Report #2 Feo biffaraot Poutea of View Laveance ¥. Barselou Daniel Re Sovel Exory Uatves Beraeiou end Sevetl processing © category leada to ttferent rep Anerican, Chinese, French), doneatie pothte of view (usin Hoveevtta, Reaneckd, oF one’ oun polst of whew raaulted An BLghly civergant sreded etructares for the sese category Approsiaately equal sbifte in tructuce occurred far conton texonowle and goul-derived cetegortea, eades Igertnent 2 showed bet aulzecte ean be extrenely accurate In gereratiog sraded etzuctures fron ponte of view thet are aot their ovee Undergraduate ed graded atzuctures from tbe foculty point of lew et vere identical to tone generated by faculty taking thelr con Potnt of views in addition, graduate etude stovetures fron the undersreduste point ef view, although faculty vere slignlay Anegoutate Eon thks point of view, In Both experinante, subject eal sccount of tow points of vay construct di¢ferent reprasentations of 2 cetesory 46 presented, lor ng whether two points of view g eth © technique for nessDerseiou end Sevel! 3 eterance and that the hearer take the apeaiar’s point of view uh a0 Corian (1961, 1962) auggeat, utberane constructed end Intorpreted An the context of 4 apeaker’a and hearer‘e mutual hnovtedge (Clark & Rerehell, 39819. Wore recently, ithe and Bion (1985) hove propoeed a conputetionat sodel of how people conatzuct each tire polnt of view to establish autuel krovladge during Langues Of view can alto be central to reneabering, playing tnportent roles tn both ancoting and retrieval. ith respect to encoding, ing 0 at the charactern and plot. Adopting « pont of view can else te sapartent te Anderson Ang Peichart (1978) shoved that adopting « @ifferent point of vlev ct retrheval enabled aupgects £0 reset fan retrieves devices capapie of probing related tnforsation acquired at ng. Yn eidttlon, Wipro and Hecaner (3883) have ahown that people’ cor fon the point of view of (etecceoe futoide observer watching even TTexing 4 potnt of view cen alee play # central role in eoctel decision hing. Birabeun and Stegner (3975) found that shen pudges Berssiou and Sevell tue of # uaed cary thet seb depended on whether they took the bayer’ oF aaller'a point of vies, With reserd to ethécet dectetons, Aeteorge (E573) and Yoesen (1876) provide evicence thet people can adept ‘another porona’a soral point of view (ef, Blo08, 1976, 1977; Rest, 1579). For example, people have hnovledse of how the ethloe of a phiiosspher steer fron the ethics of 6 pollce officer and can therefore ake etitcal dectetons 4m each o€ thece proceanca--Lenpuage comprehension, renesbaring, and octet dectoion aetsog--edepting @ point of view «PF Saportant role of constructing representations relevent to the respective ‘the ebiisty to construct optctelized category representations relevant Plrticuler ponte of view. the fore of graded atructure, Graded structure (alae jnoun an typlentity nd exenpler goodnean) reflect how representative exeaplars are of thelr category. The Aoot Mghly representative exenplare ary prototypical eusse are prototyptcel of Lursibyse?s ot prototypical Ce-p., Leap): and sone, whowe cetercey wesborablp ney be eesahes) extends beyond & category’s Boundary, cone non-neabers atng noredang so naturel categories without auch atrueture have cone to Light (of. 1 Roach (AS010, ath and nce of graded etructure in a vice vartaty of eetegorion and thet te predict p tunignental eategorizetion taaka, Totter then any other variable, groded the Livelihood of generating particular etexplara during production tasks, ae selter, edoptiog « point of view eppeers to construct specialized representations ducing language conprebension, retention, and social decision waking, ohat effect, however, does adopting «point of view cooked myself a grest dinner leat night," a Listener night construct cian dichas vere typletl and nest diahen vero atypical, 12 eo of the categszy In whch seat dishes vere typieel 2 snter tna to be woes what effect polnt of view bea on cetegory structure, and the gort of te folloving experinente 14 to cee vhs thie effect ta, In these o og cetepory enenplaza by typtcality. For © oe poansbsnsn salonyncretie conceptions sbout polnte of view or alaply gueas auch that win etyricel ragerclous of whether sone estzlsh shocks 1 Ss procaaaing bu No anist in graced atrvcture 4a predicted Dy the view that graded fang Nervio (975, p, $75), for exanple, argued thet “s+ ceteporten tend to ect the correlationel structure of the enedsonent in nenner which renders then sing te, they are arguing that gros fat ach category should have only one + hananing there ta only one correlational structure Jn the physical world underlying « ceatesory, there abovlé be only one graded atructure reflectiag f+ And scrote the potnte of view aescone could edopt, thie theory predicts graced ‘structure abould remin Loverlent. Although proceaaiag easuaptions could be ‘ected to thin theory to account for abifte Ln greded atructure, the theoryfn 10a current fore ia unable to uo 20. that a: stven category hes @ singe graded structure. tn the Gla4s and Holyosk (2975) aodely an concept. In the Stith, Sober, and Ripa $1974) aodel, an esaaplar’a typlentity reflects tov seny propertion 1% anaran vith the eatosory conespt And in the Collins and Loftus (1975) nodely typicality de a funetien of beth strength end property overiep+ Although these theories could be people vill produce diféerent graded atructuren for « category £200 rt polste of view and will show greenest 4m doing ao, many accounts te of genezeting ayatenstic shifts, The one we wil? purave, ees the foltoving four ensuaptions. Fiset, adopting « point of view activats seotype for the culture, sveutture, of Individual whose potnt of view a Belong takans Starectyp vide inforaetion about individuals tnd to on that can be used te take their point of wiew.2 Second, the weciftc occeaton contains only « 438i action of the knowledge couprining the category tn © peraor say typlcslly be used Sn @ apeettic lopted for the current point of view deteraines vitch inforation in « catagory’s krovledge base becom only inforaetion in a category" knowledge bes jntetion, Fourth, graded etsucture renulta fron computing the elallarity ef currently relevent escaplare to te currant representation of the ertegery. Exenplare highly statiar to this representation are typical, ohare staties exnptere ‘are lene typlosl, Since the inforastion in the category’a represmntation ganas obeh exenpla angen vith polnt of view, the atend fare yedged euablarity to 0 andard and consequently An how typical they are of the category. ‘hs an exenple, consider processing the eatesory of food fron the potnt cf view of an encrante, To do thie, # person reotipe for ny vat svorenica) vite aay atete that anorenica are ceapulaive dieters vith the seal of belng a thin ee poseible, Althoush the keovladse base for foed ccontetn a tresentous anount of tnovedge, the anorexte stereotype aay anlectively activate inforsstion relevent to Losing weight that 12 4 Snto tha eatezory’e representation on this oeceston. For ov any cater 0, and 40 ons Once a representation for the category concept hs Harsty of constiveted, graded atructare ranults 403 conputing the spars be cucrentiy relevant exeaplere to thie rogrocentstion--o8 ncreastagly low im calories and tneren ply ese £411Ing, they beeen sncreasingly typical von geaded atrveturee constructed fron other potnte of view. Dremovakl (1982) han shown that people’a preferences for foods depend on their body weight. average weight people prefer foods thet a vherese overvolsht people prefer foods that are high tn £Bareetow and Savell peraen, typlcality ney reflect autsitlovanees. ut eran adopting the ps of view of overveight people, typlcelity any inetead reflect £ fr lect ively ectiveted by udping exanplera agalnet different tntorastion svarectypa, # person could constevch asltiple graded atzvetures for the lentesory. A nore datelle frenevork incorporating theas four assvaptions 4m the genera dlacueslon. He shite nypothenta te whether or not fre tekdog? Vien Arericane of 2 wad the Loved sustenetie sbist bypetbeste. Since eccurstely taking polnts of view te Jsportent to mvceousful eomunicetion and tntereetion, ayatanstic aniste sey Nevertheless, people efter seen to co poorly at taking ny depend on the type of cttegory they are processing. Barsaiou gorl-derived categories, Connon taxoronte enteserien (ess, fruit, birds, ect the correlational structure of the anvironsent, (of a common texonanle category are typleelly very @intlar to one ion grovp of entities in the environseat (ef, Rosch & Parvia, 1575; Beraslou and Sevelt 20 categorsen becons aalient because perceiving then £9 neces gol. consider etal 00 a SEn2{BE Lez. Hesbere of thts siakiarsty to non-nenbera of the category (a.3., to postchole digger, reapectively). Ta eat of bsects only fora fully echteving the goal of going secause the saltence of consen taxonaale categories originetes tn the wars In contrast, goel-deckved catagories may Be much aora Likely to shige vith point of view, Since th these catesorten thould vesy vith point of vievs Consequently, the cstesorten ney anit vith polnt of view while the deriv ye effect on both entesory ‘Aiternativesy, point of view aay have Bie trpet. Regards Lavift, the sone type of abit asy occur epueldy for both conaon toxonoate ond goul-derived categories. This result vould wuggéat thet the proceeatss Testina.sbe.subyecte tn the experinenta to follow ranked the eveaplera of varices ‘uatintice computed fron these raskinge--evbaest Ald and con the shift hypotheses, Each of th sa brteety dtncs vod in turns A sore conplete apecifieation of th sn the apgencix. Sunecb HELLADILLEY. OF Interwat te the extent to ubuch eubyecte teking he cane point of wow agree in thatr graded structures for « given category. ha defined tn the eppandiz, ouch agreesent will be assented by ‘how much subyecta uno rank typlenlity for @ given catagory fron the Ht eotisaten the erase i ruaber of aubsects judging typlcelity. If subject relLebility vere eonputed sple of 18 aubyecte, the expected value would be the eens oe for s typleetity have uned neasures thet are blaeed by seaple alze, For enasple, ‘Acantrong, Glestaen, and Gleitaan (3983) and Roach (1973, 1979) reported half correlation, increases nonotonicelly vith soaple alze, By running not acoree of .99 and higher cea be obtained, even tough the average agremnent betvean pairs of aunyecte Le fo eplit-half correlation of 69 will be obtained ution « total of 10 aubzecto Bereslov and Sevell a jenerally found to range fren .20 to «50 (a.g., Baraslou, 1909; Gelaabon & According to tha rando ehist hypothen 1 hovladge shout pointe of subgect rellabliity elnce they beve ‘dtoayre tev or are ataply gum vo WhiZt hypothente, aubzects ing. According to 1 should stow aigntfic it eubyect FelLebitity eine these erceive siailariy, Subjecte should also show aignificsnt aubyect rollebitity according to the eystenstic ahift hyrotheate, ance they ell ‘ance thats graded structures in slaller senner, (The predicted p).08). fone shist score, a2 defined tn the appendhe, o cof polnte of view for each cetesery (ess 240 AMEE azoree), The top of anle 2 shovn the everaye group reliebititien, betveen group correlations, nd ehIEt acores for the common tenonottc and goel-derived categories Ln Experlaent 24, The correlations relisbilitien. Conseguently, the everese igniticantly ditfern fron zer0 1H(290915.482, RC0011. Adopting aisserent ‘itcerent graded otructures for the sane categories Surprisingly, shift ven equally Large for the conten texcantte en souls derived categorie (g(290)4.747, p10}. Changes in poknt of visu ceused tne group reLiebilitien sa ehie expertnent, the anit stuebly range frea © to around 2 on the averesey with veluea around 1 inéLesting a9 cosreletion batwean the graded atructuree generated generated fron thea different potnte of vin. The average ahift for the ale prize of internetional pointe of viev ore shown tn Table 3 by category type. Te rage fore Derticuler pair elgolticentiy stcewded zero for a partiouler eateserd tips ‘the vartances of theae averages vere posted, the renulting atenderd erletion batny «502, Op the Deets of one ted £ toate vith 19 desreen of ‘recdon, average shist acotes of 225 end .990 era afantficantiy different, fron zero at he 65 and 01 levele, respectively, Except pacheps for the 2 patra clearly gene corks, The neat eivergent pointe of view are the Aterican an Chinese potnte of sev, whose graded structures are conpletely unrelated loess velues of on the ohLft scale for thie dete ast ingieste so nt anong avbyecta within groupe, atnes 411 ‘roupa bave subyect reliabilities oigaificentiy gyeater than zero (Table 1). uuuetsate the e£fect thet the internsttonel polnte of view hed on extesory etructar ‘ubnect ta The 160 nubyect relJabllities vere trsneforsed to Flsner 2 scores en subyected to point of view by category tYP® by category AKOVA, The ject rellabilities fron this anelyaia ere ahova in Table 2. Each 42 olonitficantiy creuter than zero at the .001 Level, gain Jndiceting sareenent onong the graded atructuven generated for « given point of viesfinding that aubyecta agree equally well en the graded steuetures of conten axononle and goal-derived categortee (E17, Subyect reldebitity varted igetficentiy between pointe of view (£(3,11068.07, p6.0011, esr of views There ws marginal interes category type end potnt of view (£(9,110092.32, 1009.05). Wo obvious aplenation for this pattern of differences auqgeste Itealf. bas i correlations, and shist scores for the comon taxonante end goul-derived clearly sven Ieee condition, .778, elgntfscently Giffera fron zere (4229 eanyeote to a 60 fue of vias cen eleariy cou aap ing Aisterent daneatic pointe trocturen for the sane categerten, In contrest generate different grad Peshepa nore tnpestant, hovever, Se thet eisterent points of view couse 4 graced structur substantial cieterenct pE199641.968, COOH ae veld a for oo ryeaareas.sss, 26.0012. ‘The average anise for the aix patra of Zoneatic points of view are shove ota of one-tatied t toate with 19 respectively. Btcept perhaps for the Busine sreded structures for the sone cetegoriea, The asst diversent pointe of ‘view are Hipple-Businenonan, Hippie-Hovseeife, and HousewsfecResneck, wow graded structures are clone to being unrelated (aa in Experiaent 2a, abet ot be ettributed to lack of agrectent within groupe, alnce all have subyect, ‘gnitlcantly greater than zero (Tabla 19. Table 4 Sonencinons Baty mY ‘verese ahist acoren vere computed for the Anericen point of view fron Esperinent 10 40 conyunction vith each of the doncatic points ef view in 6. To test sbather the average for a particular pair aignificentiy excerced sero for a particular category type, the variances of th and .209 are significantly greeter than 200 at the .05 and .02 Levels, respectively. Ae can be sean, the Mnericeny Busine points of view generated the he 60 eubyect rellabitities vere traasforaed to Fisher z acores andsubjected to # point of view by catesory type by category AIOVA, The svarege eubyect roblabiiition fron th uaiyete are otovn in Table 2. Ech fu algnificentiy greater than zero at the GOL level. of view should not only after fron the Ws lev but should alse distor fron ot onent onong theaselves vben taking th Likely to have shared knowledge. Although subject apreetent ve ligniticently lese for the Self than for the Anariean point of view evel polnte of view were auch sore love point of viow vee «292, vilch vas clone to the agreanant for aubyecta 1 there vas no attest of taking the Aveckcan point of view, 89. Age cetegory type (£0,30001.92, 99101. 2 ehove the everage group reliabélitien, betveen group corselations, and shist scores for the connon texonoaie and gotl-derived esteserien in Experinent te, If aubyecta tn the Self condition basically We point of view mould ahow ne aiéterence. Te teat sroupa toning the whether the average ebift scores istered fron zero, thetr veriances were torent graded etructures for both land Anerican polnta of view generated the connon texononie and gont-dertved erteporien (g(199#27-996, pf.01 end oety pCsG0l, respectively. Overall, conaen texononie end goat sas Gertved categories did not aisfer (8(30041.504, pP.101- (One reeson aubyecth in the Self condition aay have ahoved aoeapectedty high howe for the Merican point of views 4# that our eubjecta are fron e fetzly hoaogenelty, hey show aprenmenty and given thet they are a aubeviture, these point of view diifera slightly ‘roa their point of viey of the average ‘Auerican, Table 4 i1lustrates the light difference between theas points of 3m Esparinents 1a and 1b, aubyecte taking eech Anternatlonel and domestic potnt of view shoved aigniftcant within-group egreeaant in the snare common knouledge about thent pottte of view and that this knowledge cam be used to construct aintler graded atructures. Jn addition, asreenent vue equal for comnon toxonoate end goel-derived cetegertes, replicating arselou's (1985) finding thet graded structures ere equally aalsent for ‘Aatheugh aubyecte Leklng the sane potnt of view shoved asreenent, the edo atructures generated by ctfferant pointe of view generally differed. letety ancorsetated with esch other (o.g., We Mnericen and Chine polate of view. Given the 2eege impact thet polnte of view hae on category orgentzetion, categorien can cleorly possess aulliple sraced atrustures. Categortes éo not appear to the large hnovtedge bese baet couprises a catesory to construct category representations relevent to their current point of viewsUnexpactediy, ei4ferent pointe of view reorgentzed derived esteserion equally tn Expertaante 1e and 2e.° dnd although cetegorien in Expertaent 2b, the reorgenlzstion of the comaon tizononle ‘tii aubetentiol. This ctogerten wt joggatta that the correlational it te not solely reaponatble for the gradet ‘structures of conon Eexononte categorien, If tt wera, the g ould have reneined relatively stable across polate of Eunction and freseeney? ey underly the reorgentzetion of conan texononle categorien, an discus: ‘also, subjects taking thelr ovn point of wie unexpectedly shoved nearly seructuren os eubyecta taking the eens an mech ot in these sea point of views 4a thie ot Susyectst Individual potnte of view appeer to pected. In addition, the overall graded atructures for thene eubyects signtficontiy elsfered £200 thoae for Uhe average Mnericen point of view. subyecta’ aenberahp in the subculture of Esory undergraduates ney have se stightly {708 the point of view of favecd thetr oun pointe of view te at Finally, thane experinents show that our a sectng the extent te veh potnta of view reorsenise © rine whieh polnts of view : ie, tt de poselble te det eatepory. For example, At 18 v4 structures (evgey the Bonin of view) and to deteraine vhen to pointe of view generate the 2 ed structures (ego, the Houneutfa and Auerican pointe of view for ed to deternine vhether aubyecta cen teke another potnt of view ExpeRDNENT 2 ‘Subsecte fron two Excey populations, faculty and undergraduates, renting category axeaplare by typicelity. De popetatione then yuaged typicelity fron the point of viey of the averese population, graduate tude edged typieelsty fron the faculty or undarsraduate pointe of view. To the extent aubjecta within a poputetion ‘gree ven teking a point of view, there should Be Migh aubyect raliani2ity. popslation’s point of view. The extect to whieh population 4 ecsurstely ‘eaten the potnt of view of population B can be asessed by coapeting abist aurea for taking Ba point of view and B taking thelr oun polnt of view. To the extent A La inaccurate, abide acoren aboulé aisnifteantiy exceed that differed for the faculty and undergraduate pointe of view. Such divergence in greded atructures Ae necessary if there 1s to be eny Dpopslation’s point of view. Although being able to construct accurste conplen copnltive tasha, ve auapected that our aubyecte vould be far fron accurate shen teking # point of view that vas not thelr ove To confira this intattion, we eaked faculty, undergraduaten, end areduate studenta to enaver the foltoving four questions: (2) hov well eon rorage faculty meabor tals the point of view of the average Uundergcaduate: (2) how well con the evera tudent take the polntscudent taka the point of view of the average £4culty wesber; (4) hov well the polst of view of the averese: usations in one of te randos orders scole to anever each que ite tow four Antuttiona ware conftraed in thet the average rating 4 loess 2.718), betas teas than the aldpoint on the acale. Hesbare of ti Enory comunity clearly did aot believe that these verdoun populations eauld 4 population by question AROVA vex for question (£(2,108)=5.64, pe.000?: ‘i eubyecte agreed thet the beet perforsence vould be observed for undergraduates tekiog the faculty point of view (ave Table 7). sreded structure characteristic of uncargreduatas end « eitferent one people to get advice fron, personality cherecteriatice, places to veceten, things done st achooly things poopie worry about, thinge to do et parties, things to take on © plenle, types of book, types of food extabitahaanta, typ progrens, and weekend sctivition. ‘Wo snttial Hate of the 20 catesorien vere constructed, one designed The Lote atefered in thet for feculty and the other for undersraduste on whereas facut 0 be, ‘oes of a fosaity Twenty-four aibyects frou each popelation vere asked to generate tbe firat four exesplare thet cane to sind for ch catagory. ty haf the aubsecte sn eech population received one Fenden order Approet Of the Let, and dal received enother. plare vere then celected for eech ce ‘he conponttion of each category" eight exeaptere inclused: the exeaplar senecet by euch population, an exespler ge sted by only one savoyect for each populetion, and two exesptern thet vere equally a between the others for each population. These intersediste exssplere aise ‘ntlar to any other exeapler aelected for the ree Ws vere changed back frox the population apecifie veralons to the nore sted tn the {rot peregreph of hls auction, Eech werston contained different randon orders of the catageriea end diéforent randon ordera of the exeaplers for the tes ‘cetesery Ten estegortes vere ne appcerod ebove ste coluan of eight exeaplere. eng sussecte OF the eubyectd perforatog typteality gudsnenta, students, ns 48 vere Enory feculty. thin the aaapte o s1ch population, 26 took the point of vlev of the average faery faculty ery and 24 took the point of view of the average Eacry undersreduate:ou end Sewell 2 ‘There vere tho ane settings of questionsatres to faculty and one 13ing to graduate atudeata. One wailing to faculty vee to collect natences for the category sera and the other wer to collect typlealdty sente, Faculty and graduate etudeate vere rancosly selected fre and no individual van elloved to participate in nore than one phase of the eaperiaunt. The response rate to th enprottnately 99 percent, which £0116 into the atanderd 25 to 40 percent range noted by Sudaan end Bradburn (1982). When sore questlonnelses for « rendonly exctuded4 ‘uve aane an for Experinent 4, except The procedure for Expertnont 2 w! thet a cover Jeter vas included with the questionnesres welied to faculty land graduate students to Annure participente thet their date Would remain Subuess dszeeseot oe and The 120 eubyect reliabilities were trensforaed to Fisher 2 ecor aubattted te « population by polnt of view by eatagery ANOVA, The average nce shove in Teble’®s Each is suyyect reldebiiitien fron tte analyel igniticontiy greater than gore ot the .001 level, indicotsag thet eubyecte tn esch condition shoved ssrpesent in the greded structures they generated ‘Dare ven a main effect of poputetion (£(2,30+5.34, ECO, faculty shoving sions. Jn addition, population end sore agrwenent than the other tue pops point of lev interacted (£(2,59)012.02, 26,001). This resulted from faculty and graduate atudente shoving acre egreenant for the fecelty then Bereslou end Sewell {or the undergraduate point of vieu and the reverse being true fot took tnete ovm potnt of view Lan when they took # 6lfferent point of view. Tebte 9 above the averes srtup reltabliities, Detvoen group corzeletions, and shift scores for para of groupe taking diJerent pointe of view (ives, one group took the faculty point ef view and the other took the undergraduate point of view) end for palea of groupe taking the eane point of sculty oF the fv CLatey Both groupe took ether the very ditsarent ge the ccetegorinn, the average ahift for these pairs being elgnitteantiy grt than zero (51579)+27.024, p.0011. Given the atze af the group FeLiebiiities in this expertsent, the abift acore can potentlelly range foe © to arcane 3 on the averages with values around 1.5 indlesting 20 correlation betvesn the graded atructares generoted by two potnte of viey Since the average shift for groups taking LfZerent pointe of view vee 1.270, there wen very Little relation between the graded atructuren generated by ‘vo groupe taking Gifarent polate of view. uite surpriningly, aubyocts taking the 20 polnt of view generated the ne graded atsvetures, the average shift for thene palre (049) aot use 04.153, pP.201- Groupe taking the ing atgntficanty Zon zero (263) fovne point of view appeare able to'do ao vith renarkable eccurecy. In stition, groupe taking the eat ate od aigntfscently lean than dtd the graded etructoras generated by sroube taking different pointe of wew (21098) 20.835, pe.0012. The arecege abide for the £4steen pale of groupe a ‘To test vhether the averaze for a particular pair algn{ficantly exceededdovietton betng S61. Gn the baaia of onectatled £ teata vith 19 degrees of of «209 and 207 are aignistenntiy disterent ctered significantly. Pour cf these petra aze of particular interest, Firat, the average eoff0r ecore for faculty and underses Cisesy Fofp versus Uglp An Table 10) represents how such the pointe of view truly eister fron each other, Given thet the tus points of View eiéter of tntare took each other’a point of views The ether three i 2 Ugh vero Ustp), Tn all (Loess Fsfp vernon Foley O9Fp veraue Cstp, and USFP ‘he shove nest, these percelved differences ated by te Fofp-tstp covpertaons refiect the real aiféerence rep 1m vntch to groups took the duculty tried to tate the underyreduate potnt of view (stp verova Ustp), the average abift ocofe ua only .996). For the other sive patze dn which groupe took the undergcadustes accurately took the faculty point of view CsFe ‘vernun Fp); gracuate students accurately took the faculty point of view Gsofp vereve Fofp) and the undergraduste, paint of view: (sup versen UStphs acuity and graduate atudente gene third point of vieu, they een do ao accurately. Diacuentea ote of views In addition, the graded structures generated by feculty taking thelr ovm polnt of view and by undergraduates taking thets graded structures for these cetesorien differed. ore lapartantly, thie Jndlaton that there ves auch potentiel for error vhen # population took = point of view other than their oun. speiningly, aubyecte were extrenely accurste in taking other pointe of for faculty taking the undergraduate point of vie4, who were not ell thet Anaccurate, Wet only are these resuite contrary to our original supyecte dn the poll ve stacuesed eariter. Even though ve selec ated structures differed for the two palate of view, the populations ve obasrved ‘wo other findings deserve nention. Firat, avbyecte within « give population perceived the sane differance in graded structures between tve generates graded etructures for the faculty ond undergraduate points of view fo» dtfferent on tnoxe generated by faculty and undergraduates theneelves, Given that graduate atudwite vere perfect} accurate at taking hase tuo pointe of view, the differance they perceived betwoan then uapopulations can adopt « point of view that belenge to « third population and Rogerdiens of the point of view sdopted, aubsecte tekng the esas potnt usnough the graded otructures for ane pointe of view shoved nore agro cnerecteriotic of typtcality 2udp fend the Chinese point of view show tanononte and cost catesorten the Aterican point of view for gosl-derived catayortea. ‘sunsects share autel knouteage that structures whan teklng polate of view, ‘nithoush aubyecta shoved agreenent hen taking the sane point of lev, when taking dicterent point of they generated eitterent grat vies, Subyecte adopting various Internationel and donaatic points of view for the sane categorien. In ted highly eivercent o sone canes, the grades structures gen points of view: the Hippie end Bestzeastan pointe of vee). ds thone findinga denenatrete, people are quite facile at noniputeting cetesory organization, and # given catesory eleariy does pot have © singie graded structure, Wultiple graded atrvctares retse that seeded structure reflecta the correlational structure of the cxvirsnents dnouning the envirenadnt ea only & alngla correlational structure, tM pordtlon'predieta that category should have only one typiceilty greétent, panaly tbe one reflecting the enviroments derived cotesarien kn Experknent Le vertepunity. ‘an adopted point of view, Even though mmbare of the Exory comunity 0b of taking ecch other's point of view, thane populations perfocaed fourpriotogiy voll, Except for faculty tehing the undergraduate gotnt of perfectly, ond the faculty vere not off by auch. Subyecta exMlbited bls accuracy even though the gredec atructuren generated by feculty end neerty unreletes, Take graduates teking their oun pointe of view wer rately construct pointe of view Language coaprehenaion and other for {tn an Andependent presect conducted sonsubat fone, Roth and Shoben (1963) algo dexonatreted that categoria have multiple greed atracturen, Instesd or nanipuleting the point of view £08 whlch a ‘cetegory vee processed, however, Rath and Shaben verted & cetegory’® Lingulatie content. The catesory of nfenley for ex v4 aerocturo vhen At epreered in "Stecy volunteered to ni2K the anita} on shenever ae visited the fara” end “Fran pleaded vith her Zother to let her Fide the Unerees gov tng gort are typicel in the firat context,that eubjecta? gudsaanta of typlcality changed vith content, they found that an sxanplar‘s content-independent typlenlity 4i€ aot. oth and Shodan conpered two hypotheses of how Ling iter o category’a grade structure: the na bxestheate and the 4m pressnting thane, Roth end Shoben fs Jn Which the alatlarity of one Jag function of the azstance According te the refocusing hypothuaies « Lingutatic content ateratnes the polst In « category apace thet repr eta the extegory’a prototype. The category's grades atcvcture alaply resulta fron exenplera tn lexenplace ore typical, and distent ones are atypical. Multiple graded hereby changing exeeplara’ closenons to the currant prototype. in rapertacet 2, hovever, Roth ané Shoben observed graded strvcturen 4 |ungutstie contexts thet felled to oupport thie hypothesis. Thete citernative explanetion, the restructuring hypothenla, ve ity thels findings, Sintzar to the refocusing hypothesis, the restructuring hypotheste aasuaes thet dliZerent Linguletie contexts focus on tat che congiguration of extaplare én « apace changes beceute “eonatreints 14 by the context” alter the distances between exenpltra (>. 352). Ve next present © apecl{ie account of ov pointe of view sey inpoue conatrotnts en « category's etrvcture. Staller to Roth and Stoben, ve -selou and Sevell A point of view end Linguistic contest can both be ween 08 that when paople adopt 4 point of vinwy thay activate « stereotype for the cultura, euboultare, or Jnaividuna ehowe point of view is batng taken. During the processing of sectivaty a cestesorr’s tnovlodge base to represent te catagory a4 a vhote (L.e., the e72"y concapt) and to reprasent txeaplera. Finally, « process thet jaLiarity of these category and exeapler concepte generates ‘sreded structure (08 th Nctloskey £ Gluckabers, 1975; Stith, Shoben, & Rips, 1870. Since disterent types cause difterent inforsetton te enter into these coaparisens, the thereby restructuring the eategcry. en 3 86, otot fone staple vey to adopt paint of view se to active the parton oF persone vhowe point of view Le being taken, Althou stereotypes ane often ineceuretey auch ream ch bes ahoun that they contate sion people use to perceive and tnterset vith one another Co Heilton, 1975: Taylor, 1960: Teyler & Crocker, 2981). Since atoreotypes conten Anforsetion about inctvidusla’ values, attitudes, habit occupations, 1 atyle, end 20 ony they also provide the Kind of tion neceanery to adopting potnta of vLev. Once « eterastype hes Deen adopted for a point of view, It aay ve no content ¢o selectively activate related snforastion sn catagories that dateratoes thelr graced Hagvladee of cotenoctsfseeasion 49 probebly oniy « aubsat of 1] the hnovledse coupriaing the 7 pointe of viev, and kaovledse relevant to a particular point of view say only becote active when the category te proce + 3980) Found that three kinda of daferaation in a ‘category's hnovteaze base--obsective, etretegic, cin ceteraine Sta graded ateucture, category any exhibit disterant graded atructuree fron different polnte of ‘view because the objective, atratesicy and frequency safe pore epecifically bow this aight slou'a (1984) aodel of typteality sudgpente, Aecording to thie aodel, the typleality 1 of exespler g in cxtesory g fron point of viey pcan be accounted for au folles ‘Tne fure:ion G prinerily depends on obs, strat, and d5e3+ ented ere the ovtpute of three other functions, 0, 5, and F defined laters gbz don, Shtah repreneats the eueste inforaation, and frag represents the contribution of srequancy Sofornation, ach kine of infornstion the 8 e of prototype theory (Satth end that the prototype of « cetesery rapresente central Too central tendancy intorastson 2 for birds) and properties or correlations of propertian thet typleelly cccur for category a for Beresiou end Seveld 3a dhe noted by Baraatou (2902, 1904), conputing the atailartty be oevig, 1975). Although ently rosea structure of goul-derived catesors tou, 19000, In the nodel of typicnlity pudgnente otated An Equation 1, the value on to trpicsiity, shere 54829406597 @. ‘ore spuciftcally, thts contrinution dependa on the eintlarity ef each sbyective property in the cetesory concept, gj, te tte related property tn the exenplary ggjy vhese alatlarity 4a aoa decresaing fonction of the the tuo properties. For exanple, Af the everage hetoht of dosh vars ts feat, © atx snch dog would ha siablorstten scroaa oll ebsective properties. Since thie function be “tatinctive a8 veld ae shared propertion (ef. Tveraky, 1977) enter te ‘an obsective property not sharedFinatly, the fonction 0 could be aultsplicetive £6 the Indivicuel conperiaona ere combined interactively, or At could be additive Lf the conparinons are indepandent (cf. Media & Schwannflugel, 1961). Statler ‘Hlexibidity exkate for the funetiona 6 and 5 and enubias the accel to account for differant atrategion subzacte aay edopt on cit ef, saith & Hedin, 2960. sgn Tha Hind of sntoraetlon specifies propertion of seinaLiy expodiont to achieving @ goal ‘tye cabesory wae conatevetad to serve, Regarding the eatogory of Eins for example, 2050 eoletien 1s « property of exoaplare that sat op # ates Ly expadient to achieving the goel of Jesing velsht tu nexinally expedient Zor thin Suatieriy, the property of 3882 tee tastonching in achieving the soel of puntaizing fatigue. Hotebly, © stestegte property 14 generally pot the contrel tendency of « cetegery’s 4 cortointy opt the central tendancy of 2h fet op # disk, and gare eelaht 42 certainly not the central tenéerey of sui ssing. Instead, atrateste Lofo ceetegory nerves, Darealoe (1984) found that etrategie inforastion played on svortent role in the graded structures of both cosson taxenoale tnd goo derived catesertos. teal representa the contribution of atrategic infersation to typleslity, here ekcat 1a obtetned fron the function S a follows ror all atratesie properties active for point of view By surat = Stapsinteez tea! oo. dove apecizicelly, thie contribution depeade of the alattarity of eech trotesie prozerty in the eategory concepts Bp)+ te ite roteted property £m ye TE the atratenle property of zoco ealosiee centate An the cotepory concept for shinee $2 fs gher eintzerity on the élaenaion then wih Agein, the Saportonce of each particular eiailerity depends on Ste veisht, 1, and the overall contribetton of atrateste information Ls sone Lunction ‘of the weighted ainiiarities acrons all atrateste propertis ber h sow (1966) alee found that aubyectar xen gory nenbere predicted typicelity sn both concn taxonoale and gosl-cerived categories. In the repeneente the contribution of frequency Infocaation to typleslity, where ore apeciftcelly, thin contribution depends oh an exenplar oe perceived frequency of inatantintion in category ¢ 40 polnt of view pe he etecunsod Inter, thous values are indexed by the atersotype current point of view. ‘Ine Selective tetivation of 0.6 Higuiedee tee by 2 Rotatof View Inforastion, « particular typicoltty gudgeent ie defined vith ospect to @ particular content, nesely, polnt of view ps TMs results dn disserent objective propertion, etra and Eraguency inferretion belng socorporated Ante eatescry and exemplar concepts vhon a extegery Le properties may be sncorporsted dnto a concept for all potnte of vee:polnt of view say eternine the strategie and objective Lnforaation thet becomes incorporat epte 1: nto « category concept Regarding str fron the stereotype inte the catagory concept. For exanple, shen proceaaing potnt of view, the property of snigcete in sone fora fron the nur {Eupctions). tn contrast, oben procsening this eategory froa the business worth @ det of sonar poopartien to be incorperet rt ducing ia tn exenplara’ typleality to ctonge, Tor exasple, exeaplara thet 1 bogLle functions vill be eiattar to 1 J view and therefore be typicels In contrast, evenplare th Wil be atatier to the eatesory ‘concept fron the buninesanen polnt of view and therefore be typtee thers Ehereby causlng « aise in graced atructus tendency Anforeation about categorien that reflecta the point of view ef the iscate In none fora fron lemma ore exposed to larger and wider aninele then are ‘nericane, Conaeguantiy, shen énericens ecopt Uh African point of view, for ize and wildnens incorporated fron the African the obgective yal Avertcane fake thelr ovn polst of view. Larger and vilder annals vould £ eninola fron the Africen point of view. To 0 therefore be nore typical extent an exesplar bs tle thet are highly alailer to obyective properties currently An the estegory concept, At 1a typical of the ct Sonstructing Gonceote for Exeszlazs- The representation of an © on the atarvoty for the current point of view. Properties of the exeapler Centegory concopt ay becone activa 4n the concept for the o Incorporated into the category concent of {gts the property could ectivate the noaber of calories for each exanpler oubeeguently conaidereé, Conseguentiy, the rep of Anatantietton fron the respective point of view. In eone ct ton nay reflect the actual nusber of expoour hao eaten at rentaurante vith hin oF bar spouse on nuterous occeslons may have frequency Jafornstion éros the apouae’a point of view for the catesory of thloge ordered et reeteuranta. Hore often, hovever, frequencybeatned indirectly. People nay have bed Littie 4 inforaation La probably 0 Peo uzectiy encoding frequency Anforsations Keverthélens, people appa lextonnive frequency infarastion for these polate of view, auch of which 4m probably obtained Ehraugh hearsay. For ex aver vetted Africs and eo have hed Little chance to encode the frequency ornet son through varlous wan exposed to auch frequency to . .geztnes, {1ine, and televiaien!. Consequently, Lnforastion auch Acesueghiy i9 dfcise ond es icy and rare Ap Misa becone etored for exexpta yeney infor sociated vith variaus pointe of view. Elophanta, for exexple, oetated vith asparete frequency inforaetion for Afries, hate, Kuro; ‘so on Adopting « point of view for which auch frequency infor sp ataply ectivate hov frequently that ouaaplar eccura for that point of ‘view, nen ouch tnforsation dooe not exlat, frequency inforeetion for th ing that typicelity Le coaputed the category concept) + tegle and ebyective propertias for eiéferent pointe of havieg propertion alallar to the atra proparting for one point of view aay eiffer eubstantially fron the atrates be typical and objective propection for angther. Consegeently, exeaplare #6 ynother, The second nt of view concarna frequency of jarealou and Seveli ‘a The eccount produces the fundanental restructuring of « category diacussed by Roth and Shobea (2902), Because the aiailerity comparison for tftarant polnte of viev, the alntlarity of exeaplara to the category suggests vhy populations in the Eaory comunity vere able to accurately constrict graded structures {20n enc) other‘ potmt of view. Sich accuracy ny ainply reflect the £4ct that the various populations of the Exory cconaundty share the sone stereotypen about each other, Undersraduaten, fer he eenn point of view, thus resulting In the ded structor koovledge, 1 follows frox this account that populations vhowe stereotypes were ees einer vould exh accuracy vhen adopting point of vieus Given that category cen hove neny seated structures, whet cen ve conchude about graded atructure in generel? One possibility de thet graded steveture representa the organization of « category's hnovledse bese 1n long trongly exeaplare are anscciated to one another and to thelr category reflect bowstructure representa a category's organization, Rovever, then how €0 ue Antorpret the wuitiple greced atrecturas of « catagory? Does atch rated structure partially represent the catezory’s oversil organization in acsery fond 46 0, hov can wo coubine all of « catesory’a sreded atructuree ty eteraine Ite overald orgenizetion? Even nore problenatic, graced structures nay nol reftect certeln kinds of inforsstion atored in & For exanple, Bersniou (1881) found thet Berouleu and Sevoll (1504) observed correletions of only .27 between group~ derived typleality raskings and the order An whieh sndividusl aubsecte senerated exeaplere from cosson tevononie esteyorine, Conseguentiy, the 4 ot ceptured by 180 5% ‘eo eateblished and used inforaetton not indexed by cubes conceptual tam ‘the concepts people conatrust in vorking aanory. Aasuaing thet graced tructure resulta fron comparing exexplar concept to catesory concepts ccoraful enaiyate of typical end atypical exenplera aay roveel the ted in these category concert, whereaw conatructed for each poiat of view. ‘Mienough «category sey be repranented by neny Gisfarent concept acrons any pointe of view, a doxinant category concept say Decora entrench ong tern nenory if the category 40 proceaned fr08 the any cccuelons. Contequentiy, people having ¢ifferent dont vine ney entabiian aisterent dostnant concepte of = cateyery, ‘entepiianed while tatiog Ioan frequent pointa of view. For exaxple, perceiving gas fron the point of view of « car buyer aight cause properties relevant to mileage, confort, aatety, ond style to becone central. For any had in nenory, aasusing that frequent proceasiags of @ rerraaeatet ion singly eatablish 4 dn Jong ters aenory. These be the ongs that guide procesuing in neutral asntexts, when no point of view or context 1a epectfied. cf. Goodasn, 1955) Sternberg, 1962), representations eetebiiched by 6 points cf a car's security aystes even in the absence of an sntention te steal st, and the recent buyer of # car nay continue asseasing the quality ence of needing « ney ont. But given people's absiity to nop points of view and constsuct novel concept for ceteperies, © nev point of sev aay econ doninant and, in Line, eed to new éosinant ceoncepte, By acquiring nev point of view end frequently welng At to construct nev category concerte, the entrenched koovledge that typtestly guides proceening any change. The ebllity to ate the world frou new potnte en un extrenely adaptive orgentane end Je probably centre! to our of view