‘(OMPUTER PROG LPILE Plus ASR) Boe ELLE A Program for the Analysis of Piles and Drilled Shafts Under Lateral Loads by Lymon C. Reese Shin Tower Wang William M. Isenhower Jose A. Arrellaga for ENSOFT, INC. 3003 West Howard Lane Austin, Texas 78728 July - 2004(This page was intentionally left blank)i PROGRAM LICENSE AGREEMENT IMPORTANT NOTICE: Please read the terms of the following license agreement carefully. You sig- nify acceptance of the terms of this Agreement by using the product. This software producti licensed only to the user (com- pany or individual) whose name is registered with ENSOFT, INC., or to users at the registered location, ononly one computer at time. Additional installations of the software may be made by the user, as longas the number of installations is equal to the number of pur- chased and registered licenses. Users that purchased a network version of this software product are entitled to install the software in all comput- ers onthe network at their registered location. However, the software can only be used simultaneously by asmany users.as the total number of purchased and registered licenses. ‘The user isnot entitled to copy this sofware unless copy- ing for backup purposes. The user may not loan, rent, Tease, or transfer this software to any other person, com- pany,or location. This software and documentation are copyrighted materials and should be treated like any other copyrighted material (e.g. a book or musical recording). This software is protected by the United States Copy- right Law and International Copyright Treaty. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualCopyright ® 1987, 1997, 2000, 2004 by ENSOFT, INC. Allzights reserved, Printed in the Unites States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, or distributed without the prior writ- ten approval of ENSOFT, INC. Although the program has been used with apparent success in many analyses, new information is developed continuously ané new or up- dated versions may be written from time to time. All users are re- «quested to inform ENSOFT, INC. immediately of any possible errors that are found in the coding of our software. As modifications, up- dates, or new versions are produced, notices will be sent to all sub- scribed users that keep their address current on ENSOFT, INC.’s files. No warranty, expressed or implied, is offered as to the accuracy of results from ENSOFT, INC.’s software products. The software prod- ucts should not be used for design unless caution is exercised in inter- preting the results and independent calculations are available to verify the general correctness of the results. Users are assumed to be knowl- cedgeable ofthe information in the printed documentation that are dis- tributed with the digital media. Users are assumed to recognize that the input parameters, eg., soil properties, increment length, tolerance ‘on solution convergence, and many others, can have a significant of fect on the solution and mustbe chosen carefully. Users should have a thorough understanding of the relevant theoretical criteria (appro- priate references are suggested in the software documentation). LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualFOREWORD ‘The design of piles under lateral loading is an important prob- lem and one that is encountered frequently in engineerng practice. LPILE Plusis a special purpose program based on rational procedures for analyzing a pile or drilled shaft under lateral loading. The program compute deflection, shear , bending moment, and soil response with respect to depth in nonlinear soil. The program offers extensive graphic capability for presenting the results and includes an user-friendly pre~ processor module for data entry. Soil behavior is modeled with p-y curves internally generated by the computer program following published recommendations for various type of soils; alternatively, the user can manually introduce other p-y curves for layered soils Several types of pile-head boundary conditions may be selected, and the properties ofthe pile may also be varied asa function of depth. LPILE Plushas the capability to compute the ultimate-moment capac- ity and can provide design information for rebar arrangement. The user may also ask the program to take into account cracked/uneracked flexural stfinesses while computing the response of a pile. ‘The information presented herein is believed to be useful to the analyst and has been used widely during the past twenty years. However, new finforamtin on the bahveior of single piles and pile groups under lateral loading is being developed ata very rapid rate; therefore, the documentation and the accompanying computer code will need to bbe modified from time to time to reflect the new information. ‘The recommendation is made that the user take steps to stay informed of advances that are reported in the technical literature and to take advan- tage of these advances in an appropriate manner. ENSOFT, Ine, will assist in keeping users informed to the extent that is possible. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualTable of Contents Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1, Compatible Design . 1.2 Principles of Design 1.2.1. Introduction... 1.2.2. Nonlinear Response of Soil. 1.2.3 LimitStates Step-b} Suggest 13 Modeling Pile Foundation tothe Superstructure 1.3.1. Introduction 1.3.2 Model for an Isolated Pile under Complex Loadings — 1.3.3. Computation of Foundation Stiffness... 1.3.4. Concluding Comments .. 1.4 Organization of the Technical Manual .. Chapter 2. Solution Of Beam-Column Equation For Nonlinear Response Of Soil 2.1 Introduction «sss or 2.1.1 Influence of Pile Installation and Loading on serene 23, Soil Characteristics 23 2.1.1.1 General Review . 23 1.1.2 Static Loading 2-6 1.3 Repeated Cyclic Loading 2-6 2.1.1.4 Sustained Loading 2-8 2.1.1.5 Dynamic Loading... 2-8 2.1.2. Models for Use in Analyses of Single Piles s.noue 2-9 LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual2.1.2.1 Blastic Pile and Soil. eI 2.1.2.2 Blastc Pile and Finite Elements for Soil... 2-10 2.1.2.3 Rigid Pile and Plastic Soil... 2.12 2.124 Rigi Pileand Four-Spring Model for Soil... 2-12 2.1.2.5 Nonlinear Pile and p-y Model for Soil 2.13 2.1.2.6 Definition ofp and y . soe BAS 2.1.2.7 Comments on the p-y method ... 216 2.1.3. Computational Approach for Single Piles ......0-2-17 2.1.3.1 Study of Pile Buckling .. . 2-21 2.1.3.2 Study of Critical Pile Length e221 2.1.4 Occurrence of Lateral Loads 0m Piles ..c.0ensne 2-24 2.1.4.1 Offshore Platform... 2.24 2.1.4.2 Breasting Dolphin ..... 2.26 2.1.4.3 Single-Pile Support fora Bridge 2.27 2.1.4.4 Pile-Supported Overhead Sign or Transmission Tower nn soo 2-28 2.1.45 Use of Piles to Stabilize Slopes 2:30 2.1.4.6 Anchor Pile ina Mooring System .. 231 2.1.4.7 Other Uses of Laterally Loaded Piles 2-32 2.2. Derivation of Differential Equation 2.33 2.2.1. Introduction seonnns 2°33 2.2.2. Derivation of the Differential Equation. 2.33 2.2.3. SolutionofReducedFom of Differential Equation sone 2-39 2.2.4 Solution by Finite Difference Equations 0.1m 2-45 Chapter 3. Soil Response 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Experimental Methods for Obtaining p-y Curves . 3.2.1 Soil Response from Direct Measurement .......- 3.2.2 Soil Response from Moment Curves Obtained by Experiment LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual33 34 35 3.2.3 Nondimensional Methods for Obtaining Soil Response ssentnnentneee 3-10 -y Curves for Clays .. 3.3.1 Initial Portion of Curves 3-11 3.3.2. Analytical Solutions for Ultimate Resistancep, 3-14 3.3.3. Influence of Diameter on p-y Curves so...» 3.3.4. Influence of Cyclic Loading... 3-22 3.35. Introduction to Procedures for Prediction ofp-y Curves 3-25 3.3.6 Response of Soft Clay in the Presence of Free Water .. 3-30 3.3.7. Response of Stiff Clay in the Presence of Free Water . 3-37 3.3.8. Response of Stiff Clay with No Free Water......3-46 3.3.9 Other Recommendations forp-y Curves w...n p-y Curves for Sands... 3.4.1 Initial Portion of Curves .. 3.4.2. Analytical Solutions for Ukimate Resistance, 3.4.3 Influence of Diameter on p-y Curves 3.4.4 Influence of Cyclic Loading .. 3.4.5. Introduction to Procedures for Prediction of p-p Curves 3-58 3.4.6 Response of Sand Above and Below the Water Table 3.59 3.4.7 APIRP2A Recommendation for Response of Sand Above and Below the Water Table... eee 3-66 3.4.8. Other Recommendations for p-y Curves. 3-71 Response of Soil with Both Cohesion and Internal Friction - Simplified Procedure sme 3.5.1 Background. 3.5.2. Recommendations forming 3.5.3: Discussion .. aoe LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3.6 Modifications to p-y Curves for: Stoping Ground 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2. Equations for Ultimate Resistance in Clay. 3.6.3 Equations for Ultimate Resistance in Sand ... 3.7 Effect of Batter. 3.8 Response of Rock 3.8.1. Introduction ; 3.8.2. Descriptions of Two Field Experiments 3.8.3 Inerim Recommendations for Computing y Curves for Strong Rock 3-92 3.84 Interim Recommendations for Computing p-y Curves for Weak Rock seonneanneee 3°92, 3.8.5 Case Studies 3.9 Response of Layered Soi 3.9.1 Method of Georgiadis. 3.9.2. Examplep-y Curves .. 10Shearing Force at Bottom of Pile ... 3.11 Response of Soil in Liquefied Sand 3.11.1 Background. seanereee 3° 108 3.11.2 Recommended Equations by Rollins ei al 2003) 3-111 3.11.3 Consideration of Lateral Spreading 3-112 3.12 Modified p-y Criteria for Stiff Clay with No Free Water ort 1 3113 3.13 Response of Piles That Pass Through A Potential Slide .... 3113 Chapter 4. Computation Of Ultimate Moment And Flexural Rigidity Of Pile 4.1 Introduetion 4.1.1 Application seen dB LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual4.1.2 Significant Assumptions... 43 4.1.3. Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete and Steel 44 4.1.4. Cross Sections that can be Analyzed ....suensnne4-6 4.2. Computation Procedure 4.3. Validation of Method 4.3.1, Analysis ofa Reinforced-Concrete Section... 4.3.1.1 Computations Using Equations In Section 4,2 — 5 4.3.1.2 Check of Position of the Neutral Axis... 1.3 Forces in Steel en 1.4 Forces in Concrete... : 5 Computation of Balance of Forces 4.3.1.6 Check of Computation of Bending Moment and EI 4-18 43.1.7 Computations Using Approximate Method ano one 19) 4.3.2. Analysis of Steel Pipe 4.3.3 Discussion .. 4.4 Prestressed Concrete Pi 4-20 4-22 we 4-23 Chapter 5. Use of Vertical Piles in Stabilizing a Slope 5.1 Introduction .. 5.2 Applications of the Method ..... 5.3. Review of Some Previous Applications wou 5.4. Analytical Procedure. 5.5. Case Studies and Example Computation ... 5.5.1 Case Studies : 5.5.2. Example Computation... REFERENCES LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual(on ee oe on aed Introduction and Limit-State MethodChapter 1 and Limitstate Method 1.1 Compatible Design ‘The Program LPILE contains coding that is designed to give the user the capability o solve problems related to the selection of different types of piles for a variety of purposes. Variations of portions of the coding havebeen in use in the practice of civil engineering for some time, and theprocedures that are presented have been widely accepted. Introd Foundation engineering at its best can predict the manner and amounts a foundation will deform and deflect in response to its future loadings. Such information will mesh with that from analyses of the superstructure to provide a global analysis, Thus, designs can be ‘made that ensure that all elements of a structure are in equilib- rium and compatible with each other, and for any point in time. This concept is termed compatible design. Compatible design is becoming possible because of the current and increasing power of the computer, including the ability toemploy computer graphics in numerous ways, and because of the availability of sophisticated instruments for observing the behavior of structural systems. Rezent years have seen the development of alerge volume of data on the behavior ofpiles under axial and lateral loading, and the availability of those data has made possible the computer codes that are presented, Enormous difficulties must be overcome before compatible de- sign can be fully implemented; the most obvious of these difficulties is predicting the response of amass of soil to extemal ractions. Neither experimental nor analytical tools are at hand to allow the deformation versus stress of an element of soil in a system to be computed in consideration of the history of that element, taking into account influences of construction and subsequent loading, up to that moment of time in the future when a prediction is needed. While fully compatible designs, in the broadest sense, await the efforts of future engineers, there are some solutions thatcan only be LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualIntroduetion and LimitState Method made using compatible concepts. Presented herein are compatible solutions forisolated piles that achieve the pile response while satisty- ing simultaneously the appropriate nonlinear response of the soil. The piles treatedas.a beam-column and the soil is replaced with nonlinear ‘Winkler-type mechanisms. These mechanisms, while not being the model one would wish for fully compatible solutions, can correctly predict the response of the soil and provide a means of getting useful solutions to number of practical problems. 1.2 Principles of Design 1.2.1 Introduction ‘The design of a pile-supported structure to sustain a combination of lateral and axial loading involves many considerations, some of which may involve esthetics, and plainly the engineer will face deci- sions that cannot be discussed here, The presentation of examples of complete designs is infeasible and a discussion of the consideration of| many practical details would serve no useful purpose. However, the coding presented herein addresses two aspects of design that will be helpful to the user: the computation ofthe loading atwhich apavticular pile wil fail asa structure or the loading that will cause an unacceptable deflection; and the computation of deflection, bending moment, and shear along the length of apile under the service loading. Along with these two important aspects of design, are pre- sented certain other considerations that may be useful: the selection of the required length of a pile that supports little orno axial loading, the computation of the load that will cause the buckling of pile that extends some distance above the ground line, and several examples that provide the results fom the coding of particular problems. 1.2.2 Nonlinear Response of Soil Inasense, the design of apile under lateral loading is no different LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 1 Introduction and LimitState Method 15. that the design of any foundation. One needs to find the loading ofthe system that will cause failure and then to use a global factor of safety, or partial faciors of safety, to find the allowable loading, The difference for lateral loading is that the failure cannot be found by the equations of static equilibrium but can only be found by solving a differential equation. Furthermore, as noted below, a closed-form solution of the differential equation, as with the use a constant modulus of subgrade, isinapproprate. Curves of response of soil that were computed from the results of full-scale experiments of a steel-pipe pile, instrumented for the mea- surement of bending moment, are presented in Part of this document. The pile was installed into overconsolidated clay and free water was above the ground surface. The results for static loading definitely show that the soil resistance is nonlinear with pile deflection and with depth. With cyclic loading, encountered frequently in practice, the nonlinearity 's strongly increased. Thus, ifthe results ofa linearanalysis shows a tolerable level of stress in a pile and of deflection, a minor increase in the loading could cause a failure by collapse or by excessive deflection. Therefore, a basic principle of design is that any method must consider the nonlinear response of the sil to lateral loading. 1.2.3 Limit States Failure ofa pile in most instances is exhibited bya tending mo- ‘ment that wuld cause the development ofa plastic hinge; however, in some instances the failure could be due to excessive deflection. There- fore, design is initiated by a decision of what constitutes ¢ failure, ora limitstate. Then, computations are made to find the loading that causes the limit state. A global factor of safety is normally employed to find the allow- able loading, the service loading, or the working loading. An ap- proach using partial safety factors may be employed. However, the LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual146 Chapter 1 Introduction and Limit State Method concepts employed in setting the partial factors of safety is imple- ‘mented herein by using upper-bound and lower-bound values of the important parameters. 1.2.4 Step-by-Step Procedure 1. Assemble all of the relevant data to include soil properties, mag- nitude ard nature of the loading, and purposes of the structure. 2. Select apile for analysis. 3. Getacurve showing M, (ultimate bending moment asa function of Q (axial load); get E (modulus) and J (moment of inertia) (see Chapter 4), 4. Select p-y curves and frequently use upper-bound and lower- bound values (see Chapter 3). 5. Make assries of solutions, starting will a small load and increas- ing the Icad in increments, with consideration of the manner the pile is fastened to the superstructure, 6. Obtain curves showing M,., versus P,(ateral load), and y (lateral deflection) versus P, 7. Change the pile ifnecessary. 8. Find the pile where the value of the global factor of safety is ad- equate. 9. Compute behavior of pile under working loads. Virtually none ofthe examplesshown in this document follow all ofthe steps indicated above; however, in most cases the examples do show the curves that are indicated in Step 6, 1.2.5 Suggestions for the Designer As will be explained in some detail, there are four sets of bound- ary conditions that can be employed; examples will be shown for the LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual1 Intoduetion and use of these different boundary conditions. However, the manner in which the top of the pile is fastened to the pile cap or to the super- structure hasa significant influence on deflections and bending moments that are computed. The engineer may be required to perform an analysis of the superstructure, or request that one be made, in order to ensure that the boundary conditions at the top of the pile are satisfied as well as possible. With regard to boundary conditions, it is of interest to note the versatility of LPILE. For example, piles that are driven with an acci- dental batteror an accidental eccentricity can easily be analyzed. Itis merely necessary to apply the appropriate axial load, sheer, and bend- ing momentto the top of the pile. Asnoted earlier, the selection of upper-bound and lower-bound values of soil properties san excellent procedure. Parametric solutions are easily done and relatively inexpensive and such solutions are rec- ommended. With the range of maximum values of bending moment, for example, that results from the parametric studies, the judgement of the engineer can be improved. A design can probably be selected that is both safe and economical Ifthe axial load is small or negligible, itis essential to make solu- tions with piles of various lengths. The shear force at the bottom of the pile can be varied, as well as the soil properties. Inmost cases the installation ofa few extra feet of pile length will add onlya small per- centage of cost to the project and, ifthere is doubt, a pile with a few feet of additional length could possibly prevent a failure due to exces- sive deflection. Ifthe base of the pile is founded in rock, available evidence shows that only a small amount of socket will be necessary toprevent the bottom ofthe pile from moving. The designmust assure that the pile has adequate bending stiffness over its full length. A useful activity fora designer isto use LPILE to analyze piles for which experimental results are available. Itis, of course, necessary to know the appropriate details from the experiment: pile geometry and LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Techaical Manual18 Chapter 1 Introduction and Limit-State Method stiffness, stratigraphy and soil properties, magnitude and point of application of loading, and nature of the loading. A sizeable number of such experiments have been run in the past. Comparison of the results from analysis and from experiment will yield valuable informa- tion. Some comparisons are provided in this document but those made by the user could be more specific and more valuable. In some instances the parametric studies may reveal that afield testis indicated, Such a case occurs when a large project is planned and when the expected savings from an improved design exceeds the cost of the testing ‘There are two types of field tests. In one instance the pile maybe fully instrumented so that experimental p-y curves are obiained. The second type of test requires no internal instrumentation inthe pile but only the pile-head settlement, deflection, and rotation willbe found as a function of applied load. Program LPILE can be used to analyze the experiment and the soil properties can be adjusted until agreement is reached between the results from the computer and those from the experiment, The adjusted soil properties can be used in the design of the productian piles. Inperforming the experiment, no attempt should be mede to main- tain the concitions at the pile head identical to those inthe design Such a procedure could be virtually impossible. Rather, the pile and the experiment should be designed so that the maximum amount of deflection is achieved. Thus, the greatest amount of information can be obtained on soil response. The nature of the loading; whether static, cyclic, orothenwise; should be consistent between the experimental pile and the production piles There are two types of problems conceming groups of ples: the computation of the distribution of loading to piles that are widely spaced, and the computation of the behavior of piles that are spaced LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 1 towoduction and LimitState Method 19) closely togesher. The first ofthese problems involves the solutions of the equations of mechanics (Akinmusuru, 1980; Hrennikoff, 1950; Awoshika and Reese, 1971) and a computer program is available, to deal with the problem. ‘The second of the two problems is more difficult inthat data are scarce on full-scale experiments. Some experiments have been per- formed in recent years and have been reported (Brown, et al, 1987; Brown etal, 1988). Some additional references should be of assis- tance to the designer (Bogard and Matlock, 1983; Focht and Koch, 1973; O'Neill, etal, 1977). ‘The tecknical literature includes significant findings from time to time on piles under lateral loading. LPILE will take advantage of the new information and updates will be issued as appropriate. How- ever, the material that follows in the remaining sections ofthis document shows that there is an opportunity for rewarding research on the topic of this document, and the user is recommended to stay abreast of the literature as much as possible. 1.3 Modeling a Pile Foundation to the Superstructure 1.3.1. Introduction ‘Asa foundation problem, the analysis of a pile under axial and lateral loading is complicated by the fact that the soil reaction (resis- tance) is dependent on the pile movement, and the pile movement, on the other hand, is dependent on the soil response. Thus, the problem isoneofsoit-structure interaction. The question about howto simulate thebehaviorof the pile inthe structural model arises when the structural engineer attempts to use boundary conditions for the connection be- tween the structure and the foundation. Ideally, a program can be developed by combining the structure, piles, and soils into one model. However, a global model is currently unavailable and the step-wise LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual140_Chapter 1 Iniodcton and LimitState Method approach described below is convenient for solving for the nonlinear response of the pile foundation so that equilibrium and compatibility can be achieved with the superstructure. The use of models for the analysis of the behavior ofa bridge is shown in Fig.1.1a, Asimple, two-span bridge is shown with spans in the order of 30 m and with piles supporting the abutments and the central span. The girders and columns are modeled by lumped masses and the foundations are modeled by nonlinear springs, as shown in Fig. 1.1b. Ifthe loading is three-dimensional, the pile head at the central span will undergo three translations and three rotations. A simple mattis-formulation forthe pile foundation is shownin Fig. I.1c, assuming two-dimensional loading, along with aset of mechanisms forthe modelng ofthe foundation. Threesprings areshown assymbols of the response of the pile head to loading; one for axial load, one for lateral load, and one for moment. ‘The assumption ismade that the nonlinear curve for axial loading is not influenced by lateral loading (shear) and moment. This assumption 's not strictly true because lateral loading can cause a molding away of overconsolidated clay around the top of the pile witha consequent loss of load transfer in skin friction along the upper portion ofthe pile. However, in such a case, the soil nearthe ground surface can be ignored above the first point of zero lateral deflection. The practical result of such procedure in most cases is that the curve of axial load versus settlement, and the term K, ,, are negligibly af- fected. ‘The curves representing the response to shear and moment at the top ofthepileare certainly multidimensional and unavoidably so. Figure 1 Le shows # curve and identifies one of the stiffness terms K,,. A single-valued curve is shown only because a given ratio of moment ‘M, and rotation 6, was selected in computing the curve. Therefore, because sucha ratio would be unknown in the general case, iteration is required between the solutions for the superstructure and the foun- LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 1 Inwoduction and Limitstate Method T-IT oS i t | I f i | ' i 2. Elevation pedmaz Fandeton athge b, Analytical Model Ky 0 0 0 Kee Keg 0 Kee Keo ©. Stiffness Matrix Fig. 1.1 Example of modeling a bridge on LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Teehnical Manual142_Chapter 1__Intodction Method dation. ‘The normal procedure is to select values for shear and moment at the pile head and to compute the initial stiffness terms so that the solution of the superstructure can proceed for the most critical cases ofloading, With revised values of shear and moment atthe pile head, the model for the pile can be resolved and revised tems for the stiffnesses can be used in a new solution of the model for the superstructure, The procedure could be performed automatically ifa global computer code were available but the use of independent models allows the designer to exercise engineering judgment in achieving compatibility and equilibrium for the entre system fora given case of loading 1.3.2. Model for an Isolated Pile under Complex Loadings An interesting presentation of the forces that resist the displace- ‘ment of an isolated pile is shown in Fig. 1.2 (Bryant, 1977). Figure 1 2ashowsasingle pile beneath acap along with the three-dimensional displacements and rotations. The assumption is made that the top of the piles fixed or partially fixed to the cap so that bending moments and a torque will develop as result of the three-dimensional rotations ofthe cap. The various reactions of the soil along the pile are shown in Fig. 1.2b, and the soil-resistance curves are shown in Fig. 1.2c. The argumert givenearlier about the curve for axial displacement being single-valuepertains as well o the eurve for torque. However, the curve for lateral deflection certainly isa function of theshears and moments that cause such deflection. In regard to the lateral deflec- tion, a complication can arise because the deflection may not be ina two-dimensional plane. The recommendations that have been made for correlating the lateral resistance with pile geometry and soil prop- erties all depend on the results of loading in a two-dimensional plane. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualIntroduction and Limit-State Method Chapter Taine Tun Sat feel (01 Pe cectins ppt Fig. 1.2 Three dimensic Bryant, 1977) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual144_Chapter 1__Inodution and LimitState Method. 3 Computation of Foundation Stiffness Stiffiness matrices are often used to model foundations in struc- ‘ural analyses and LPILE Plus 5.0 provides the necessary information for evaluating the stiffness of apile foundation, An optionin Program LPILE Plus $.0allows the user to solve for coefficients, as illustrated by the sketches shown in Fig. 1.3, ofpile-head movements and rota- tions as functions of incremental loadings. The program divides the loads specified atthe pile head into 10 unequal increments and then computes the pile head response for each individual loading. The deflection ofthe pile head is computed for each lateral-load increment ‘with the rotation at the pile head being restrained to zero. The rotation of the pile head is computed for each bending-moment increment with the deflection at the pile head being restrained to zero. The user can thus define the stiffiness matrix directly based on the relationship be- ‘tween computed deformation and applied load. For instance, the stiffness coefficient X,,,shownin Fig. 13, canbe obtainedby dividing the applied moment M, by the computed rotation @ at the pile cap. Most analytical methods in structural mechanics canemploy ther the stiffness matrix or the flexibility matrix to definethe support condition atthe pilehead. Ifthe user prefers o use the stifiness matrix in the structural model, Fig, 1.3 illustrates basic procedures used to compute the stiffitess matrix. The initial coefficients for the stiftness ‘matrix may be defined based on the magnitude of the service load. ‘The user may need to make several iterations before achieving comfortable agreement. 1.3.4 Concluding Comments ‘The correct modeling of the problem of the single pile to respond toaxialand lateral loading is challenging and complex, anx the modeling ofa group ofpiles is even more complex. However, inspite of the fact that research is continuing, the following chapters will demon- strate that usable solutions are at hand. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual‘Compute K22 and K32 by hand using Boundary Condition 2 in which the user enters th lateral load, H, and the 2ero slope atthe pile head (0= 0). The pro- gram will compute the deflection, 6, at the pile head andthe reaction moment, IM, st the pile head ‘Then K22= HIS and K3: 5 620 Compute K23 and K33 by hand using Boundary Condition 4, in which the user enters zero deflection at the pile head (6 = 0), and the moment, M, at the pile head (0=0). The program will ‘compute the lateral reaction force, {and the rotation, 0, atthe pile head, ‘Then K23 = -H9 and K33=M/9 ‘The program automatically computes K22, K32, K23 and K33 by using Bound- ary Condition 1, in which the user enters the lateral load, H, and the bending ‘moment, M,at the pile head. Fig. 1.3 Coefficients of Stiffness Matrix LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Teclmical Manual116 _Chapter 1__Introduction and Limit-State Method ‘New developments in computer technology allow a complete so- lution to be readily developed, including automatic generation ofthe nonlinear responses of the soil around a pile and iteration to achieve force equilibrium and compatibility. 1.4 Organization of the Technical Manual Chapters2 to 4 provide the user with the needed information for soil-pile interaction, and presents the equations for the solution of the beam-columa problem, considering the nonlinear response of the soil. Also, information on the verification ofthe validity of a particular set ofoutputis given. The user is urged to read carefully these latter two sections ofthe document. Output from the computer should be viewed with suspicion unless verified, andthe selection ofthe appropriate soil response (p-y curves) is the most critical aspect of many computa- tions Not all offices will have readily available a computer code that predicts the bending moment for areinforced-conerete secton atwhich aplastic hinge will develop, taking into account the influence of axial loading. Chapter 4 of the document is a code for that purpose and the assumptions on which the code is based are clearly indicated. Also, the coding will yield the flexural rigidity (E/) of thesection as a function of the bending moment. The coding will also give similar values forsteel-pipe piles. Because the value of E/is a function of the bending moment sug- gests that reduced values of £/ should be used in the region of maxi- mum bending moment for each value of lateral load; however, experi- ence indicates that the response ofa pile is not critically dependent on the value of £/ for smaller lateral loads. Recommendations are provided forthe selection of £/that will yield results thatare considered tobeacceptable. However, the user could use the results from Chapter 4.as inputto the coding for Chapter? to investigate the importance of entering accurate values of El. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manuala 1 sr 1__Introduction and Limit-State Method Finally, Chapter 5 includes the development of a solution that is designed to give the user some guidance in the use ofpiles to stabilize aslope. Whileno special coding is necessary forthe purpese indicated, the number of steps in the solution are such that a separate section is desirable rather than including this example with those in the User's Manual. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualCHAPTER 2 Solution of Beam Column Equation for Nonlinear Response of Soil(Chapter 2 oltion of Beam-Column Equation for Non-Linear Response of Soil__23 2.1 Introduction Many pile-supported structures will be subjected to horizontal loads during their life. Ifthe loads are relatively small, adesign can be made by code that lists allowable loads for vertical piles as a function of pile diameter and properties of the soil. But ifthe load per pile is, larger than a nominal value, the piles are frequently installed with a batter. The analyst may assume that the horizontal load onthe structure isresisted by components of the axial loads on the battered piles. The implicit assumption in the procedure is that the piles do not deflect laterally which, ofcourse, isnot true. Rational methods forthe analysis of single piles under lateral load, where the pilesare vertical orbattered, will be discussed herein, and methods are given for investigating a wide variety of parameters. The problem of the analysis of group of pilesis discussed in another publication. Asa foundation problem, the analysis ofa pile under lateral loading is complicated because the soil reaction (resistance) at any point along apileisa function of pile deflection. The pile deflection, on the other hhand, is dependent on the soil resistance; therefore, solving for the response of apile under ateral loading is one of aclass of soil-structure- interaction problems. The conditions of compatibility and equilibrium ‘must be satisfied between the pile and soil and between the pile and the superstructure. Thus, the deformation and movement of the su- perstructure, ranging from a concrete mat to an offshoze platform, and the manner in which the pile is attached to the superstructure, must be known or computed in order to obtain a correc’ solution to most problems. 2.1.1 Influence of Pile Installation and Loading on Soil Characteristics 21.1.1 _ General Review ‘The most critical factor in solving for the response ofa pile under LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual-4 Chapter 2 Solution of Beam-Colurn Equation for Non-Linear Response of So lateral loading isthe prediction ofthe soi resistance at anypoint along pile asa finetion of the pile deflection. Any serious attempt to develop predictions of soil resistance must address the stress- deformation characteristics of the soil. The properties to be considered, however, are those that exist after the pile has been installed. Furthermore, he influence of lateral loading onsoil behav- iormust be taken into account, ‘The deformations of the soil from the driving of apile into clay cause important and significart changes in soil characteristics. Different but important effects are caused by driving of piles into granular soil. Changes in soil properties are also associated with the installation of bored piles. While definitive research is yet to be done, evidence clearly shows that the soil immediately adjacent to a pile wall is most affected. Investigators (Malek, et al., 1989) have suggested that the direct-simple-shear test can be used to predict the behavior of an axially-loaded pile, which suggests that the soil just next to the pile ‘wall will control axial behavior. However, the lateral deflection of a pile will cause strains and stresses to develop from the pile wall to several diameters away. Therefore, the changes in soil characteristics due to pile installation is less important for laterally-loaded piles than for axially-loaded piles. ‘The influence ofthe loading of the pile on soil response is another matter. Four classes of lateral loading can be identified: short-term, repeated, sustained, and dynamic, The first three classes are discussed herein, but the response of piles to dynamic loading is beyond the scope of thisdocument, The use of a pseudo-horizontal load as an approximation in making earthquake resistant designs should be noted, however, ‘The influence of the kind of loading on the response ofthe soil will be discussedin some detail in Chapter 3; however, some discussion is appropriate here to provide a basis for evaluating the models that are presented in this chapter. Ifa pile is installed in granular soil or LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical Manual(Chapter 2 Solution of Beam-Column Equation for Non-Linear Respons: of Soil_ 25 overconsotidated clay, sustained loading, as from earth pressure, will likely cause only a negligible amount of long-term lateral deflection. A. pile in normally consolidated clay, on the other hand, will experience long-term deflection, but at present the magnitude of such deflection can only beapproximated. A rigorous solution requires the three- dimensional consolidation equation to be solved, stepwise with time. Atsome timet, the pile-head will experience an additional deflection y, that will cause a change in the horizontal stresses in the continuum. ‘Methods have been developed, as reviewed later, for getting an- swers to the problem of short-term loading by use of correlations between soil response and the in situ undrained strength of clay and the in situ angle of internal friction for granular soil. Such “backbone” solutions are important because they can be used for sustained loading in some cases and because an initial condition is provided for taking the influence of repeated loading into account. Experience has shown that the loss of lateral resistance due to repeated loading is significant, especially ifthe piles are installed in clay below free water. The clay can be pushed away from the pile wall and the soil response can be significantly decreased. Predictions for the effect of repeated loading are given in Chapter 3. Four general types of loading are recognized above and each of these types is further discussed in the following sections. The impor- tance of consideration and evaluation of loading when anzlyzing a pile subjected to lateral loading cannot be overemphasized. Many of the load tests described later in this chapter were per- formed by applying a lateral oad in increments, holding that load fora few minutes, and reading all the instruments that gave the response of thepile. The data that were taken allowed p-y curves to be computed; analytical expressions are developed from the experimental results and these expressions yield p-y curves that are termed “static” curves. Repeated loadings were applied as well, as will be discussed in a following section. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual2-6 Chapter 2 Solution of Bear Column Eh 24.1.2 _ Static Loading The static p-y curves can be thought of as backbonecurves that can be correlated to some extent with soil properties. Thus, the curves are useful forthe purpose of providing some theoretical basisto the p- ymethod, ton for Non-Linear Response of Soit From the standpoint of design, the static p-y curves have applica- tion in the following cases: where loadings are short-term and not repeated (probably not encountered); and for sustained loadings, as in earth-pressure loadings, where the soil around the pile is not susceptible fo consolidation and creep (overconsolidated clays, soft rocks, and clean sands). As will be noted later in this chapter, the use of the p-y curves for repeated loading, a type of loading that is frequently encountered in practice, will often yield significant increases in pile deflection and bendingmoment. The engineer may wish to make computations with both the static curves and with the repeated (cyclic) curves so that the influence of the loading on pile response can be seen clezrly. 2.1.1.3 _ Repeated Cyclic Loading ‘The full-scale field tests that were performed included repeated oreyclic loading as well as the static loading described above. An increment of load was applied, the instruments were read, and the load was repeated a number of times. In some instances the load was forward and backward, and in other cases only forward. The instruments were read after a given number of cycles andthe cycling ‘was continued until there was no obvious increase in ground line deflection or in bending moments. Another increment was applied and the procedure was repeated. The final load that was apy brought the maximum bending moment close tothe moment that would cause the steel to yield plastically. Four specific sets of recommendations for p-y curves for cyclic LPILE Plus 5.) for Windows Technical Manual(Chapter 2 Solution of Beam-Column Equation for Non-Linear Response of Soil_2-7 loading are described in Chapter 3. For three of the sets, the recom- mendations that are given are for the “lower-bound” case. That is, the data that were used to develop the p-y curves were from cases where the ground-line deflection had substantially ceased with repetitions in loading. In the other case, forstiffclay where there was no free water at the ground surface, the recommendations for p-y curves are based on the number of cycles of load application, as well as other factors. The presence of fiee water at the ground surface for clay soils can be significant inregard tothe loss of soil resistance dueto cyelic loading (Long, 1984). After a deflection is exceeded that is based on the “clastic” response of the soil, aspace develops between the pile and the soil when the load is released. Free water moves into this space and on the next load application the water is ejected bringing soil Patticles witht. This erosion causes a loss of soil resistancein addition to the losses due to remolding of the soil as a result of the eyclic strains. At this point the use of judgment in the design of the piles under lateral load should be emphasized. For example, ifthe clay is below a layer of sand, or if provision could be made to supply sand around the pile, the sand will settle around the pile, and probably restore the soil resistance that was lost due to the cyclic loading. ‘There are many instances in which pile-supported structures are subjected tocyclic loading. Some of the cases are: wind load against overhead signs and high-rise buildings, traffic loads on bridge strue- tures, wave loads against offshore structures, impact loads against docks and dolphin structures, and ice loads against locks and dams. ‘The nature of the loading must be considered carefully. Factors to be considered are frequency, magnitude, duration, and direction. The engineer wil be required to use a considerable amount ofjudgment in the selection of the soil parameters and response curves. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Teclmical Manual2-8 Chapter 2 Solution of Beam-Column Equation for Non-Linear Response of Soil 1.14 _ Sustained Loading Ifthe soil that is effective in resisting the lateral deflection of pile is an overconsolidated clay, the influence of sustained loading would probably besmall, The maximum lateral stress from the pile against the clay would probably be less than the previous lateral stress; thus, the additional deflection due to consolidation and creep in the clay should be small ornegligible. Ifthe soilthat is effective in resisting lateral deflection of apile isa granular material that is freely-draining, the creep would be expected tobesmallinmostcases. However ifthe piles subjectedto vibrations, there could be densification of the sand and a considerable amount of additional deflection. Thus, the judgment of the engineer in making the design should be brought into play. Ifthe soilthat is effective in resisting lateral deflection of apileisa soft, saturated clay, the stress from the pile to the soil could cause a considerable amount of additional deflection dueto consolidation and creep. An initial solution could be made, the propertiesof the clay could be employed, and an estimate could be made of the additional deflection. The p-y curves could be modified to reflect the additional deflection and a second solution obtained with the computer. In this ‘manner, convergence could be achieved. The writers know of no rational way o solve the three-dimensional, time-dependent problem of the additional deflection that would occur so. again, the judgment and integrity ofthe engineer will play an important rolein obtaining an acceptable solution. 211. Dynamic Loading ‘Two types of problems involving dynamic loading are frequently encountered in design: machine foundations and earthquakes. The deflection from the vibratory loading from machine foundations is usually quite small and the problem would be solved using the dy- namic properties ofthe soil. Equations yielding the response of the LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manualation of Beam-Column Equation fo on-Linear Response ofS. structure under dynamic loading would be employed and the p- method described herein would not be employed. With regard to earthquakes, a rational solution should proceed from the definition of the free-field motion of the near-surface soil due tothe earthquake. Thus, the p-y method described herein could not be used directly. In some cases, an approximate solution to the earthquake problem has been made by applying a horizontal load to the superstructure that is assumed to reflect the effect of the earth- quake. In such a case, the p-y method can be used but such solutions would plainly be quite approximate. 2.1.2 Models for Use in Analyses of Single Piles Anumber of models have been proposed for the pile-soil system, and brief descriptions will be presented for a few of them. 2.1.2.1 _ Elastic Pile and Soil The model shown in Fig. 2.1a depicts a pile in an elastic soil. A model of this sort has been widely used in analysis. Terzaghi (1955) gave values of subgrade modulus that can be used to solve for deflec- tion and bending moment, but he went on to qualify his recommenda- tions. The standard equation fora beam was employed in a manner that had been suggested earlier by such writers as Hetenyi (1946). ‘Terzaghi stated that the tabulated values of subgrade modulus could not be used for cases where the computed soil resistance was more than one-half of the bearing capacity of the soil. However, a recommendation was not included for the computation of the bearing capacity under lateral load. Nor were any comparisons given between the results o’computations and experiments. ‘The valves of subgrade moduli published by Terzaghihave proved tobe usefull and provide evidence that Terzaghi had excellent insight into the problem. However, ina private conversation with the senior writer, Terzaghi said that he had not been enthusiastic about writing LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual2:10 Chapter 2Solution of Beam-Colurn Equation for Non-Linear Response of Soil the paper and only did so in response to numerous requests. The ‘method illustrated by Fig. 2.1a serves well in obtaining the response ofapile under small loads, in illustrating the various interrelationships in the response, and in giving an overall insight into the nature of the problem. The method cannot be employed without modification in solving for the loading at which aplastic hinge will develop in the pile. 2.1.2.2 _ Elastic Pile and Finite Elements for Soil The case shown in Fig. 2.1b is the same as the previous case except that the soil has been modeled by finite elements, No attempt is made in the sketch to indicate an appropriate size of the map, boundary corstraints, special interface elements, most favorable shape and size of elements, or other details. The finite elements may be axially symmetric with non-symmetric loading or fully three- dimensional, The elements may be selected as linear or nonlinear. In view of the computational power that is now available, the ‘model showa in Fig. 2.1b appears to be practical to solve the pile problem. Theelements can be fully three- 400 (Tisq ft) (1-2) (2-4) C4) 1, MPa 32-64 64-128 >128 (ibisq in) (460-925) (925-1850) (1850) Table3.1 Terzaghi's Recommendations for Soil Modulus ot, for Laterally Loaded Piles in Stiff Clay The paper recommends the performance of consolidated- undrained triaxial tests with the confining pressure equal to the overburden pressure. The full curve of compressive stress s, and the corresponding strain ¢ is plotted. The following equation is recommended for obtaining the soil resistance p: p= 556,b. essseee (3.18), ‘To obtain values of pile deflection y from stress-strain curves, the authors proposed the following equation. y= 05 eb... G.19) ‘These equations are similar in form but different in magnitude from those that can be derived from the results of Skempton. Step-by-Step Procedures Three sets of recommendations are presented in detail for obtain- ing p-ycurves for clay. All are based on the analysis ofthe results of full-scale experiments with instrumented piles. A comprehensive soil investigation was performed at each site and the best estimate of the LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3:30 Chapter 3 Soll Response undrained shear strength of the clay was obtained. The dimensions and stfiiess ofthe piles were determined accurately. Experimental p- _y curves were obtained by one or more of the techniques given earlier. ‘Theory was used to the fullest extent and analytical expressions were developed forp-y curves which, when used in a computer solution, ‘would yield curves of deflection and bending moment versus depth that agreed well with the experimental values. Loading in all three cases were both short-term (static) and cy- clic. The p-ycurves that resulted from the two tests, performed with water above the ground surface, have been used extensively in the design of offthore platforms. 3.3.6 Response of Soft Clay in the Presence of Free Water ield Experiments Matlock (1970) performed lateral-load tests with « steel-pipe pile that was 324 mm (13 in.) in diameter and 12.8 m (42 fi) long. It \vas driven into claysnear Lake Austin, Texas, thathad a shear strength that averaged about 38 kPa (800 Ib/ft?). The pile was recovered, taken to Sabine Pass, Texas, and driven into clay witha shear strength that averaged about 14.4 kPa (300 lb/ft) in the significant upper zone. The initial loading was short-term (static) but the load remained ‘on the pile long enough for readings of strain gauges to betaken by an extremely precise device. A rough balance of the exteral Wheat- stone bridge was obtained by use of a precision decade box and the final balance was taken by rotating a 150-mm-diameter (6 in.) drum on which a copper wire had been wound. A-contact onthe copper wire was read on the calibrated drum when a final balance was achieved. The accuracy of the device was less than one microstrain but, unfortunately, some time was required for readingsto be taken from the top of the pileto the bottom and back up again, Because of the creep of the soil under the imposed loading, the pressure in the hydraulic ram that controlled the load was adjusted as necessary to LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soll Response 3-31 ‘maintain aconstant load, The two sets of readings at each point along the pile were interpreted to find the assumed reading ata particular time, assuming that the change in moment due to creep had a constant rate. The accurate readings of bending moment allowed :he soil resis- tance to be found by numerical differentiation, which was a distinct advantage. The disadvantage was the somewhat irdeterminate influence ofthe creep of the soft clay. The pile was extracted and re-driven and cyclic loading was ap- plied. Readings ofthe strain gauges were taken under constant load after various numbers of cycles of loading, The load was applied in two directions, with the load in the forward direction being more than twiceas largeas the load in the backward direction. Aftera significant number of cycles, the change in deflection atthe top ofthe pile was minimal or very small, and an equilibrium condition was assumed Therefore, the p-y curves for cyclic loading are intended to represent alower-bound condition. Thus, a designer might possibly be com- putingan overly-conservative response of apile, ifthe cyclicp-y curves are used and if there are only a small number of applications of the design load (the factored load). Detailed Procedure ‘The following procedure is for short-term static loading and is illustrated by Fig. 3.12a. Asnoted earlier, the curves for static loading constitute the basis for indicating the influence of cyclic loading and would be rarely used in design, 1. Obtain the best possible estimate of the variation of undrained shear strength c and submerged unit weight with depth. Also obtain the value of ¢,,, the strain corresponding to one-half the maximum principal stress difference. Ifno stress-strain curves are available, typical values of «,, given in Table 3,2 may be used. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response 2 Py ® “ Forx Xq (Depth where Flow Around Failure Governs) a7 2 mu 98 x is 09, 10 as ¥s0 (0) Fig, 3.12 Characteristic shapes of the p-y curves for soft clay in the presence of free water: (a) static loading; (b) cyclic loading {after Matlock, 1970) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soil Response 3.33 Consisteney of Clay fy) Sot 0.020 Medium. 0.010 Stiff 0.005 Table3.2 Typical Values of, 2. Compute the ultimate soil resistance per unit length of pile, using the smaller of the values given by the following equatiors. “at 3+Lxeixlcb [ c + b ] ane (3.20) Py = IC Besnsrssnnnnenninnnnrninnnnnsnnnes B21) where 7’ = average effective unit weight from ground surface to pycurve, x = depth from the ground surface to p-y curve, c= shear strength at depth x, and b= widthofpile. “Matlock (1970) stated that the value of J was determined experi- mentally tobe 0.5 for asoft clay and about 0.25 for amediumclay. A value of 0.5 is frequently used for J. The value ofp, iscomputed at each depth where a p-ycurve is desired, hased on shear strength at that depth 3. Compute the deflection, y,, at one-half the ultimate soil resistance from the following equation: Yq = 25 6b (3.22) 4. Compute points describing the p-y curve from the following relationship. (3.23) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3.34 chapter 3 Soil Response The value ofp remains constant beyond y= 8), ‘After thetests under static loading were completed, the pile was pulled, re-driven, and re-tested. The following procedure’ for eyelic Joading and is illustrated in Fig. 3.12b. As noted earlier in this chapter, the presence of free water atthe ground surface has a significant influ- ence on the behavior of pile in clay under cyclic loading, Ifthe clay is soft, the assumption can be made that there is free water, otherwise theclay would have dried and become stiff. A question arises, however, as to whether or not to use these recommendations if there is a thin stratum of stiff clay above the soft clay and ifthe water tables at the interface of he soft and the stiff clay. In such a case, free water is unlikely to be ejected to the ground surface and erosion due to scour would not occur, However, the free water in the excavation, under repeated excursions of the pile, could cause softening of the clay. Therefore, the following recommendations could be used for developing p-y curves for cyclic loading with the recognition that there might be some conservatism in the results. 1. Construct the p-y curve in the same manner as for short-term static loading for values ofp less than 0.72p,, 2. Solve Eqs. 3.20 and 3.21 simultaneously to find the depth, x,, where the transition occurs. If the unit weight and shear strength are constant in the upper zone, then (3.24) Ifthe unit weight and shear strength vary with depth, the value of x, should be computed with the soil properties a the depth where the p-ycurveisdesired. 3, Ifthe depth to the p-y curve is greater than or equal tox, select p| as 0.72p, forall values of y greater than 3), 4, Ifthe depth of the p-y curveis less thanx, note that the value of p LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical ManuatChapter 3 Suit Response 335 decreases to 0.72p, aty=3y,, and to the value given by the following expression at y= I5y,, p= onn(=) . snes(3.25) The value ofp remains constant beyond y= 15), Recommended Soil Tests For determining the various shear strengths ofthe scl required in the p-y construction, Matlock (1970) recommended the following tests in order of preference. 1. In-situ vane-shear tests with parallel sampling for soil identifica- tion, 2. Unconsolidated-undrained triaxial compression testsinavingacon- fining stress equal to the overburden pressure with c being defined as one-half the total maximum prineipal-stress difference, 3. Miniature vane tests of samples in tubes, and 4. Unconfined compression tests. Tests must also be performed to determine the unit weight of the soil. Example Curves An example set of p-y curves was computed for soft clay for a pile witha diameter of 610mm (24 in.). The soil profile that was uscd isshown inFig. 3.13. The submerged unit weight was assumed to be 6.3 KNinv (40 Ib/ft). In the absence of a stress-strain curve for the soil, ¢,, was taken as 0,020 for the full depth of the soil profile. The loading was assumed to be static. The p-y curves were computed for the following depths below the mudline: 1.5 m (5 in.), 3m (10 in.), 6 m (20iin.), and 12 m (40 in.). The plotted curves are shown in Fig. 3.14. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual336 _Chapter 3 Soll Response 239 Depth, m 10] RI 14 0 10 2 ~~ 80S a0 Shear Strngth, KPa og Fig, 3.13 Shear strength profile used for example p-y curves for soficlay LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoll Response 250 200 a7 6 = 150 2 < 3 100 2 50 0 0.100 0.200 0.900 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 ym Fig. 3.14 Example p-y curves for soft clay with presence of free water 3.3.7 Response of Stiff Clay in the Presence of Free Water Field Experiments Reese, Cox, and Koop (1975) performed lateral-Ioad tests with steel-pipe piles that were 641 mm (24 in.) in diameter and 15.2m (50 ft) long. The piles were driven into stiff'clay at a sitenear Manor, Texas. Theclay had an undrained shear strength ranging from about 96 kPa (1 ton/ft?) at the ground surface to about 290 kPa (3 ton/ft*) at a depth of 3.7 meters (12 feet). ‘The loading of the pile was carried out ina similar manner to that described for the tests performed by Matlock. A significant difference ‘was that a éata-acquisition system was employed that allowed a full set of readings of the strain gauges to be taken in about a minute. Thus, the creep of the piles under sustained loading was small or LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Teclnical ManualChapter 3 Soil Response negligible, The disadvantage of the system was that the accuracy of thecurves of bending moment was such that curve fiting was necessary indoing the ifferentiations. Aso, asin the case of the Matlock recommendations for eyelic loading, the lower-bound case is presented. Cycling was continued until the deflection and bending moments appeared to stabilize, The number of cycles of loading was in the order of 100; and500 cycles ‘were applied in a reloading test. O'Neill and Dunnavant (1984) reported that an equilibrium condition could not be reached during, cyclic loading of piles at the Houston site. Itis likely that the same result would have been found at the Manor site; however, the 100, cycles ormoze that were applied at Manor, ata load at which the pile \was near its ultimate bending moment, were more than would be expected during an offshore storm or under other types of repeated loading, ‘The diameter appears to the first power in the equations for p-y curves for cyclic loading; however, there is reason to believe that a nonlinearrelationship for diameters required. During the experiment with repeated loading, a gap developed between the soil and the pile after deflection atthe ground surface of perhaps 10mm (0.4 in.) and scour of the soil at the face of the pile began at that time. There is reason to believe that scour would be initiated in overconsolidated clays after a given deflection at the mudline rather than at a given fraction of the pile diameter, as indicated by the following recommendations. However, the data that are available a present do notallow such a change in the recommended procedures. But analysts could well recommend field test ata particular site in recognition of some uncertainty regarding the influence of scour on p-y curves for ‘overconsolidated clays. Detailed Procedure The following procedure is for short-term static loading and is illustrated by Fig. 3.15. As before, these curves form the basis for LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soil Response 3.39 Static Sol Resistance p, KNim Deflection y, mm Fig. 3.15 Characteristic shape of p-y curves for static loading in stiff clay in the presence of free water evaluating the effect of cyclic loading, and also they may be used for sustained loading in some circumstances. 1. Obtain values of undrained shear strength ¢, soil submerged unit weight’/, and pile diameter d. 2. Compute the average undrained shear strength c, over the depth x 3. Compute the ultimate soil resistance per unit lengtt: of pile using the smallerof the values given by the equation below: Pa = 2e,b + 7 bx + 2.83 6 (3.26) G27) Py = Med. soon 4. Choose the appropriate value of A, from Fig. 3.10 for modifying LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual340_Chapter 3 Sol Response p, and p, and for shaping the p-y curves. 5. Establish the initial straight-line portion of the p-y curve, p = (kx)y. Use the appropriate value of k, or k, from Table 3.3 for (3.28) AVERAGE UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH* kPa 30-100 100-200 300-400 (psi) (7-15) (15-30) (40-60) k, (static) MN/m? 135 270 540 (lovin) (500) (1,000) (2,000) k. (cyclic) MNim* 55 110 540 (lovin) (200) (400) (2,000) The average shear strength should be computed from the shear strength ofthe soil toa dept of 5 pile diameters. It shouldbe defined as hal the total maximum principal stress difference in an unconsolidated undrained wiaxal test Table3.3. Representative Values of k for Stiff Clays 6. Computethe following: Yq = Gab 6.29) Use an appropriate value of ¢, from results of laboratory tests or, in the absence of lahoratory tests, from Table 3.4. AVERAGE UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH 0.007, ‘Table3.4 Representative Values of¢,, for Stiff Clays LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response 341 7. Establish the first parabolic portion of the p-y curve, using the following equation and obtaining p, from Eqs. 3.26 or 3.27. pe 052) Yeo sovee (3.30) Equation 3.30 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point of the intersection with Eq, 3.28 to a point where y is equal to A, Voy (See note in Step 10). 8, Establish the second parabolic portion of the p-y curve, p=0sp(~) 0055p Jeo 4a | seoene(3.31) AYs0 Equation 3.31 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point where y is equal to 4,y,, to a point where y is equal to 64,y, (see note in Step 10). 9, Establish the next straight-line portion of the p-y curve, (p=05p. 6d, ~ 0411p, ~ 22625 Pe 64,930) ns (3.32) Ysa Equation 3.32 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point wherey is equal to 64,y, to apoint where y is equal to 184,y,, (see note in Step 10). 10. Establish the final straight-line portion of the p-ycurve, p=05p.{6d, ~ 0411p, -0.75p.A,, soe (3.33) or p=p.(i22sff, 0954, 0411) 634) Equation 3.33 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point where yis equal to 184,y,, and for all larger values of y, followingnote. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Tecknical Manual342__Chapter3 Soil Response Note: The step-by-step procedure is outlined, and Fig. 3.15is drawn, as if there isan intersection between Eq, 3.28 and 3.30. However, there may beno intersection of Eq, 3.28 with any ofthe other equations defining the p-y curve. Eq. 3.28 defines the p-y curve untilit intersects, with one of the other equations or, ifno intersection occurs, Eq. 3.28 defines the complete p-y curve. A second pile, identical tothe pile used for the static loading, was tested under cyclic loading. The following procedure is for cyclic loading and is illustrated in Fig. 3.16. Asmaybe seen from astudy of the p-y curves that are recommended, the results for the Manor site showed a very large loss of soil resistance. The data from the tests have been studied carefully and the recommended p-y curves foreyclic loading reflect accurately the behavior of the soil at the site. Nevertheless, the loss of resistance due to cyclic loading at Manor is. much more tian has been observed elsewhere. Therefore, the use of the recommendations in this section for cyclic loading will yield conservative results for many clays. The work of Long(1984) was. unable to show precisely why the loss of resistance occurred during, cyclic loading, One clue was that the clay from Manor was found to lose volumeby slaking when a specimen was placed in fresh water, thus, the clay was quite susceptible to erosion from the hydraulic action of the free water as the pile was pushed back and forth. 1. Steps 1,2, 3, 5, and 6 are the same as for the static case. 4. Choose the appropriate value of 4, from Fig. 3.10 forthe particu- larnon-dimeasional depth. Compute he following: ¥, = 41 AY (3.35) 7. Establish the parabolic portion of the p-y curve, map| eao4seel” po dvds | ..(3.36) LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response 343 | prseme ) 45% Soil Resistance , kNim 0 O45, 06% «TY Deflection y, mm Fig. 3.16 Characteristic shape of p-y curve for cyclic loading for stiffclay in the presence of free water Equation 3.36 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point of the intersection with Eq. 3.28 to where y is equal to 0.6y, (See note in step 9). 8. Establish the next straight-line portion of the p-y curve, 0.08: P= 09364,p.-—= Pel) -06yp) soneeen (3.37) Equation 3.18 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point where y is equal to 0.6y, to the point where y is equal to 1.8} (See note on Step 9). 9, Establish the final straight-line portion of the p-ycurve, 102 50 p=09364,p, — LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual344 Chapter 3 Soll Response Equation 3.38 should define the portion of the p-y curve from the point where y is equal to 1.8y, and for all larger values of y (see following not). Note: The step-by-step procedure is outlined, and Fig. 3.16 is drawn, as if there is an intersection between Eq. 3.28 and Eq. 3.36. There may be no intersection of Eq. 3.28 with any of the other equations defining thep-y curve. Ifthere isno intersection, the equation should be employed that gives the smallest value of p for any value of. Recommended Soil Tests Triaxial compression tests of the unconsolidated-undrained type with confining pressures conforming to in situ pressures are recom- mended for determining the shear strength of the soil. Thevalue of ¢,, should be taxen as the strain during the test corresponding to the stress equal to one-half he maximum total-principal-stress difference. ‘The shear strength, c, should be interpreted as one-halfof the maximum, total-principal-stress difference. Values obtained from triaxial tests might be somewhat conservative but would represent more realistic strength values than other tests. The unit weight of the soil must be determined. Example Curves Examplep-y curves were computed forstiffclay forapile witha diameter of 610 mm (24 in.). The soil profile that was used is shown in Fig. 3.17. The submerged unit weight of the soil was assumed to be 7.9 kN/m’ (50 Ib/ft’) for the entire depth. Inthe absence ofa stress-strain curve, ¢,, was taken 2s 0.005 for the full depthof the soil profile. The slope of the initial portion of the p-y curve Was established by assuming a value of k of 135 MN/m’ (500 Ib/in.2). The loading was assumed to be eyelic. Thep-yeurves ‘were computed for the following depths below the mudiine: 0.6m (0.2 ft), 1.5 m(5 ft), 3m (10 ft), and 12m (40 ft). The plotted curves are shown inFig. 3.18, LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter Soll Response 345 1053 Penetration, m 1 L 1 5067 100 150 Shear Strength, kPa 3.17 Shear strength profile used for example p-y curves for stiffclay LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual346 Chapter 3 Soil Response 250 200 150 p. kNim 100 0 0.0050 0.0100 0.0180 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0350 ym 3.18 Example p-y curves for stiffclay in presence of free water, cyolic loading 3.3.8 Response of Stiff Clay with No Free Water Field Experiments A lateral-load test was performed at a site in Houston with ahored pile, 915 mm (36 in.) in diameter. A254-mm (10 in.)-diameter pipe, instrumentedin intervals along its length with electrical-resistance-strain gauges, was positioned along the axis of the pile before concrete was placed. Theembedded length of the pile was 12.8 m (42 ft). The average undrained shear strength of the clay in the upper 6m (20 fi) ‘was approximately 105 kPa (2,200 Ib/ft?). The experiments and their interpretation are discussed in detail by Welch and Reese(1972) and Reese and Welch (1975). ‘The same experiment was used to develop both the static and the LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soil Response 3-47 cyclic p-y curves, contrary to the procedures employed forthe two other experiments with pilesin clays, The load was appliedin onlyone direction, also in variance with the other experiments. A load was applied and maintained until the strain gauges were read with ahigh-speed data-acquisition system. The seme load was then cycled for a number of times and held constant while the strain gauges were read at specific numbers of cycles. The load was then increased and the procedure was repeated. The difference in the ‘magnitude of successive loads was relatively large and the assumption ‘was made that cyeling at the previous load did not influence the read ings for Cycle 1 at the new load. The p-y curves at this site were relatively regularin shape and yielded to an analysis that allowed the increase in deflection due to cyclic loading to be formulated in terms of the stress level and the number of cycles of load. Thus, the analyst can specifya number of loading cycles in doing the computations for a particular design. Detailed Procedure The following procedure is for short-term static loading and is illustrated in Fig. 3.19. 1. Obtain values for undrained shear strength c, soil unit weighty, and pile diameter b. Also obtain the values of ¢,, from stress-strain curves, Ifno stress-strain curves are available, use a value ofc, of 0.010 or 0.005 as given in Table 3.2, the larger value being more conservative. 2, Compute the ultimate soil resistance, p,, per unit length of pile using the smaller of the values given by Eqs. 3.20 and3.21. (In the use of Eq. 3.20, the shear strength is taken as the average from the ground surface to the depth being considered and J istaken as 0.5 The unit weight of the soil should reflect the position of the water table.) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual348_Chapter 3 Soil Response p=Py Ys > Fig. 3.19 Characteristic shape of p-y curve for static loading in stiff clay with no free water 3. Computethe deflection, y,, at one-half the ultimate soil resistance from Eq. 3.22. 4, Compute points describing the p-y curve from the relationship below: (3.39) 5. Beyond y= 16y,,, is equal to p, for all values of. The following procedures for cyelic loading and isillustrated in Fig. 3.20. 1. Determine the p-y curve for short-term static loadingby the pro- cedure previously given, 2. Determine the number of times the lateral load will be applied to thepile LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manualsoit 3. Obtain the value of C for several values of p/p,, where Cis the parameter describing the effect of repeated loading on deformation. ‘The value of Cis found from arelationship developed by laboratory tests, (Welch and Reese, 1972), or in the absence of tests, from the followingequation. cao 2) . es (3.40) 4, Atthe value ofp corresponding to the values of p/p, selected in Step 3, compute new values ofy for cyclic loading from the following equation, Ye =I, AV yg C+ log N. Gal) ' t Yo=Ys +¥5q° Ce logy 1 1 Yor ys +¥gq °C looN2 i hi Yo=Ys +¥5q°C °1O0N oe ' 1 1 1 i ' 16 Tey. ¥e— 0 ' eo 916 (Yq) looNy ' 96 (sq) !OaNg 1859 + 9.6 (Ygq) looNa Fig. 3.20 Characteristic shape of p-y curve for cyclic loading in stiffclay with no free water LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3-50 Chapter 3 Soil Response where y, = deflection under N-cycles of load, y, = deflection under short-term static load, Yi) = deflection under short-term static load at one-half the ultimateresistance, and N= number ofycles of load application. 5. The p-y curve defines the soil response after N-cyclesof loading. Recommended Soil Tests Triaxial compression tests of the unconsolidated-undrained type with confining stresses equal to the overburden pressures at the elevations from which the samples were taken are recommended to determine the shear strength. The value of ¢,, should be taken as the strain duringthe test corresponding to the stress equal to cne-half the maximum total-principal-stress difference. The undreined shear strength, c, should be defined as one-half the maximum total-principal- stress difference. The unit weight of the soil must also be cetermined. Example Curves Anexample set of p-y curves was computed for stiffclay above the water table for a pile with a diameter of 610 millimeters (24 in.). The soil profile that was used is shown in Fig. 3.17. The unit weightof the soil was assumed to be 19.0 kNim? (125 Ib/ft?) for the entire depth. In the absence of a stress-strain curve, ¢,, was taken as 0.005. Equation 3.49 was used to compute values for the parameter Cand it was assumed that there were to be 100 cycles of load application. ‘The p-y curves were computed for the following depths below the ground line: 0.6 m (2 f), 1.5 m (5 ft),3 m (10 f), and 12 meters (40 feet). The plotted curves are shown in Fig. 3.21 3.3.9 Other Recommendations for p-y Curves As noteé earlier in this chapter, the selection of the set of p-y LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soit Response__ 3-51 0 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0300 0.350 ym Fig. 3.21 Example p-y curves forsstiff clay with no free water, cyclic loading curves for aparticular field application sa critical feature ofthe method ofanalysis, The presentation of three particular methods for clays does not mean the other recommendations are net worthy of consideration, Some of these methods are mentioned here for ‘consideration and their existence is an indication of the level of activity with regard to the response of soil to lateral deflection. Sullivan, et al. (1980) studied data from tests of pilesin clay when ‘water was above the ground surface and proposed a procedure that unified the results from those tests. While the proposed method was able to predict the behavior of the experimental piles with excellent accuracy, two parameters were included in the method that could not be found by any rational procedures. Further work could develop ‘means of determining those two parameters. Stevens and Audibert (1979) reexamined the available experi- LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3S2_Chapter3 Soll Response mental data and suggested specific procedures for formulating p-y curves. Bhushan, et al, (1979) reported field tests of bored piles under lateral load and recommended procedures for formulating p-y curves forstiffelays. Briaud, etal. (1982) suggested a procedure for use ofthe pressuremeter in developingp-y curves. Anumier of other authors have also presented proposals for the use of results of pressuremeter tests for obtaining p-y curves. ONeill and Gazioglu (1984) reviewed all of the data that were available on p-y curves for clay and presented a summacy report to the American Petroleum Institute. The research conductedby O'Neill, and his co-workers (O’Neill and Dunnavant, 1984; Dunnavant and O'Neill, 1985) at the test site on the campus of the University of Houston developed a large volume of data on p-ycurves. This work ‘will most likely resultin specific recommendations in duecourse. 3.4 p-y Curves for Sands 3.4.1 Initial Portion of Curves ‘The initial stiffness of stress-strain curves for sand is afunction of the confining pressure; therefore, the use of mechanics for obtaining E, for sandsis complicated. Thep-y curveat the ground surface will be characterized by zero values ofp forall values of, and the initial slope of the curves and the ultimate resistance will increase approximately linearly with depth ‘The presentation of the recommendations of Terzaghi (1955) is of interest here for a review of early design methods, but it is now recognized that Terzaghi’s coefficients probably are meant to reflect the slope of secants to p-y curves rather than the initial moduli. As noted earlier, Terzaghi recommended the use of his coefficients up to the point where the computed soil resistance was equal toabout one- halfof the ultimate bearing stress. Interms ofp-y curves, Terzaghi recommends a series of straight LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoit Response lines with slopes that increase linearly with depth, as indicated in Eq. 3.42. ic: eee sevunseee (3.42) where k = constant giving variation of soil modulus with depth, and x = depth below ground surface. ‘Terzaghi’s recommended values in terms of the appropriate units are given in Table3.5. Relative Density of Sand (*) Loose Medium Dense Dryormoist, , MNim? 0.95-2.8 3.5-10.9 13,8-27.7 (ibfin.) (35-104) (13.0- 40.0) (£1.0- 102.0) Sub. sand, k, MN/m? 057-17 22-73 8.7-17.9 bin.) 21-64) ( ») @: 0) ~ Terzaghis recommended & values for sand are believed tobe overly conserva- tive. Users of LPILE are encouraged to use the values recommended by Reese and Matlock presented later in this manual because those values at Based v1 Toad test of lly instrumented piles and are supported by soil investigations ‘of good quality. Terzaghs values were based ona literature review made atthe time of writng. Terzaghi later acknowledged that he had some dovbts about the source dataand he stopped recommending their use. Table3.5. Terzaghi’s Recommendations for ‘Values of k for Laterally Loaded Piles in Sand LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual384 Chapter 3 Soll Response 3.4.2. Analytical Solutions for Ultimate Resistance p, ‘Two models are used for computing the ultimate resistance for piles in sand, following a procedure similar to that used for clay. The first of the models for the soil resistance near the ground surface is shown in Fig. 3.22. The total lateral force F,, (Fig. 3.22c) may be computed by subtracting the active force F,, computed by use of Rankine theory, from the passive force F, computed from the model by assuming that the Mohr-Coulomb failure condition is satisfied on planes, ADE, BCF, and AEFB (Fig. 3.22a). The directions of the forces are shown in Fig. 3.22b, Solutions other than the ones shown here have been developed by assuming a friction force onthe surface DEFC (assumed to be zero in the analysis shown here) and by assuming the water table to be within the wedge (the unit weight is, assumed to be constant in the analysis shown here). ‘The force F,, may be computed by following a procedure similar to that used to solve the equation in the clay model (Fig 3.6). The resulting equationisas follows. F ri ssringenp | a Stan (B—9)eosay 08 (b,H an pana rit aig Eterm +7 Het (ang sin tan 3.43) coefficient of earth pressure at rest, and = minimum coefficient of active earth pressure. ‘The ultimatesoil resistance near the ground surface per unit length of the pile is obtained by differentiating Eq, 3.43. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soil Response 3 iRecrion oF PILE. MOVEMENT Fig. 3.22 Assumed passive wedge-type failure of pile in sand (a) ‘general shape of wedge LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Tecinical Manual356_Chapter3 Soil Response ian (8-4) cosa, -7H| ab ox anpona)| ers + 7H [Ht tan p (tang sin f ~tana,)~ Keb] (.),-r¥[ eeemgeae | Bowman (1958) performed some laboratory experiments with care- fal measurements and suggested values of a, from 4/3 to #2 for loose sand and up to ¢for dense sand. The value of Bis approxi- mated by the following equation. g 2 ‘The model for computing the ultimate soil resistance at some dis- tance below the ground surface is shown in Fig. 3.23a. The stress 0, atthe back of the pile must be equal or larger than the minimum active earth pressure; ifnot, the soil could fail by slumping. The assumption is based on two-dimensional behavior, thus, itis subject to some un- certainty. Ifthe states of stress shown in Fig. 3.23b are assumed, the ultimate soil resistance for horizontal movement ofthe soil is (p)yy = K,EyH (tan'B-1) + K by tand tan B ..onene 346) The equations for (p,),, and (p,),, are approximate because of the elementary nature of the models that were used in the computa- tions, However, the equations serve a useful purpose in indicating the form, ifnot the magnitude, of the ultimate soil resistance, Baer sucess (3.45) 3.4.3 Influence of Diameter on p-y Curves No special studies have been reported on an investigation of the influence of diameter on p-y curves. Case studies of piles, some of which are oflarge diameter, do not reveal any particular influence of LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response fa) ree tan (b) Fig,3.23 Assumed mode of soil failure by laterel flow aroundapile in sand: (a) section through the pile; (b) Mohr- ‘Coulomb diagram LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3-58 Chapter the diameter, However, virtually all of the lateral-load tests, except the ones described herein, have used only static loading, Soll Response 3.4.4 Influence of Cyclic Loading Asnotedabove, very few tests of piles under cyclic-lateral load- ing have bea reported. There is evidence that the repeated loading, on apile in predominantly one direction will result in apermanent deflection in that direction. Whena relatively large load is applied, the top of the pile will deflect a significant amount, allowing the particles of cohesionless soil to fll into the space that tends to openat the back ofthe pile, Thus, the pile cannot retum to its initial position, ‘Observations of the behavior of the mass of sand nearthe ground surface during cyclic loading support the idea thatthe voidratio of this sand is appreaching a critical value. That is, dense sand apparently Joosens durirg eyeling and loose sand apparently densifis. A carefu! study of the two phenomena mentioned above should provide information of use to analysts. Full-scale experiments with detailed studies of the nature of the sand around the top ofa pile, both before and after loading, would bea welcome contribution, 3.4.5 Introduction to Procedures for Pr Early Recommendations ‘The values of subgrade moduli recommended by Terzaghi (1955) provided some basis for computation, but his values could not be implemented very well until the digital computer became available. ‘There was.aperiod of few years when analysts were solving difference equations byuse of hand-cranked calculators. Piles for some ofthe early offshore platforms were designed by this method tion of p-y Curves Parker and Reese (1971) performed some small-scale experi- ‘ments and examined unpublished data and recommended procedures, for predicting p-y curves for sand. The method apparently received LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoll Response little use decause the method described below, based on a comprehensive testing program, soon became available Step-by-Step Procedure ‘The procedure for developingp-y curves for pilesin sand is shown, indetail inthe next section. The piles that were used in theexperiments, described briefly below, were the ones used at Manor, except that the piles at Manor had an extra wrap of steel plate. 3.4.6 Response of Sand Above and Below the Water Table id Experiments: Anextensive series of tests were performed at a site on Mustang, Island, near Corpus Christi (Cox, etal, 1974). Two stesl-pipe piles, 610 mm (24 in.) in diameter, were driven into sand ina manner to simulate the driving of an open-ended pipe and were subjected to lateral loading. The embedded length of the piles was 21 meters (69 feet), One ofthe piles was subjected to short-term loading and the other to repeated loading, ‘Thesoil atthe site was a uniformly graded, fine sand with an angle of internal friction of 39 degrees. The submerged unit weight was 10.4 kN/m? (66 Ib/ft). ‘The water surface was maintained at 150mm, (Gin.) or soabove the mudline throughout the test program. Detailed Procedure The following procedure is for short-term static loading and for cyclic loading and is illustrated in Fig. 3.24 (Reese, et al., 1974), 1. Obtain values for the angle of intemal friction 9, the soil unit weight +y,and pile diameter b (Note: use buoyant unit weight for sand below the water table and total unit weight for sand above the water table). 2. Make the following preliminary computations. ) wn (3.47) $ past, eet stan’ [45- LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3460 Chapter 3 Soll Response Fig. 3.24 Characteristic shape ofa family of p-y curves for static and cyclic loading in sand 3. Compute the ultimate soil resistance per unit length ofpile using the smaller ofthe values given by the following equations. ners K stent ian (A-#)eosar Pepe OPH] nlf + 7X[Kx tan B (tang sin Ptanae)- Kb] Put = K dr(tan® B—1) + Kebpxtand tant B (3.49) 4, Inmaking the computation in Step 3, find the depth x,at which there is an intersection at Eqs. 3.48 and 3.49, Above this depth use Eq. 3.48. Below this depth use Eq. 3.49. 5. Select a depth at which ap-y curve is desired. 6, Establish y, as 36/80. Compute p, by the following equation: LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualPe Soil Response (3.50) Apo p, Use the appropriate value of 4, or 4, from Fig. 3.25 for the particu- larnondimensional depth, and for either the static or cyclic case. Us the appropriate equation forp,, Eq. 3.48 or Eq. 3.49 by referring to the computation in Step 4. 7. Establish y, as 6/60. Compute p,, by the following equation: Pn, = BP, OP, = BP, snsesentasesneee(351) Use the appropriate value of B, or B, from Fig. 3.26 for the particular nondimensional depth, and for ether the static oreyelic case. Use the 20] i Foun Er s.0, tose Fig. 3.25 Values of coefficients A ,and A. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Tecinical ManualFig. 3.26 Values of coefficients B, and Bs appropriate equation for p,.. The two straight-line portions of the p-y curve, beyond the point where y is equal to 0/60, can now be estab- lished, 8. Establish the initial straight-line portion of the p-ycurve, p= (ky se sseenee (3.52) Use the appropriate value of & from Table 3.6 or 3.7. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManuatChapter 3 Soil Response 3463 Relative Density Recommended k Loose Medium Dense MNim* 54 16.3 34 (ibn) (20.0) (60.0) __ (125.0) Table 3.6 Representative Values of k for Submerged Sand Relative Density Recommended k Loose Medium Dense MNiny’ 68 24.4 61.0 (biin.’) (25.0) (90.0) (225.0) Table 3.7 Representative Values of k for Sand Above the Water Table (Static and Cyclic Loading) Establish the parabolic section ofthe p-y curve, p=Cy"" (3.53) Fit the parabola between points k and m as follows: a, Get the slope of the line between points m and wby, Iw ue (3.54) b. Obtain the power of the parabolic section by, (3.55) (3.56) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Tecinical Manual364 prer 3 4, Determine point kas, aa a {E a (57) e. Compute appropriate number of points on the parabola by using Eq. 3.53. Note: The step-by-step procedure is outlined, and Fig. 3.24 is drawn, asiifthere is an intersection between the initial straight-line portion of the p-y curve and the parabolic portion of the curve at point k. However, insome instances there may be no intersection with the parabola. Ecuation 3.52 defines the p-y curve until thereis an inter- section with another branch of the p-ycurve or ifno intersection occurs, Eq. 3.52 defines the complete p-y curve. This completes the development of the p-y curve for the desired depth. Anynumber of curves can be developed by repeating the above steps foreach desired depth Recommended Soil Tests, riaxial compression tests are recommended for obtaining the angle of intemal frction of the sand. Confining pressures should be used ‘which are close or equal to those at the depths being considered in the analysis, Tests must be performed to determine the unit weightof the sand, However, it maybe impossible to obtain undisturbed samples and frequently the angle of intemal friction is estimated from results of some type ofin situ test. ‘The procedure above can be used for sand above the water table if appropriate adjustments are made in the unit weight and angle of internal friction of the sand. Some small-scale experiments were performed by Parker and Reese (1971), and recommendations for the p-y curves for dry sand were developed from those experiments. ‘The results fiom the Parker and Reese experiments should be useful inchecking solutions from results of experiments with full-scale piles. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soll Response 3465 Example Curves An example set of p-y curves was computed for sand below the ‘water table for a pile with a diameter of 610 mm (24 in.). The sand is assumed to have an angle of internal friction of 35 degrees and a submerged unit weight of 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 Ib/ft3). The loading was assumed to be static. ‘The p-y curves were computed for the following éepths below the mudline: 1.5 m (5 ft), 3 m (10 ft), 6 m (20 ft), and 12 meters (40. feet). The plotted curves are shown in Fig. 3.27, 5000 4000) 12. g 3000} = 2000] 1000) 6 2 0 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0360 ym Fig. 327 Example p-y curves for sand below the water table, eyelic loading LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3466 Chapter 3 Soil Response 3.4.7 APIRP2A Recommendation for Response of Sand Above and Below the Water Table Background ‘The method employed herein is that presented by the American Petroleum Institute in its manual on recommended practize (RP2A) ‘Thus, the method has some official recognition. The AP! procedure for p-y curves in sand was also justified by a number of field experiments, There is no difference for ultimate resistance (p,) between the Reese et al. criteria and the API criteria. The API criteria uses a more convenient trigonometric equation for computation, The main difference between those two criteria will be the initial modulus of subgrade reaction and the shape function of the curves. Recommendations for Computing p-y Curve The following procedure is for short-term static loading and for cyclic loading as described in APIRP2A (1987). 1. Obtain values for the angle of internal friction ¢, the soil unit weight yeand the pile diameter b. 2. Computethe ultimate soil resistance at a selected depth x. The ultimate lateral bearing capacity (ultimate lateral resistance) for sand has been found to vary from a value at shallow depths determined by Eq. 3.58 to avalue at a deep depths determined by Eq. 3.59. Ata «given depth the equation giving the smallest value ofp, should be used as the ultimate bearing capacity. Pag =(GX+ CbYYX (3.58) Pas = Cy" (3.59) where: P, = ultimate resistance (force/unit length), Ibn. (aN/m)(s = shallow, d= deep), Y= effective soil weight, bin’ (MN/m*), LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soit Response ___ 367 x = depth, in(im), ” = angle of intemal friction of sand, degrees, Cy Cy C, = coefficients determined from Fig. 3.28 as a function of and b= averagepile diameter from surface to depth, in. (m). 3. Develop the load-deflection curve based on the ultinate soil resis- tance p, which is the smallest value of p, calculated in Step 2. The lateral soil resistance-deflection (p-y) relationships for sand are non- linear and, in the absence of more definitive information, may be ap- proximated at any specific depth.x by the following expression: kz) pe Api ») . (3.60) VALUES OF COEFF! VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS C, AND C; a a ee) ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION, 4', DEG Fig. 3.28 Coeficients as function of ¢” LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manwal3468 _Chapter3 Soil Response where: A = factorto account for cyclic or static loading, Evaluated by: A = 0,9 forcyclic loading 30- os?) 209 for static loading, P, = smallerofvalues computed from Eq. 358 0r3.59,, Ib/in. (KN/m), k= initial modulus of subgrade reaction, Ib/in’ (kN'm’), Determine from Fig. 3.29 as function of angle of intemal friction, y = lateral deflection, in. (m), and x = depth, inches (m). Example Curves An example set ofp-y curves was computed for sand above the water table, using the APIcriteria, ‘The soil properties are: unit weight (7) =0.07 Ib /in., and internal-friction angle (g)=35 degrees. The sand layer exists from the ground surface to a depth of 40 feet. The pile is of reinforced conerete; the geometry and properties are: pile length = 300in., diameter = 36 in., moment in inertia = 82,450 in, and the modulus ofelasticity=3.6 "10° Ib/in?. The loadingis assumed tobe static. The p-y curves are computed for the following depths: 20in., 40 in,, and 100 inches. The plotted curves are shown in Fig. 3.30. Ahand calculation for p-y curves ata depth of 20 in, was made to check the coraputer solution, as shown in the following. 1. List the soil and pile parameters 1.070 Ib/in? 9’= 35 degrees b =36irches LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Teehnical ManualChapter 3 Soit Response ___ 3469 ! 6 angle of internal ition a oe ge ole) | ee = = ce 7 ® 2 40 60 60 100 RELATIVE DENSITY, % Fig. 3.29 Initial modulus of subgrade reaction, k, used for API sand criteria LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual310 _Chapter 3 Soil Response Fig. 330 Example p-y curves computed based on API sand criteria 2. Obtain coefficients C,, C,, C, for Fig. 3.28. 3. Computethe ultimate soil resistance p, Pa = (Cx*C, b) gex (3)(20 in.) + (3.45)(36 in,)] (0.07 Ib/in.) 20in) = 288 Ib/in. Pa = Cby'x (55)(36 in. )(0.07 Ib/in.?)(20 in.) = 2,772 Ib/in. 258 Ib/in. (smaller value) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response 4, Find coefficient A A = 3.0 (0.8) (V(b) 0 ~ (0.8)(20 in.)/(36 in.) = 255 5. Computep for different y values. Ify=0.1 in: ‘(above water table) = 140 Ibvin2 (from Fig. 3.29) kx = Ap, tanh| y| p= Ap, tar es) (240 1b/in*}20 8.) (gj, (255)(258 Ib in.) ) p= 264 IbJin. (computer output = 264 Ibn.) p=(255)(258 tin? Ify=1.35 ins ke = Ap, tant] | p=AP, 7 »] = 255)258 bina cu0120ind 3s) (2.55)(258 Ib/in*) p= 6531bJ/in, (computer output = 653 Ibv/in.) The check by hand computations yielded exact values for the two values of deflection that were considered. 3.4.8 Other Recommendations for p-y Curves A survey of the available information of p-y curves for sand was made by O'Neill and Murchison (1983), and some changes were suggested in the procedure given above. Their suggestions were submitted to the American Petroleum Institute and modifications were adopted bythe API review committee. LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Tecinical Manual3-72_Chapter3 Soll Response Bhushan, etal, (1981) reported on lateral load tests of drilled piers in sand. A procedure for predicting p-y curves was suggested. Anumber of authors have discussed the use of the pressuremeter in obtaining p-y curves. The method that is proposed is described in some detail ty Baguelin, etal. (1978). 3.5. Response of Soil with Both Cohesion and Inter- nal Friction - Simplified Procedure 3.5.1 Background ‘With regard to soil conditions, previous methods are for soils that can be characterized as either cohesive or cohesionless (clay or sand, for example), There are currently no generally accepted recommen- dations for developing p-y curves for c-9soils. Among the reasons for the limitation on soil characteristics are the following. Firstly, in foundation design, where the p-y analysis has been used mostly, the characterization ofthe soil by ether a value of ¢ or @, but not both, has been used. Secondly, the major experiments on which thep-y predictions have been based have been performed in soils that can be described either by c or ¢. However, there are now numerous occasions when itis desirable, and perhaps necessary, to describe the characteristics of the soil more carefully. An example of the need to have predictions for p-y curves for c- soils is when piles are employed to improve the stability ofa slope. ‘The analysis will generally conform to the followingprocedures: analyze the slope with no piles present and find a factor of safety against slope failure; selecta kind of ple to be used in the slope and findthe driving. forces above an estimated sliding surface and the resisting forces below the surface; consider a number of piles in a slope; re-evaluate the factor of safety, and modify the position of the sliding surface and the forces on thepile to achieve compatibility. Itis well known that most LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChanter 3 Soil Respanse___3-73 of the currently accepted methods of analysis of slope stability char- acterize thesoils in terms of and for long-term or drained analysis. Therefore, tis inconsistent, and either unsafe or unconservative, to assume theppile to be in soil that is characterized either by c or ¢. ‘Thereare other instances in the design of piles under lateral loading where it is desirable to have methods of prediction for ¢-y curves for c-dsoils. The shear strength of unsaturated, cohesive soils generally is represented by strength components of both c and ¢, In many practical cases, however, there isthe likelihood that the deposit might become saturated because of rainfall and rise of the ground water table, But there could well be times when the ability to éesign for dry seasons is critical. ‘Cemented soils are frequently found in subsurface investigations. Itis apparent that cohesion from the cementation will increase soil resistance significantly, especially for soils near the ground surface. ‘The strength envelope for consolidated-drained clay isrepresented bycomponents ofboth cand 4, Therefore, soil criterie for c-gsoils maybeneeded for drained analysis. A complication forsuch an analysis, that can yield to mechanics, is that there will be some lateral deflection of the pile as drainage occurs. 3.5.2. Recommendations for Computing p-y Curves ‘The following procedure is for short-term static loading and for cyclic loading and is illustrated in Fig. 3.31. As will be noted, the suggested procedure follows closely that which was recommended earlier for sand. ‘Conceptually, the ultimate soil resistance (p,) is taken as the passive soil resistance acting on the face of the pile in the direction of the horizontal movement, plus any sliding resistance on the sides of the piles, less any active earth pressure force on the rear face ofthe pile. The force from active earth pressure and the sliding resistance will generally be small compared to the passive resistance, and will tend LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response reo ‘36780 y Fig. 3.31 Proposed p-y curves for for e-soil to cancel each other out, Evans and Duncan (1982) recommended an approximate equation for the ultimate resistance of c-soils as: p= 0,b-=C,o,b G61) where: , = passivepressure including the three-dimensional ef- fect ofthe passive wedge (F/L’) b= pilewidth(L), 2, ~ theRankine passive pressure for a wall of infinite length (F/L?), having Gy, = yxtan'(45 + 9/2) + 2c tan(AS + 92) rune (3.62) where y= unitweight ofsoil (F/L’), x = depth at which the passive resistance isconsidered ©, @ = angleofintemal friction (degrees), ¢ = cohesion (F/L’), and C, = dimensionless modifying factor to account for the LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical Manualon Response 3-75, cer 3 s three-dimensional effect ofthe passive wedge. The modifying factor C, can be divided in'o wo terms: G, »gf0 modify the frictional term of Eq. 3.61 and Ge tomodify the cohesion term of Eq. 3.61. Equation 3.63 can then be written as: 1a [er ste'(sse 8) ~cpeen(ese $b anu (B.63) ‘The relatively straightforward derivation of equations for developing p-y curves for c-¢soil proceeds by using the concept proposed by Evans and Duncan (1982). Equation 3.63 will be rewritten as Pax AP + Pac (3.64) where 4 canbe found from Fig. 3.25. The friction cormponent (p,,) will be the smaller ofthe values given by the equation below. inl _Koxtandsing ea (eaefeat tan “aap nbn G65) + K,xtanB(tan§sinf ~ tana) ~ Kb] Day = K gbie(tan® B=1) + Kybpe tang tan Bn nnnnnn (3.66) The cohesion component (p,.) will be the smaller of the values given by the equation below. poa(s+Lertsleo (G.67) Pye = 9C Bossnsseee sensensensnnsees (3:68) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual316 Chapter 3 Soll Response To develop the p versus y curves, the procedures described earlier for sand by Reese et al (1974) will be used because the stress-strain behavior of e-soils are believed to be closer to the stress-strain curve of cohesionless soil than for cohesive soil. The following procedures are used to develop the p-y curves. 1. Establish, as 36/80. Compute p, by the following equation: Pu HPap* Pug OF Pi=APuy* Puc (3.69) Use the appropriate value of 4 or 4 , from Fig. 3.25 forthe particu- lar non-dimensional depth, and for cither the static or cyclic case. 2. Establish, as /60. Compute p,, by the following equation: Pu = BP yg* Pre but B= /.5 so the equation is as follows: Py = 1S Pag* Pr (3.70) The two straight-line portions of the p-y curve, beyond the point where _y is equal to 5/60, can now be established. 3, Establish the initial straight-line portion ofthe p-y curve, palky G71) ‘The value of for Eq, 3.71 may be found from the following equation and by reference to Fig. 3.32. = (k,+k,) for cemented sand (3.72) k=, fornon-cemented silt (3.72) where k, is the value contributed by cementation, k, is the value based on the friction angle as indicated in Tables 3.6 and 3.7. 4, Establish the parabolic section of the p-y curve, p=Ty™ (3.73) LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical ManualSoll Response Fig. 3.32 Representative values of k for c-4.soil Fit the parabola between points kand mas follows: a, Get the slope of the line between points m and wby. =. (3.74) b, Obtain the power of the parabolic section by, (3.75) (3.76) 4. Determine point kas, LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual318 Soil Response (SM @7 ie. ¢. Compute appropriate number of points on the parabola by using Bg. 3.73. Note: The step-by-step procedure is outlined as if there is an inter- section between the initial straight-line portion of the p-y curve and. the parabolie portion of the curve at point k. However, in some instances there may be no intersection with the parabola, Equation 3.11 definesthe p-y curve until there is an intersection with another branch of the p-y curve orifno intersection occurs, Eq. 3.71 defines. the complete p-y curve. This completes the development of the p-y curve forthe desired depth. Any number of curves can be developed by repeating the above steps for each desired depth. 3.5.3 Discussion An example of p-y curves was computed for c-@soils fora pile \with a diameter of 12 inches (0.3 meters) as shown in Fig, 3.33. The value is 0.2 ton/f (20 kPa) and a 6 value is 35 degrees. The unit, weight of soils 115 lb/ft (18kN/m®). The p-y curves were computed for depths 0739 in. (1 m), 79 in. (2m), and 118 inches (3 meters). ‘The p-y curves computed by using the simplified procedure are shown inFig. 3.33. Ascan beseen, the ultimate resistance of the soil, based inthe model procedure, is higher than from the simplified procedure. Both of the p-y curves show an initial peak strength, then drop to a residual streagth at a large deflection, as is expected. Because of lack of experimental data to calibrate the sil resistance, based on the ‘model procedure, itis recommended that the simplified procedure be used at the present time, ‘The poirt was made clearly at the beginning of this section that data are unavailable from a specific set of experiments that was aimed LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response 3-79 Fig. 3.33 p-y curves computed based on the simplified procedure at the response of e-fsoils. Such experiments would have made use of fully instrumented piles. Further litte information isavailablein the literature on the response of piles under lateral loadingin such soils where response is given principally by deflection of tae pile at the point ofloaling. Data from one such experiment, however, was available and the writers have elected to use that data in an example to demonstrate coding, presented in Chapter 5 of User Manuall. A comparison was made there between results from experiment and results from compu- tations. The reader will note that the procedure presented above does not reflect a severe loss of soil resistance under cyclic loading that is a characteristic for clays below a free-water surface. Rather, the LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3:80 Chapter 3 Soit Response procedures ace for a material that is principally granular which does not reflect such loss of resistance. Therefore, ifa c-Psoil has a very low value of and a relatively large value of c, the user is advised to ignore the 6 and to use the recommendations for p-y curves for clay. Further, arelstvely large factor of safety is recommended in any case, anda field program of testing of prototype piles is certainly in order for jobs that involve any large number of piles. 3.6. Modifications to p-y Curves for Sloping Ground 3.6.1 Intreduction ‘The recommendations for p-y curves presented to this point are developed fora horizontal ground surface. In order to allow designs to bemade if'pile is installed on a slope, modifications must be made inthep-ycurves. The modifications involve revisions in the manner in which the ul:imate soil resistance is computed. In this regard, the assumption is made that the flow-around failure will not be influenced bysloping ground; therefore, only the equations for the wedge-type failure need modification. ‘The solutions presented herein are entirely analytical and must be considered as preliminary. Additional modifications may be indicated ifitis possible to implement an extensive laboratory and field study. 3.6.2. Equations for Ultimate Resistance in Clay ‘The ultimate soil resistance near the ground surface for saturated clay where the pile was installed in ground with ahorizontal slope was derived by Reese (1958) and is shown in Eq. 3.78. eb + oH + 283¢yH G78) Ifthe grouné surface has a slope angle Oas shown in Fig. 3.34, the soil resistance in the front of the pile, following the Reese epproach is: LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response 3.81 1 = (2e,b + ybH + 283¢, H) —— (Pudea = (2¢46 + 7 a and (3.79) The soil resistance in the back of the pile is: cos (i) = Reb + 1H 4283641) 3.80) where qq = whtimate soil resistance near ground surface, erage undrained shear strength, pile diameter, = average unit weight of sol, H = depth from ground surface to point along pile where soil resistance is computed, and 9 = angle of slope as measured from the horizontal A comparison of Eqs. 3.79 and 3.80 shows that the equations are identical except for the terms at the right side of the parenthesis. If 0 is equal to zero, the equations become equal to the original equation 3.6.3 Equations for Ultimate Resistance in Sand ‘The ultimate sol resistance near the ground surface fer sand where the pile was installed in ground with a horizontal slope was derived earlier and is: = yn| Kol tanosinB Oe rere inp ian -9) + KyH tanB(tandsinB ~ tana) ~ Kb] (6+ HtanB tana) G81) Ifthe ground surface has a slope angle 0(as shown in Fig. 3.34), the ultimate sol resistance in the front of the pile is: LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual382_Chapter 3 Soil Response lco/ [ Fig. 3.34 Pile installed in sloping ground LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual eSSoil Response 3-83 KoHtangsinB (43 _ 3p? + | aga aa i086, + Htanptana} + gil, (0, + anpanao}) + K,H tanB(tan$sinB ~ tana)(4D; - 3D; +1) -Kp] (3.82) where tan Btan@ tan BtanO+1 3.83) D, =1-D,,and (3.84) 0s 0— feos" O— cos} 050+ eos? 0 — cos? (3.85) (Gis defined in Fig. 3.34) The ultimate soil resistance in the back ofthe pile is: _ pf Koll tandsinB o4 53 4p? (Poa = of ants Dera D EAD K (4 = 0088 =e. +HtanB tna?) tan(-6) oo 6.86) +KyHtanPtangsinp tanay(4D} 303 +1 -Kb] where _tanptand + tan pan Gan and D,=1+D, (3.88) This comptes the necessary derivations for modifying the equations LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Teetnical Manual384 _Chapter 3 Soil Response forclay and sand to analyze a pile under lateral load in sloping ground 3.7 Effect of Batter ‘The effect of batter on the behavior of laterally loaded piles was investigatedin a test tank. The lateral, soil-resistance curves for a vertical pile ina horizontal ground surface were modified by a constant to account forthe effect ofthe inclination ofthe pile. The values of the modifying constant as a function of the batter angle were deduced from the results in the test tank (Awoshika and Reese, 1971) and also from the results from full-scale tests (Kubo, 1964). Themodifier to be used is shown by the solid line in Fig. 3.35. aor a Fi A a 5 8 39 ° | | © rdo’s tests | © becsnt L _ +___ +10 0 10 20. 30 BATTER ANGLE, degree at Fig. 3.35 Modification of p-y curves for battered piles (after Kubo, Awoshika, and Reese) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualSoll Response ‘This modifier is to be used to increase or decrease the value of Pq, Which in turn will cause each of the p-values to be modified. While itis likely that the values ofp, for the deeper soils isnot affected by batter, the behavior of piles affected only slightly by the resistance of the deeper soils; therefore, the use of the modifier forall depth is believed tobe satisfactory. Asshownin Fig. 3.35, the agreement between the empirical curve and the experiments forthe out-batter ples (Bis positive) agrees some- what better that for the in-batter piles. The data indicate that the use of the modifier will yield results that are somewhat questionable; therefore, on an important project, the responsible engineer may wish torecommend full-scale testing. 3.8 Response of Rock 3.8.1 Introduction The use of deep foundations in rock is frequently required for ‘support of transmission towers or other structures that sustain lateral loads of significant magnitude. Because the rock must be drilled in order to make the installation, drilled shafts (called caissons or bored piles) are frequently used, However, a steel pile could be grouted into the drilled hole. In any case, the designer must use appropriate mechanics, as shown in Part III of this volume, to compute the ulti. mate bending moment and the variable bending stiffness EY. Experi- mental results show conclusively that the £7 must be reduced, as the bending mement increases, in order to achieve acorrect result (Reese, 1997). In some applications, the axial load isnegligible so the penetration is controlled by lateral load. The designer will wish to initiate compu- tations with a relatively large penetration of the pile into the rock. After finding a suitable geometric section, the factored loads are «employed and computerruns are made with penetration being gradually LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Tecinical Manual3.86 Chapter Soil Response reduced. The ground-line deflection is plotted as a function of penetration (see Fig. 1.6) and a penetration is selected that provides adequate secarity against a sizable deflection of the bottom of the pile. Concepts are presented in the following section that form the basis, of computing the response of piles in rock. The background for de- signing pilesin rock i given and then two sets of criteria are presented, one for strong rock and the other for weak rock. Much of the presentation follows the paper by Reese (1997) and more detail can be found in that paper. ‘The secendary structure of rock is an overriding feature with re- spect to its response to lateral loading. Thus, an excellent subsurface investigation is assumed prior to making any design. Theappropriate tools for investigating the rock are employed and the Rock Quality Designation (ROD) shouldbe taken, along with the compressive strength ofintact specimens. Ifpossible, sufficient data should be taken to allow the computation of the Rock Mass Rating (RMR). Sometimes, the RODis so low that no specimens can be obtained for compressive tests. The performance of pressuremeter tests in such instances is, indicated. Ifinvestigation shows that there are soil-filled joints or cracks in the rock, the procedures suggested herein should not be used but full- scale testing at the site is recommended. Furthermore, full-scale testing may be economical if a large number of piles are to be installed at a particular site, Such field testing will add to the data bank and lead to improvements in the recommendations shown below, which are considered as preliminary because of the meager amount of experimental data that is available. Inmost cases of design, the deflection of the drilled shaft (or other kind of pile) will be so small that the ultimate strength p,,of the rock is, not developed. However, the ultimate resistance of the rock should be predictedin order to allow the computation of the lateral load that causes the failure of the pile. Contrary to the predictions ofp-y curves LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soll Response 3.87 for soil, where the unit weightis a significant parameter, te unit weight of rock is neglected in developing the prediction equatiors that follow. While a pile may move laterally only a small amount under the working loads, the prediction of the early portion of thep-y curveis important because the small deflections may be critical in some designs. Most specimens of intact rock are brittle and will develop shear planes under low amounts of shearing strain. This fact leads to an important concept about intact rock. The rock is assumed 10 frac- ture and lose strength under small values of deflection of a pile Ifthe ROD of astratum of rock is zero, or has a low valve, the rock is assumed tohave already fractured and, thus, will deflect without sig~ nificant loss of strength. The above concept leads to the recommen- dation of two sets of criteria for rock, one for strong rock and the other for weak rock. For the purposes of the presentations herein, strong rock is assumed to have a compressive strength of 6.9 MPa (1,000 psi) or above. ‘The methods of predicting the response of rock is based strongly onalimitednumber of experiments and on correlations that have been presented in technical literature. Some of the correlations are inexact; for example, ifthe engineer enters the figure for correlation between stiffness and strength with a value of stiffness fiom the pressuremeter, the resulting strength can vary by an order of magnitude, depending on the curve that is selected. ‘The inexactness of the necessary correlations, plus the limited amount of data from controlled experiments, mean that the methods for the analysis ofpiles in rock be used with a good deal of beth judgment and caution, Full-scale testing in the field is indicated were justified bya particular design and where the owner of the project would make contribution to the technical literature and to the profession. 3.8.2 Descriptions of Two Field Experiments Islamorada LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual388_Chapter 3 Soil Response An instrumented drilled shaft (bored pile) was installed in vuggy limestone in the Florida Keys (Reese and Nyman, 1978) and was tested under lateral loads. The test was performed for the purpose of gaining information for the design of foundations for highway bridges, Difficulty was encountered in obtaining properties of the intact rock, Coresbroke during excavation and penetrometer tests were misleading (because ofthe vugs) or could not berun. Itwas possible to test two cores from the site. The small discontinuities inthe outside surface of the specimens were covered with a thin layerof gypsum ‘cement in an effort to minimize stress concentrations. Theends of the specimens were cut with a rock saw and lapped flat and parallel. The specimens were 149 mm (5.88 in.) in diameter and with heights of 302 mm (11.88 in.) for Specimen 1 and 265 mm (10.44 in.) for Specimen 2. The undrained shear strength of the specimens were taken as one-half the unconfined compressive strength and were 1.67 MPa (17.4 ton/ft) and 1,30 MPa (13.6 ton/ft) for Specimens 1 and 2, respectively. The rock at the site was also investigated by in-situ-grout-plug tests under the direction of Dr. John Schmertmann (1977). A 140- mm (5.5 in.) ciameter hole was drilled into the limestone, a high-strength steel bar was placed to the bottom of the hole, and a grout plug was cast over the lower end of the bar. The bar was pulled until failure occurred, and the grout was examined to see that failure occurred at the interface of the grout and limestone. Tests were performed at three borings, and the results shown in Table 3.8 were obtained. The average of the cight tests was 1.56 MPa (16.3 ton/f). However, the rock was stronger in the zone where the deflections of the drilled shaft ‘were most significant and a shear strength of 1.72 MPa (18.0 ton/ft?) ‘was selected for correlation. ‘The bored pile was 1,220 mm (48 in.) in diameter and penetrated 13.3 m (43.7ff) into the limestone, The overburden of fill was 4.3 m (14 ft) thick and was cased. The load was applied at 3.51 m (11.5 ft) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 0 Response 3.89 above the limestone, Amaximum horizontal load of 667 KN (75 tons) was applied to the pile. The maximum deflection at the point of load application was 18,0mm (0.71 in.) and at the top of therock (bottom of casing) it was 0.54 mm (0.0213 in.). While the curve of load versus deflection was nonlinear, there was no indication of failure of the rock. Other details about the experiment are shown in the Case Studies that follow. Depth Range Ultimate Resistance m ray MPa (ton/ft?) 0.76-152 (2.5-5.0) 227 (23.8) 131 (13.7) LIS (12.0) (8.0-10.0) 1.74 (18.2) 2.08 17) 2.54 (26.5) 5.49-6.10 (18.0-20.0) 1.31 (13.7) 1.02 (10.7) Table 3.8 Results of Grout-plug Tests by Schmertmann San Francisco ‘The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) performed Iateral-load tests of two drilled shafts near San Francisco Speer, 1992) and the results of the tests, while unpublished, have been provided with the courtesy of Caltrans. ‘Two borings were made into the rock and sampling was done with a NWD4 core barrel in a cased hole with a diameter of 102 mm (4.in.), A98-mm (3.88-in.) tricone roller bit was used to advance the casing and clean the borehole. The sandstone was medium to fine grained with grain sizes from 0.1 to 0.5 mm (0.004 to 0.02 in.), well sorted, and thinly bedded with thickness of 25 to 75 mm (1 0 3 in.) Recovery was generally 100%. The reported values of ROD ranged LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3.90 Chapter 3 Soll Response from zero to80, with an average of 45, The sandstone was described by Speer (1992) as very intensely to moderately fractured with bedding joints, joints, and fracture zones. Pressuremeter tests were performed and the results were scat- tered. The plotted results of the values for the moduli of the rock are shown in Fig. 3.36. The dashed lines show the averages that were used foranalysis, Fig, 3.37 was employed in developing the correlation between the initial stiffness from Fig. 3.36 and the compressive strength, and the values were obtained as shown in Table 3.9. Depth Interval Compressive Strength mn ft MPa psi 0.01039 0.0to 12.8 1.86 270 3.91088 12.810 28.9 6.43 936 below 88 below 28.9 16.0 2,320 The rick below 88 m (289 i inthe range of strong rok, but the rose above that depih will contol the behavior ‘Table 3.9 Values of Compressive Strength at San Francisco ‘Two piles, 2.25 m (7.38 ft)in diameter, with penetrations of 12.5 m (41 ft) and 13.8 m (45 ft), were tested simultaneously. Lateral loading was accomplished by hydraulic rams, acting on high-strength steel bars, thet were passed through tubes, transverse and perpendicular totheaxes ofthe piles. Load was measured by load cells and deflection \was measured by transducers. The slope and deflection of the tops of the piles were obtained by readings from the slope indicators. ‘The loac was applied in increments at 1.41 m (4.6 fi) above the ground line for Pile A and 1.24 m (4.1 ft) for PileB. The pile-head. deflection was measured at slightly different points above the rock line, but the results were adjusted slightly to yield equivalent values for each of the piles. Other details about the loading-test program are LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManualChapter 3 Soil Response 3-91 Etr, MPa 0 400» 800. 1200 1600-2000 Fig, 3.36 Initial Moduli of Rock from Pressuremeter, San Francisco Test (after Reese, 1997) LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual392 _Chapter 3 Soll Response on 7 00 1000 ame on 1 1000 —~1000, UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ~MPe Fig. 3.37 Engineering properties for intact rock (after Harvath and Kenney, 1979; Peck, 1976; and Deere, 1968) LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical Manualcer 3 Soil Response 1» Perform Proof Test if Deflection ‘sin this Range Pult=bsy — | Assume Brite Fracture 1 in this Range v1 = 0.00040 Fig.3.38 Recommended p-y Curve for Strong Rock shown in the case studies that follow. 3.8.3 Interim Recommendations for Computing p-y Curves for Strong Rock ‘The p-pcurve recommended for strong rock, with compressive strength ofintact specimens q,, larger than 6.9 MPa (1,000 psi) is shown in Fig. 3.38. If the rock strength increases with depth, the strength atthe top of the stratum will normally control. Cyelic loading is assumed to cause no loss of resistance. As shown in the Fig. 3.38, load tests are recommended if deflec- tion of the rock (and pile) is greater than 0.0004 and brittle fracture is assumedif the lateral stress (force per unit length) against the rock LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical ManwalSoll Response Ya Yrm y¥( Fig. 3.39 Sketch of p-y curve for weak rock (after Reese, 1997) becomes greater than half the diameter times the compressive strength of the rock. ‘Thep-ycurveshownin Fig. 3.38 should be employed with caution because of the limited amount of experimental data and because of the great variability in rock. The behavior of rock at a site could be controlled by joints, cracks, and secondary structure and not by the strength of intact specimens. 3.8.4 Interim Recommendations for Computing p-y Curves for Weak Rock ‘The p-y curve that is recommended for weak rock is shown in Fig. 3.39. The expression for the ultimate resistance p, for rock is derived from the mechanics for the ultimate resistance ofa wedge of LPILE Plus 5.9 for Windows Technical ManualSoil Response rock at thesurface of the rock. rerengfirietlinesns® aay Puy = 52, gb fOrx, > 3b (3.90) where: QJ» = compressive strength of the rock, usually lower- bound asa function of depth, @, =strength reduction factor, b= diameter ofthe pile, and x, = depth below the rock surface. ‘The assumption is made that fracturing will occur atthe surface of the rock under small deflections, therefore, the compressive strength of intact specimens is reduced by multiplication by a, to account for the fracturing. The value of ay is assumed to be 1/3* for ROD of 100 and to increase linearly to unity at ROD of zero. If ROD is zero, the compressive strength may be obtained directly from a pressuremeter curve, or approximately from Fig. 3.37, by entering with the value of the pressuremeter modulus. Ifone were to consider a strip from a beam restingon an elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic solid, the initial modulus K, (p, divided byy) in Fig 3.39 maybe shown to have the following value (using the symbols for rock). K,=k,E, 3.91) where E,, = the initial modulus of the rock, and k,, = dimensionless constant. Equations 3.92 and 3.93 for, are derived from availableexperimental data and reflect the assumption that the presence of the rock surface will have a similar effect on k, as was shown for p,, for ultimate LPILE Plus 5.0 for Windows Technical Manual3-96_Chapter 3 Soil Response re 405.) teoca ~(109- #9) eros, 538 pa k, = 500 for x,> 3b (3.93) With guidelines for computing p,, and K,,, the equations for the three branches of the family ofp-y curves for rock in Fig. 3.39 can be developed. The first portion of the curves is given by Eq. 3.94 and the other branches are given by Eqs. 3.95 through 3.97. pK, y for y

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