Fascism and Football (Soccer)

Simon Martin is a research fellow at the British School at Rome and the University of Hertfordshire, and
teaches at the American University of Rome. His previous book Football and Fascism: The National Game in
Mussolini's Italy, won the Lord Aberdare prize for literary history, in 2004. His latest book, Sport Italia: The
Italian Love Affair with Sport, which narrates the history of modern Italy through the national passion of sport,
was published by IB Tauris in July 2011
Football has always been the sport of the masses. During the early 20th century, three fascist leadersMussolini, Hitler and Franco- knew very well how much they could benefit from propaganda through the sportthey could show the world their nations strength. Aware of the game's cross-national appeal and powers of
propaganda, the fascist regime invested hugely into rationalizing and regenerating the Italian game. Slow to
industrialize, Italy was a latecomer to football. Winning World War I but losing the peace brought widespread
dissatisfaction which, combined with the threat of communism, fuelled the rapid rise to power of Mussolini and
the fascist regime.
Having established dictatorship, Il Duce turned his attention to trying to mobilize the nation behind the
regime. Sport was fundamental in this goal. Football or calcio as fascism's linguistic nationalism demanded
became its keystone. The 1926 Viareggio Charter turned calcio into a fascist game. Led by the head of
Bolognese Fascism Leandro Arpinati, the Federation set about revolutionizing the game. Most notable was the
formation of a national league, Serie A. The intent was twofold: firstly, to forge a sense of national identity and,
secondly, to create a stronger, more competitive structure that would result in a national team capable of rivaling
the best.
The fruits of the investment began to emerge in the early 1930s as Italian club teams challenged those of
central Europe and Britain for supremacy. The generation bloomed in 1934 as Italy hosted and won the World
Cup. Hosting the 1934 World Cup was Mussolinis big chance- he had the perfect opportunity to show off his
nations strength through the organization of the event as well as Italys performance on the field. Italy reached
the final game against Czechoslovakia. The night before the match Mussolini himself gave the Azzurri (the
Italian national soccer team) a pep talk. He urged: If the Czechs play fair, well play fair. Thats the most
important thing, but if they want to play dirty, then we Italians have to play dirtier. The Azzurri won the final
game with a decisive goal during overtime. Mussolini stood and applauded his Azzurri from the stands. After
the match, Mussolinis newspaper Il Popolo dItalia described the moment: In the name and presence of the
Duce, the Azzurri win a new world title. Italians won the cup on in their own country, and Mussolini got what
he wanted- to show off his countrys might on the world stage.
But there were two nagging doubts that undermined Italian claims to supremacy after the 1934 World
Cup: the absence of the English team and the rumors of corruption and the buying of referees. There is little
concrete evidence to support the latter, but England remained a thorn in Italy's side.
Mussolini and the Azzurri participated in the next World Cup, hosted by France, in 1938. Once again,
Mussolini desired to use the 1938 World Cup to show his nations strength and to prove his world class standing
to the Allied Powers. In preparation for the 1938 World Cup, Vittorio Pozzo, the coach of the Italian national

team, instilled a strong sense of militarism into his team. Settling potentially divisive inter-club rivalries by
forcing antagonistic players to room together, the ambience of his training camps was more like the armed
forces. Closely connected to the fascist hierarchy, Pozzo incarcerated his squad in ritiro (retreat), and marches
through the woods became the order of the day. His motivational tactics were often decidedly nationalistic,
including a detour to the monumental First World War cemetery of Redipuglia where, among the war dead, the
players were reminded of their responsibilities and the sacrifices of their forefathers.
In the first match against Norway, the Azzurri entered the stadium and gave the fascist salute, twice. The
coach, Vittorio Pozzo, describes the scene:
The critical moment was when our players raised their hands to give the fascist salute I entered the
stadium with our players, lined-up military style, and stood on the right. At the salute we predictably met with a
solemn and deafening barrage of whistles, insults and remarks. How long that rumpus lasted I couldn't say. I
was rigid, with an arm outstretched horizontally I couldn't check the time. The German referee and Norwegian
players looked at us worriedly. At a certain point the hullabaloo began to die down and then ceased We had
just put our hands down and the violent demonstration started again. Straight away: "Team be ready. Salute."
And we raised our hands again, to confirm we had no fear Having won the battle of intimidation, we
played.
The Azzurri won the game against Norway, 2-1 in extra time. In the quarterfinal match, the Azzurri played
France (the host country) and were ordered by Mussolini to wear an all black uniform with the fascist symbol
on their chest. The Azzurri beat the French 3-1, proving an important symbolic victory for fascism. For the final
match against Hungary, Mussolini sent a telegram to the coach saying Vincere o Morire! (Win or Die). The
game ended 4-2 with an Italian victory. After the match, the Hungarian goalkeeper Antal Szabo stated: I may
have let in four goals, but at least I saved the lives of 11 men. For their efforts, each member of the Italian
national team was rewarded with an 8,000 Lire win bonus (about three months salary) and a fascist Gold
Medal, which was presented by Mussolini during a 15-minute reception with the team in Palazzo Venezia in
Rome.
By politicizing the game, Fascism enhanced the regimes international prestige and inculcated
nationalist values. Football was effectively used to formulate the nationalistic identity in Italy. Italian fascism
was triumphant in using soccer to shape public opinion and infiltrate daily life.