Canadas Residential School System: Creation and Evolution

Submitted by Pamela McKinnon

Submitted to Heather McGregor
December 2, 2013
ETEC 521
UBC

Introduction
In June 2008, Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Canada, formally apologized for
Canadas residential school system. Harper noted that the creation of such a system, one that
forcibly removed Indigenous children from their homes and families and required them to live in
residential schools, sought to kill the Indian in the child (Harper, 2008). In the same month that
Harper apologized for the residential school system, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(TRC) was created. Harper noted three main goals of the TRC: to provide a chance for
residential school survivors to share their stories, to establish respect for one another and to
create a desire to move forward.
But what led to the creation of the residential school system? What made the Canadian
government decide to take control of educating Indigenous children by removing children from
their homes, forcing them to live in residential schools ensuring they forget all aspects of their
Indigenous culture in favour of assimilating into Canadian culture? And why was this system
administered for more than100 years?
This paper aims to look at key documents that both created and maintained the residential
school system. Davins Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half Breeds, the Indian Act
of 1877, as well as later amendments and revisions, and Hawthorns A Survey on the
Contemporary Indians of Canada will all be discussed in terms of their role in the residential
school system.

The Davin Report

In 1879, the Prime Minister of Canada, Sir John A. Macdonald, asked journalist Nicholas
Flood Davin to travel to the USA to investigate Americas system of industrial schools that
educated Native Americans and those of mixed heritage. Davin met with key individuals who
both created and administered industrial schools and determined whether such a model might be
possible in Canada.
Davin begins his report by noting that: The experience of the United States is the same
as our own as far as the adult Indian is concerned. Little can be done with him. He can be taught
to do a little at farming, and at stock-raising, and to dress in a more civilized manner, but that is
all (Davin, 1879, p. 2). Davin establishes early in the report that government interventions with
adult Indigenous peoples did not prove to be effective in assimilating Indigenous peoples. As
Davin continued his study of industrial schools he observed that if anything is to be done
with the Indian, we must catch him very young. The children must be kept constantly within the
circle of civilized conditions (Davin, 1879, p.12). This opinion, that Indigenous peoples must be
taught to live in a civilized manner, and that the most successful way of achieving this is to
teach Indigenous children from a young age the ways of White civilization permeates the report.
Davin considered both boarding and day schools in his investigation. He found that,
unequivocally, boarding schools were by far the most successful method of assimilating
Indigenous children. He reasoned that the failure of day schools was due to the fact that the
influence of the wigwam was stronger than the influence of the school (Davin, 1879, p. 1).
Therefore, boarding schools became Davins chief recommendation.

In the report, Davin gives a thorough financial breakdown of the costs associated with
both creating and operating industrial schools. He notes that in Canada, due to the bountiful
supply of timber, the schools could be constructed for less money than in the USA. In
considering the operating costs of the schools, Davin is quick to point out that the farm stock
needed to teach the boys cattle-raising and agriculture will increase in size and value, thus
swiftly making the schools self-sufficient. From a financial point of view, Davin identifies the
low-costs for the government and suggests that in time the schools will support themselves
financially, which seemingly would appeal to the government.
As Davin makes his suggestions for how Canada can possibly implement a similar
educational structure as American Industrial schools he indicates that a structured, boarding
school system cannot be created soon enough as We have warlike and excited refugees within
our territory. A large statesman like policy, with bearings on immediate and remote issues,
cannot be entered on too earnestly or too soon (Davin, 1879, p.10).
Davins report was received in 1879. One year later the Indian Act was revised,
suggesting that Davins recommendations regarding educating Indigenous children helped shape
the Indian Act of 1880.
The Indian Acti
The many revisions to the Indian Act over the past 130 years have ensured that the
Canadian government controls every aspect of Indigenous peoples lives. This paper is solely
concerned with the educational facets of the Indian Act, but the Act also covers many other
topics such as: citizenship, status, land ownership, treaties, reservations, elections of chiefs and
band councils and many more. In the 1880s, discussions in Parliament regarding the Indian Act

noted that the government was the protector of the Indians (Carney, 1983, p. 613). Perhaps it
was the notion of being protector that led many to believe that it was their duty to control
Indigenous peoples.
The Indian Act of 1876 was one of the first government policies that outlined the
assimilation plans the Canadian government had for its Indigenous peoples. One of the key
features of the Indian Act of 1876 was enfranchisement. This strategy, of encouraging and at
times, requiring, Indigenous peoples to give up their Indian status to become full citizens of
Canada became a precursor to the residential school system. Davins report, suggesting young
children can be made to be civilized by attending boarding schools and living away from their
families and Indigenous cultures, led many in the government to believe that assimilation and
enfranchisement were not only possible but preferable. Therefore, as the government created the
Indian Act of 1876 and received Davins report in 1879, the residential schools system was born.
Further revisions to the Indian Act saw attending residential schools become mandatory,
and attending any other school illegal, thus effectively forcing every Indigenous child in Canada
to attend residential schools. In 1880 the Indian Act was amended to guarantee that children be
taught by the religious denomination that they belonged to, thus cementing the relationship
between religious orders and residential schools. Interestingly, one of the main motivations of
the government in choosing religious groups to operate the residential schools was financial.
Religious groups were able to run the schools for less money than the government. (Carney,
2008, p. 615). For the next one hundred years, various religious groups ran residential schools
across Canada.

In the 1950s and 60s the Indian Act saw further revisions. During these revisions, the
government began to encourage integrated schooling. Indigenous children were to attend public,
provincial schools alongside non-Indigenous children. This shift in perspective began as a result
of a few different factors. Post WW2, Canadians, having seen human rights atrocities in Europe,
began to examine the rights of citizens within Canada (Carney, 2008). Additionally, near the end
of the 1960s, Harry B. Hawthorn submitted a report on the state of Indians in Canada. In his
report he paid considerable attention to education, noting the failings of the residential school
system and supporting an integrated schooling approach.
Even though integrated schooling became a part of the Indian Act in the mid-1960s, some
residential schools remained in operation until the 1990s, largely in part to the opposition of
some religious groups who operated residential schools.
The Hawthorn Survey
In the late 1960s, Harry B. Hawthorn and his team of researchers created A Survey on the
Contemporary Indians of Canada. The survey aimed to assess the conditions of status Indians in
all regions of the country (Carney, 2008, p. 609); significant observations were made on
education programs.
Hawthorn openly and clearly noted the failure of the residential school system. The very
beginning of the chapter Education of the Indian Child begins with statements regarding
institutionalized schoolings failure to meet the varying needs of children from different socioeconomic and ethnic groups as well as being unable to resocialize [sic] such groups of children
so that they become functioning adults in the social milieu of the majority (Hawthorn, 1967, p.

105). This is the first public document which criticizes the residential school system and notes
its failings.
Although, Hawthorn appears to be in favour of integrated schooling he notes that there
may be some exceptions where residential schools are preferable. In cases where the provincial
schools are inferior to the residential school or if students seem to be struggling in public
schools, then Hawthorn acknowledged the continuation of residential schools. Seemingly the
government agreed with Hawthorns suggestion of maintaining residential schools in certain
circumstances as the government continued to support the schools for another three decades.
Discussion and Conclusion
For more than 120 years Canada sought to assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian
society by legally requiring all Indigenous children to attend residential schools. The Davin
report was a key document that outlined not only the need for residential schools but also
recommended steps to create such a system. From Davins suggestions, the government amended
and revised the Indian Act to include regulations regarding education of Indigenous children and
to create residential schools. For sixty years following Davins report, the Indian Act was
amended and revised but still the residential schools remained as a key system for educating
Indigenous children. It wasnt until Hawthorns survey in 1966 and 1967 that there was any
public recognition of the failings of the residential school system. Even after this significant first
step in beginning a new policy of integration, residential schools remained in operation, though
less in number, for another thirty years.
In examining the three key documents highlighted in this paper, I am struck by the
silence of Indigenous voices. As an international educator, I am shocked by the disregard for

Indigenous cultures and the use of education to systemically erase these cultures. I find it
appalling that these policies of assimilation were carried out under the guise of the government
as protector of Indigenous children. I am hopeful that through the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission, and the open discourse that this stimulates, that new educational models that
nurture mutual respect continue to evolve for all citizens of Canada.

References
Carney, R. J. (1983). The Hawthorn Survey (1966-1967), Indians and Oblates and integrated
schooling. Canadian Catholic Historical Association Study Sessions, 50, 609-630.
Retrieved from http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1983-84/Carney.pdf
Davin, N.F. (1879). Report on industrial schools for Indians and half-breeds. Retrieved from
https://archive.org/details/cihm_03651
Harper, S. (2008) Statement of Apology. Retrieved from http://www.aadncaandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100015644/1100100015649
Hawthorn, H.B. (1967). A survey of contemporary Indians in Canada: Economic, political,
educational needs and policies. Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. Retrieved from
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/webarchives/20071120104036/http://www.aincinac.gc.ca/pr/pub/srvy/sci_e.html
Mandate for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 2008. Retrieved from
http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/pdfs/SCHEDULE_N_EN.pdf
Morse, B.W. (2008). Government responses to the Indian residential schools settlement in
Canada: Implications for Australia. Australian Indigenous Law Review, 12, 41-59.
Retrieved from
http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/documentSummary;res=AGISPT;issn=18350186;py=2008;vol=12;iss=1;spage=41

Nagy, R. & Sehdev, R.K. (2012). Introduction: Residential schools and decolonization.
Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 27, 68-73. doi:10.3138/cjls.27.1.067

I had a great deal of difficulty accessing earlier variations of the Indian Act. Although sites like Library
and Archives Canada, and Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada have links to the Indian
Act, the links are broken. Some versions of the Indian Act are available in books or in reference sections
of the UBC library. Unfortunately, living in Vietnam I was not able to access these. As a result, my
references for the Indian Act are all secondary sources, articles that mention various aspects of the Indian
Act throughout the years.