Chapter 4

DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)
General concept
Single-phase inverter
Harmonics
Modulation
Three-phase inverter

DC to AC Converter
(Inverter)
DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power
by switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so
as to generate AC voltage (or current)
output.

General block diagram

IDC
+
VDC

Iac

+
Vac

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial
(induction motor) drives, Traction, HVDC

Simple square-wave inverter (1)

To illustrate the concept of AC waveform
generation
SQUA RE-WA VE
INVERTER
T3

T1
D1

D3
+ VO -

V DC

IO
T4

T2
D2

EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
S1

S3

S4

S2

D4

AC Waveform Generation
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF

for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1
VDC

VDC

S3

+ vO

t1

S4

t2

S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF

for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1
VDC

S3
t2

+ vO
S4

S2
-VDC

t3

AC Waveforms
INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Vdc

-Vdc
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
V1

V1
3

V1
5

4VDC

3RD HARMONIC

5RD HARMONIC

Harmonics Filtering
DC SUPPLY

INVERTER

(LOW PASS) FILTER

LOAD

L
+
vO 1

BEFORE FILTERING
vO 1

+
vO 2

AFTER FILTERING
vO 2

Output of the inverter is chopped AC voltage with

zero DC component. It contain harmonics.

An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at the

inverter output to reduce the high frequency harmonics.

In some applications such as UPS, high purity sine

wave output is required. Good filtering is a must.
In some applications such as AC motor drive, filtering
is not required.

Variable Voltage Variable

Frequency Capability
Vdc2

Higher input voltage

Higher frequency

Vdc1

Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1

T2

Output voltage frequency can be varied by

period of the square-wave pulse.

Output voltage amplitude can be varied by

varying the magnitude of the DC input voltage.

Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction motor

drive

Output voltage harmonics/

distortion
Harmonics cause distortion on the output
voltage.

Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very

difficult to filter, due to the filter size and high

filter order. They can cause serious voltage
distortion.

Why need to consider harmonics?

Sinusoidal waveform quality.
Power Quality issue.
Harmonics may cause degradation of

equipment. Equipment need to be de-rated.

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure

to determine the quality of a given waveform.

Fourier Series
Study of harmonics requires
understanding of wave shapes. Fourier
Series is a tool to analyse wave shapes.

Fourier Series
1 2
ao f (v)d (" DC" term)
0
1 2
an f (v) cos n d
0

(" cos" term)

1 2
bn f (v) sin n d
0

("sin" term)

Inverse Fourier

1
f (v) ao an cos n bn sin n
2
n 1
where t

Harmonics of square-wave
(1)
Vdc

=t

-Vdc

1
ao Vdc d Vdc d 0
0

Vdc
an
cos n d cos n d 0
0

Vdc
bn
sin n d sin n d
0

Harmonics of square wave

(2)
Solving,
V

2
bn dc cos n 0 cos n
n
Vdc
(cos 0 cos n ) (cos 2n cos n )

n
Vdc
(1 cos n ) (1 cos n )

n
2V
dc (1 cos n )
n

When n is even, cos n 1

bn 0
(i.e. even harmonics do not exist)
When n is odd, cos n 1
4Vdc
bn
n

Quasi-square wave (QSW)

Vdc

-Vdc

Note that an 0. (due to half - wave symmetry)

1
2Vdc

bn 2
V
sin
n

cos
n

dc

2Vdc
cos n cos n
n
Expanding :
cos n cos n n

cos n cos n sin n sin n cos n cos n

bn

2Vdc
cos n cos n cos n
n

2Vdc
cos n 1 cos n
n

Harmonics control
If n is even, bn 0,
4Vdc
If n is odd, bn
cos n
n
In particular, amplitude of the fundamental is :
4Vdc
b1
cos

Note :
The fundamental , b1 , is controlled by varying
Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting ,
Harmonics Elimination :
For example if 30o , then b3 0, or the third
harmonic is eliminated from the waveform. In
general, harmonic n will be eliminated if :
90 o

Half-bridge inverter (1)

S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF

+
VC1
Vdc

S1
V +
o

G
+
VC2
-

RL
S2

Vdc
2

S1 OFF
S2 ON

Also known as the inverter leg.

Basic building block for full bridge, three phase
and higher order inverters.

G is the centre point.

Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the
DC link is equally spilt into two.

The top and bottom switch has to be

complementary, i.e. If the top switch is closed

(on), the bottom must be off, and vice-versa.

Single-phase, full-bridge
(1)

Full bridge (single phase) is built from two

half-bridge leg.

The switching in the second leg is delayed

by 180 degrees from the first leg.

LEG R

VRG
Vdc
2

LEG R'

+
+

Vdc
2

S1

Vdc

S3
Vo -

R'

+
Vdc
2

VR 'G
Vdc
2

Vdc
2

Vdc
2
Vo
Vdc

S4

S2

Vo V RG VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"
Vdc

Three-phase inverter
Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by
120 degrees.

A three-phase inverter with star connected

load is shown below
+Vdc

Vdc/2
G

S1

S3

+
Vdc/2

S5

iR

iY

S4

B
iB

S6

ZR

ia

S2

ib

ZY
N

ZB

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (1)

Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter

Fig. 1 Three-phase voltage source inverter.

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (2)

Gating signals, switching sequence and line to negative v

Fig. 2 Waveforms of gating signals, switching sequence, line to negative voltages

for six-step voltage source inverter.

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (3)

Switching Sequence:
561 (V1) 612 (V2) 123 (V3) 234 (V4)
345 (V5) 456 (V6) 561 (V1)
where, 561 means that S5, S6 and S1 are switched on

Fig. 3 Six inverter voltage vectors for six-step voltage source inverter.

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (4)

Line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)

and line to neutral voltages (Van, Vbn, Vcn)

Line to line voltages

Vab = VaN - VbN
Vbc = VbN - VcN
Vca = VcN - VaN

Phase voltages
Van = 2/3VaN - 1/3VbN - 1/3VcN
Vbn = -1/3VaN + 2/3VbN - 1/3VcN
Vcn = -1/3VaN - 1/3VbN + 2/3VcN

Fig. 4 Waveforms of line to neutral (phase) voltages and line to line voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.

Three phase inverter

waveforms

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (5)

Amplitude of line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)

Fundamental Frequency Component (Vab)1

(Vab )1 (rms)

3 4 Vdc
6

Vdc 0.78Vdc

Harmonic Frequency Components (Vab)h

: amplitudes of harmonics decrease inversely proportional to their harmonic order

(Vab )h (rms)

0.78
Vdc
h

where, h 6n 1 (n 1, 2, 3,.....)

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (6)

Characteristics of Six-step VSI

It is called six-step inverter because of the presence of six steps
in the line to neutral (phase) voltage waveform

Harmonics of order three and multiples of three are absent from

both the line to line and the line to neutral voltages
and consequently absent from the currents

Output amplitude in a three-phase inverter can be controlled

by only change of DC-link voltage (Vdc)

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (1)

Objective of PWM
Control of inverter output voltage
Reduction of harmonics

Disadvantages of PWM
Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency
Reduction of available voltage
EMI problems due to high-order harmonics

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (2)

Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

Fig. 5 Pulse-width modulation.

10

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (3)

Inverter output voltage

When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2
When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2

Control of inverter output voltage

PWM frequency is the same as the frequency of vtri
Amplitude is controlled by the peak value of vcontrol
Fundamental frequency is controlled by the frequency of vcontrol

Modulation Index (m)

m

vcontrol
peak of (V A0 )1

,
vtri
Vdc / 2

where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of

11

VA0

II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (1)

Three-phase inverter

Fig. 6 Three-phase Sine PWM inverter.

12

II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (2)
VA0

Three-phase sine PWM waveforms

v
v
tri

control_A

vcontrol_B

vcontrol_C

V B0

Frequency of vtri and vcontrol

Frequency of vtri = fs
V C0

Frequency of vcontrol = f1
where, fs = PWM frequency
VAB

f1 = Fundamental frequency

V BC

Inverter output voltage

V CA

When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2

When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2
t

where, VAB = VA0 VB0

VBC = VB0 VC0
VCA = VC0 VA0

Fig. 7 Waveforms of three-phase sine PWM inverter.

13

II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (3)

Amplitude modulation ratio (ma)

ma

peak

amplitude of vcontrol
peak

amplitude of vtri

value of
Vdc / 2

where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of

(V A0 )1

VA0

Frequency modulation ratio (mf)

mf

fs
, where, f s PWM frequency and f1 fundamental frequency
f1

mf should be an odd integer

if mf is not an integer, there may exist sunhamonics at output voltage
if mf is not odd, DC component may exist and even harmonics are present at output voltage

mf should be a multiple of 3 for three-phase PWM inverter

An odd multiple of 3 and even harmonics are suppressed

14

Pulse Width Modulation

(PWM)
Modulating Waveform

1
M1

Carrier waveform

1
Vdc
2
0

t0 t1 t2

t3 t4 t5

Vdc
2

Triangulation method (Natural sampling)

Amplitudes of the triangular wave (carrier)

and sine wave (modulating) are compared

to obtain PWM waveform. Simple analogue
comparator can be used.

Basically an analogue method. Its digital

version, known as REGULAR sampling is

widely used in industry.

PWM types
Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown
on previous slide)
Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.

Regular sampling
simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation

Optimised PWM
PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.

Harmonic elimination/minimisation
PWM
PWM waveforms are constructed to
eliminate some undesirable harmonics from
the output waveform spectra.

Highly mathematical in nature

Space-vector modulation (SVM)

A simple technique based on volt-second
that is normally used with three-phase
inverter motor-drive

Modulation Index, Ratio

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

Vdc
2
0

t0 t1 t 2

t 3 t 4 t5

Vdc
2

Modulation Index (Modulation Depth) M I :

MI

Amplitude of the modulating waveform

Amplitude of the carrier waveform

Modulation Ratio (Frequency Ratio) M R ( p )

MR p

Frequency of the carrier waveform

Frequency of the modulating waveform

Carrier waveform

Modulation Index, Ratio

Modulation Index deterrmines the output
voltage fundamental component
If 0 M I 1,
V1 M I Vin
where V1 , Vin are fundamental of the output
voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.

Modulation ratio determines the incident (location)

of harmonics in the spectra.
The harmonics are normally located at :
f kM R f m
where f m is the frequency of the modulating signal
and k is an integer (1,2,3...)

Regular sampling
h( x) if ( k ( x) c ( x) 1 if ( k ( x) c ( x) 1 0) )

t1 t2

Sinusoidal modulating
waveform, vm(t)

1
Carrier, vc(t)

Regular sampling waveform, vs (t )

t'1

t'2

v pwm

Regular sampling PWM

Asymmetric and
symmetric regular
sampling
T
1

M1 sin mt

sample
point

3T
4

T
4

5T
4

Vdc
2

asymmetric
sampling

t0

t1

t2

t3

t
symmetric
sampling

V
dc
2

Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling

Bipolar Switching

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

1
Vdc
2
0

Vdc
2

t 0 t1 t 2

t3 t 4 t 5

Carrier waveform

Unipolar switching

1
A

Carrier waveform B

(a)
S1

(b)
S3

(c)

V pwm

(d)

Unipolar switching scheme

Bipolar PWM switching:

Pulse-width
characterization

modulating
waveform

carrier
waveform

kth
pulse

1k

2k

Three-phase harmonics
For three-phase inverters, there is

significant advantage if MR is chosen to be:

Odd: All even harmonic will be eliminated

from the pole-switching waveform.

triplens (multiple of three (e.g.

3,9,15,21, 27..):

All triplens harmonics will be eliminated

from the line-to-line output voltage.

By observing the waveform, it can be seen

that with odd MR, the line-to-line voltage
shape looks more sinusoidal.

As can be noted from the spectra, the phase

voltage amplitude is 0.8 (normalised). This is

because the modulation index is 0.8. The
line voltage amplitude is square root three
of phase voltage due to the three-phase
relationship

Effect of odd and

triplens

Vdc
2

2
VRG

Vdc
2
Vdc
2

VYG

V
dc
2
Vdc
VRY

Vdc

p 8, M 0.6

Vdc
2

VRG

V
dc
2
Vdc
2

VYG

V
dc
2
Vdc
VRY
Vdc

p 9, M 0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER

Three phase inverter

with RL load
It is desirable to have MR as large as
possible.

This will push the harmonic at higher

frequencies on the spectrum. Thus
filtering requirement is reduced.

Although the voltage THD improvement

is not significant, but the current THD
will improve greatly because the load
normally has some current filtering
effect.

However, higher MR has side effects:

Higher switching frequency: More losses.
Pulse width may be too small to be
constructed. Pulse dropping may be
required.