AHistoricalPerspectiveonReadingResearchandPractice

(PatriciaA.Alexander&EmilyFox)

ConditionsforChange

GuidingViews

ResultingPrinciples

RivalViewofLearner&LearningProcess

ConditionalLearning
(19501965)
GROUP1

1AlyssaCardwell(Amber&Iswitched)
Postwarwasthebeginningofreadingresearchand
practicebecause:
a.
TheBabyBoomincreasedtheamountof
childreninschools,whichincreasedthe
numberofstudentswhowerehavingreading
difficulties,whichmadetheissuemore
apparent.

WhyJohnnyCantReadAndWhatYouCanDo
AboutIt
byRudolfFlesch
a.
Groundbreakingbutcontroversial
publicationsofthisperiod
b.
Thebookdiscussestheeffectivenessof
phonicsbasedtechniquesoverthosethat
reliedonawholewordapproach

2AmberArcher
Readingduringthistimeperiodwasthoughtofasa
conditionedbehaviorandjustprogramedintoyour
mind.
Theskinnerianbehavioristperspectivethought
thatwegainlearningfromourenvironmental
experiencesandbehaviorinsteadofgrowthand
development.
Duringthistimeitwasthoughtthatlearningcame
fromrepeatedandcontrolledenvironment
stimulationandhowapersonreactedfromthe
environmentalstimulation.
Theseidealsleadtothehabituationofthereading
anddidntrequirestudentstothinkcognitively
DavidHumebelievedthatknowledgewasa
perceptionandlearningwashabitual.
Thegoalfromreadingduringthistimewasto
figureouthowbehavioraffectedreadingsothatthe
readerscouldbetrainedinthoseskills.

3
Emily
ProjectLiteracyProgram(CornwellUniversity)
Readingisaperceptualactivity:

identifyvisualsignalstranslatesignalsinto
soundsassemblesoundsintowords,phrases,and
sentences
Phonicsislogicalwayinbeginningtoread(seenastrainable)
Individuallypacedtrainingprogramsareseenasthesolution
toproblemsinattainingcertainskills

1,2,3
Emily
:
WilliamJames:humanthoughtmattersinhumanaction,
introspectionandselfquestioninghelptouncoverthosethoughts

AntiBehaviorist/ProPsychological

Readingisamindfulhabit

Reasoningforreadingismoreinternalandmental
insteadofobservablebehaviors

Researchersleanedtowardthisapproach
GestaltTheory:understandingphenomenaasawholewas
necessaryinsteadofindividually

Humanshadtheabilitytosynthesizeandmakesense

Challidentifiedlinguisticparts

wholewordrecognition

comprehensionwordidentificationneededcontext

Readingisauniqueactivitywithitsownsetof
characteristics
AmberArcher
Thebehaviorperspectivewasthefocusofthisera.
WilliamJamesthoughtthathumanactionsdependedonhuman
thoughtandthatselfquestioninghelpbringoutthethoughts.
WilliamJamesalsothoughtofreadingasamindfulhabitwhich
neededtobelookedatthroughapsychologicallens.
GestaltTheoryFocusedonthephenomenaasawholeinstead
ofinparts.
ChallFocusedonwholewordrecognition,context,
comprehension,wordrecognition,andconsideredreadinga
uniqueprocesswithdifferentcharacteristics.
AlyssaCardwell:
WilliamJames:

Humanthoughtisdirectlyrelatedtohumanaction
^^effectivetools:introspectionand

selfquestioning

Readingisamindfulhabit
Behaviorism:

Bottomupassembly(fluentactivitieswhilelearning
toread)
Gestalttheory(understandingasawhole)

NaturalLearning
(19661975)
GROUP2

4
AlexisDrewer

Increaseinterestsininternalmentalstructures

Advancementinneurologyandartificial
intelligence

Thesetwofactorsencouraged
attentiontothehumanmindand
awayfromtheenvironment

Dissatisfactionwithbehaviorism

Interestinlearningaboutthereadingprocess

LinguistsandPsychologistsbecame
predominantintheReadingfield,butwith
twodifferentperspectives

5.EmilyDuke

Learningwasanaturalprocessand
languagewasdevelopedthrough
meaningfuluse.

NoamChomskyplayedalargepartin
influencingresearchatthistimedueto
hisshiftawayfromthinkingasthe
behavioristviewoflearningas
conditioning.

generativegrammar(focus
onmentalstructurethatdealt
withlanguage)

Sociolinguistsfocusedonhowpeople
uselanguage,specificallyhowlocation
andeducationalsettingsinfluence
languageitself.

6
CherylKoltz

Readingbecomesmorestudiedandisnotseenas
trainable.

PresidentLyndonJohnsonintroducesTitleItothe
country,thisprovidesmoresupporttothoseschools
thathavestudentsfromlowersocioeconomicstatus.

Readingteachersactedasmanagersandsimply
facilitatedtestingofthestudents.Forthemostpart
studentswerelefttolearnontheirown.

Readingspecialistswereonlycertifiedinafew
states.

4,5,6
AlexisDrewer
*Theseviewsbecamerivalviewsforthenextdecade
*Researchesfocusedonhowhowprocessescouldbe
representedsymbolicallyandtransferredintocomputerprograms
thatcouldapproximatehumanperformance
*Focustowardstextbasedperformance
*Examinationofreadingasitsownprocessofwrittentext
CherylKoltz
*Readingspecialistswerehighlysoughtafteroncetheirpurpose
wasclear.
*Teachersdidnotactasmanagerstothestudentsasmuchand
begantofacilitatetheirlearning.
*Researchersbeganacceptingthatreadingeducationshouldbe
availabletoolderstudentsaswellastheyounger.
EmilyDuke
*Readingshouldbelookedatastheprocessingofwritingand
shouldbeexaminedindepthonitsown,notincorrespondence
withorallanguage.

InformationProcessing
(19761985)
GROUP3

7
KimberlyLyon
Duringthemid1970saninterestintheprocessesand
structureofthehumanminddeveloped.Fortunately,the
UnitedStates.Federalfundingforresearchincreased
whichultimatelyledtothedevelopmentofmultiple
researchfacilities.TheUniversityofIllinoisplayeda
majorroleinresearchduringthistimeastheycreated
theirnoteworthyCenterfortheStudyofReading.
Furthermore,duetothefluctuatingresearchcenters,
therewasasignificantincreaseofresearchersand
theoristsamongthereadingcommunity.

8
LindseyMcGibbon
Cognitivepsychologywasakeyfocus
Unprecedentedresearchonknowledge
(specificallypriorknowledge)
ImmanuelKantwasalargefigureinthistime
Kantfocusedonthedifferencebetweenthe
sensibleworldandtheintelligibleworld(whatis
perceivedbythesensesvs.whatisconceived
throughintellect/reason)
researcherslookedforlawsthatexplained
humanlanguageasaninteractionbetweensymbol
systemandmind
verymechanicalideaofhowwelearn(input,
interpret,organize,retain,output)

9
MollyMunson
Priorknowledgehadamajorinfluenceonresearchduringthis
era.Theconnectionwasmadebetweenthereader'sprior
knowledge,readingability,comprehensionskills,and
processing.
Thecomparedtheconnectionsbetweentheorganizationof
knowledgeinskilledreadersandnotasskilled.
Theschematheoryisdescribedasthemostpotentlegacyof
thisera.Theresearchwasinfluencedbythephilosophyfrom
Kant.
Therewerethreemajorcharacteristicstotheresearchduring
thistime.First,itwasfocusedontheindividualmind.There
wasnotmuchfocusonthesocioculturalandcontextual
influences.Second,itsupportedindividualisticinterpretations

7.8.9
KimberlyLyon
*Vocalcriticsbelievedinamorenaturalandholisticviewof
readingmanyofthesecriticsbelievedinthepreviousNatural
LearningTheory.
*Aestheticofreadingvs.Rationaleofreading
LindseyMcGibbon:
*Thoseopposedwereinfavorofassimilatingthelanguagearts
(reading,writing,discussion)
*Aesthetic=enjoyingtheliterature
*Rationale=factfinding
MollyMunson
*Theoverallgoalofthisresearchwhencomparingaestheticand
nonaestheticreadingwasforreaderstolearnduringreadingby

SocioculturalLearning
(19861995)
GROUP4

EngagedLearning
(1996Present)

onwrittentext.Lastly,theresearchshowedthatthereaders
knowledgecanwemodifiedbytrainingandexplicitinstruction.

gettinglostinthetextratherthanlearningfromthetext.

10SaraPeters
Learningwasnowseenasmoreindividualisticandthe
informationprocessingapproach,especiallyforteacher
trainingprograms,wasseenaslesseffectiveas
previouslythought.Studentsalsodidnotappeartobe
benefittingfromthepracticescomingoutofthese
programs.

Thestudyofliteracywasalsoseeninmoretraditional
placescomparedtointhepast.Studieswerenowlocated
inclassrooms,workplaces,andhomes.

Inthisera,adistrustgrewtowardsscientificinquiryand
formalknowledgewasdevalued.Inadditiontothis,the
focusoflearningwasnowtheprocess,ratherthanthe
outcomes.

11
MorganPiskadlo
GroupLearningLiteracynowsoughttocapture
the
shared
understandingofthe
many
,ratherthan
theknowledgeofone(46).

Thiseraoflearningisdescribedasholisticand
aesthetic.

Theadoptionofsocialandculturalperspectives
throughwaysofknowing

Inspiredbroaderacceptanceand
exploration

Learningbecamemorecollaborative
basedwherelearnerswereseenas
membersofthelearningcommunity.

Theenvironmentandsocialsettingis
takenintoconsiderationaswell.

12
AlexaRussell
Literacyinvolvedanabundanceofknowledge
Schooledknowledge(knowledgegainedinschool)and
unschooledknowledge(studentsarriveatschoolwithprior
knowledgethatguideshowtheyunderstandlanguage)are
dependentononeanother.

Ifastudentlacksunschooledknowledge,thenthat
studentwillbeunsuccessfulinapplyingtheir
schooledknowledge
Conditionalityofknowledge

Growingawarenessontheimportanceofsocialand
contextualcontributionstolearning

Schoolingwasseenasbothasocialandcultural
phenomenon

Schoolswerecenteredaroundinteractionsof
studentsandteachers

Educatorsplayedtheessentialroleoffacilitator

Scaffoldingdiminishedasstudentsknowledge
increased
Studentsknowledge,strategicthinking,andmotivationswould
varyalongdomainlines

Globallabelsuchasgoodorpoorwouldbein
needofmoreexplanation

10,11,12
MorganPiskadlo
Valuedandconsideredthesocialandcontextualforcesinthe
literaryrealm.Withinthecommunityideology,theknowledge
andknowingbecamethefocusandwasthoughttobecentralto
development.
SymbolicProcessingTheoryfoundationalemphasison
learningandtheconditionsofanontransferablelearning
environment.Withinthisideal,learningwasnotseparatedand
stayedwithinitscontext.
AlexaRussell
SocioculturalLearningPrimaryimportancewasrelatedtothe
context/socialinteractions

Centralfocuswasontheknowledgeandknowing
SymbolicProcessingTheory

Knowledgewasfoundinthecontextitself,ratherthan
residinginaparticularperson

Researcherssawknowledgeasnontransferable
betweensituationsorcontexts
Knowledgewasnotshapedbysocialinteractionsand
experiences,ratherintheinterchangeofideas

Forexample,beingsociallyengagedin
collaborativelearningactivitiesanddiscussions.
SaraPeters
TherewasafocusonSocialInteractionsinwhichlearningwas
situated.Becauseofthisfocus,theSymbolicProcessingTheory
cameabout.Thiscausedanemphasisontheamountoflearning
thatwasavailableincertainlearningenvironmentsandunder
certainconditions.Theviewsonhowlearningandknowledge
wasacquiredalsoshifted.Learningwasthoughttoresideinthe
contextinwhichititoccurredandonlyinthatsetting.This
meanttomanyresearchersthatknowledgecouldonlybegained
ifthestudentsweresociallyengagedinthetask.

13Literacytextbegantomorphfromtraditionallinear
modeltononlinearandnontraditional.Theoriginal

14
SarahWells

15

13,14,15
EmilySwale

GROUP5

perceptionofreadingandthewayitshouldbelearned
alsobegantoalterasmoreresearchwascompleted.
Thewaystudentswereexpectedtolearnevolvedbased
onafewreasons.

Changeinmodelofliterature,literacyand
text(nonlinear)

Impactofmotivationwasonefactorthat
wasstudiedtodetermineastudent'slearning
development

Awarenessoftheimportanceofreadingit
wasdiscoveredthatreadinggoesbeyond
youngeragesbutratherwillimpactaperson
withintheirentirelifespan.

Readingisnotconfinedtotraditionalprint
materialsbutextendstothetextsstudents
encounterdaily,includingthenonlinear,
interactive,dynamic,andvisuallycomplex
materialsconveyedviaaudiovisualmedia.

Technologybeginstoplayahugerole
Thus,pedagogicalinstructionneedstobeadapted
inordertofittheseemergingmodesofnonprint
successfullyintotheclassroom.

Therewillbeaneedtohelpstudents
whostrugglewithtechnology.
Studentsareactiveandwillfulparticipantsinthe
receptionofknowledge.

Engagementiscurrentlydecliningin
todaysclassrooms.
JohnDewey

thelearnerisconceptualizedasa
modernknowledgeseeker

Involvestheintegrationofcognitive
andmotivationalforces.
Individualsarecontinuallyintheprocessof
learningtoreadandhaveadirectroletoplayin
theirliteracy.

Studentsarenotcompleteasreaders
whentheycandemonstratebasic
linguisticskillsorfluencyinreading.
Thisperspectivecontinuesfromelementaryyears
intoadolescencethenintoadulthood.

ReconditioningEra:

FocusedandInvestedinbuildingastronger
foundationforstrugglingreaders.

Lesstheorybaseddriven,accountabilitydrivenby
highstakestesting

Strongernetofsupportersonhowtostrengthenskills
andcomponentsofreading.
SarahWells

Presentinvestmentinbasicskillsandcomponentsof
readinghasgainedsupportfromresearchersinspecial
educationandotherswhoworkwithstruggling
readers

Haveattemptedtopinpointthespecific
neurobiologicalorphysiologicalpatternsrelatedto
specificreadingoutcomesordocumentedconditions

Theefforttocreatenationalstandardsthataretaught
intheclassroomalsocreateatightrestrictionon
studentsengagementandlearning.

Emergentpremises:HistoricalLessons
(from
AShortHistoryoftheUnitedStates
article)

Premisenotedinthetext

Lessonforyourownthinkingandreflection

1.1900to1919

1,2,3
EmilyCornett:AStudentsJourney
Readinginthebeginningofthistimeperiodwaspredominantlybasedonrecitation.Thestudentsreadfromtheirbooksand,not

onlywasthereevidenceofcomprehension,buttherewasreallynoexpectationtocomprehend.Therewasalsoalackofemphasison
whetherareaderwasconsidereddeficientuntilabout1910whenthetermwasbroughttosurface.Itwasalsoatthistimethat
EdmundBurkHueychangedthefunctionofreadingfromsimplydevelopinganinterestinliteraturetothenumberofwordsthata
studentknewwhiletheywerereading.Thiswasthestartofscientificinvestigationinreading.

AlyssaCardwell:NewResearch&Instruction
Duringthistime,researchwasfocusingon:
Doreadersmaturetheyshifttoevenlongerunitsofperception?
Readingtimeallotments,methodsofprimaryreading,phonics
Oralreadingvs.silentreading
Primarygoal:studentsabilitytounderstandthepassages.
RemedialReadingwasintroduced(1916)
Significantresearchers:

CharlesJuddthoughtmeaningwasmoreimportantthanreciting(Parker)

FrancisParkerbelievedexpressionhelpsthoughtandthoughtisnecessaryforexpression,aswellasthatordinary
reading(silentreading)wasnotaformofexpressionbutamatterofattention

WilliamS.Graybelievedsilentreadingismorepractical,moreefficient,andmoreeffectivethantheregularregimeof
oralreading

EdwardThorndikedistinguishthedifferencebetweenmouthingwordsandfindingmeaning.Focusedonmeaning.

ErnestHornThoughtweshouldpretestallwordstobetaught,teachonlythosewordsthatstudentsspellincorrectly,
providevigorousreview,showstudentsprogresscontinuously,andkeepuptheinterest
ThewarledtodiscoverythatmanyUSsoldierscouldnotread

AmberArcher:ImpactontheReadingTeacher
Inthistimeperiodtheroleofthereadingteacherwasbeingredefined.Inthefirsttwodecadestherolewastosetupthebasalreaders
andmaterials.Thereadingteacheralsoassessedbasedonunpracticalcomprehensionquestions.Duringthistimeperiodthereading
standardschangedforreadinginstruction.Theywerechangedtomorechildcenteredgearedtowardinterestleveland
meaningfulnessofthematerial.From1914to1919thereadingteachersgottheirinstructionfromexperts.MarthaFultonwantedto
makesurethatreadingteachersmadespellingmeaningfultostudents.EdwardThorndikewantedawaytomeasureschool
achievementinreading.GrayandThorndikewerethefirstonestocreatemeasuringscalefororalreading.Theybothalsowanted
readingteacherstokeepuponscholarlyarticlestobetterreadinginstruction.
2.1920to1929

1,2,3
AlyssaCardwell:OneStudentsJourney
Thingsyoumightseeintheclassroom:

Childrenreadingaloud

StudentsattendedreadingclassasopposedtoformerreadinginstructionwithinthefamiliarconfinesofEnglishclass

Readingmaterialswereplentiful

Basals

competingsetsofreaders,allfirmlybasedonthephonicsapproach


workpadsforsilentreading
Newfocuses:

Readingreadiness

RemedialReading

Readingindifferentcurricularareas

Silentreading&readingspeed

specialsupervisorsofreadingwerebeinghired

EmilyCornett:ResearchandInstruction
Between1920and1924,readingdisabilitybecameabigconcern.

Publicschoolsfocusedonsomekindofreadingimprovementforretardedreaders
WilliamGray:

calledforcloserattentiontoremedialstudents

DefinedremedialcaserangingfromlowIQ,inadequatelanguagehabitstopoorhomeenvironment,inadequatereading
materials,andpoorinstruction

Needforspecialreadingclinics
Newresearch

1927:1in6childrenfailedthefirstsemesteroffirstgradeand1in8childrenfailedthesecondsemesteroffirstgrade.

Newphonicsreaderswerenolongerpublishedafterstudiesfoundthatpeopledonotordinarilyreadbyletters,butby
wholewordunits.

Interestinreadingindifferentcurricularareassuchasarithmetic,history,andliteraturewasimportant

Intelligencewasnolongerthedecidingfactorforplacingstudentsintodifferentreadinggroupsandothercharacteristics
oftheactualstudentwerestudiedatdeeperlevels(socialbackground,emotionalmaturity,andphysicalcondition).

AmberArcher:ImpactontheReadingTeacher
Inthe1920sthereadingteacher'srolechangedagainbecauseitbecamefurtherbasedonresearch.Thefocusofreadingwasnow
gearedtowardsilentreading,readingspeed,readingdisabilities,andnewreadingmaterials.Readingteacherswerealsolookingfor
waystomakereadingmoreefficientforstudents.Basalreaderswerealsostillbeingwrittenandusedintheclassrooms.Reading
teacheralsobegantonoticehowdifferentreadersare,andtheysawtheneedfornewmaterialstomeettheneedsofthedifferent
readersabilities.So,forthefirsttimereadingbecameincreasinglyvaried.Readingteachersusedthingssuchasperceptioncards,
flashcardstohelpsilentreading,remedialmaterials,anddiagnosticandachievementtests.ReadingteachersalsobeganusingThe
TeachersWordbooktohelpthemdecidewhichwordsweremostimportanttoteach.Duringthistimeperiodreadingteacherswere
startingtoturntowardscientificresultsonwhatworkedinteachingreading.
3.1930to1939

4,5,6

CherylKoltz
Itwasbelievedthatstudentsundertheageofninedidnotberequiredtoread!Thiswasmindblowingtomebecause,
today,westartteachingchildrentoreadatmuchyoungerages.Withthatsaid,backinthistime,thepresidentoftheIRAdid
advocateformorereadinginstructioninthehighergrades.Becausewenowpushreadingsomuchwhenourstudentsareyoung,
readinginstructiondoesnottakeprecedenceintheclassroomattheupperlevels.

4.1940to1949

4,5,6
CherylKoltz

5.1950to1959

7,8,9
KimberlyLyon
Accordingtothetext,the1950swasaturningpointinthewayreadingteacherswerepubliclyviewed.Reading
programsacrossthenationfacedcriticismduetothebeliefthatreadingwasbeingtaughtincorrectly.Astrongfocushadbeenon
readingwordforwordinsteadoflookingatthephonics,spelling,andvocabularyofwordsinordertoreachahigherunderstanding.
LindseyMcGibbon
Phonicswerecompletelydenouncedinthisdecade.Mostbelievedthatitwasagimmickandwouldnotbenefit
thoselearningtoread.ThelaunchofSputnickfromtheSovietUnionstruckfearinAmericans.Everyonewasracingtofindthe
quickestwaytoimproveourcountrysreadinglevels.Thisrangedfromimprovedteacheredclassestopublishingmorecollegelevel
andadultliterature.Everyonewantedtoimprovetheirliteracyskillstoimprovethecountry.Publicopinionofreadingteachers
declinedseverely.Theybelievedthatreadingteachersshouldfocusonteachinglettersnotwordsandthatstudentswerebeingtaught
tomemorize,guess,orwaittobetoldthewordtheywerestuckon.
MollyMunson
Researcher,JackHolmes,statedthatdifferentmethodsofreadinginstructionworkedwell.Thisideasupportedmany
changesintheliteraryworldduringthisdecade.Duringthistime,inAmerica,researchwasusedtoexpandknowledgeandbeginthe
technologicalera.Readingclinicsforadultsbecamepopularforjobpreparation.Researchalsoprovedthatgiftedstudentsshouldbe
identifiedatanearlierage.Also,thiserachangedhowreadingteacherswerepubliclyviewed.Thereweremanycriticismsandit
wasarguedthatreadingmustbetaughtbylearninglettersratherthanwholewords.

6.1960to1969

7,8,9
KimberlyLyon
Accordingtothearticlemuchofthestandardizationofreadinghadbeencompletedbythisera.Theresearchbeing
conductedwascombinedofmixedfindingsandtheoriesfromyearsprevious.However,readingresearchedremainedahottopicand
readingbecamesomethingnewasmethodschangedandsuccessratesincreased.
LindseyMcGibbon
Elementarywritinginstructionbecameahottopic,butstudentswerenotofferedmuchchoiceintheirreading
selections.Readinghadbecomestandardizedbythistime.Atechnologicalrevolutionappearedinreadingduringthisdecade.
Therewasalotoffocusonsilentreading,clozetests,andteachingreadinginthecontentareas.Readingresearchdoubledin
prevalence.Criterionreferencedtestscameabout.Readinginstructionchangeddrastically.Thefocusbecamereachingallstudents
andgivingallachanceofsuccess.Readinessactivitiesbecamepopular.Thecertificationofreadingspecialistsbecamemorepopular
asdemandgrewforthosespecificallytrainedinreadingeducation.
MollyMunson
Duringthistime,literacyinstructionwaschanging.Therewasanewfocusonwritingandteacherswereexposedto
newtechniquesandinstructionfortheirstudents.Readingspecialistwerebecomingmorepopularandneededintheschools.
Teacherswererequestedtoteachreadingincontentareastostudentsolderthanthesecondgrade.Thoughmanytechnologieswere
founded,theywereslowlybeingexposedtotheschoolsystems.Accordingtothearticle,readinginstructionwasdrastically

changingandbegantotakeanewshape,Teachersbeganusinginformalassessmentandotherstrategiestochangehowreadingwas
instructed.Itwasfoundthatnotoneinstructionalmethodwasbetterthananotherforlowandhighreaders.
7.1970to1979

10,11,12
MorganPiskadloMuchoftheresearchdoneinthisdecadewasguidedmoretowardsreadingcomprehension.Anexcerpttaken
fromthearticlestateswenolongerassumethatchildrenenterschoolwithlittleknowledgeoflanguage,oftentheyconsidered
priorknowledgeandhowthatcomesineffectwhenteachingstudentsinourclassrooms.
AlexaRussell
WholeLanguageMovementbegan,whereteacherswerefacilitators,nottellers.Teachersobserved,decidedwhat
instructionwasneeded,andallowedstudentstodiscovertheirowninsightsaboutreadingandwriting.Furthermore,muchofthis
decadewasfocusedoncomprehension.Astudywascompletedin1976byLabergeandSamuelsrealizingthemorereaderscan
identifywordsautomaticallyinatext,thebettertheywillbeabletocomprehendbecausetheycangivealmostalltheirattentionto
comprehension.Lastly1972markedtheMinimumCompetencyMovement,wherestatelevelpoliciesgeneratedlowleveltestsin
ordertogetoutofhighschoolandgetadiploma.Unfortunately,teacherstaughtreadingaccordingtodirectionsinguidebooks.
Therefore,studentsneededtoteachthemselvesiftheyweregoingtolearnanything.

SaraPeters
The1970swasthestartofofmanynewinitiativesinEducation.Thereadingmaterialavailableforstudentshad
changedfromstoriesthatwerewrittentoconformtovocabularyrestrictionstoselectionsfromChildrensLiterature.Reading
instructionwastedious,andfosteredlittleenthusiasmforstudentsandbytheendofthedecade,KenGoodmanreportedthat
basalsofthe1970sprevent[ed]studentsfrombecomingliterate.
Researchalsobegananewinthe1970s.Theresearchfrompreviousdecadesdidnotcarryoverandthenewresearchthatdidarise
madeastoundingdiscoveries.Forexample,wenolongerassumedthatstudentsstartedschoolwithlittleknowledgeofschool.
Also,itwasdiscoveredthatcomprehensionwastaughtlessthanonepercentofthetime.Awholelanguageapproachwasalso
initiatedinthisdecade.Itputthefocusonassessingtheknowledgeandneedsofthestudentsandusingthattoguidetheexperiences
thatwerefacilitatedforthestudentstodiscoverontheirown.Becauseofthelittleinformationthatwasknownaboutcomprehension,
researchforitreallytookoffinthe1970s.Multiplestudiescametolightinthisera.Onestatedthataspeedofreadingduring
whichreaderscanidentifywordsautomaticallyenabledthemtocomprehendbetterbecausetheycangivealmostalltheirattentionto
comprehension,whichshowedthelinkbetweendecodingandcomprehension.Anotherstudyfoundthatwhentextisorganizedinto
Macroandmicrostructuressuchastopicsentencesanddetailsfollowing,itiseasiertounderstand.
Thegreatestcharacteristicofteachersduringthistimewastheirroleasmanagersormaterials,tests,andtheclassroomtofacilitate
learning.Thisforcedstudentstooftenhavetoteachthemselves.

8.1980to1989

10,11,12
MorganPiskadloBeforethistimeperiod,studentswereoftentaughtthroughtextbooksandworkbookswheretheywereexpected
tomemorizewhattheywerereadinginordertoregurgitateinformationwhenquestioned.Duringthisperiodtherewasmuch
emphasisonintegrationofreadingandwriting.Theresearchersdiscoveredthatstudentsaregoingtoreadwhatintereststhemandas
teachersweneedtogivethemthisflexibility.Vocabularyinstructionwasmentioned,andresearchersstatethatthereneedstobe
exposureandpractice.
AlexaRussell
ReadingRecoveryProgramwascreatedbyMarieClayin1985thatoffersdailyhalfhouroneononetutorial
sessionsforstudentswhoarehavingtroublelearningtoreadafteroneyearofformalinstruction.Additionally,havingstudentsread
whattheyareinterestedinbecamevitalanditwasimportantforstudentstothinkcritically.Thegovernmentinitiatedaneducational

reformmovementthatdefinedreadingasatechnologyratherthanahistoricalandsocialpractice.Furthermorestatewidetextbooks
wereadoptedandtherewasmoreofanimportanceputontheinteractionbetweenreadingandwriting.Lastly,therolesofteacher
andtextbookseemedtobereversed(teachersbecameasupportsystemforthetextbook).
SaraPeters
Inthe1980sthestyleandfocusofreadinginstructionwasessentiallythesameasithadbeenfordecadesprior.Itwas
aboutmemorizingatextandbeingabletoanswerquestionsaboutthattext,withlittleregardforhowtoreadorthinkcriticallyabout
saidtext.Readingandwritingwerealsotaughtinaseriesofisolatedskillswithlittlechanceofastudentgraspinghowallofthe
skillsworkedtogetherinorderforthemtobecomesuccessful,readers.PracticessuchastheBasalreaderswereseenasfaultybut
practitionerswerestillatalostastohowtofixthemandthingsuchasvocabularyinstructionremainedamystery.Thesequestions
ledtoeducationreformandforhighstakestesting,whichhadalreadybeenimplemented,tostayattheforefrontinaneffortto
alleviatethegrowingconcernoftheUnitedStatesweakeducationalsystemcomparedtoothercountries.TheprogramReading
Recoverywasalsostarteditthe80stohelpstrugglingreaderswhichwasespeciallypowerfulaftertheacceptedintegrationof
readingandwritinginstruction.Thatintegrationwasamajoremphasisofthedecades.Apartofthisintegrationwastheideathat
bothstudentsandteachersbecomeactiveparticipantsofreading,whichsparkedthestrategyofliteraturecirclesandbookclubs
withintheclassroom.Forthereadingteachers,theirjobsbecameharderthaninprioryears.Theynolongerhadthepowertomake
decisionsofwhattoteachandwhentoteachit.Theircurriculumalsoreliedheavilyonthetextbook,whichwasthebasisofthe
curriculumwiththeteachersupportingit.
9.1990to1999

13,14,15
EmilySwale:Duringthistimeperiodteacherswerestillforcedtoteachtothetest,andasthearticlementionedteachingwitha
onesizefitsallthinkingmethod.Standardizedtestscoreswerepivotalwithintheseyearsandcontroledteachersinstruction.Bythe
endofthistimeperiod,IRAwasbringingimportantissuestothepublic'sattention.Forexample,notenoughreadingsupportwithin
theschools,andthemistakeoftreatingalladolescentsasiftheylearnthesameway.TheIRAalsoputanemphasisonphonicsand
theimportantroleitcontributedtoreadinginstructionanddevelopment.

SarahWells
:Inthe1990s,studentswerebeingexposedtoreadinglessandless.Theywerebeingtaughtfundamentalreadingskills
intheelementary,givenminordirectioninthemiddleyears,andtheniftheydidnthaveitbythetimetheywereinhighschool,they
wereleftbehind.Thisbeingbecauseteacherswerenotacceptingthatreadingisnotacompartmentalizedsubject.Teacherswerealso
beingplacedunderthepressureofonesizefitsallduetothepressureofimpedingstandards.Atthesametime,theIRAnotedthe
lackofliteracybeingtaught,alongwiththeneedforreadingspecialistsintheclassroom.Phonicsanddiversityweretwohottopics
duringthe1990s.Phonicswasnotbeingtaughtasapartofreadingandstudentswhomightnothavehadtheopportunitytoreadat
homeforvariousreasonswerebeingleftbehindinthereadingprocess.Evenbookswerenotasdiverseanddidnotreachavarietyof
readers.

10.20002006

13,14,15
EmilySwaleWithinthistimeframe,studentsarereceivingsurfaceknowledge.Comprehensionandvocabularyseemtobeanissue
withinthistimeperiod,andseemstobealoosetermwithinschools.Studentsmaybeabletospellwordsorrecallinformation,but
thisdoesnotdemonstratetheirknowledgeandmasteryofthecontent.Newpracticeshavebeenimplementedsuchaswritingto
learn,howeverstandardizedtestingandactssuchasNoChildLeftBehindpushteacherstoteachinginawaythatmightnotbenefit
allstudentslearning.Thistimeperiodisstillverystronglymoldedbystandardizedtesting.

SarahWells
:Studentsarenotbeingtaughthowtolearnvocabularyinawaythattheywillnotonlycomprehendthematerial,but
alsounderstandhowitisimportanttothecontentoftheclass.Teacherswereencouragedtousewritingtolearnandcoconstruct
meaning,butduetothe2001NoChildLeftBehindteacherswerenotabletospendtimeimplementingthenewpractices.Teachers
aresubjectedtoworkunderwhatthestandardsandtestasksinordertohaveahighstudentpassrate.Readingteachersarebeing
forcedintoagameoftugowar.Theyarecompletingvariouspracticesintheclassroombutnotbeingaskedtheiropinionor
effectiveness.Thus,teachersareleftwithaonesizefitsallmentality.

FirstGradeStudies:
(Bond&Dystra,1967).Authorsprophesizedamoratoriumonracehorsestudiesbyfindingitalldependsbutprettymuchanyalternative(basalplusphonics,phonicsfirst,linguistic,specialorthography,orlanguageexperience)was,on
balance,superiortothewhippingpostoftheFirstGradeStudies,theconventionallooksaybasalspopularintheearly1960s)Findingsalsohighlightedimportantissuestoconsiderwhenconductingandreadingresearch:(a)includemultiplemeasures(b)
appropriatecontrolgroupsaredifficulttodefine(c)appropriatestatisticalanalysis(e.g.,correlationsormeans/ANOVAs)shouldfitresearchquestions(d)novelty(Hawthorneeffect)canaffect/compromisefindings(e)treatmentfidelityisacommonproblemin
largescaleresearch.