Biology II Lecture Notes Introduction to Plants References (Textbook -pages 412 - 458, 493 - 515, lab manual - pages 86, 128-157) Definition of Botany Biology is defined as the science of living things and can be divided into 1, zoology - defined as the study of animals and 2. botany - the study of plants Reasons to Study Plants ‘© plants are the primary source of oxygen on earth - produced by process of Photosynthesis © plants are the most important source of food on earth - produce nutrients like starches by process of photosynthesis ‘© axygen (from photosynthesis) forms the ozone (03) layer in earth's upper atmosphere. 1, The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun and helps protects life on earth (see page 894 of textbook for more details) © plants are also a source for many other products such as beverages medicines clothing plastics fossil fuels perfumes biomass fuels photographic film wood ink paper paint flowers lawn grass. shade trees etc.Major Characteristics of Plants © Plants possess the following 7 major characteristics. 1. multicellular 2, stationary 3. eukaryotes - cell having a membrane bounded nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles 4. have well-developed tissues organized into specialized tissues like roots, stems, and leaves. 5. are mostly autotrophic by photosynthesis 6. exhibit alternations of generations in their life cycles, 7. the embryo is protected within the gametophyte Photosynthesis © photosynthesis is defined - as the process occurring within a plant cell's chloroplasts whereby chlorophyll containing organelles trap solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide to carbohydrate. ‘© Chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids are the photosynthetic pigments of plants ‘© Most of the food produced as a result of photosynthesis is stored in the form of starch which is a polysaccharide (a carbohydrate, a polymer of glucose) © The important outcome of photosynthesis is the production of most of the earth's food source. © For this reason plants are known as the earth's producers. © Evolutionists believe that plants may have evolved from green algae because (1) both possess chlorophyll a and b (2) both store food as plant starch, and 3) both have cellulose in their cell wallsBasie Plant Morphology ‘The most common structural material in plants is cellulose. Cellulose is a tough polysaccharide found in cell walls and plant fibers. Major plant structures and their descriptions are as follows. 1. Roots (see handout of Figure 25.1 from page 438 of textbook) © The part of the plant that anchors it in the soil and gives support © The root system absorbs water and minerals from the soil for the entire plant ‘© Root hairs are projections from the epidermal root-hair cells are especially responsible for absorption of water and minerals © Roots produce hormones that stimulate growth and development of stems © We eat the roots of many plants like carrots and sweet potatoes 2. Stems (see handout of Figure 25.1 from page 438 of textbook) ‘© Mostly above ground and forms the main axis of a plant. © Stems provide support for leaves © Stems possess vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from the ‘roots through the stem to the leaves © Same vascular system in stems transports the products of photosynthesis © The trunk and limbs of an oak tree are examples of stems. © The stem of a cactus is specialized as a water storage organ 3, Leaves (sce handont of Figure 25.1 from page 438 of textbook) ‘Leaves are the major part of a plant that carries on photosynthesis ‘© Leaves receive water from the root system by way of the stemLeaves are usually broad and thin to provide the maximum surface area for (1) the absorption of carbon dioxide (2) and collection of solar energy needed for photosynthesis. The wide portion of the leaf is called the blade ‘The petiole is the stalk that attaches the blade to the stem. 4, Vascular System (see handout of Figure 25.1 from page 438 of textbook) Primarily found in the stem There are two types of vascular (transport) tissue. These are: a, Xylem - transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves b. Phloem - transports sucrose and other organic compounds from the leaves to the roots. The vascular system in plants has a similar function to the circulatory system in animals. 5. Flowers (see handout of Figure 25.1 from page 438 of textbook) and (see handoat of Figure 28.2 from page 495 of textbook) The reproductive structure of angiosperms (flowering plants). Only found in angiosperms The ypical flower consists of a, Sepals - usually occur at base of flower and are leaf-like. Sepals protect the flower bud . Petals - occur as a whorl and are usually colorful. Serve to attract pollinators c. Stamens - the male portion of the flower and possess the pollen d. Carpels - the female portion of the flower and usually has an enlarged ‘base that encloses the ovules (or eggs).6. Seeds © Only found in gymnosperms and angiosperms © The mature ovule that contains the plant embryo with stored food enclosed in a protective coat. Reproduction Reproduction may be either asexual ot sexual © Asexual Reproduction 1, Plants often reproduce by vegetative propagation (propagetion means to reproduce, to spread) Examples include: 2. Violets will grow from the nodes of rhizomes (underground horizontal stems) 3. Sweet potatoes are modified roots of the sweet potato plant and can be ‘Propagated by planting sections of the root 4, Many ornamental plants can be propagated from stem cuttings © Sexual Reproduction and Alternation of Generations (see handout of Figure 24.3 Allernation of Generations from from page 416 of textbook) (see handout of Figure on Reduction in Size of Gametophyte) 1. Plants are distinguished by the way they sexually reproduce. 2, In contrast to animals that have only I multicellular stage in their life cycle, all plants have 2 stages. This is called Alternation of Generations. These two life stages are: (illustrate on blackboard) a. sporophyte - a diploid (2N) stage that produces haploid spores by meiosis b. gametophyte - a haploid (N) stage that produces gametes by mitosis 3. Note one exception where Alternation of Generations (two stages in the life cycle) occurs in animals. One we studied this semester - Obelia and others in the phylum Coelenterata. However, note this significant difference @, The two stages , the medusa and polyp are both diploid (2N) (illustrate on blackboard)4. A summary of sexual reproduction and Alternation of Generations in plants is as follows. (sce handout of Figure 24.3 Alternation of Generations from from page 416 of textbook) a. diploid (2N) multicellular, sporophyte produces haploid (N) spores by meiosis 4. spores undergo mitosis and form male and female multicellular gametophytes ‘© male gametophyte - produces male sex organs called the antheridia + female gametophyte - produces female sex organs called archegonia c. male and female gametophytes produce gametes (eggs and sperm) by mitosis ‘© Plants are considered heterogamous. Heterogamy is the condition where male and female gametes are not alike. 4. fertilization of egg by sperm forms diploid (2N) ggote within the female ‘gametophyte sex organ - the archegonia. ©. Zygote undergoes mitosis to develop into multicellular embryo © plant embryos are multi-celtular and develop within the confines of the female gametophyte sex organ called the archegonium where they are Protected © this adaptation is important for survival in a terrestrial environment © the embryo is merely an early stage of the sporophyte life stage ‘© embryo secures its nourishment from the female gametophyte ££ Embryo matures into diploid (2N) sporophyte 5. As one goes from more primitive plants to more advanced plants, there is a trend ‘away from the condition where the gametophyte life stage is dominant and sporophyte homaspory (spores alike) is the rule and toward sporophyte dominance and sporophyte heterospory (spores different - megaspores and microspores) (see handout of Figure on Reduction in Size of Gametophyte) 6. As we study the various taxa of plants and their representatives, we will look at several specific examples of Alternation of Generation.Review of 5 Kingdom Classification System © Kingdom Monera - includes the bacteria and blue-green algae © Kingdom Protista - inctudes algae and protozoa © Kingdom Fungi- includes slime molds and true fungi © Kingdom Plantae (Metaphyta) - includes plants © Kingdom Animalia (Metazoa) - includes animals Classification of Plants © The classification system we will use in our study of the Kingdom Plantae is as follows. 1. Division Bryophyta - non-vascular plants ‘A. Class Musei - mosses B. Class Hepaticae - liverworts C. Class Anthocerotae - hornworts 2. Division Tracheophyta - vascular plants A. Subdivision Psilopsida - whisk ferns B, Subdivision Lycopsida - club mosses C. Subdivision Sphenopsida - horsetails D. Subdivision Pteropsida - ferns, conifers, flowering plants (1) Class Felicinae - ferns (2) Class Gymnospermae - conifers like pine trees (3) Class Angiospermae - flowering plantsSummary of 4 Major Features used in Plant Classification The 4 major characteristics and morphological features used in the classification of Plant Kingdom into taxonomic categories are: 1. protected embryo vs_non-protected embryo 2. vascular tissue vs non-vascular tissue 3. seeds vs no seeds 4, flowers vs_ no flowers (Draw diagram below on blackboard and explain) ‘Non-Protected Embryo Protected Embryo Green Algae Kingdom Plantae Non-Vascular Tissue Vascular Tissue Division Bryophyta Division Tracheophyta Class Musei Class Hepaticae Class Anthocerotae Subdivision Sphenopsida Subdivision Pteropsida Class Felicinae No Flowers Flowers Class Gymnospermae _Class Angiospermae