Communists took over.

Legacy of the Vietnam War

Deaths: Nearly 60,000 Americans died, +1 million

Vietnamese had been killed.
War expenses - would exacerbate American
recession & ended domestic aide programs like
the Great Society.
Confidence in the govt had been destroyed.
War Powers Resolution legislation putting
limits on a presidents ability to send troops to
fight overseas without approval from Congress.
During the Vietnam War, 18 yr olds were old
enough to be drafted into military, to fight & die
for their country, but not old enough to vote.
In 1971, The 26th Amendment lowered voting
age to 18 years.

Nixon to Clinton
1969 - 2000

The Imperial Presidency

Constitutions separation of powers- to create
balance between 3 separate branches of govt.
Since FDRs New Deal, Presidential powers
increased dramatically- increase in Presidential
power is called an Imperial Presidency.

Nixons Domestic Policy

Nixon, a Republican, sparked a new
conservative movement.

Felt federal social programs were inefficient;

Eliminated many Great Society programs and
gave federal funds to state & local govts to
decide how to spend the money.
Environmental Protection Agency-EPA signed
law by Pres. Nixon to protect environment,
sets air & water pollution standards.
Endangered Species Act - a law requiring Fish
& Wildlife Service to list species of plants &

Nixon Opens China & Dtente with USSR

In 1972, Nixon became 1st American president
to visit China & Russia.
Dtente- a relaxing of tensions with the USSR.
Nixon & Soviet leaders started talks on reducing
nuclear arms & missile systems. - (SALT Talks)

The Watergate Crisis

In 1972, former CIA agents, working for Nixon

caught breaking into HQ of Democratic Party
Pres. Nixon attempted to cover up investigation
on the grounds that it involved national security.
Nixons recorded conversations were ordered by
Supreme Court but Nixon refused claiming
executive privilege...which is not an actual thing.
Nixon Tapes - revealed Nixon had lied about
cover-up and had deleted portions of tapes.
Congress
moved to impeach
(remove from
The
Impact
of
Watergate
office) Nixon. Instead, Nixon resigned.
Lowered public confidence in the
government, again.
Strengthened role of the press in
informing public. (muckraking)
Congress passed new laws to limit
Presidential powers.

President
Gerald Ford
When Nixon resigned, Gerald Ford became
the next President-not even been elected as
Vice-President, he had been appointed.
One of Fords first acts as President was to
pardon Nixon for any crimes- not popular!
Pres. Fords main worries were economic
ones. Inflation - US Dollar loses value &
stagnation of job market resulted in
Stagflation inflation w/ high
unemployment.

Energy Crisis of the 1970s

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries aka OPEC.
In 1960s, OPEC - formed by oil producing nations
located mostly in Middle East.
In 1973, OPEC used oil as political weapon by
placing oil embargo on USA & Western Europe
for supporting Israel in a Middle East war.
Overnight the price of gas shot up!

President Jimmy Carter

Took office in 1977- main problem was U.S. econ.Interests rates at 21% & price of oil cont rising.
Department of Energy address dependence on
foreign oil & rising gas prices.
1979- 3 Mile Island accident, Nuclear Regulatory
Commission- safeguards for use of nuclear energy.
Diversity women & minorities in govt positions.
Community Reinvestment Act required banks to
make loans available in low income, minority
communities.

Pres. Jimmy Carters Foreign Policy

Made human rights a high priority, condemned
apartheid in South Africa, fought for Jewish
emigration (leave) from USSR.
Signed a deal returning control of the Panama
Canal to Panama in 2000.
Israel - declared sovereign Jewish state by the U.
N. in 1948.- US strongly supports Israel, a
Democracy surrounded by Islamic nations.
Egypt & Israel have fought several wars since...
forever...Pres. Carter arranged for a meeting
between Egypts and Israels leaders: Camp David
Accords ending years of war.
Continued with policy of dtente with USSR, until
1979 when Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
*US boycotted 1980 Olympic games in Moscow.

Carter and Iran

Shah of Iran- a brutal dictator, was an ally of US.
In 1978, the Shah overthrown by Islamic
caliphate, Ayatollah Khomeini - hostile to US.
In 1979, the Shah came to US, sparking antiAmerican riots leading to 52 Amer. being taken
hostage after Iranians seize American Embassy in
Tehran, Iran.
Pres. Carter staged a rescue attempt, but it
failed- hostages would be held for 444 days
Americas and Pres. Carters image suffered
because of inability to free hostages.

President Ronald Reagan

1980s saw a resurgence in conservatismReagan Era begins...In 1980, economy recession
& Iran hostage situation gave Reagan winning
edge over Carter

President Ronald Reagan

Wanted to cut size of federal govt by:

Cutting taxes & federal regulations on
businesses, sparking free-enterprise,
private competition. (Laissez-faire)
Reagans answer to stagflation was called
supply-side economics aka Reaganomics:
lower taxes... helped slow inflation - but,
debt rose due to decrease in tax revenues
& increase in military spending.
decrease business regulations - higher
employment as business needed more
workers...even if jobs were lower-paying
believed helping businesses would allow
for a trickle-down effect to the middle &
working classes of America.
Reagan nominated Sandra Day OConnor to be
1st woman justice on the Supreme Court.

Reagan's Foreign Policies

Rebuild America as worlds defender of
freedom & democracy:
sent Marines to Grenada after
Communist takeover.
sent Marines to Lebanon, suicide bomber
attacked American Embassy in Beirut,
killing 241 Marines.
Iran-Contra Affair-Using Israel as conduit, US sold weapons to
Iranian terrorists to release Amer. hostages.
-Profits from weapons were given to
Nicaraguan Contras, anti-Communist rebels
fighting Communist govt.
-When the scandal was revealed the image of
the USA was tarnished.
Americans again wondered if they could
trust their government.

COLD WAR THAW Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms

to help failing Russian economy.
Pres. Reagan takes strong stand on defense system.
Peace through Strength - flexing military
prowess, expanding military & defense spending.
Military spending of the Reagan years meant
less spending on domestic/civil projects
which led to problems for next president...
Star Wars or Strategic Defense Initiative spacebased system: shoot down missiles, deterring
Soviet aggression.
Berlin Wall comes down in 1989 unifying Germany
SALT Talks DUX - Nuclear Disarmament
The Cold War would end by 1991 when
Gorbechev dissolves the Soviet Union...

Pres. George H. W. Bush

Comes into office in 1989- Veteran, worked
for CIA, former governor & 2-time VP.
Promised not raise taxes, but soon had to:
Since the 1970s - Rapidly growing
foreign competition led to less demand
for American products resulting in layoffs & deindustrialization.
States in formerly booming Great Lake
regions began losing business & people - the
Rust Belt, with its decaying cities were left
behind for the Sun Belt:
Businesses begin to migrate abroad & to
Southwest...technologies that helped:
Govt built dams made water available.
Air-conditioning - easy to keep cool.

Pres. Bushs Domestic Policy

The 1970s & 80s recessions & lack of govt
assistance hit working-class, minorities hard.
Violent Riots erupted in Los Angeles when a jury
found LA police officers not guilty for beating
Rodney King, even though it was caught on tape.
ADA or American With Disabilities Act :
prohibited discrimination against disabled in
employment & public facilities.

Pres. Bushs Foreign Policy

1990 The Gulf War and Operation Desert Storm
was Pres. Bushs greatest success as the USA forced
Iraqs Saddam Hussein to leave Kuwait...the region
would spell trouble for US beyond Desert Storm.
1992 Pres. Bush sent US troops to join UN forces to
Somalia (Africa) & other hot spots on humanitarian
missions to stop starvation & genocide.

Pres. Bill Clinton

In 1992 Bill Clinton ran against George Bush &
Independent party candidate, Ross Perot-split votes
w/ Bush allowing Clinton to win.
End of the Cold War immensely helped national
debt drop as military spending decreased.
The early 1990s U.S. economy prospered as:
Unemployment down & Consumer-spending up
Computer industry boomed
Yugoslavia, Bosnia, & Kosovo Post- Cold War
tensions between several Eastern Bloc nations.
Serbs & Muslims living in region fought trying to
exterminate the other- ethnic cleansing.
U.S. troops and NATO intervened.
1993- NAFTA -North Amer Free Trade Agreement.
US, MX, & Canada- low tariffs/regulations to
Pres.
Bill Clintons Impeachment
increase trade & stimulate econ. of all 3 nations.
In 1999, Pres. Clinton faced a major scandal Clinton had a sexual affair with White House intern,
Monica Lewinsky & then lied about it
He is pinged for perjury not for being a cheating
pig. House of Representatives vote to impeach:
Impeachment means the removal from office under
the following rules:
Senate doesnt convict Clinton, but scandal
tarnishes his last couple years in office as
Americans feel they could not trust him.

Entrepreneurs
An Entrepreneur is someone who takes the risks of
starting a business in hopes of making a profit.
The following are some examples:

Bill Gates Microsoft founder - personal computers

Sam Walton Walmart founder
Estee Lauder Cosmetics lines founder
Robert Johnson African American founder of BET
Lionel Sosa Hispanic advertising genius

President George W. Bush

In office Jan 20, 2001 - Veteran,
Businessman & Former Texas Governor
No Child Left Behind
Expanded role of govt in education
Hurricane Katrina, 2005
- Highest storm surge and waves
ever recorded to hit North America
-Exceeded engineering design of
New Orleans levees
- Costliest US disaster on record
-More than 1,800 people died

Financial Crisis of 2008-2009

- Worst crisis since Great Depression
- In 2000- Federal Reserve lowered interest
rates > People took advantage & bought
homes & loans for business ventures.
- Banks began to foreclose on unpaid loans
& houses > Banks on the verge of failure

President George W. Bush-Domestic Policy

Economic Stabilization Act, October 2008
Authorized Sect. of Treasury to spend
$700 bil. to provide Bailouts nations
largest banks & insurance agencies.
September 11, 2001 - Terrorist Attacks
Islamic Terrorists hijacked planes flew
them into World Trade Center in NYC,
Pentagon in Wash. D.C. & in Penn.
Over 3,000 people died -Osama bin
Laden (al Qaeda) took responsibility
Transportation Security Agency (TSA)
-security at US airports
Department of Homeland Security
-Mission: keep US secure from all threats

President George W. Bush-Domestic Policy

(USA PATRIOT) Act of 2001:
Expanded law enforcement powers beyond
constitutional limits
Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp, Cuba Suspected terrorists held here:
Currently 155 detainees (2013)
The Global War on Terror
Oct. 2001-Bush ordered Shock & Awe
airstrikes on Taliban & al Qaeda bases in
Afghanistan & Pakistan
Osama bin Laden - eliminated Operation
Neptune Spear-May 2, 2011
The War in Iraq : Dictator Saddam Hussein
US & UN Coalition - to invade if WMDs not
turned over. Hussein refuses, US launched
airstrikes & invasion.
April, 2003- Hussein was captured (executed
in 2006), and a provisional democratic
government was established

President Barack Hussein Obama

In office Jan 20, 2005 - present
1st Black American to be elected President
American Recovery & Reinvestment Act, 2009
to jumpstart the American economy
Another $700 billion -bailout package to create
new jobs, save existing ones, spur economic
development.
Supreme Court Appointments
Sonia Sotomayor
2009-nominated to US Supreme
Court by Obama
1st Hispanic Justice
3rd woman on Supreme Court
ObamaCare : Affordable Care Act (ACA)
signed into law to reform the healthcare
industry , started Nov. 2015
Goal: give more Americans access to insurance &
reduce U.S. health care spending.

President Obama-Foreign Policy

War in Afghanistan
Increased # of troops
in effort to stabilize Afghan
development
War in Iraq
Gradually withdrew troops
US troops were replaced by
Iraqi security forces
Situation still remains
challenging, as acts of
terrorism continue...especially
now with ISIS