Cl(g) + e- --> Cl-(g)(first) The enthalpy change when one mole of electrons is added to one mole

of atoms, in the gasous state.

First Electron Affinity

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First Ionisation Energy

M(g) --> M(+1)(g) + e(-)
The enthalpy change when one mole of electrons is removed from one mole of neatural gasous
atoms, to form one mole of singluar positve ions.
Why does First Ionisation Energy Generally Increase Across Period 3?
All of the elements occupy the same highest electron shell, (the third)(n=3). This means they are
all (generally) the same distance from the nucleus. As the effective nucleaur charge increases
across the period, the electrostatic attractions between the nucleus and electrons increase, which
means that most energy is required to remove one from the atom.
Why do elements such as Al and S, drop in the trend?
In the case of Al, the electron config is [Ne] 3s2, 3p1. This first electron in the p shells is at a slightly
higher energy level from the other electrons, so it is shielded sightly by the s electrons. This means
that it needs less energy to remove the electron from the atom.

In this case, they form no hydrogen bonds, no dipole interactions, so they rely of London forces.
They both have the same number of electrons, however butane is more able to pack together
because of it's straight chain. 2-methly-propane has a side chain which will not allow to pack as
well as the butane. Therefore the London forces are stronger in butane, so it has a higher BP.
2-methlypropane and Butane
In this case it's pretty simple as NH3 forms hydrogen bonds with itself because of the electron
negative nitrogen bonded to the hydrogen. Whereas CH4 only forms weaks london forces between
the molecules. Remember that NH3 will still have London forces, however the hydrogen bonds
is the major factor.
Do they hydrogen bond? Do they form normal dipoles IMF? How strong are their London Forces?
NH3 and CH4

Boiling points of Compounds

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Experimental Error
Why might the lattice energy be higher than expected expermientaly compared to the
theoritcal model?In ionic compounds which have polarisation of the anion (happens in Silver
compounds, eg AgI), by the cation, they will have a degree of covalent bonding. Covalent bonding
isn't considered in the theortical model, so is lower.
Why might a standard enthalpy of combustion be lower than expected compared to book
values?
Firstly, there will be heat lost to the surroundings, because as you burn the substance, heat is
beating lost by the water. Some heat may be absorbed by the container, however this can be
minimilsed. Another aspect is that it may produce water in the gas state. Water is liquid is standard
conditions. In the gas state it will have a higher enthalpy, so if we measure the change when in
gas state, we go a less exothermic reactions, as we haven't considered the energy that would be
released when water condenses to a liquid.

The manganate(VII) ion is a purple colour. In the reaction it will be reduced to a brown Manganese
(IV) ion (in an oxide compound). So the reaction will turn from Purple to Brown.
In the reaction between aqaous KMn2O7 and an Alkene, what colour change would be seen
as the reaction progresses? And Why?

Ion Colours
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Catalysts
There are groups: homogenous and hetrogenous.
How do homogenous catalysts work?
They provide an alternative mechanism/route of reaction, which has a lower activation energy.
The catalyst is restored at the end of the mechanism. It follows in hess's law that the reactions
will have the same overall enthalpy change, however it has gone by a different route. The lower
activation energy means more successful collisions occur which increase the rate of reaction.
How do hetrogenous catalysts work?
They work by providing active sites on which molecules of different states reaction. They can
decrease activation energy by have polar groups which polarises the bonds (enzymes use this
method often). Overall it increase the rate of collision and activation energy, so increases rate of
reaction.

Under standard conditions (298K, 1atm pressure), 1 mole occupies 24Dm3. = 24000cm3 = 0.024
M3
One mole of Gase always occupy the same volume (if at the same pressure).
Therefore 100cm3 = 0.1 Dm3!
1dm3 = 0.001M3
1cm3 = 0.001Dm3
How do you convert between Cm3, Dm3, and M3? (useful stuff)
I've just began remembering when I work with something like I2, I need to consider I have two
iodine atoms. sigh

Mole Calculation Questions

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Lattice Energy
The enthalpy change of a substance when one mole of solid substance is formed from its gasous
ions which are an indefinte distance apart.
eg Mg2+ (g) + 2Cl-(g) --> MgCl2(s)
What factors effect Lattice Energy?The size of the ions. Smaller ions have larger lattice energys.
This the attraction between the smaller ions is stronger, due to the smaller ionic radius as less
shielding occurs in bonding.
The degree of polarisation. In compounds such as AgI(s), when it forms it's ionic lattice, the
polarisation of the iodide ion for the Ag+ ion, will cause a degree of covalent bonding which is
additional to the ionic attraction.
The arrangement of the ions. If there is a small anion, and a large cation, it would have a different
ionic coordination number, compared to a compound with a two large ions.
The charge of the ions. A Cl- ion, will feel a greater attraction for a Mg2+ ion, rather than a Na+
ion, (even though they are isoelectronic), because of the extra charge. MgCl2, has a much higher
lattice energy than NaCl.

Eg, WHICH OF THESE HAS GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM?! 1. CH2=C(CH3)2 or 2.

ClHC=CH(CH3). It's 2!
Remember no rotation can occur around the double bond, leading to geometric and optical
isomers.
Both these are covalent bonds, are a pair of electrons is being shared between two atoms.
Two electrons will form a Pi bon, caused by two P orbitals overlapping above and below the plane
of the nucleus. The P orbitals which overlap are at 90 degrees to those forms in the sigma bonding.
(The electron Config of carbon is 1s2, 2s2, 2p2)
Two electrons will form a Sigma bond, cause by two P orbitals overlapping head on.
This bond is a double bond, and so contains 2 electrons. This will in most situations be from 2
from one carbon, two from the other,
In the C=C bond, how many electrons are involved, what types of bond form?

Types of Covalent Bond

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Bond Angles and Length

What will the bond angles be in CH4, NH3, NH4+, BH3 and CH3OH and why?The methane
molcules will have a bond angle of 109, because it forms 4 bonds, with no lond pairs. The electrons
in the bonding are arranged so that they are at the minimum replusion.
In ammonia, the nitrogen has a lone pair of electron. They produce a great replusion than the
normal bonding electrons. This means that the other bonds are pushed together to a place of
minium replusion. In this case the bond HNH, has the angle of 107.
In the ammonium ion, it forms a tethreahdreal shape, with bond angles of HNH of 109. This is
because the lone pair has formed a dative bond with a postive charge, so it acts a normal bonding
pair.
In borane (BH3), the bond angles are at 120. This is a trigonal plannar. The outer shell of boron
is often electron deffient, as in this case, and has no lone pairs. This means 3 bonding pairs are
at minimum replusion at 120. (Borane acts are an electrophile in reactions as it can accept a pair
of electrons, similar to Al in AlCl3).
In the alcohol (methanol), the carbon will form a tetrahedral (109) shape between bonds. However
the oxygen has two lone pairs so creates a COH angle of 104.5.

ALKENES produce a DIRTIER flame than ALKANES (due to carbon ratio higher in alkenes).
Mg - No colour Ca - orange Sr - Red Ba - Apple green
Li - Red Na - yellow K - Lilac
NOW FOR FLAMES

MORE COLOUR
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COLOUR, SO MUCH COLOUR

IONS FIRST
Sulfate - No colour Carbonate - No colour Nitrate - No Colour
Cu2+ - BlueCu3+- colourless
Permangant compounds - purpleManganese oxide - Brown solid
Dichromate - Orange Chromate - yellow Cr3+ - green

Why might ethane be a product? two CH3* radicals can colide to form C2H6! Crazy.
Cl* + Cl* --> Cl2 CH3* + Cl* --> CH3CL
What is this stage called? propogation! Why do we know this happens?! No H* radicals form
CH4 + Cl* --> HCl + CH3* CH3* + Cl2 --> CH3CL + Cl*
Why wouldn't this reaction happen in the lower atmopshere?! Not intense enough UV! What
type of bond breaking is this called?! homolytic!What stage is this called?! initiation!
Cl2 --> 2Cl* (imagine the star is a dot for free radicals). UV LIGHT NEEDED.
The most interesting bit of alkane chemistry. All a bit dull really...

Free Radical Subs

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The Alkene Common

Hydrogenation --> Such a pointless reaction, alkenes are so much more usefull. However, high
temps, and a cat of Nickel are needed. This is an addition reaction.
Halogen reactions --> Room temperture occurance. Br2 is the bromine water test for alkenes are it
decolourises! (Orange to colourless in alkenes). The Br-Br bond becomes an instantanous dipole,
which allows it to act as an electrophile.
Hydrogen Halide Reactions --> This is electrophilic addition. The H becomes added first, forming
the most stable carbon-cation possible. And then the Br- Ion adds onto the carbon with the charge.
Something to consider: In Br2 Water, because water is in excess, when a carbocation is formed, it
more likely to meant the nucleuphilic molecule Water. The subsisution of water forms an alcohol.
For example.
C+H2-CH2Br + H2O --> CH2(OH)-CH2Br + H+

This is an oxidatation reaction, as the carbon gains an oxygen.

The [O] is used to show an Oxygen from the oxidising agent.
The solution would turn from purple to colourless, with a brown manganese oxide precipitate
forming as the reaction occurs.
H2C=CH2 + [O] + H20 --> HOCH2-CH2OH.
Mixing an alkene with at strong oxidation agent Potassium manganate(VII), creates a diol. The
reaction being
This has to occur in neutral aqua solution.
My favourite reaction in Unit 1!

The Alkene to Diol reaction!

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Describing Reactions
Always a bit tricky.
What would you SEE, as Mg(NO3)2 is heated?!
The equation would be... 2Mg(NO3)2 --> 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
So, the white salt MELTS (a white solid would form ias MgO, however you wouldn't see this until it
cools). NO2 is a BROWN gas. O2 is invisible, sad :( Although we all know the test for oxygen YAY!
What would you SEE, as you add Bromoethane, water and Silver nitrate?!
Without know the equations you can guess that a bromide ion will reaction with the Ag+ ion, to
form a cream precipitate!
CH3CH2Br + H2O --> CH3CH2OH + Br- + H+ Br- (aq)+ Ag+ (aq)--> ArBr (s)

Oxidation of Secondary Alcohol - Occurs on heating- Reagents of H2SO4 and Potassium

Dichromate (orange) - As reaction Occurs Dichromate gets reduced to chromate (green) ions! Can just be distilled straight off, as it only oxides once to a KETONE!
Oxidation of Primary Alcohol- Occurs on heatings - Reagents of H2SO4 and Potassium
Dichromate (orange)- As reaction occurs the Dichromate gets reduced to Chromate (green) ions
- If refluxed, product is Carboxylic acid, if not then mostly a alydehyde.

Alcohol Oxidations
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Thermal Stabilty
Touched on some thermal decomposition there...
Nitrate Decompostion.
In Group 1 --> Nitrite forms and oxygen. Except in Li+, (more polarising, smaller ionic radius etc),
which forms NO2 and O2 and Li2O
In Group 2 --> Form NO2, O2 and the metal oxide. (more polarising, greater charge, more
distoration of bonds, which weakens them)
Carbonate decomposition
Group 1 --> Only Li is polarising enough to allow thermal decomp. It follows the equation:
Li2(CO3) --> Li2O + CO2
Group 2 --> All are polarising enough.Do test form limewater, and the salt melts (but MgO forms
as a white solid) Follow the equation:
Mg(CO3) --> MgO + CO2 (bit dull).

Tertiary > Secondary > Primary

Haloalkanes react quickest by the Sn1 mechanism, so tertiary haloalkanes react quicker than
primary haloalkanes of the same halogen.
Iodo > Bromo > Chloro (fluroine-carbon is a very strong bond and doesn't sub easily at all if at all).
Iodine forms the weakest bond with a carbon, so it reacts the quickest when compared to similar
haloalkane compounds.

Speed of Sub Haloalkane reactions

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Halogenoalkane Elim or Sub Reactions

ALL TYPES OF HALOGENOALKANES REACTION WITH NUCLUPHILES.
Primary react with an Sn2 mechanism. Secondary react with an Sn1 and Sn2 mechanism Tertiary
react with an Sn1 mechanism.
Two reactions could occur. The one which happens can be changed based on what degree of
halogenoalkane used, and the conditions it's reacted under.
Alcoholic (ethanol solvent), solutions favour elimination.
Aqua solutions favour subsitution.
Tertiary haloalkanes favour elimination.
Primary haloalkanes favour subs.
Elimination reactions form WATER, and an halogen ion. Eg. (CH3)3CBr + OH- --> CH2=C(CH3)2
+ H2O + Br-

Teritary > Secondary > Primary Iodo > Bromo > Chloro NOTE: PRIMARY CHLORO's REACT
VEYRY SLOWLY WITH WATER.
Speed of reactions are similar to the hydroxide subs as easiler.
The section is a precipitate reactions. The Br- ions are formed from the first reaction.
This first reaction is a nucleuphilic subsitition.Water can act as a nucleuphilc because it has a
donateable lone pair of electrons. (Well, two really but we only need one).
Iodine you get yellow Chloride you get white!
Br-(aq) + Ag+(aq) --> AgBr(s) (cream precipitate)
CH3CH2CHBrCH3 + H2O --> CH3CH2CHOHCH3 + H+ + Br - (hydrobromic acid is mostly
dissociated in water)
Throw all these in together and you get...

Silver Nitrate + Water + Haloalkane reactions

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Group 7 Properties
Chlorine - A gas at room temperture. Pale Green. Toxic. And it's pale green as a solution also.
Quite reactive as it has quite a smaller atomic radius which allows it to attract electrons nicely. In
Hexane it is also pale green.
Bromine - Bit of a mix at room temp. In a dynamic eqilibrium in a closed system, with brown gas
and a brown liquid interchanging. In hexane it is orange. In water solution it is also orange.
Iodine - Purple solid at room temp. In aqua it's brown. In hexane it's violet.
HALIDES DISSOLVE BETTER IN HEXANE/NON-POLAR SUBSTANCES. If you mix Bromine
in water it will be an orange liquid. Now add a hexane layer on top and shake. The water layer will
become colourless as the bromine dissolves in the hexane. The hexane layer will become orange.
Add NaI and Br2 in aqua solution and the solution will turn brown as the I2 molecules form. Add
hexane and shake and the bottom layer will become colourless (Halide ions themselves have no
colour, as the I- and Na+ will be (aq) ions). The hexane layer will become violet.

Metal with WaterMg + 2H2O --> Mg(OH)2 + H2 (more vigerous down the group) (group 2
hydroxides become more soluble down the group and more vigerous reactions)
Oxide with waterMgO + H2O --> Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide)
Metals decomposition2Mg(NO3)2 --> 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2 MgCO3 --> MgO + CO2 (how boring)
Test with limewater. To test speed of Decomp, collect gas over water.
Metal oxides are BASEMgO + 2HCl --> MgCl2 + H2OMgO + H2SO4 --> MgSO4 + H2O
I lie. Here are some lovely Group 2 Reactions which are pretty dull :(

FUN REACTIONS! (Group 2)

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MORE FUN! (Group 7 Basics)

These are more interesting... JUST A QUICK NOTE: Iodine is I2, iodide is I-. Test for Iodine is the
colour in hexane dissolving from the water). Test for iodide is the silver nitrate. Iodine will NOT
react with Silver nitrate.
KBr + H2SO4 --> HBr + KHSO4 (sulfuric acid acting an acid) 2HBr + H2SO4 --> Br2 + SO2 +
2H2O (redox reaction, the sulfuric acid acts as the oxidising agent).
Chloride ions can't reduce the H2SO4. Bromide ions can reduce the H2SO4 to the SO2 Iodide
ions can reduce the H2SO4 to Sulfur and Hydrogen Sulfide.
Halide IONS are reducing agents as they do the following reaction2I- --> I2 + 2e- (Iodine is
the strongest, Chlorine doesn't really reduce, Bromine can do it slightly)
Halogen molecules (Cl2 and Br2) are oxidising agents as they do:Cl2 + 2e- --> 2Cl- (Chlorine
is the strongest, bromine can do it, but iodine can't)