A GLOSSARY OF INDIAN

FIGURES OF SPEECH
by

EDWIN GEROW
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON

1971

MOUTON
THE HAGUE' PARIS

NUMBERS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED

1. The definition of the figure.

2. References to the discussions of the figure in the various authors. The numbers
in parentheses indicate examples in the text.
3. Sanskrit example, illustrative of the figure, with expository notes and translation.
4. Example from English or American literature, illustrative of the figure.
5. Discussion of the place of the figure in the system of figures and related topics.
I, II, etc. are used to distinguish two or more figures with the same name.
AP = Agni PuriilJa (last half of the 9th century),
B
Bhamaha. KiivyiUamkiira (early 8th century).
D ~ Da1;14in. Kavyiidarsa (first half of the 8th century).
M ~ Mammata. Kavyaprakasa (late 11th century).
NS = Bharata, Nit/ya Siistra (perhaps 7th century).
R ~ Rudrala. Kavytilamkara (middle of the 9th century).
U = Udbhala, Kiivyiilafflkiirasiirasafllgraha (early 9th century).
V = Vamana, Kiivydlaf(lkiiravrtti (end of the 8th century).
In the Glossary, the symbol

is used to indicate vowels fused through samdhi, e.g.,

upameyopama.
The translations of the Sanskrit examples are intended to bring out the figure and are
not necessarily complete.
The glossary is organized by figures (terms named as such), in Sanskrit alphabetical
order. All subfigures are treated in alphabetical order under the main figure to which
they pertain. The main figures are set off in the text by centered heading<i:.
The Sanskrit alphabd, in the order traditionally adopted for dictionaries and
glossaries, is:
aaiiufirfleoaiau
\11]1
k kh g gh fi
jh fi
c
ch j
lh 4 4h 1;1
I
t
th d dh n
p ph b bh m
y
r
1 v S ~ s h

,n

atadglU}a
atadgul}a, 'not having that thing's attribute': (1) a figure iIi which two
things or states remain distinguishable in spite of the likelihood or
the appropriateness of the one's dominant quality imposing itself
upon the other. (2) M 205. (3) dhavalo'si jahavi sundara tahavi tue
majjha rafijiar[! hiaam / raahharie vi hiae suaha IJihitto IJa ratto'si
(Mammata: "Though you are pale, lover, my heart is made bright
by you; though you have entered my heart full of passion [redness],
you are not enamored [red]"). (4) "Cold-blooded, though with red
your blood be graced" (Leigh Hunt). (5) This is an expected tadguIJa
which fails to take place. It differs from nantitva atiSayokti in that
there one thing is said to be twofold, while here two things are said
to be twofold; only our expectation of unity is multiplied, not the
thing itself.
Very few figures involve in their definition an element of expectation, though most in some way exploit it.
atisaya
atisaya, 'excess': (1) one of the four general categories into which
arthtilar[!kara are grouped. (2) R 7.9, 9.1 (5) See sle~a; cf vastava,
aupamya.
atisayllkti
atisayllkti, 'expression involving an exaggeration': (1) the exaggeration
of a quality or attribute in a characteristic way, so as to suggest
pre-eminence in its subject; hyperbole. (2) B 2.81-85, D 2.214-20,
V 4.3.10, U 2.11, AP 344.26, M 153. (3) mallikamalabhariIJya1;l
sarvaiigiIJardracandana1;l / k~aumavatyo na lak~yante jyotsnayam
abhisiirikii1;l (DaT).<Jin; the whiteness of the girls' dresses is exaggerated

98

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to the point of making them invisible in the moonlight: "Wearing

garlands of white jasmine and clothes of linen, their limbs moist
with sandal paste, the trysting ladies are hidden in the moonljght").
(4) "Pardon, once more; if you are going to load anything more
onto that statement, you want to get a couple of lighters and tow the
rest, hecause it's drawing all the water there is in the river already:
stick to facts ... "(Mark Twain; the "weight" of the statement is
exaggerated to the point of threatening the seaworthiness of the
river packet). (5) Many types of upama are based upon exaggerations
of the common property of one sort or another; these distortions
are, however, all subservient to the end of comparison: in hyperbole
there is no end other than the.,<..,magnification of the subject itself.
Similarly, in utprek$a, an attribute is figuratively associated with a
subject, but the distortion lies in,that unlikely association, not in
the representation of the attribute~ts,eI[ In hyperbole, the attribute
in its literal form should be naturally inherent in the given subject;
it is only its unworldly (lokiitikrantagocara) or preposterous extension that makes it figurative.
Different writers have distingu,ished different characteristic exaggerations. The most common (Bhiimaha, Dal)qin, Vamana,
Udbhaj:a) is that of two objects in the presence of one another being
made indistinguishable by the property which both share (cf
adhyavasana). Dal)qin recognizes the exaggeration of size to the
point of ultimate smallness (sarrzsaya), as well as ultimate greatness
(tidhikya). Udbhala and Mammala allow the inversion of the first
type, where the same subject is considered multiple because of different qualities (cJ{manatva). In addition, three types are based upon
a figurative transference of an attribute from one subject to another
(cf sarrzbhavyamaniirtha) and are distinguishable only with great
subtlety from other figures variously defined. Lastly, there is exaggeration of a quality by attributing to it the nature of a cause in
respect of its own cause (karyakara~apaurviiparyaviparyaya).
adhyavasana, 'determination': (1) a type of atiSayakti in which one thing
is characterized as another so as to exaggerate a quality which they
in some degree share. (2) M 153. (3) kamalam anambhasi kamale ca

madrigal-to require viewing through rhyme and harmony"

(Thomas Hardy). (5) Here the speaker is describing the girl as though
she were a lotus, and in Hardy's example, the girl is described as
though she were a song. The point of "indistinguishability" seems
to cross the subtle boundary of conscious rapprochement and, as
such, intrudes upon the domain of samasakl!, an abbreviated
metaphor in which the subject is not mentioned. I think such cases
must be taken as examples of Mammala's sloppy encyclopedism.
ananyatva, 'identification': (1) a type of atiSayakti in which two qualities
or attributes, though in fact contrary, are considered indistinguishable. (2) U 2.12. (3) sa dadarMmarrz ... tapastejabsphuritayil
nijalava~yasarrzpadil

/ krsilm apy akrsilm eva drsyamilnam asarrzsayam

(Udbhala; though Uma is emaciated by her fasting, she appears

full blown because of the beauty which her penance imparts: "He
saw Uma ... wasted away but appearing full blown in the wealth of
beauty born ofher ascetic power"). (4) "His departure gave Catherine
the first experimental conviction that a loss may sometimes be a
gain" (Jane Austen). (5) In these examples, two qualities are
mentioned; in the Sanskrit example given under atiSayakti, two
objects are "rendered indistinguishable". It would seem that this
latter case is most typical of atiSayakti, given as it is by most of the
writers whether they allow subtypes or not (Bhamaha, Dal)qin,
Vamana, Udbhala, Mammala). This figure resembles an exaggerated
simile (cf cafu upamil), but it should be noticed that the qualities
compared here are contraries (krsatvam-alqsatvam, "loss-gain"). The
aspect of similitude is an incidental consequence of a fortiori
premises. One may ask how the present examples differ from rilpaka
(metaphor). First, there can be no metaphorical identification of
qualities; second, metaphor need not be based on the identification
of items somehow contrary.
iidhikya, 'superabundance': (1) a type of atiSay6kti in which a quality or
attribute is quantitatively exaggerated out of all proportion. (2)
D 2.219. (3) aho viSMarrz bhilpMa bhuvanatritayiidaram / mati milium
asakyo'pi yasorilSir yad atra te (Dal)qin: "The extent of your fame,
itself measureless, comprehends, 0 King, the prosperity of the three
worlds"). (4) "I will not deceive you; he told me such a monstrous
lie once that it swelled my left ear up, and spread it so that I was
actually not able to see around it; it remained so for months, and
people came miles to see me fan myself with it" (Mark Twain).
(5) Cf sa,!lsaya, where the attribute is minimized out of all propor-

kuvalaye tani kanakalatikayam / sa ca sukumiirasubhagety utpataparampara keyam (Mammala: "A lotus grows where no water is;

on this lotus are two buds; and the lotus with its buds grows on a
golden vine: Who can she be, this concatenation of wonders? Call
her fortunate and lovely"). (4) "She seemed to belong rightly to a

jS

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tion. This figure is not named by Dal).qin, but by the commentator;

however, it evidently pairs with salflsaya and is encompassed by the
"tidi" ('etc.') in 2.216.
kiiryakiiral}apaurvaparyaviparyaya, 'inversion of the sequential relationship of cause and effect': (1) a type of atiSayokti in which the exaggeration of a quality or attribute is accomplished by expressing it as
the cause of that which in the order of nature is its cause. (2)
U 2.13, M 153. (3) manye ca nipatanty asyii/:! katdk$ii dik$u pmhata/:!/
priiyeIJdgre tu gacchanti smarabiiIJaparamparii/:! (Udbhala; usually
the girl's love-10m glances are the cause of Cupid's shooting the
bow; here Cupid beats Uma to the punch-thus expressing, according to the commentary, how"quickly Siva took the tumble: "I
think that first the arrows of the Love-God were shot, next her
sidelong glances were scattered in.the four directions"). (4) "Was
it for this that I might Myra see / Wii~1'tillg the water with her beauties
white?" (Fulke Greville). (5) Pilrva aialflkiii'a differs from the present
case in two respects: There the inversion of the sequential relationship is not subordinated to any other consideration, such as the
exaggeration of a quality, and telIJporal inversion is expressed
generally, not limited to the one case of cause-effect (not everything
which precedes is a cause).
niiniitva, 'variety': (1) a type of atiSayokti in which a quality or attribute
is exaggerated by considering it multiple, though it is in fact one.
(2) U 2.12, M 153. (3) acintayac ca bhagaviin aho nu ramQIJiyatii /
tapasfisyii/:! krtfinyatvalfl kaumiirtid yena lak$yate (Udbhata: "The
Lord thought: 'Ay, such loveliness comes from her penance, yet how
different is the beauty from that of her youth!"'). (4) "Any customer
can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black"
(Henry Ford; a many-sided blackness). (5) The present instance
differs from vyatireka alalflkiira in two respects: The differentiation
attaches to a single quality of a single subject, not to a common
quality of two subjects; hence, the element of comparisou is lacking.
Compare adhyavastina, or ananyatva, where two qualities are considered uniform.
nirl}aya, 'conclusion': (1) a type of salflsaya atiSayokti in which the affected
doubt is resolved. (2) D 2.218. (3) nirlJetulfl sakyam astlti madhyalfl
tava nitambini/ anyathfinupapattyaiva payodharabharasthite/:! (Dal,lqin:
"One can decide that your waist indeed is there, 0 lovely, for not
otherwise could the weight of your breasts be supported"). (4) "As
Nature H-y's Clay was blending, / Uncertain what her work should

end in, / Whether in female or in male, / A Pin dropped in, and

turned the Scale" (Anon.). (5) The name is taken from the commentary; see tidhikya.
saqtsaya, 'doubt': (1) a type of atisayokti in which a quality or attribute
is minimized to the point where doubt can be entertained as to its
existence or nature. (2) D 2.216 (217). (3) stanayor jaghanasydpi

101

madhye madhyalfl priye tava / asti nfistiti sandeho na me'dyfipi

nivartate (Dal,l\Hn: "The narrow waist that intervenes between your
breasts and buttocks, 0 lovely, is it there or is it not? My mind

cannot decide this doubt"). (4) "They have yarns ... of the runt so
teeny-weeny it takes two men and a boy to see him" (Carl Sandburg).
(5) Thisin theinverse ofexaggeration properlyspeaking, but as it representsjustas great a deviation from the norma~ Dal).<;lin systematically
includes it here. Cf tidhikya. The point of the example is the smallness of the waist, not the doubt, which is only a psychologically appropriate adjunct; hence, this figure differs from salflsaya alalflkiira.
saqtbhavasa'!1bhava, 'possible, impossible': (1) two types of hyperbole.
(2) AP 344.26. (3) (4) No examples. (5) Another one of the mysteries
of the Agni PurtiIJa.
saqtbhiivyamiinartha,'whose meaning is imagined': (1) same as utptidya
upamii. (2) B 2.81 (83), V 4.3.10, U 2.12, M 153. (5) This figure is
also called kalpana by Mammata. Vamana and Bhamaha give it no
name, but their two examples fit clearly into this category and
adhyavasiina. The figure is recognized by six writers: The present
four consider it a kind of hyperbole, but Dal,lqin aud Rudrala
discuss it under simile. Inasmuch as we have supposition of the
transferability of a quality from one subject to another, there is a certain exaggeration attendant upon such an irregularly proposed quality.
However, the end in all cases cited is comparison, and hyperbole
is only a means to that end. Though classifications are by no means
systematic, the end does generally serve as the genus. An example
of a transfer of property which does not serve the end of comparison
would be: "To us the hills shall lend / Their firmness and their
calm" (Henry Timrod). Bliamaha's example comes closest, but it
still seems to be a simile: "aptilfl yadi tvak chithllti cyutti sytitphmJintim
iva / tadii suklalflsuktini syur aiige$v ambhasi yo$ittim" (2.83; the "skin"
[i.e., foam] shed by the waters is transferred to the Women as clothes:
'If the loose skin of the waters should fall away, like the skin of
snakes, then it would serve as white cloth for coveriug the bodies of
the WOmen in the river').

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adbika

repeated, and not verses or verse parts. As stated sub voce, the
critical case is that of lata anuprasa. While the concept anuprasa
itself is subject to little dispute, various writers distiuguish different
kiuds which are obviously designed to produce different effects on
the ear: one melodious, one effeminate, one vigorous, and so on.
For this reason, the subject of alliteration is closely tied to the discussiou of the different styles (rlli, gUQa), and various writers
(DaJ;lqin, Rudrala) attempt to specify the stylistic limits of the
different alliterations. Mammata attempts to equate style and
alliteration (see vrtti). Anandavardhana, of course, wants to view
the questions of style and alliteration as attempts, however partial,
by earlier writers to come to grips with the problem of mood (rasa)
and the subordination of all discrete elements in the composition to
it. Despite these extrinsic differences of opinion, the importance of
alliteration in poetry was never questioned, provided that its use
corresponded to the effect desired.
upaniigarika (perhaps a Prakrit dialect): (1) a type of alliteration in
which figure prominently clusters of identical stops (kk, tt) and clusters of stops with homorganic nasal preceding (uk, nt). (2) U 1.5,
M 108. (3) san4rllravindavrndotthamakarandllmbubindubhil; / syandibhil; sundarasyandul]'l nanditendindira kvacit (Udbhata: "Somewhere a bumblebee is delighted by the flowing drops ofliquid honey
from thick clusters of white lotuses"). (5) Upanagarika resembles
madhura anuprasa of the Agni PuraQa and Rudrata. The term may
mean "cultured". Cf. gramya, to which it is opposed.
komala, 'soft': (1) same as gramya anuprasa. (2) MilO.
griimya, 'common': (1) a type of alliteration characterized by the absence
of clusters and the predominance of liquids and nasals. (2) B 2.6,
U 1.6, M 110. (3) kelilollllimalanal]'l kalail; kolahalail; kvacit /
kurvati kananarughasrznupuraravabhramam (Udbhata: "Sometimes
accompanied by the soft humming of the bee swarms, playfully
restless, she simulates the maddening sound of the anklets of Sri
wandering in the forest"). (5) Bhamaha apparently considers this
type defective or vulgar, but the other two authors allow it as one
of the five legitimate types. It is probably to be opposed to upanagarika, which may mean 'cultured or citified', as opposed to 'rustic,
vil/ageois'. Compare Bhiimaha's example "kil]'l tayll cintayll kante
nitanta" with that offered under upaniigarika (which term Bhiimaha
does not use). Mammata calls this figure komala.
cheka, 'clever': (1) a type of alliteration characterized by metathetic

adhika (1), 'superabundant': (1) a figure wherein two contraries are said
to proceed from the same cause. (2) R 9.26 (27). (3) muficati viM
payodo jvalantam analal]'l ca yat tad iiScaryam / udapadyata nzranidher
vi~am amrtarrz ceti tac citram (Rudrata; a reference to the creation
myth wherein the primeval ocean gave forth both deadly poison
and the Gods' sustinence: "It is amazing that the clouds release both
blazing fire and water; that both poison and nectar emerge from
the watery sea"). (4) "The long, winding intricate sentences, with
their vast burden of subtle and complicated qualifications, befogged
the mind like clouds, and like clouds, too, dropped thunderbolts"
(Lytton Strachey).
adhika (II): (1) a figure wherein a thing is said to exceed or surpass in
size or grandeur its own basis or c9ntainer. (2) R 9.28 (29), M 195.
(3) aho viSalal]'l bhupala bhuvanatrit~yqdaram / mati matum asakyo'pi
yasorasir yad atra te (Mammata; tlie king's glory cannot be contained even by the three worlds; the example is also found in DaJ;lqin
2.219 for the term adhikya atisayokti, q. v.). (4) " ... warned me my
watch was relieved. It could not have lasted more than two hours:
many a week has seemed shorter" (Charlotte Bronte; two hours
exceed in duration the thing of which two hours is a part). (5)
Mammala in his definition allows for the possibility that the container exceeds the term predicated upon it, but both his examples show
only the reverse (the present case).
anupriisa
anupriisa, 'throwing.<l;fter': (1) alliteration. (2) B 2.5-8, D 1.52-59,
V 4.1.8-10, U 1.3-10, AP 343.1-11, R 2.18-32, M 104-16. (3) kil]'l
taya cintaya kante nitanteti (Bhiimaha: "0 lovely, why are you
afflicted with doubts?"). (5) Anuprasa is treated by all the writers
except Bharata, but DaJ;lqin considers it an aspect of madhura gUQa
rather than a figure. The varieties of alliteration considered are (a)
repetition of phonetic features (DaJ;lqin: see varQllvrtti, note); (b)
repetition of phouemes or phoneme clusters (paru~a, upanagarika,
gramya, madhura, lalita, praUl;lha, bhadra); (c) variation of vowels
within similar consonant strings and vice versa (cheka), and (d)
repetition of words or morphemes (lata). Alliteration is carefully
distinguished from yamaka (cadence), in that the occurrence of the
alliterated elements is not predetermined in verse or verse part. It is,
in other words, the p,]1onemes or phonetic features that are being

Ie

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105

sphulapli{anasupa{uko{ibhih ku{ilaih / khele'pi na khalu nakharair

ullikhati harih kharair likhulY! (Rudrata: "Not in play does the lion
rip apart the rat with his hard, curved claws whose tips are quite
sharp from evident tearing into the tough Itide of elephants' jaws").
(5) The definition is inferred from the example; Rudrata says baldly
that this style of alliteration employs "what is Ieft"-the consonants
and clusters not used in the other four-specifying that whatever
clusters are used must be "agreeable to the ear".
madhura, 'lovely': (I) a type of alliteration characterized by clusters of
stop following homorganic nasal, double '''1'' and "r" and ":I)." in
light syllables. (2) AP 343.3, R 2.20-23. (3) bha~a taru~i rama~a
mandiram linandasyandisundarendumukhi / yadi sallilolilipini gacchasi
tatkilY! tvadfyalY! me / ana~ura~nma~imekhalam avirataSifijlinamafi.-

variation of consonants and vocalic substitutions. (2) U 1.3, M 106.

(3) sa devo divaslin ninye tasmifi saiIendrakandare / gari${hago$lhfprathamaih pramathaih paryuplisitah (Udbhata: metathesis, as of
th-m to m-th, and substitutions, as of i and a for e and 0: "The God
Siva spends his days in this cave of the high Himalaya, served by his
attendants, principal among the great assemblies"). (5) Both
authors distinguish this type from alliteration properly speaking,
inasmuch as its effect depends upon variation rather than repetition.
paru~a, 'harsh': (I) a type of alliteration characterized by a predominance
of sibilants and of clusters involving sibilants or "r". (2) U 1.4,
AP 343.6-11, R 2.26-28, M 109. (3) lipsun sarvlin so'ntarbrahmOdyair
brlihma~air vrtah pasyan / jihretY,.agarhyabarhfhse$asayah kO$asunyah
san (Rndrata; -ps-, -rbr-, -hm- and many single sibilants, including
the gutteraI: "Surrouuded by Brajmtins who have penetrated the
Veda, he sits, watching avaricion&".peopIe. He is ashamed deep
within himself, for he has abandoned his:wealth; all that remains to
him is a bed of blameless feathers"). (5) The four writers who
distingnish five types of alliteration agree only on the name of this
one, though two other of the five types seem to be comparable
(ef. upanligarika and madhura, grlimya and lalita). Paru$a is said to
contribute to ojas gu~a, but this is a late attempt to rationalize two
unrelated systems. Dangin treats all alliterations as aspects of
mlidhurya gu~a.
padiiuuprlisa, 'foot-alliteration': (I) same as llila anuprlisa. (2) V 4.1.10.
prauq!Ja, 'proud': (I) a type of alliteration characterized by clusters of
"flO followed by,~'~"y" or "I)." or any stop except cerebrais or nasals,
and clusters of "t" with "p" or "k", (2) AP 343.5, R 2.24-25. (3)
klirytikliryam anliryair unmlirganirargalair galanmatibhih / ntikar~yate
vikar~air yuktoktibhir uktam uktam api (Rudrata; as -ry-, -rg-, -rn-,
-kt-: "The Iowborn, heedless ones, who unfettered tread the paths of
unrighteousness as though they had lost their minds, do not heed
their duties or proscriptions, even though they be spoken by men of
sage connseI"). (5) According to Rudrata's commentator, this
anuprlisa is called by others ojas, which was originally defined by
Dangin as a stylistic quality consisting in the nse of long compounds.
Prauq.ha has no apparent counterpart in the five alliterations of
Udbhata and Mammata. See paru$a.
bhadra, 'pleasant': (I) a type of alliteration characterized by the predominance of unvoiced gutterals and cerebraIs and by the absence
of clustering. (2) AI' 343.6, R 2.29-31. (3) utkalakarikaralata{a-

jumafijiram I parisara1Jflm arw:zacarave rmJaravakam akiiravarrz kurute

(Rudrata: "Tell me, gentle lady with face lovely as the moon steeped
in joy, if indeed you are going, sweetly murmuring of love, to the
home of your lover, then why does your passing here, feet dripping
with lac, with necklaces jangling and anklets sounding incessantly
sweet, work in my soul this needless desire?"). (5) This figure
resembles upanligarika anuprlisa in its clusters with homorganic
nasal. Rudrata gives rules for the proper use of this alliteration,
saying that the quality of "loveliness" will be lost if the "I" is used
more than two or three times and that the clusters of stops should
not exceed five. The scope of titis rule is not specified, but it is
probably the sloka. Rudrata lays stress on the importance of
observing the proprieties in all five types of alliteration (2.32).
lalita, 'gay': (I) a type of alliteration characterized by the unclustered
letters "dh", "gh", "gh", "r", "8", and "1" in light syllables. (2)
AP 343.4-5, R 2.29-30. (3) malayi1nilalalanolialamadakalakalakalJIhakalakalalallimah madhuramadhuvidhuramadhupo madhur ayam
adhunli dhinoti dharlim (Rudrata: "The spring now afIlicts the earth;
bees are helpless from drinking sweet honey; the southern wind is
amorous with the arguments of kokila birds, muted with drink").
(5) As the example shows, the criteria are permissive rather than
obligatory: in the first half-sloka, the "I" is principally employed;
in the second, the "dh", which is only to say that the letters given
may be employed in a context of unclustered, short syllables. The
figure resembles grlimya.
lata (latiya) (a region): (I) the repetition wititin the same verse of a
word or words having the same meaning but, through the context,

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107

of Brahmins, attained prosperity, there was a festival of righteousness

in the world") where the "~" of e~a and the "r" of rdjd are both

differing in acceptation. (2) B 2.8, U 1.8-10, M 112-16, V 4.1.10.

(3) dmi/'fl dr~lisukhii/'fl dhehi candras candramukhOditah (Bhiimaha;
candramukhii is apparently a vocative despite the ending, or it
represents secondary sandhi: "Let us see your face, lovely-to-see;

cerebrals, the

'T'

and following "y" are palatals, "d" and "I" are

dentals, and so on. Vamana, however, distinguishes varQdnuprdsa

from piiddnupriisa, or the repetition of metrical nnits (feet); in this
context, also, it amonnts to alliteration in the nsual sense: repetition
of identical phonemes in adjacent syllables. Anupriisa, according
to Dal)<Jin, consists in observing the mean; the effect is lost if the
repeated phoneme is too far away (1.58), or if the phrase is too
broken by harsh junctures (1.59). The repetitions must be close
enough, but not too close, within these two limits.
vrtti, 'mode': (I) a word applied to some or all of the kinds of alliteration.
(2) R 2.19, M 105-107. (5) The vrtti is an old element of dramatic
theory, mentioned in Bharata, which seems to signify the basic
context of the play insofar as it determines a style of representation,
similar to Shakespeare's "tragical-comical-historical-pastoral". The
term thus has little relevance to poetics and the early writers ignore
it. Rudrala, however, uses the word in a neutral sense to mean the
five kinds of alliteration taken individually (vrtti literally signifies
only 'existence' or 'specific mode of existence') as the modes of
alliteration. At the same time, the dhvani theorists were examining
the older vocabnlary in the light of their novel doctrine, and with
their general disposition to belittle or collapse such extrinsic distinctions, vrtli was lumped together with other stylistic concepts of the
older writers such as gUQa and rili (see Dhvanyaloka 3.33; Anandavardhana on the Dhvanyiiloka, p. 182). Anandavardhana says that
the vrtti of Bharata is a function of the meaning (vacya), while that
of other writers is a function of the outward shape of the words
(vacaka). By the latter, he apparently signifies the kinds of alliteration as distinguished by Udbhala (upanagarikddi). Out of this
confusion, Mamma\a, who everywhere attempts to reconcile the
views of the dhvani theorists with the older doctrines, propounds
the novel view that the three kinds of alliteration involving phonemic
repetition (that is, excepting cheka and lala) are to be called vrW,
and that these three are the equivalents of the three rilis, or styles of
diction, proposed by Vamana, which originally referred to the entire

the moon, moon-face, is risen"). (4) "It was the same rounded,
pouting, childish prettiness, but with all love and belief in love
departed from it-the sadder for its beauty, like that wondrous
Medusa face, with the passionate, passionless lips" (George Eliot).
(5) Udbha!a and Mamma!a give an elaborate classification of this
figure according to whether the word repeated follows immediately
(as here) or is placed at the beginning or the end of the half-verse;
similarly, tbey distinguish words. free (having a case termination)
from words bound (in compouftd). Mamma!a and Vamana (who
calls the figure piiddnupriisa) allow the repetition of the entire
half-sloka, provided that the word~"!llboth halves are the same
as: "yasya na savidhe dayitd davadahanas tuhinadidhitis tasya /
yasya ca savidhe dayitii davadahanas tuhinadidhitis tasya" (Mammala;
in the first half, dava- is attributive to tuhina-, in the second half,
just the reverse; "For him whose beloved is absent, the cool-rayed
moon is burning fire; for him whose beloved is present, the burning
fire [of the sun] is cool-rayed"). In this case, the alliteration has
become for all intents and purposes a yamaka, except that the individual words are taken as the same words in both utterances, instead
of splitting the utterances differently. The figure ldldnupriisa thus
occupies the mid-position between alliteration and cadence, differing
from the former in its concern with words rather than phonemes,
and from the latter'in its coucern with meaning rather than phonemic
sequence. Cf iivrtti.
varl)linupriisa, 'letter-alliteration': (1) same as varQdvrtti. (2) V 4.1.9.
varl)livrtti, 'letter-repetition': (I) alliteration. (2) D 1.55, V 4.1.9. (3)
candre saranniStJtta/'flse kundastavakavibhrame I indraniianibha/'fl
lak~ma sa/'fldadhiity ani/ah [sic]sriyam (Dal)<Jin; we prefer the alinah

of D. T. Tatacharya and most other Indian editors: "Its marks,

dark as sapphires, give the beauty of the bee swarm to the ornament
of the autumn night-the full moon, lovely as the jasmine bnd").
(5) In Dal)<Jin, this is anupriisa in the narrow sense, distinguished
from a kind of semi-alliteration in which only phonetic features,
such as dentality or gutturalness, are repeated: for example: e~a

context of word and meaning ("ornate", "limpid", "intense", etc.),

but very little else can be expected of Mammala, who represents the
worst of the syncretistic tendency. Cf Abhinavagupta on the Dhvan-

rdjd yadd lak~mi/'fl prdptavdn briihmaQapriyah I tatah prabhrti

dharmasya loke'sminn.utsavo'bhavat ("as soon as that king, beloved

yaloka, p. 6.

108

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109

to give the underdog a better kennel" (Frederick Lewis Allen). (5)

The girl and the swan (as the lover and the lake) share no common
property (guQa) in the eyes of the Indian aestheticians, which is only
to saythat the basis of the comparison is to be sought in a verb, in
an actIOn (kriya), rather than in a qualification; cf vakyartha upama.
Similarly, in the English example, the principal analogy is drawn
between the two acts of uplift, though the similarity between the dog
and the lower classes is perhaps more vivid than that between the
lover and the lake.

anumiina
anumiina, 'inference': (I) a figure in which an inference is explicitly formulated. (2) R 7.56-63, M 182. (3) savajiiam agami$yan niinalfl patito'si
padayos tasyal;z / katham anyathti lalate yavakarasatilakapaiiktlr
iyam? (Rudrata; reference is to the painted toenails of the beloved:
"You must have fallen at her feet, having to return so contemptibly:
how else would that row of red lac spots appear on your brow?").
(4) "Scylla is toothlesse; yet when she was young, / She had both
tooth enough, and too much tongue: / What should I now of toothlesse Scylla say? / But that her tongue hath worne her teeth away"
(Anon.). (5) The cause (sadhaka) may be inferred from the effect
(sadhya), or vice versa; it is ~~sential that the term inferred be
parok$a-in some way not obvious. In both our examples, the cause
is inferred. The following lines from Somerset Maugham show
inference of the effect: "As I waJk~.(J. a.Io~g the winding road ...
I mused upon what I should say. Do they not tell us that style is
the art of omission? If that is so, I should certainly write a very
pretty piece". In such instances, the effect is usually placed in future
time.
This figure differs from hetu alalflkara as the active differs from
the passive: in the latter figure, a relation of cause-effect is described;
in tbe former, it is used to secure intelligence of one or the other term
so related. It is curious that Mammata should reject hetu while
accepting anumana, as the ground of exclusion he advances for the
one should apply a fortiori to the other: no figurative usage need
be present. Ru(J.rata distinguishes several types which are the
equivalents of Ddlj.<;lin's three kinds of hetu: diirakarya, sahaja, and
karyanantaraja. Rudrata's own version of hetu has no subtypes.

anyonya
anyonya, 'reciprocal': (I) a figure wherein two things are said to be
reciprocally cause and effect. (2) R 7.91 (92), M 187. (3) riipalfl
yauvanalak$mya yauvanam api riipasalflpadas tasya!:z / anyonyam
alalflkaraQalfl vibhati saradindusundaryal;z (Rudrata: "Her beauty is
ornamented by her youth; her youth is heightened by her beauty;
she IS as lovely as the autumn moon"). (4) "The Devil, having
nothing else to do, / Went off to tempt My Lady Poltagrue. / My
Lady, tempted by a private whim, / To his extreme annoyance,
tempted him" (Hilaire Belloc). (5) The reciprocity of cause and
effect is the same as being mutually conditioned.
apahnuti
apabnuti (I), 'denial': (I) a figure in which the object of comparison is
aflirmed in place of the subject of comparison. (2) B 3.20 (21),
V 4.3.5. (3) neyalfl virauti bhriigalf madena mukhara muhul;z / ayam
akNyamaQasya kandarpadhanu~o dhvanil;z (Bhamaha: "It is not a
swarm of bees, humming incessantly of honey; it is the sound of
the Love-hunter's bow being drawn"). (4) "And there is not a
whisper on the air / Of any living voice but one so far / That I can
hear it only as a bar / Of lost, imperial music, played when fair /
And angel fingers wove, and unaware, / Dead leaves to garlands
where no roses are" (E. A. Robinson; that is not a whisper, that is
music). (5) Cf tattvapahava riipaka.
apabnuti (II): (I) a figure in which an essential property of the subject is
denied and portrayed otherwise; irony of qualification. (2) D 2.304309, U 5.3, AP 345.18, M i46. (3) na paiice~u!:z smaras tasya sahasralfl
patriQam (DaI).<;lin: "The God of Love is not possessed of five arrows;
indeed he has a thousand"). (4) "Because these wings are no longer
wings to fly / But merely vans to beat the air" (T. S. Eliot). (5)

anyokti
anyokti, 'saying something else': (I) a figure in which the real subject
of comparison is suggested by explicit description of the object,
where, nevertheless, the two compared terms have no common
property, bnt only a mode action in common. (2) R 8.74 (75).
(3) muktva salilahalflsalfl vikasitakamalojjvalalfl saral;z sarasam /
bakalulitajalalfl palvalam abhila$asi sakhe na halflso'si (Rudrata:
"Abandoning tbis pleasant lake with its swans and lotus blooms,
you long for the forest pool rough from the flight of cranes; yet,
friend, you are no swan"). (4)" ... the men and women who in a
hundred different ways were laboring, as William Allen White said,

110

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GLOSSARY

Apahnuti is a figure found in all the writers after Bhamaha, but no

unanimity as to its acceptation is discernable. It is related on the
one hand (by Bhamaha and Vamana) to the tattvapahnava riipaka
(which figure appears only in Da114in), and on the other to the
mata alarrzkara (as here), wherein the interest attaches to the misrepresentation of the subject in a certain way. Subtypes are distinguished as to the intellective basis (opinion, necessity) of that
misrepresentation (Da114in) and as to the mode of its affirmation
(mere attribution, transformation: Mammala). See vi$aya, svariipa,
sabdi, arthf.
apabnuti (III): (I) a figure in which the subject of comparison is portrayed
as possessing a quality which)Jl nature belongs to the object of
comparison. (2) R 8.57 (58). '(3) navabisakisalayakomalasakalavayava vi/asinf sai$a ! anandayati j{lnanarrz nayanani sitarrzsulekheva
(Rudrala: "A lovely, wanton ladY>y\'ithlimbs as soft as new lotus
shoots delights the eyes of men just like the cool-rayed crescent").
(4) "Ask not the Cause, why sullen Spring! So long delays her
flow'rs to bear; ! Why warbling birds forget to sing, ! And Winter
Storms invert the year? ! Chloris is gone: and fate provides! To
make it spring, where she resides" (John Dryden). (5) This figure
is just the reverse of adbhuta upama, where a striking property of
the subject is transferred to the object. Cf asarrzbhava upama, where
the quality is transferred from the subject to the object.
artm, 'implied': (1) a type of apahnuti in which the misrepresentation is
expressed via a transformation of the subject in qnestion. (2) M 146C.
(3) amu$mirrzl li{ya(lyamrtasarasi niinarrz mrgadrsab smarab sarvaplu${ab prthujaghanabhiige nipatitab ! yad aiigaiigara(larrz prasamapisuna
nabhikuhare sikhiidhiimasyeyarrz pari(lamati romavalivapub (Mammala: "The God of Love, whose body was consumed [in the fire of] Siva's
[wrath], has now taken up his abode between that doe-eyed maiden's
broad thighs-veritable streams of beauty's nectar. See how the thin
line of hair on her navel has assumed the form of a wisp of smoke;
thus the smouldering coals of Love's body are being extinguished").
(4) "Full fathom five thy father lies; ! Of his bones are coral made: !
Those are pearls that were his eyes:! Nothing of him that doth fade,!
But doth suffer a sea-change ! Into something rich and strange"
(Shakespeare). (5) In Stibdi, the misrepresentation is accomplished
by simple denial and affirmation: hence it is called "explicit".
vi~aya, 'circumstance': (1) a type of apahnuti in which the misrepresentation
is stated to depend llpon a difference in point of view or condition.

(2) D 2.306 (305). (3) candanarrz candrika mando gandhavahas ca

dak$i(lab ! seyam agnimayf sr${ir mayi sita paran prati (Da114in:
"For me, these things-the sandal paste, the moonlight, and the
softly blowing southern wind-are made of fire; others may think
them cool"). (4) "Those who have crossed! With direct eyes, to
death's other Kingdom ! Remember us-if at all-not as lost !
Violent souls, but only ! As the hollow men ! The stuffed men"
(T. S. Eliot). (5) In svariipa, the misrepresentation is a function
ofthe nature ofthe thing itself; that is, it amounts to a reinterpretation
of that thing.
sabdi, 'literal': (1) a type of apahnuti in which the misrepresentation is a
function of denial and contrary affirmation. (2) M 146C. (3)
avaptab pragalbhyarrz pari(zatarucab sai/atanaye kalarrzko naivayarrz
vilasati sasarrzkasya vapu$i ! amu$yeyarrz manye vigaladamrtasyandiSisire [sic] iii sranta sete rajanirama(li galjham urasi (Mammala:
"That is no mere spot which has appeared on the moon's full,
brilliant form, 0 Parvati; rather I think the courtesan of the Night
lies exhausted in tight embrace on his broad chest cool from the
flowing stream of nectar"). (4) "Stay, 0 sweet, and do not rise! !
The light that shines comes from thine eyes: ! The day breaks not:
it is my heart,! Becanse that you and I must part" (John Donne; in
this example both the daylight and daybreak are misrepresented,
the former as the light in her eyes, the latter in the weak pun. Both
are literal, the latter almost too literal). (5) Cf arthi.
svariipa, 'natural': (1) a type of apahnuti in which the misrepresentation
is expressed as a reinterpretation of the nature of the thing itself.
(2) D 2.308 (307). (3) amrtasyandikira(las candrama namato matab !
anya evdyam arthdtma vi$ani$yandididhitib (Da114in; the moon is
different to the rejected lover: "The moon is generally considered
to have rays of flowing nectar; but it has another soul as well, for
its brilliance is steeped in poison"). (4) "Death, be not proud, though
some have called thee! Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so"
(John Donne). (5) Cf vi$aya.
aprastutaprasarpsa
aprastutaprasarpsii (I), 'mentioning the irrelevant': (1) a figure in which
the real but implicit subject matter is obliquely referred to by means
of an explicit, but apparently irrelevant, subject which, however,
stands in a specific relationship to the former. (2) B 3.28 (29),
U 5.8, AP 345.16, M 151. (3) pri(litapra(layi svadu kale pari(latarrz

1
I

113

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GLOSSARY

bahu / vinii puru$akiirer.za phalalJl pasyata Siikhiniim (Bhamaha; a

courtier is referring to the bounteousness of the king: "Regard the
fruit of the trees, pleasing to those who seek it, sweet and ripe in its
own time, grown heavy without the aid of man"). (4) "0 powerful
western fallen star! / 0 shades of night-O moody, tearful night! /
o great star disappear'd-O the black murk that hides the star! / 0
cruel hands that hold me powerless-O helpless soul of me! /0 harsh
surrounding cloud that will not free my soul" (Walt Whitman;
referring to the death of President Lincoln). (5) This figure is usually
distinguished from samiis{jkti; for a discussion of its relation to that
figure, see samiis{jkti. It is apparently the same as the figure paryiiya
of Rudrata
who does not recognize
aprastutaprasalJlsii. It is also
,
'J.>_'.-'
called aprastutastotra in Da\lqiri and the Agni Puriir.za.
adbyiiropa, 'figurative attribution': (I) a type of aprastutaprasalJlsii in
which qualities are attributed to th~~)(plicit subject which can apply
literally only to the implicit snbject. (2) M 152e. (3) kas tvalJl
bhol;-kathayiimi daivahatakalJl miilJl viddhi SiikhO!akalJl / -vairiigyiid iva vak$i siidhu viditalJl kasmiid idalJl kathyate / -viimenatra
va!as tam adhvagajanal; sarvatmanii sfvate / na cchiiyapi par{jpakiirakarave miirgasthitasyapi me (Mammala; the tree to which the
courtier likens himself is literally incapable of speech: "'Who might
you be?' 'I will tell you: think of me as a twisted and accursed
Siikho!a tree!' 'You seem to be speaking in a spirit of indifference!'
'Well said!' 'Why do you describe yourself thus?' 'On the left over
there is a banyan tree which travellers resort to with great relief.
But I have no shade to serve others with, though I too grow along
the road'''). (4ff'Of the Folly of Loving when the Season of Love
is past: Ye old mule! that think yourself so fair, / Leave off with
craft and beauty to repair" (Thomas Wyatt). (5) Mammala divides
intimation in two ways: by considering the relation of the two subjects, and by the relation of the qualities expressed to their subjects.
This is an example of the latter topic. For an example of intimation
in which the qualities are not thus attributed to the expressed subject,

describes the cause of his early return from a journey: "Those who
have gone to another country, why should they not return? Beloved,
you must grieve for me no longer; you have grown so thin! Even
while I speak to you in tears, you look at me with eyes downcast
with shame aud full of pale tears, while your hysterical laughter
surely portends approaching death!"). (4) "With how sad steps,
o Moon! thou climb'st the skies! / How silently, and with how wan
a face! / What! may it be, that even in heavenly place / That busy
archer his sharp arrows tries?" (Sir Philip Sydney; the effect of
being in love is described through its cause). (5) Cf nimitta.
tulya, 'equal': (1) a type of aprastutaprasalJlsii in which the relation between tbe implicit and explicit subjects is one of similitude, real or
apparent. (2) M 152. (5) If the similitude is real, we have siidrsyamiltra; if only punned, samiis{jkti; if the implicit subject itself is
punned, sle$a. See these terms for examples.
For the earlier writers, intimation seems only to have been used
where a relation of similitude could be seen; it is often described in
the same terms as upamii ('simile'), the implicit term being the subject
of comparison (upameya). But Mammala broadens the figure to
include other relations: that of cause-effect, and general-specific.
See aprastutaprasalJlSii.
nimitta, 'cause': (1) a type of aprastutaprasalJlsii in which the real subject
is a cause and is intimated through a description of its effect. (2)
M 152. (3) riijan riijasutii na pii!hayati miilJl devyo'pi tU$r.zilJl sthitiil; /
kubje bhojaya miilJl kumiira sacivair nfidyapi kilJl bhujyate / itthalJl niitha
sukas tavaribhavane mukto'dhvagail; pafijariit / citrasthiin avalokya
sunyavalabhiiv ekaikam iibhii$ate (Mammala; describing the fright
caused by the news that the king has set out against his enemies:
'''0 King, the princesses do not address me! Even the Queens
remain silent! Hey, humpback! come play with me! Prince! why
aren't you with your friends?' Thus does the parrot, who has been
freed by passersby from its cage in your enemy's palace, carryon
as he wanders about the empty halls looking at the portraits").
(4) "Help me to seek! for I lost it there; / And if that ye havefound it,
ye that be here, / And seek to convey it secretly, / Handle it soft, and
treat it tenderly, / ... It was mine heart! I pray you heartily / Help
me to seek" (Sir Thomas Wyatt; the poet is in love, which has
resulted in the loss of his heart). (5) Cf kiirya.
viSe~a, 'speciality': (1) a type of aprastutaprasalJliis in which the real
subject is particular and is intimated through mention of an ap-

112

see aprastutaprasaYflsii.

kiirya, 'effect': (I) a type of aprastutaprasalJlsii in which the real subject

is an effect and is intimated through a description of its cause. (2)
M 152. (3) yiitiil; kin na milanti sundaripunas cintii tvayii matkrte / n{j
kiiryii nitariilJl krsasi kathayaty evalJl sabii$pe mayi / lajjiimantharatiiraker.za nipatatpitasrur.zii cak$u$ii / dr$!vii miilJl hasitena bhiivimarar.z{jtsiihas tayii sucital;/(Amaru, quoted by Mammala; a lover thus

114

GLOSSARY

propriate universal. (2) M 152. (3) suhrdvadhiibti$pajalapramdrjana/"fl karoti vairapratiydtanena yal;z / sa eva piijyal;z sa pumdn sa
nftiman sujivita/"fl tasya sa bhtijana/"fl sriyal;z (Mammata; this is spoken
by a minister of the slain Naraka and urges retaliation on Kr~"a:
"The Prince who wipes away the tears of his friends by taking revenge on his enemies, he alone is honorable, he is a man and a just
man, his auspicious life is a vessel of good fortune"). (4) "But at my
back I always hear / Time's winged chariot hurrying near" (Andrew
Marvell; to his coy mistress). (5) Cf sdmdnya.
sle~a, 'double-entendre': (I) a type of tulya aprastutaprasa/"flsd in which
the real subject is intimated by puns or double meanings. (2) M
I 52C. (3) PU/"flstvtid api pravj{;aled yadi yady adho'pi yaytid yadi
pravayane na mahtin api syat / abhyuddharet tad api viivam itldrslya/"fl kenfipi dik praka(itfi puru$8.ttamena (Mammata; flattery of a
king; reference is to the forms of';:Yi~"tt: "Even if he deviates from
masculinity [from heroism], even if he descends to earth [suffers
reverses], even if he is not of great size [not powerful], nevertheless,
he upholds the earth; in this way has the expanse of this earth been
made manifest by the Great Lord [a great lord]"). (4) " ... A dripping
Pauper crawls along the way, / The only real willing out-of-doorer, /
And says, or seems to say, / 'Well, I am poor enough-but here's a
pourer!'" (Thomas Hood; the subject intimated is the rainstorm).
(5) Cf samds8kti and sadrsyamatra. Sle$a differs from avayava
sle$a in that the real subject is there explicit and the pun ancillary.
samasokti, 'concise speech': (1) a type of tulya aprastutaprasa/"flSa in which
the real subjectis intimated by puns (or double meanings) on the
descriptive qua11fications of the explicit subject. (2) M 152C. (3)
yendsy abhyuditena candra gamital;z klanti/"fl ravau tatra te / yujyeta
pratikartum eva na punas tasyalvapadagrahal;z / k$fvenaitad anu${hita/"fl
yadi tatal;z ki/"fl lajjase n8 manag / asty eva/"fl jaadhtimata tu bhavato
yad vyomni visphurjase (Mammata; this is spoken to a poor man who
has demeaned himself by asking alms. The sun and moon (explicit subjects) are not punned upon, but the descriptive qualifications are as piida, 'ray' and 'foot', k$il)a, 'new moon' and 'prop~
ertyless', etc. Note that the last pun requires substitutability of
the phonemes 14/ and /11 in jaadhtimatd-jaladhtimata. "By whose
rising have you become so pale, 0 moon? You should try to outshine [emulate] him and not be eclipsed by his rays [fall at his feet];
and if you have done this through being but a thin crescent [because
of your poverty], you should be ashamed indeed! So be it! By the

GLOSSARY

115

mere fact of your shining in the sky, you are a veritable treasure of
coolness [of stupidity]"). (4) "Beneath in the Dust, the mou1dy old
Crust / of Moll Batchelor lately was shaven, / Who was skill'd in
the Arts of Pyes, Custards and Tarts, / And every Device of the
Oven. / When she'd Iiv'd long enough, she made her last Puff, /
A Puff by her Husband much prais'd; / And here she doth lie, and
makes a Dirt Pye, / In Hopes that her Crust may be rais'd" (Anon.;
an epitaph. The real subject of Moll's death and resurrection is
suggested by puns on her culinary abilities). (5) In sle$a, the real
subject itself is effected through a pun on the explicit subject, not
entirely on its qualifications. Cf also stidrsyamdtra.
sadrsyamatra, 'mere similitude': (I) a type of tulya aprastutaprasa/"flsd
in which the real subject is intimated through the force alone of its
similitude with the explicit subject. (2) M 152C. (3) tiddya vari
parital;z sarita/"fl mukhebhyal;z kin tdvad arjitam anena durarvavena /
k$arfkrta/"fl ca vaavddahane huta/"fl ca pdtalakuk$ikuhare viniveSita/"fl
ca (Mammata; the picture is that of a wealthy man wasting his
resources: "Taking all the water from the mouths ofrivers hereabouts,
making it salty and throwing it on the submarine fires and losing it
into the secret maws of hell: what indeed has this Ocean profited?").
(4) "It's but little good you'll do a-watering the last year's crop"
(George Eliot). (5) By mere similitude is meant that no puns or
double meanings operate to suggest the implicit subject. See Sle$a
and samas8kti. The relation is also between particulars, much as
if it were a dmfinta with the subject implicit. Cf viSe$a and sdmanya.
samanya, 'generality': (1) a type of aprastutaprasa/"flSa in which the real
subject is universal and is intimated through description of an
appropriate particular. (2) M 152. (3) etat tasya mukhdt kiyat
kamalinfpatre kava/"fl vdrivo yan muktamavir ity ama/"flsta sa jaal;z
srvv anyad asmtid api / aiigulyagralaghukriydpravilayiny iidfyamdne
sanail;z kutr#fya gato mamiity anudina/"fl nidrdti nfintal;z suca (Bhallata,
quoted by Mamma!a; the universal here is said to be that the
property sentiment of fools is apt to be overextended. Punctuation
would help in this example: a comma after kiyat, a period after
jaal;z, a comma after sanail;z: "How few words [of sense] come from
his mouth; he thinks a drop of dew fallen on a lotus petal to be a
pearl of high price! And listen to this: slowly lifting the dewdrop
until it melts between the tender movements of his fingers, he cries,
'Where has my pearl flown to?' and he cannot sleep for the pain in
his soull"). (4) DA / Dayadhvam: I have heard the key / Turn in the

GLOSSARY

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door once and turn once only / We think of the key, each in his
prison / Thinking of the key, each confirms a prison" (T. S. Eliot;
the explanation is given by Eliot himself in his notes, quoting
F. H. Bradley: "My external seusations are no less private to myself
than are my thoughts or my feelings. In either case my experience
falls within my own circle, a circle closed on the outside .. ,").

(5) Cf viSe$a.
aprastutaprasaIpsii (II): (I) an elliptical simile in which the subject of
comparison is referred to by a sign or token, usually a doubleentendre based on comparable qualities common to the two things.
(2) V 4.3.4. (3) liivaI!yasindhur aparalva hi keyam atra yatriitpalani

sasina saha sa'1"plavante / u'7ll1ajjati dviradakumbhata/i ca yatra

yatriipare kadalikalJ<JamrlJaladtJiJlJiih (Viimana; the other river is, of
course, a young lady in the river",The lotuses refer to her eyes, the
lobes to her breasts, etc. "Who cau'!p.af second River of Beauty bewhere the lotuses are playing with the 'moon and the submerged
elephant shows his great frontal lobes, and where [are seen] other
soft stalks like the trunks of banana trees?"). (4) "Lemon tree very
pretty, and the lemon flow'r is sweet; but the fruit of the poor lemon
is impossible to eat" (traditional folksong; the poet refers to his
disappointed love). (5) This fignre resembles the usual samiisiikti
inasmuch as the emphasis is placed on recognition of the implicit
subject through qualifications which can apply to both subject and
,object. Viimana is concerned only with those aspects of the several
figures which display features of the simile; he departs from tradition
in many such cases. His figure samasiikti is defined as total ellipsis
of the subject;"by which is probably meant reference through
similitude only, not (as here) through punned qualifications. Viimana
would have conformed more closely to tradition by reversing the
names of the two figures. Cf adhyavasiina atisayiikti, where the
point is the confusion of two things.
aprastutaprasaljlsii (III): (I) a figure in which blaIne of an implicit subject
is to be understood through praise of an explicit object. (2) D 2.340
(341-42). (3) sukha'1" jivanti harilJa vane$V aparasevinah / anyair
ayatnasulabhais trlJadarbhiifikuriidibhih (DaJ;14in; this is to be understood as a complaint addressed to an illiberal benefactor: "The gentle
deer in the forest think only of serving others and live without
hardship on easily obtainable grasses, darbha shoots, and the like").
(4) " ... the Dean expatiated upon what is perhaps the most mysterious
characteristic of gerlius, its tendency to appear among members of

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the human race" (E. M. Forster; an apparent encomium of genius,

but in reality a remark directed against mankind as such). (5) This
type of aprastutaprasa'1"sii is just the opposite of vyajastuti. For
DaJ;14in, the figure has little to do with samasiikti; he is the only
writer who treats both figures for whom this is true (see samiisiikti).
abhivyakti
abhivyakti, 'manifestation': (I) intimation. (2) AP 345.7-18. (5) This
figure may represent a stage in the prehistory of the dhvani theory.
It is described by the author of the Agni PuralJa as twofold: sruti and
dhvani, and the former is then described in terms quite similar to the
classical analysis of the kinds of meaning (mukhyii, Iiik$alJiki, and
gaulJi). The category dhvani (also called ak$epa), which may and
should be the gaulJi of the preceding triad (cf DhvanyiiIoka, chap.
I), is then subdivided into five common aIa'1"karas: iik$epa, aprastutastotra, samiisiikti, apahnuti, and paryiiyiikta. In addition, the
term abhivyakti has become a standard gloss for dhvani in the later
writings. Abhinavagupta asserts that the ni$patti of Bharata's
rasasiitra means abhivyakti (quoted in Kavyapradfpa). ACCording to
S. K. De, the Agni PuralJa may have been contemporary with the
author of the kiirikiis of the Dhvanyaloka. The matter is made
hypothetical by the terseness of the Agni PuralJa, which offers no
examples for any of the figures defined.
artha
artha, 'sense': (I) a cover term for those figures whose poetic effect was
thought to depend on the meaning of the expression rather than on
verbal patterns or devices. (2) B 1.16, V 1.1.1, D 3.186, U 5.12,
AP 344.1, R 7.9, M chap. 10. (5) Although the arthiiIaYflkara are
on the whole formally defined, the nature of the form differs from
that of the more obvious sabdfiIaYflkiira. These latter figures repose
upon non-referential criteria, such as morpheme type (see sle$a)
and metre (see yamaka). The former involve characteristics attributable to the subjects of the utterance or to the relation between the
snbject and a descriptive phrase, such as comparability (simile),
exaggeration (hyperbole), non-literalness, or combinations of these.
The basic distinction is that between grammatical form and intentional reference, but the formal aspect of both should not be underestimated (see upama, vyatireka, sIe$a).

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artbilntaranyiisa
artbilntaranyiisa, 'introduction of another matter': (I) a figure in which
a proposition or remark is justified or substantiated by the adjunction of a relevant moral or rationale; apodixis. (2) B 2.71-74,
D 2.169-79, V 4.3.21, U 2.4, AP 344.24, R 8.79-84, M 165. (3)

united with those of the other, and the clearness is lost forever.
Virtuous and vicious persons can associate for a time, keeping their
characters distinct. But if the associations be continued, the virtuous,
pnre character will become soiled by the vicions. No one can
associate freely with the wicked without becoming in some measure
like them" (Robert Blackwell). (5) Cf yuktiitman and yuktiiyukta.
yuktiitman, 'essentially correct': (I) a type of arthiintaranyasa in which
the situation referred to in proposition and substantiation is approved by the speaker. (2) D 2.170 (177). (3) ayarrt mama dahaty

priyel)a sarrtgrathya vipak$asarrtnidhtiv upiihitarrt vak$asi pivarastane /

srajarrt na kacid vijahau jalavilarrt vasanti hi preml)i gUl)a na vastuni

(Bharavi, quoted by Vamana: "She clasps to her full bosom the

water-faded garland once offered by her lover in the presence of her
rivals, for quality resides in the thought, not the thing"). (4) "Hoist
up sail while gale doth last, / Tide and wind stay no man's pleasure"
(Robert Southwell). (5) This figure differs from dmiinta in that the
intention of the speaker is to ~~iablish his remark, not to clarify it.
The particle "for" may be understpod to be connecting the proposition and its substantiation and p~pyides one basis for subdividing
the figure (Bhamaha, Udbhata). RUdr"ta, however, and to some
extent Mammata, consider arthiintaranyasa a conjunction of remarks
general and specific, while dr$liinta is a relation of two observations,
both specific and neither amenable to the intention of the speaker.
Cf dmiinta and ubhayanyasa. Though fonnded on a similitude,
arthiintaranyasa may function through antithesis (vaidharmya: Agni
Pural)a, Rudrata, Mammata). That its end is not the description
of that similitude distinguishes this figure from upama. Dal).<jin
considers eight subtypes, distinguished with reference to the nature
and scope ofproofitself: universal (viSvavyapi), particular (viSe$astha),
apparent (Sle$iividdha), paradoxical, i.e., apparently false (virodhavat); and by'considering the relation of the speaker to his thesis:
disapproval (ayuktakari), approval (yuktiitman), qualified disapproval
(yuktiiyukta), and qualified approval (viparyaya). Vamana alone
considers the figure indivisible.
ayuktakiiri, 'doing wrong': (I) a type of arthiintaranyasa in which the
situation referred to in proposition and substantiation is condemned
by the speaker. (2) D. 2.170 (176). (3) madhupanakalat kal)lhtin

ai/gam ambhojadalasarrtstara/:l / hutiisanapratinidhir dahiitma nanu

yujyate (Dal).<jin: "This expanse of lotus flowers pains my whole

being, yet it may be proper that something as brilliant as fire have a

soul aflame"). (4) '''No, 1 just couldn't feel the same about her
again.' 'Well, why feel the same? One has to cbange as one gets
older. Why, then years ago 1 couldn't be interested in anything later
than the Sumerian age and 1 assure you that now 1 find even the
Christian era full of significance'" (Evelyn Waugh). (5) Cf ayuktakari, where the situation is judged ill.
yuktiiyakta, 'correct and incorrect': (I) a type of arthiintaranyasa in
which the situation referred to in proposition and substantiation is
generally or conditionally approved by the speaker but for some
reason is, iu this case, considered irregular. (2) D 2.170 (178).
(3) k$il)otu kamarrt sftiirrtsu/:l kirrt vasanto dunoti mam / maliniicaritarrt
karma surabher nanv asampratam (Dal).<jin: "Let the moon consume

me if it wants to! Why does the springtime make me suffer? Such

a black deed is surely unsuited to the sweet season"). (4) "Before she
realized it she was absorbed in what had so often been on her mind
lately .... His warm playfulness, his affectionate tenderness-what
had become of it? ... Oh no, no! she caught herself, how can 1 be
thinking of such things again! The sweet desires of the flesh are the
nets of Satan" (0. E. Rolvaag). (5) Here the inconsistency is in
fact condemned (ayuktatva is siddha). Cf viparyaya, the reverse.
viparita, 'reversed': (I) same as vaidharmya arthiintaranyasa. (2) R
8.82.
viparyaya (1), 'reversal': (I) a type of arthiintaranyasa in which the situation referred to in proposition and substantiation is generally or
conditionally condemnable, but is here for some reason approved.
(2) D 2.170 (179). (3) kumudany api dahaya kim ayarrt kamaliikara/:l /
na hlndugrhye$ugre$u siiryagrhyo mrdur bhavet (Dal).<jin: "So much
do the night lotuses afflict me, how much more ought the day lotus

nirgato'py alinarrt dhvani/:l / katur bhavati karl)asya kaminarrt papam

idrsam (Dal).<jin: "The sounding of the bees, though it issues from

throats thick with honey, is harsh to the ears of lovers. What a

shame this is !"). (4) "The waters of the Mississippi and Missouri
unite and form one river. The water of the latter is exceedingly
turbid, and the former clear. When they first meet the waters refuse
to mingle.... By degrees the clear, bright waters of the one become

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to burn! For one of the sun's retinue will not be mild when the
friends of the moon are harsh!"). (4) "Sweet is the rose, but grows
upon a brere; / Sweet is the juniper, but sharp his bough: / ... So
every sweet with sour is temper'd still, / That maketh it be coveted
the more: / For easy things, that may be got at will, / Most sorts of
men do set but little store" (Edmund Spenser). (5) The term "reversal"
is probably to be taken as reversal of yuktayukta, where an otherwise
appropriate situation is deemed in some respect inappropriate. Here
the inconsistency is accepted.
vlparyaya (II): (I) a type of arthantaranyiisa in which the substantiation,
having the form of a general remark, follows the proposition, which
is particular in reference. (2)
2.4. (3) siva apasyac catika${iini
tapyamiinii'1' tapii'1'sy umiim /asa'1'bhiivyapatfcchiinii'1' kanyiinii'1'
kii parii gatib (Udbhata; Uma had set her mind on having none but
Siva: "[Siva] watched Uma practi'1'il\gausterities of unbelievable
austerity; what other recourse have ,!;iriS'who desire a perfect husband?"). (4) "On the College of Wadham at Oxford being insured
from Fire, after a Member had been suspected of an unnatural
Crime: Well did the amorous sons .0fWadham / Their house secure
from future flame; / They knew their crime, the crime of Sodom, /
And judg'd their punishment the same" (Anon.). (5) Udbhata
is the first writer to classify apodixis in this way, but he perversely
applies the term viparyaya to that type which the earlier writers
consider perfectly normal: a particular remark justified by a general
remark, as: "Keep in the heart the journal nature keeps; I Mark
down the limp nasturtium leafwith frost" (Conrad Aiken). Udbhata's
innovation is, of course, that he allows the general remark to precede,
as in the example offered under yuktatman. Rudrata and Mammata
both allow for this same distinction, but do not give it a name.
virodhavat, 'contradictory': (I) a type of arthantaranyiisa in which a
seeming paradox is justified. (2) D 2.170 (175). (3) jagad iinandayaty
e~a malino'pi niSiikarab / anugrhlJiiti hi pariin sado~o'pi dvijiiSvarab
(Dal)<;lin: "The orb of the night, though covered with blemishes,
delights the whole world; but then, a Brahmin, even if he have
faults, confers favors upon others"). (4) "Before you despise Adam
as deficient in penetration, pray ask yonrself ... if you ever could,
without hard head-breaking demonstration, believe evil of the one
supremely pretty woman who has bewitched you. No: people
who love downy peaches are apt not to think of the stone, and
sometimes jar their teeth terribly against it" (George Eliot). (5)

This figure differs from viparyaya in that the inconsistency is here

accepted, not excused.
viseiiastha, 'specific': (I) a type of arthantaranyiisa in which the situation
and substantiation are of specific import, that is, do not apply to
all men. (2) D 2.170 (173). (3) payomucab paritiipa'1' haranty eva
sarlrilJiim / nanv iitmaliibho mahatii'1' paradubkhopasiintaye (Dal)<;lin:
"The great rain clouds relieve the scorching heat of summer for
the wandering ascetics, for it is the office of the great to alleviate the
suffering of others"). (4) "What he said had a hateful truth in it,
and another defect of my character is that I enjoy the company
of those, however depraved, who cau give me a Roland for my
Oliver" (Somerset Maugham).
visvavyapin, 'universal': (I) a type of arthantaranyiisa in which the situation and substantiation are of universal import, that is, apply to all
men. (2) D 2.170 (172). (3) bhagavantau jagannetre suryiicandramasiiv api / pasya gacchata evasta'1' niyatib kena laiighyate (Dal)<;lin:
"The blessed eyes of the world, the sun and moon, even they must
set; who can escape his fate?"). (4) "The glorious lamp of heaven,
the sun, / The higher he's a-getting, / The sooner will his race be
run, / And nearer he's to setting. / .... / Then be not coy, but use
your time, / And while ye may, go marry: / For having lost but once
your prime, / You may for ever tarry" (Robert Herrick). (5) The
figure is contrasted with viSe~astha.
vaidharmya, 'difference': (I) a type of arthantaranyiisa in which the verbs
of the proposition and its substantiation are opposite in sense;
substantiation by antithesis. (2) M 165C. (3) hrdayena nirvrtiinii'1'
bhavati nrlJii'1' sarvam eva nirvrtaye / indur api tathiihi manab khedayatitarii'1' priyiivirahe (Rudrata: "Everything delights those whose
hearts are full of bliss; to lovers in separation even the cool moon
afllicts the mind unmercifully"). (4) "You may think I was seeing
lions in the path, but it is never safe to reckon on meeting nothing
more formidable than a sheep" (Oliver Onions). (5) Vaidharmya is
the same as viparlta. The figure is known to the Agni PuriilJa, but
is not named (344.24). Cf vaidharmya dr~lanta and remarks under
arthantaranyasa.
sle~aviddha, 'invested with double-entendre': (I) a type of arthantaranyiisa
in which a pun underlies the attempted substantiation. (2) D 2.170
(174). (3) utpiidayati lokasya prlti'1' malayamiirutab / nanu diik~i
lJyasampannabsarvasyabhavatipriyab (Dal)<;lin; diik#nya means both
'southern', as applied to the wind, and 'polite', as applied to the

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friend: "The wind from the southern mountain arouses joy amongst
men' indeed one born in the South [accomplished in piety] is everybod;'S friend"). (4) "So round his melancholy neck, / A rope he
did entwine, / ... And there he hung, till he was dead / As any nail
in town- / For though distress had cut him up, / It could not cut
him down!" (Thomas Hood).
siidharmya, 'similitude': (J) a type of arthiintaranyiisa in which the verbs
of both proposition and substantiation are parallel in sense, that
is not antithetical. (2) M 165. (3) (4) See arthiintaranyiisa. (5)
This subcategory is arthiintaranyiisa itself-a category invented by
Mammala to balance vaidharmya, q.v.

123

sweet wind did gently kiss the trees, / And they did make no noise,
-in such a night / Troilus methinks mounted the Troyan walls, /
And sigh'd his soul toward the Grecian tents, / Where Cressid lay
that night" (Shakespeare). (5) Rudrata gives two examples, the
first expressing nobility (holiness), the second love; the occasion for
Shakespeare's remark is clearly amorous. In this and several other
figures, Rudrata delineates what appear to be types of dhvani, or
suggestion. On the other hand, the figures lesa, sak$ma, paryiiya,
and avasara can be related to the earlier figure paryiiyokta, not
present in Rudrata's classification and never before subdivided.
Rudrata, probably a Kasmlri and a contemporary of Anandavardhana, may indeed have been familiar with the dhvani theory and
may have attempted to incorporate it into a standard alalflkiira
treatise. The Agni Puriiva also propounds a curious view of dhvani
(see abhivyakti).

avayava
avayava, 'member': (J) an arthaSle$a in which the second meaning,
suggested through puns on certai~,~spects or qualifications of the
primary subject, augments or ameliorates the force of the description.
(2) R 10.18. (3) bhujayugale balabhadral; sakalajagallafighane tatM
balijit / akraro hrdaye'sau riijiibhad arjuno yasasi (Rudrata; the puns
are balabhadral;, balijit, and arjunaq which apply to the king as
descriptive adjectives but are also the names of great heroes:
"In his two arms fortunate of strength [Balabhadra], in overwhehning the whole world a conqueror of his enemies [Balijit], straightforward [Akriira] in his heart and glorious [Arjuna] in his fame, was
this King"). (4) "The scene in water colours thus I paint" (Thomas
Hood; the rainy day is described in "watery" words). (5) I think
the point is not that the pun is between an adjective and a proper
name, since several other types involve this same feature (aviSe$a,
perhaps tattva), and since the name of the type would itself then be
inexplicable. It is to be contrasted with aviSe$a, where the pun is
on the primary subject, not on any qualifications of it.

avis~a
avise~a,

'lacking qualifications': (J) an arthasle$a in which the doubleentendre is expressed in and through the noun or subject of the
utterance, instead of through qualifications thereof. (2) R 10.3. (3)
saradindusundararucalfl sukumiiriilfl surabhiparimaliim aniSam /
nidadhiiti niilpapuvyal; kavthe navamaUkiilfl kilntiim (Rudrata;
navamaUkii is both 'jasmine' and a girl's name: "No one who does
not deserve it puts jasmine around his neck: she who has the beauty
of the autumn moon is sweet and always fragrantly perfumed").
(4) "Synthesis, smoking in a corner / Groans, pulls himself together"
(Robert Graves). (5) The point here is that the pun is not carried
by the adjectival qualifications (the first half Sloka or the phrase
"pulls himself together") as it is in the canonic sle$a (cf. aviruddhakriyii, viruddhakarman). Indeed, the qualifications apply equally
to either sense, but those senses are expressed by a single word
here (the noun), which, syntactically primordinate, carries the
double-entendre.

avasara
avasara, 'occasion': (J) a figure in which a sentiment is expressed through
a description of a particular fact strongly suggestive of it. (2)
R 7.103 (104). (3) tad idam aravyalfl tasmin dasarathavacaniinupiilanavyasani/ nivasan biihusahiiyascakiira rak$al;k$ayalfl riimal; (Rudrata;
through an association with Rama, the idea is intimated that this
is a holy place: "In this forest Rama lived, faithful to the commands of his father, and with his bare hands, he slew all the demons").
(4) "The moon shines bright :-in such a night as this, / When the

asaip.gati
asaip.gati, 'non-concomitance': (I) same as darakiirya hetu. (2) R 9.48
(49), M 191.
asaip.bhava
aSaip.hhava, 'impossibility': (I) an arthasle$a in which an apparently

, I

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inapplicable qualification, when understood as a pun, becomes a

descriptive qualification. (2) R 10.16. (3) parihrtabhujal]1gasaiiga/z
samanayano na kuru$e Vr$arrz didha/z / nanv anya eva dr${as tvam atra
paramesvaro jagati (Rudrata; here a king is likened to Siva, despite
the epithets given, which seem to distinguish him from Siva; these
epithets are understood as puns which, in fact, describe the king:
"You have avoided the company of snakes [suspicious characters],
you have an even number of eyes [do not have three eyes] and do not
mount a bull [never decrease prosperity]; still you are another visible
Lord of Lords [Siva] in this world"). (4) "'Oh, Daddy dear, what is
a basket?' / Said a youthful and mischievous elf: / 'All baskets, me boy,
are children of joy. / In fact you're a basket yourself'" (Anon.;
"basket" does not seem to apply10 the boy until it is understood that,
in this dialect, "basket" and "bastard" are synonymous). (5) The
name "impossibility" refers to the fast that the distinctive qualification cannot apply to that subject from which the real subject is
being distinguished: samanayana/z ('equal-eyed') applies to the king,
but not to Siva who has three eyes; nevertheless, the qualification
'uneven-eyed' is so commonly applied to Siva that the resemblance
of the two qualifications is enough to suggest Siva. This sle$a
amounts to a vyatireka expressed through puns, but it also fits into
the canonic pattern of sle$a, where a qualification generally carries
the double-entendre (ef viruddhakarman).

125

enunciation of an interdiction'), the most obvious case relating to

an event about to take place which the speaker wishes to prevent or
avoid (vak$aymana, bhavi$yat). But the notion of interdiction is also
applied to past time, in the sense of contradiction, where the event
is too unlikely or preposterous or wonderful (ukta, vrlta). Bhamaha
and those following him, Udbhata and Mammata, leave the matter
there, but DaJ;l<)in offers a third variety by applying the interdiction
to present time (vartamana), where the connotation is that of doubt
or ~uspicion as to which of two alternatives is the more likely or
deSIrable. The general notion of objection or denial is thus strongly
qualified by the temporal relation of the events and the speaker
and presents an interesting study in miniature of the possible kinds
of negation. Rudrata views the figure more in these latter terms
i.e., as a question of mode rather than a mere matter of time, and
he distinguishes two varieties: an impossible event (that is one
which is negated) is either conventionally accepted (prasiddh~: as
the "burning" of moonlight to the lover), or is entirely irrational
(viruddha: as, measuring the sea with a dish). The original idea of
preve~ting an imminent and objectionable event is here completely
lost sIght of, and the negation is made a quality of the event itself.
DaJ;l<)in goes on to illustrate twenty-one other types of ak$epa, of
two basIc sorts. One element in a relation is objected to or denied
(either cause or effect, or subject or predicate). For example, a
denial of the effect would be: "Baby ronsed its father's ire / By a
cold and formal lisp. / So he placed it on the fire / And reduced it
to a crisp. / Mother said, 'Oh, stop a bit! / This is overdoing itl'"
(Harry Graham). The remaining seventeen varieties reflect differing
affective suggestions which can accompany contradiction. Most
illustrate the very first and most obvious sort, that of threatening or
prevention; a girl says "don't go" to her lover with anger, despair,
Irony, bitterness, disgust, etc.
In the Agni PuralJa, ak$epa is also the genus, equated with dhvani
(see abhivyakti), of five figures: ak$epa, aprastutastotra, samasokti,
apahnuti, and paryayokta.
okta, 'spoken': (1) a kind of ak$epa in which the state of affairs denied
or questioned has already occurred. (2) B 2.67 (70), D 2.122 (121),
U 2.2-3, M 161. (3) anaiiga/z paiieabhi/z pU$pair viSvarrz vyajayate$Ubhi/z / ity asarrzbhiivyam atha va vicitra vastusaktaya/z (DaJ;l<)in: "The
God of Love conquered the whole world with five flower-tipped
arrows. This is quite impossible; amazing is the power of things I").

ahetu
ahem, 'absence of cause': (I) same as viSe$okti II. (2) R 9.54 (55).
iik~epa
iik~epa,

'objection': (I) a figure in which is expressed an objection to or

denial of some state of affairs, either real or imagined, either past,
present, or future; contradiction. (2) B 2.66-70, D 2.120-68, U 2.2-3,
AP 345.14-15, R 8.89-91, M 161. (3) aharrz tvarrz yadi nek$eya
k$aJ;am apy utsuka tata/z / iyad evastv ato'nyena kim uktenapriye~a te
(Bhamaha; the girl is threatening to expire if her lover leaves her;
"If! should not see you, even for a moment, my impassioned soul ....
Enough of that! Why should I repeat more unpleasantness?").
(4) "Streets that follow like a tedious argument / Of insidious
intent / To lead you to an overwhelming question ... / Oh, do not
ask, 'What is it?' / Let us go and make our visit" (T. S. Eliot).
(5) Bhamaha and Dai;l<)in defiue this figure as prati$edhOkti ('the

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(4) "No, no, for my Virginity, I When I lose that, says Rose, I'll
dye: I Behind the Elmes, last Night, cry'd Dick, I Rose, were you
not extremely Sick?" (Matthew Prior). (5) Dal)C}in uses the term
vrtta ('occurred'). Compare vak$yamiina and vartamiina, where the
facts are about to occur or are occurring.
prasiddha, 'established', 'well known': (1) a type of iik$epa in which the
question takes the form of an objection to a conventional or wellknown fact. (2) R 8.89 (90). (3) janayati safTltiipam asau candraka-

saying things like that. You want to grow up to be a lady, don't

you?'" (Harper Lee). (5) Vak$yamana is the same as bhavi$yat
ak$epa of Dal).c;lin. Compare ukta and vartamiina ak$epa.
vartamiina, 'being': (1) a type of iik$epa in which the state of affairs
denied or questioned is now taking place. (2) D 2.124 (123). (3)

126

kuta/; kuvalayafTl karl;e karo$i kalabhii$il;li I kim apiifigam aparyiiptam

asmin karmGl;lI manyase (Dal).c;lin; flattery is suggested through a

fanciful alternative: "Why do you fix a lotus at your ear, my soft- '
voiced one? Do you think your sidelong glance unable to attract
me?"). (4) "In a church which is furnish'd with mullion and gable,
I With altar and reredos, with gargoyle and groin, I The penitent's
dresses are sealskin and sable, / The odour of sauctity's eau-deCologne. / But only could Lucifer, flying from Hades, I Gaze down
on this crowd with its panniers and paints. / He would say, as he
looked at the lords and the ladies, I 'Oh, where is All Sinners', if
this is All Saints' ?'" (Edmund Yates; blame is suggested through a
fanciful alternative). (5) Only Dal).c;lin offers this middle term between ukta, 'spoken' and vak$yamiina, 'about to be spoken'. Though
all three types of objection can be reduced to what appears to be
this mere outward distinction of time, it is interesting to note the
changes of mode which parallel and are probably functions of that
distinction. An objection referring to past time (ukta) is inevitably
ironical and expresses amazement or suspicion; that referring to
future time (vak$yamana) tends to be hortatory or interdictive and
need not be founded upon a hyperbole. Similarly, the iik$epa of
present time (vartamiina), objecting to something that is in the process
of completion but not yet accomplished, has in mind au alternative
end, preferable or indifferent.
Doubtless it was a consideration like this which prompted Rudrata
to recast the definition of iik$epa in modal terms: the state objected
to is either consistent with convention or impossible to contemplate
(prasiddha, viruddha). Complete parallelism is, however, not to be
looked for.
viruddba, 'contradicted': (1) a type of ak$epa in which the objection refers
to an impossible situation-one not conventionally realizable.
(2) R 8.89 (91). (3) lava gal;layiimi gUl;lan aham alam athavtisa-

liikomaltipi me citram I athavii kim atra citrafTl dahati himani hi

bhumiruha/; (Rudrata; during the separation of lovers, it is couventional to speak of the "burning" moon: "It is marvellous that the

soft-rayed moon causes such a,fever; yet perhaps it is not so odd:

do not the winter snows consume all things that grow on earth!").
(4) "'You a Magistrate chief', his wife tauntingly said, I 'You a
Methodist-Teacher! and caught w#h;your Maid! I A delicate Text
you've chosen to handle I And fin~ holding forth, without Daylight
or Candle!' I Quoth Gabriel, 'My Dear, as I hope for Salvation,
I You make in your Anger a wrong Application; I This evening I
taught how frail our Condition; I And the good Maid and I were but
at-Repetition'" (Anon.). (5) Both examples offer a rationale which
attempts to meet the objection. This rationale is based upon the
situation objected to being well known; compare viruddha iik$epa,
where the question takes the form of exposing an irrational impossibility. By "well known", Rudrata refers to the character of
certain situations which, though unlikely (the moon burning, a
Methodist fornicating), are not entirely unexpected when they do
occur. Most caricatures depend upon this basic plausibility of
the conventionally implausible. Prasiddha resembles ukta ak$epa,
but the emphasis is modal, not temporal.
bhavi~yat, 'about to be': (1) same as vak$yamiina iik$epa. (2) D 2.126 (125).
vak~yamiina, 'about to be spoken': (1) a type of iik$epa in which the state
of affairs denied or questioned has not yet occurred. (2) B 2.67
(69), D 2.126 (125), U 2.2-3, M 161. (3) satyafTl bravimi na tvafTl
miifTl dra$lufTl vallabha lapsyase I anyacumbanasafTlkriintaliik$tiraktena
cak$u$ii (DaI).<}in; a threat designed to prevent a state of affairs:

"I'm telling you the truth. You'll not be able to see me, lover,
with eyes red from the lac of others' lips !"). (4)" 'You like words
like damn and hell now, don't you?' I said I reckoned so. 'Well,
I don't,' said Uncle Jack, 'not unless there's extreme provocation
connected with 'em ..::. Scout, you'll get in trouble if you go around

tpraliipinifTl dhifi miim I ka/; khalu kumbhair ambho miitum alafTl

jalanidher akhilam (Rudrata: "I am enumerating your qualities!

Enough of my thoughtless muttering! Who indeed would try to

measure the whole sea with a pot?"). (4) "How is it that this girl

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could cry at having to tell Sam Bannett she could not think of him,
and then treat another lover as she treated the Virginian? I cannot
tell you, having never (as I said before) been a woman myself"
(Owen Wister). (5) Compare prasiddha, where the situation is
conventional though in fact just as impossible. Here the impossibility
is carried by the fact itself (counting an infinitude, understanding a
woman). Of course, poetic license must be allowed in determining
just what facts are admitted.
vrtta, 'occurred': (l) same as ukta lik$epa. (2) D 2.122 (121).

padiivrtti, 'repetition of the word': (1) a figure in which the same word is
repeated each time in a different sense. (2) D 2.116 (118). (3)
utkalJ{hayati meghdnli'r/ mlilli vrnda'r/ kallipinlim / yilnii'r/ ciJtka/J{hayaty eva mlinasa'r/ makaradhvajah (DalJqin; the verb is taken first
in its literal sense, 'raises the neck', i.e., causes to harken, and then

in a figurative sense, "causes to be enamored": "The massing clouds

make the flocks of peacocks harken; the God of Love puts longing
into the minds of youths"). (4) "Old black rooks flapping along the
sky and old black taxicabs flapping down the street" (Joyce Cary).
(5) Cf ubhaytivrtti, where the same word is repeated in the same
sense. Padtivrtti is the logical opposite of arthtivrtti, q. v.

iivrtti
iiv{tti, 'repetition': (1) the repetiti0l} pf a word or an idea in the same or a
closely related phrase. (2) 0"2.116, AP 343.18-20. (5) DalJqin
distinguishes three types of repetition: the sense but not the word
may be repeated (arthdvrtti), the "io~dbut not the sense (padavrtti),
or both the word and the sense (ubJii:lydvrtti). See s.v. for examples.
In the Agni Purli/Ja, livrtti is discussed in the same terms as lli{anuprlisaofUdbhata,astowhetherthewords are bound or free (paratantra or svatantra) and as a part of anuprlisa (along with yamaka).
arthiivrtti, 'repetition of the sense': (1) a figure in which the same idea is
repeated through different words; paraphrase. (2) D 2.116 (117).
(3) vikasanti kadambiini sphu{anti ku{ajadrumlih / unmflanti ca
kandalyo dalanti kakubhlini ca (DalJqin; all the verbs mean 'bloom':
"The cadamba tree is coming out, the kutaja is flowering, the kandal!
bush is blooming, the kakubh is breakiug out"). (4) "If a man
wished to abstract himself from the world-to remove himself from
within the reach of temptation-to place himself beyond the possibility of any inducement to look out of the window-we should
recommend him by all means go to Lant Street" (Charles Dickens).
(5) In this type of repetition, the important thing is that the words
themselves be different. Cf ubhaytivrtti.
ubhayiivrtti, 'repetition of both' (sc. the word and sense): (1) a figure in
which the same word is repeated in the same sense. (2) D 2.116
(119). (3) jitvli viSva'r/ bhavlin atra viharaty avarodhanaih / viharaty
apsarobhis te ripuvargo diva'r/ gatah (DalJqin: "Overrunning this
world, my Lord sports with the harem; his enemies, gone to heaven,
sport with the Nymphs"). (4) "So loveliness reigned and stillness,
and together made the shape of loveliness itself, a form from which
life had parted" (Virginia Woolf). (5) Cf artha- and padtivrtti,
where one or the other, but not both is repeated.

iisi~
iisi~,

'benediction': (1) a figure expressing a wish for prosperity, good

fortune, or reconciliation. (2) B 3.55 (56-57), D 2.357. (3) plitu yah
parama'r/ jyotir aVliiimanasagocaram (DalJqin: "May the supreme
Light, best seen by the detached spirit, protect you"). (4) "Let
endless peace your steadfast hearts accord / And blessed plenty wait
upon your board; / And let your bedwithpleasureschasteabound,/
That fruitful issue may to you afford" (Edmund Spenser). (5) This
figure, appropriately enough, occurs at the end of Bhamaha's and
DalJqin's lists. Like several earlier figures (preyas, ilrjasvi, rasavat),
it was thought too closely allied to the content of its expression (see
note on artha ala'r/klira) and hence was discarded by later writers.

ukti
ukti, 'speech': (1) an arthasle$a in which the second meaning is vulgar or
risque. (2) R 10.14. (3) kallivatah sa'r/bhrtamalJ4alasya yayli
hasantytilva hrttisu lak$mih / nrlJlim apliiigena krtas ca klimas tasylih
karasthii nanu nlilikasrih (Rudrata; apparently this is an encomium
of a proper young lady, but a second sense may be obtained roughly
as follows: "The good fortune of those she cozzens is in the pahn of
her hand-she who laughingly accepts payment from her wellensconced paramour and who will make love at the flick of an eyebrow"; "She holds the beauty of the lotus [the fortune of fools] in
her hand and by her side-long glance [with playful glance] is passion
[love] inspired [made] in [with] men; she laughing stole the beauty
[money] of the moon [of her client] full orbed [in the midst of his
friends]"). (4) "Let us roll all our strength and all / Our sweetness
up into one ball, / And tear our pleasures with rough strife / Through

T
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the iron gates of life" (Andrew Marvell). (5) As in the other kinds
of arthasle$a which Rudrata describes, the second meaning shonld
further in some relevant way the sense of the first or evident meaning.
Mere punning for the sake of punning (word play) is strictly relegated
to the realm of sabdasle$a. So here the vulgar undertone does not
serve the end of lewdness, but rather expands and directs the apparently innocent intent of the overtone, which is to say that both
examples suggest that innocence is but a veil.

131

utprek~ii

ntprek~ii,

'ascription': (1) a figure in which a property or mode of behavior

is attributed to a subject literally incapable of sustaining that property,
whereby an implicit simile is suggested whose subject (upameya)
is the subject receiving the attributed property and whose object
(upamiina) is the real basis ofthat property. (2) B2.91 (92), D 2.221-34
(222, 224, 226), V 4.3.9, U 3.3-4, AP 344.24-25, R 8.32-37 (33, 35,
37), R 9.11-15 (12-13, 15), M 137. (3) ki'llsukavyapaddena tarum
iiruhya sarvatab / dagdhtidagdham aravyiinyiib pasyativa vibhavasub
(Bhamaha; here the red flowers are portrayed as fire, consuming the
tree and looking for unburnt parts of the forest: "It is as though
fire had climbed the tree in the guise of ki'llsuka flowers and was
looking all about the forest for trees yet unburnt"). (4) "The yellow
fog that rubs its back upon the windowpanes, / The yellow smoke
that rubs its muzzle on the windowpanes / Licked its tongue into
the corners of the evening, / Lingered upon the pools that stand in
drains, / Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys, /
Slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap, / And seeing that it was
a soft October night, / Curled once about the house, and fell asleep"
(T. S. Eliot; the fog is portrayed as a cat). (5) The figure utprek$ii
probably comes closer than any other to capturing the sense of the
vague term metaphor. Although rupaka is generally translated
'metaphor' (a custom we have followed), its use in the Sanskrit
anthologies makes clear that a far more precise meaning is to be
attached to the term than 'metaphor' will allow. We have, when
the context required such precision, used the phrase "metaphorical
identification" for rupaka, in the sense that two ontologically unrelated things are treated gramatically as one thing or, in other words,
are identified one with another. The relation of identification is of
course directly from one term to another and does not require the
interposition ofproperties, although these may implicitly substantiate
the identification. Carl Sandburg's "moon mist mourning veils" or
the standard cliche "face-moon" illustrate the necessary explicitness
of such identifications. The usual technique for constructing rupakas
is the dvandva compound with the object of comparison (upamiina)
in the final position (gramatically free). In English we have elaborated
another mode of expression, probably because our language does
not encourage explicit compounding to such an extent: namely the
subjective genitive, as "the orb of her face", where the object of
comparison ("orb") is again the syntactically free term. Utprek$ii

uttara
uttara (I), 'answer': (I) a figure in which a preceding remark is inferred
from the reply given to it. (2) R 7.113 (94), M 188. (3) bhava miinam anyatha me bhrukuti'll vidhatum mauiw'll aham asaha/ saknomi tasya puratab sakhi na khalu pariiiimukhfbhavitym (Rudrata; from this we are to
infer that the girl has been receivingJnstruction in how to simnlate
anger in the presence of her lover: "Describe anger another way,
friend. I am unable to produce a brow-bent silence! I cannot remain
with my face averted before him!"); (4) '''When you call me that,
smile!' And he looked at Trampas across the table" (Owen Wister;
the Virginian has just been called a "son of a..."). (5) See praina.
uttara (II): (I) a figure wherein is given a series of fanciful answers to
one or more questions. (2) R 8.72 (73), M 121-22. (3) ki'll marava'll
diiridryarp ko vyiidhirjfvita'll daridrasya / kab svargab sanmitra'll sukalatra'll suprabhub susutab (Rudrata: "What is death? Poverty. What is
sickness? The life of the poor. What is heaven? True friends, a
good wife, a fiW' master, devoted children"). (4) '''You are old,
Father William,'''the young man said, / 'And your hair has become
very white; / And yet you incessantly stand on your head- / Do
you think, at your age, it is right?' / 'In my youth,' Father William
replied to his son, / 'I feared it might injure the brain; / But, now
that I'm perfectly sure I have none, / Why, I do it again and again.'
/ 'You are old,' said the youth, 'as I mentioned before, / And have
grown most uncommonly fat; / Yet you turned a back-somersault
in at the door- / Pray, what is the reason of that" / 'In my youth,'
said the sage, as he shook his gray locks, / 'I kept all my limbs very
supple / By the use of this ointment-one shilling the box- / Allow
me to sell you a couple?''' (Lewis Carroll). (5) Compare this poetic
figure with the conundrum prasnottara, a series of answers to questions involving a pun..

I
I

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differs from rupaka in that, instead of the subject and object of

comparison being identified with one another, a property characteristic of the object is said of the subject in the most general sense (as
predicate, or verb, or even as an independent noun phrase introduced
by "as though"). This case is more devious and more universal,
though both rupaka and utprek$ii do involve the metaphorical
(literally 'carrying over') transfer of something onto something else.
It might be said that utpreh;ii was a rupaka with suppression of the
object. The standard technique, both in English and in Sanskrit,
of utprek$ii is simply a noun, representing the subject of comparison,
followed by a verb or predicate which literally must be understood
with the objects of comparison,)!s: "And one blue parasol cries all
the way to school" (Thomas Hood). A parasol can't cry, but a
parasol with rain dripping off may, be likened to a little girl's face,
which can. A rupaka represents atgti\Iidentification of two things;
an utprek$ii is only a partial coalescence through the transfer of a
characteristic property or function. Other figures are of course very
closely related to utprek$ii; perhaps the most significant is samiis8kti,
where the subject of comparison is entirely implicit in an expression
which in fact represents the object ofcomparison: "A bird in the hand
is worth two in the bush", refers to the advisability of choosing
a present advantage (whatever it may be) rather than a future
and more attractive advantage. Utprek,'ii does not subsume completely the subject of comparison in this way: it remains explicit,
usually as the subject of the sentence. Mixing these closely related
figures in any protracted discourse is, of course, quite common,
especially in the case of utprek$ii and rupaka (sometimes enumerated
as a separate figure, or utprek$/ivayava). Virginia Woolf is particularly rich in such complicated metaphors, as: "Suddenly, as if
the movementofhis hand had released it, the load of her cumulated
impressions [rupaka] of him tilted up, and down poured in a ponderous avalanche all she felt about him [utprek$ii]." Notice how easily
the one figure can be transformed into the other: "Suddeniy, as if
the movement of his hand had released their load, her cumulated
impressions of him tilted up [utprek$ii] and down poured the ponderous avalanche of all she felt about him [rupaka]."
It is curious that the figure utprek$ii, which in importance is
perhaps second only to upamii and rupaka, and which is recorded by
all the writers from Bhamaha onwards, should never have been
made the subject of' an elaborate subdivision or classification so

GLOSSARY

133

typical of the iilmrzkiirika writers. Only Udbhata even suggests the

possibility of subdiViding utprek$ii, and goes only so far as to
enumerate two types (bhiiv/ibhiiva). Even more surprising is the
unanimity which is evident in the defining of the figure. Rudrata,
though offering no classification, does give six separate definitions
of the figure, two of which seem to refer to Udbhata's earlier dichotomy. These six types will be discussed separately, even though
they involve no terminology and no important deviation from the
general definition, because of the typical astuteness which Rudrata
demonstrates in discussing the principles underlying the various
aspects of this important figure. His first definition is the same as
that already given, and we will not repeat it here. A mode of action
appropriate to one thing is attributed to another, in terms of an
implicit simile. That simile, so explained, is nothing but a standard
comparison (see upamii) involving a subject, an object, and a real
property justifying the similitude (such as those attributed to the
cat in Eliot's verse, for example). Now, according to Rudrata, the
case is not always so straightforward: for instead of the real property
or mode of behavior simply, (a) a second, or subordinate simile
(that is, an entire subordinate comparison) may be ascribed to the
original subject (type 2), invoking the same three terms ; (b) a quality
may be attributed to, or implied in another thing, not directly
through an upamiina, but in virtue of the relation of both upameya
and upamiina to the terms of a further simile which is then understood as justifying the first attribution; or, (c) the ascription may
not be based upon a real similitude at all, but may be entirely Conventional. These types follow.
utprek~li (II): (I) the ascription of a characteristic to a subject, not in
terms of an implicit object of comparison simply, but through the
relation of that subject and object to a further subject and object
which, as a more general simile,justify the first attribution. (2) R 8.34
(35). (3) iipii~uga~apiilfviracitamrganiibhipatrarupel)a / saslSafikayeva patitarrz liifichanam asyii mukhe sutano/l (Rudrata: "the spot
has fallen on her face"; the immediate simile suggested is that of
the beauty marks on the girl's face (subject) and the spots on the
moon (object); but this simile suggests a further simile of the girl's
face as such (subject) aud the moon (object), which in fact justifies and
explains the first simile and the attribution based upon it: "A beauty
mark has fallen on to the face of this slender-bodied girl, thinking
it the moon, for her pale cheeks are decorated with lines of musk

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from the navel of the deer"). (4) "Desolate and lone / All night long
on the lake / Where fog trails and mist creeps, / The whistle of a
boat / Calls and cries unendingly, / Like some lost child / In tears
and trouble / Hunting the harbor's breast / And the harbor's eyes"
(Carl Sandburg; here all the parts are made explicit to facilitate
comprehension: the first utprek$ii [the whistle cries] is followed by
the object on which it is based [the child], by which is constituted
the immediate simile; but that simile is extended: first subject [whistle]
to another [harbor] and first object [child] to another [breast], which
further simile [here in the form of a rilpaka] justifies the first). (5)
The point here does not concern the utprek$ii itself, but only the
mode of interpreting the ascriptLon which constitutes the utprek$ii;
that is, relating that ascription to the simile or similes which it
assumes. In this case, the immediate simile so understood is, in a
way, not adequate unto itself (conil1~re' the next type) because it
represents a subordinate and limited aspect of a more universal
simile, which situation is suggested by mention of any of its aspects.
The form is exactly parallel to the rilpaka called samastavastuvi$aya,
'referring to the whole thing (as well,as its parts)', and illustrates
the generality of the formal framework proposed by the Indian
aestheticians.
utprek~ii (III): (1) the ascription of a characteristic or mode of behavior
to a subject, not through direct comparison with an implicit object,
as in simile, but via a conventional attribute of that object to which
the subject bears a certain relation. (2) R 8.36 (37). (3) atighana-

found in both (though in fact it is limited to the object). So with the

utprek$ii founded on a standard simile (see above), but in this case,
instead of a simple object, there are two terms, related conventionally
or accidentally, one of which serves as the technical object of
comparison to the subject (as the flag), the other of which, though
not sharing any similarity with the subject, gives the rationale for
the figurative usage or transfer (as the sun). The figurative or
metaphorical ascription is meaningless when the subject is related
to either object in isolation: the dawn may behave like the flag only
of the sun, the Baronet may wear the garland only of Bully Bottom;
yet in both cases the metaphor is understood as a relation between
the dawn and the sun, between the Baronet and Bottom. The form
which this utprek$ii embodies seems to be that of paraf[lparita rilpaka
(see utprek$ii II).
Rudrata, having accounted for certain non-standard similes as
foundations for the figure utprek$ii, discusses the figure again in
terms of the thing said to have the property ascribed (the subject);
specifically, in terms of the relation of that subject (or upameya) to
that aSCribed property. Now, again the point of departure is the
standard simile, and here the subject of comparisou, as we said,
may plausibly be thought of as having the property, in the most real
and literal sense. The transfer is justified in terms of a real similarity.
Rudrata's type four illustrates this.
utprek~ii (IV): (1) a metaphorical ascription of a property or mode of
behavior justified by an inherently plausible similarity between the
explicit object and the implicit subject. (2) R 9.11 (12). (3) ghanasa-

kuiikumariigii puri1!) patiikeva drsyate saf[ldhyii / udayatalantaritasya

prathayaty iisannatiif[l bhano!) (Rudrata; the dawn does not herald the

approach of the sun merely in virtue of its natural relation of

precedence to the sun, but, according to the Indian mythology,
because the sun's chariot carries a banner the color of the dawn:
."The dawn is seen like a flag of deep saffron, heralding the approach
of the morning Sun hidden behind the eastern hills"). (4) "The
Baronet stroked his brow, as if he already felt Bully Bottom's
garland" (George Meredith; the Baronet is being compared to
Bully Bottom, not directly, in virtue of his "being distinguished by
woman", but through the garland which Titania has, in signification,
placed upon Bully's brow). (5) The irregularity which this variety of
utprek$ii accounts for is that of the apparent irrelevance of the terms
to one another. In a standard simile, the subject is related to the
object through a property which, with some plausibility, can be

mayasaliladhaute nabhasi saraccandrikii visarpantf / atisiindratayeha

anulimpatfveyam (Rudrata; while the moonlight cannot "anoint" anything, the utprek$ii and its implied simile are

nr~iif[l giitrii~y

plausible becanse of the almost substantial qnality of the tropical

moonbeams, which do something very near to "flowing" over the
body: "In a sky cleansed by the streaming rain of the monsoon
clouds, the autumn moon wanders and, almost like an unguent,
anoints the limbs of men"). (4) "The very touch of that canvas was
enough to make my hand sing. I felt the colonr flowing on to it as
sweet as cream" (Joyce Cary; as in the Sanskrit, we have the "flowing" of color, but the simile is spelled out by adding "cream" as
the object of comparison). (5) The point is not that the usage is
not figurative, but that the figuration is plausible in terms of an
inherent pattern of behavior present in both the object and implied

136

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subject. Since the relation is inherent and does not involve the
context, Rudra(a considers it sarrzbhiivita ('hypothetical'). In the
next variety of utprek~ii, the subject does not possess a plausible
relation to the object.
lItprek~ii (V): (1) a metaphorical ascription of a property or mode of
behavior justified by au accidental but relevant context. (2) R 9.11
(13). (3) pallavitarrz candrakarair akhilarrz nf!{jsmakullim{jrvf~U /
tiiriipratimiibhir idarrz pu~pitam avanipatel; saudham (Rudra(a; the
moonbeams make the stucco palace appear as if flowering: "Its
spacious floors set with sapphires, the entire royal palace seemed
covered with buds in the moonlight; its fine stucco walls were forced
into flower by reflections of stars'). (4) "Arthur Donnithorne was ...
stared at, from a dingy olive-green piece of tapestry, by Pharoah's
daughter and her maidens, who ought to have been minding the
infant Moses" (George Eliot; the P~"70ah's daughter, being present
only in a piece of tapestry, would not ordinarily be characterized as
"staring" were it not for the handsome young Arthur, who distracts
her). (5) This utprek~ii can be seen as one in which the ascription is
more in view of the grammatical direct object of the assertion than
its grammatical subject. (Note that the words subject and object
are not used here as "subject of comparison", etc.) The ascription
could be called "transitive": the moonbeams do not behave as
vivifiers because of some quality which they inherently possess, but
only because of their effect on the stones of the palace; similarly,
the portrait does not "stare" because the artist has woven her that
way, but because, of the presence of an object to be stared at, namely
Arthur. It mighf,appear that it was in fact the grammatical object
(jewels, Arthur) in these examples which subtended the ascribed
quality; au interpretation of this sort is lent authority by both examples being in the passive voice. There are two reasons why this
view cau not be accepted: the passives can always be expressed as
actives with no alteration whatever in the argument, and the Sanskrit
authors always speak of the ascribed quality as a kriyti, or simply,
'act.' It is this act which, aside from grammatical expression,
constitutes the basic element of the utprek~ii, and in terms of the act
are defined subject (kartr) and object (ktiralJa). It would be perverse
to use these well-known terms in a non-standard sense. The subject
is the only plausible basis for the act, and these two types of ascription differ precisely in the reference of that ascription to the third
term (the direct object), or in the ascription's irrelevance to it.

Lastly, a sixth type of utprek~ii is possible, where the ascription is

not a quality or a mode of behavior at all, but a fanciful rationale
for a perfectly literal action (see below).
utprek~ii (VI): (I) the metaphorical ascription of a motive or rationale.
(2) R 9.14 (15). (3) sarasi samullasadambhasi kiidambaviyogaduyamiineva / nalinf jalapraveSarrz cakiira var~{jgame sadyal; (Rudrata:
"Nalinl takes her bath in the laughing river every day at the onset
of the rains, as though she were grieving for the departed geese").
(4) "Her great dark eyes with their long eyelashes touch one so
strangely, as if an imprisoned frisky sprite looked out of them"
(George Eliot). (5) This is one of the most frequently met types of
utprek~ii, and yet it differs significantly from those so far described.
The fancifulness of the ascription is here more explicit and obvious
and seems less to coucern the structure of the figure as au ontological
treason. A motive or rationale is, of course, less inherent than a
mode of behavior or a quality, both of which imply an ontological
agent (kartr); the ascription of a motive, on the other hand, necessarily involves a bystander as well, and an element of indeterminacy
is built into the situation. That this is considered to be utprek~ii
shows that it is .ascription and not the thing ascribed which defines
the figure. But since a motive is necessarily ascribed, it might seem
that auy explanation of whatever sort would qualify as an utprek~ii.
Rudrata obviates this objection by specifying that the motive ascribed
must replace another more obvious, natural, or literal motive. In
this sense, we say the "fanciful" ascription of a motive: Nalinl really
enters the water to bathe, the girl looks at him in a manner which
has nothing to do with sprites or imprisomnent. The second motive
thus plays the same role as the second quality or mode of behavior
in that it brings in another term or situation which functions as
the object of comparison (imprisoned sprite). What appeared at
first to be an irregular utprek~ii now appears as a double utprek~ii: an
ascription of a motive which itself bears a relation of ascription to
another [literal] motive. This variety of utprek~ii fits into the sequence of the previous two in a perfectly rational way once its form
is understood: just as the ascription of type four took place in
reference to the subject alone (first person), and that of type five
took place also in reference to the direct object (third person), this
type demonstrates those ascriptions dependent upon the second
person, or observer. This again illustrates the characteristic insight
of the Indian writers into the structure of the figures and their ability

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139

involves no other issues than the extreme frequency with which this
particular metaphorical complex is encountered. The poet is always
tempted to draw out his ascriptions (utprek~as), especially as they can
become quite obscure without much effort, and certainly because an
enlarged metaphor is more of a poetic object than an abbreviated
one. Vamana's definition of utprelqavayava is brief in the extreme
and quite misleading at first glance: he says simply: "utprek~ahetur
utprek~avayavab" ('utprek~avayava means the cause of an utprek~a
[is given]'). This is to be understood in the sense that the subordinate
metaphors or similes define the broader context in which the main
utprek~a becomes alive.

to classify exhaustively and rationally the appearances of poetic

inspiration.
One other problem is discussed by DaJ;lc;lin and repeated by some
commentators: the use of the comparative particle (iva) in some
utprek~as has led some thinkers to identify utprek~a and upama.
The example discussed by DaJ;lc;lin is limpattva tamab ('the darkness,
as it were, anoints'). Now, the English seems to distinguish the
two usages where the Sanskrit does not: we use "as it were", "as if",
or "as though" for utprek~a, and "like" or "as" for simile. Davcj.in
likewise insists upon the substance of the difference, even though
the word may be the same (2.227-34). A simile relates two similars
in terms of a shared quality: th!;Jva attaches to the object of comparison. In the utprek~a, the ivdattaches to the verb, which cannot
be considered an object of compari":>ll since it possesses no property.

uditta
uditta, 'lofty': (I) a figure in which great accumulation of wealth or
greatness of character (viz. self-denial) is described. (2) B 3.12 (II, 13),
D 2.300-303, U 4.8, M 176-77. (3) muktab kelivisutrahtiragalitab
sa'f1marjanfbhir hrtab pratab praiigal;lasfmni mantharaealadMlaiighrilak~arul;ltib / durad darjimabijasaiikitadhiyab kar~anti kelfSuka yad
vidvadbhavane~ubhojanrpates tat tyagalflayitam (Mammaja: "Bestow-

>:":"
utprek~avayava
utprek~avayava,

'component parts of the ascription': (I) a type of metaphorical ascription (utprek~a) in which further subordinate metaphors
explicate and expand the principal ascription. (2) B 3.46 (47),
V 4.3.31, 33. (3) aiigulfbhir iva kdasa'f1eaya'f1 sa'f1nigrhya timira'f1
marfcibhib / kurjmalfkrtasarojaloeana'f1 eumbativa rajanfmukha'f1 saH
(Vamana; the principal ascription is: "the moon, as it were, kisses
the face of the night"; this is extended by drawing a parallel between
fingers playing with a maiden's tresses and the rays of the moon
glancing through the darkness (as through tree branches, etc.):
"Grasping the darkness with its rays as though it were hair and they
were fingers, the moon kisses the face of the night, her eyes demurely
closed-lotuses on the lake unbloomed !"). (4) "The Moon, like a
flower, / In heaven's high bower, / With silent delight / Sits and smiles
on the uight" (William Blake; ahnost identical to Vamana's example,
except that the subordinate parallel is between the moon itself and a
flower). (5) Utprelqavayava is an independent figure in Bhamaha,
and one of the two compound figures (sa'f1Sr~li) allowed by Vamana
(see upamarupaka); it may be considered in the same context as
utprek~a. It differs from simple utprek~a only in being associated
with other and subordinate figures in a "mixed" metaphor. Both the
English and Sanskrit examples show an upama and a rupaka in
conjunction with the principal utprek~a. Later writers consider this
figure nothing but one of the many kinds of multiple ala'f1kara
(sa'f1Sr,'li), and its early enumeration as a separate figure probably

ing benefits is so much a game to your Majesty that in the homes of

your advisors the pearls, dropped from necklaces broken in the
sports of love, are swept up by the charwomen and, scattered about
the borders of the yards, are marked by red lac from the feet of
slowly strolling maidens; pet parrots drag the pearls away thinking
them to be pomegranate seeds"). (4) "The business was a gold mine,
as Sigsag had said. The profits on wine and liquor were of course
high; we paid no rent; and the best people in America were our
customers. There was no overhead; refrigerators, light, office expenses, telephone, glasses, ice and waiters were paid for by the hotel;
and a thick golden stream of profit ran into what von Kyling called
'the General Welfare'.... And along with the profits from the
immense turnover of champagne-a hundred cases sometimes being
used in some single party-there were of course liberal tips on how
to treble that profit on the stock-market" (Ludwig Bemelmans).
(5) The figure is always described as being two fold: if great wealth
can be appropriated, then it can also be relinquished; the greatness
of character is founded upon previously acquired material greatness.
The common example is Rama leaving his capital for the forest:
"udalta'f1 saktiman ramo guruvakyanurodhakab / vihtiy6panata'f1
rajya'f1 yathti vanam upagamat" (Bhilmaha: 'Mighty Rama, faithful

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to the words of his teacher, abandoned his prosperous and devoted

kingdom and entered the forest'). Compare: "Till at length / Your
ignorance ... / ... deliver you as most / Abated captives to some
nation / That won you without blows! Despising, / For you, the
city, thus I turn my back: There is a world elsewhere" (Shakespeare;
Coriolanus speaks).
The element of exaggeration is not necessarily present, but of
course this amounts to a kind ofhyperbole (see atisayokti).! Udbhata
is careful to distinguish this figure from rasavad alarrzkiira, for here
the evocation of the rasa (for example, vira rasa in the two quotations given above) is subordinated to other considerations: a description of the forest, or the obloquy.heaped upon Coriolanus' enemies.
The example from Bhamaha does not support the distinction very
well; Udbhata's example is a description of the wealth of the Himalaya as a backgrouud for Parvati's hitFh.
The present figure is one of the group of figures which seem to
depend more on their subject matter than on form. Compare rasavad,
urjasvi, preyas. Except for Mammata, these figures are restricted
to the earlier writers. Anandavardhana devotes much significant
argument to these figures (especially rasavat) in discussing the
relation between rasa and alarrzkiira; they do show that in the earlier
literature the tendency was to include the notion of "mood" within
that of "figure", and not the reverse, as happened later.
pama
lipuma, 'comparison':(1) the comparison of one thing with a substantially
different thing in"ferms of a property, quality, or mode of behavior
which they share; simile. (2) NS 16.40-52, B 2.30-33, D 2.14-65
(51-56) (discuss upamiido$a), V 4.2.1-21, U 1.15-21, AP 344.6-21,
R 8.4-31, M 125-34. (3) ambhoruham iviitiimrarrz mugdhe karatalarrz
tava (DaJf4in: "Like a pale pink lotus, my sweet! your hand ...").
(4) "My Luve's like a red, red rose" (Robert Burns). (5) Upamii, one
of the four original alarrzkiiras, is in all the rhetorics the most important figure. This is due in part to the universality of the simile
in works of art, but another and more cogent reason no doubt
concerns the place of simile in the system of the alarrzkiiras. Of the
approximately one hundred figures enumerated, perhaps fifty are
reducible to a basic simile or are describable in terms appropriate to
the simile. One of the authors, Vamana, even attempts to state all of
the figures involving/meaning (arthiilarrzkiira) as similes, but his

GLOSSARY

141

definitions of certain cases are vicious or too restricted (cf sle$a).

The two systematic writers, DaJf4in and Rudrata, as well as the
compiler Mammata, consider simile the characteristic figure and
offer elaborate classifications of it. Upama was recognized as a
category of interpretation as far back as Yaska's Nirukta, and it
figures in the NighaJ;l!u (3.13), but the term signifies generally
metaphorical usage and comprehends what are later considered
separate figures (rupaka, samiisokti).
The broader question of the poetic scope and nature of simile
would of course be the most interesting to raise at this juncture.
The limitations put upon this work forbid it. A sketch, however,
may be in order, insofar as the later alarrzkiira tradition itself develops
along lines which bring into prominence just that discussion. In the
dhvani theory and in the work ou vakrokti, the notion is propounded
that poetry necessarily involves non-literalness: the poetic passage
must refer to a greater range of ideas and things than its immediate
words literally convey. In this same context, the importance of
simile is probably also to be located. The simile is just such a broadening of the expression: a second thing, by nature irrelevaut, is
brought into the ,context, whereby the first, the relevant, or subject
term is illuminated in a peculiarly characteristic way. The simplest
from of non-literalness is just this doubling of the subject. Of
course, the non-literal is not at all the irrelevant; the ultimate aim
of all poetic diction is coherence, unity, and accuracy and is no
wise different from science in this respect. But the skill of the poet
lies in his ability to create that coherence out of words and phrases
that are constantly fleeing into the shady mists of connotation,
constantly avoiding their original meaning and scope. Likewise,
the poet who proclaims that his love is like a rose says something far
more accurate about that young lady as she is than he could hope to
express in terms of her eyes, hair, or physical shape. He does this
via an irrelevant discursus which takes us for a moment to the field
of botany and associated connotations. This irrelevance is, of
course, irrelevant only in the reahu of the literal and scientific and
constitutes the point of departure for those describing the poetic
function of comparison. The ultimate relevance of such oblique
reference is at the heart of the poetic problem. By singling out a
thing which is so obviously different-a rose or the moon-the
poet, by a type of Platonic definition, and by placing it against his
subject, immediately cancels out in the reader's mind the entire

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143

defined above; who indeed wonld deprive the scientist of the use of
such convenient explanatory devices as "sodium reacts like potassium
in many compounds". Perhaps it is for this reason that Bhamaha,
the earliest writer we know about, avers that no figure can be really
poetic unless it also has a touch of exaggeration, or atisayokti
(B 2.81,85), associated with it (repeated by DaI;lqin 2.220). Bhamaha,
Udbhata, and Mammata all emphasize in defining upamii that the
things compared must in fact be substantially different-'contrary
by reason of place, time, or mode of action', as Bhamaha says.
Mammata boldly defines simile as 'similarity in difference' (siidharmyal?' bhede). But the other writers, though they consider only
similes which by any standard would be considered poetic, do not
appear to have been aware ofthe problem of over-extension, or "end",
as it were. DaI;l<;1in says only that upamii is siidrsyam ('similitude').
The problem is perhaps more academic than real, since the nonpoetic similes are just those where the expressive potential of
simile is least well exploited, that is, where so little difference is
understood between the terms that comparison itself is almost otiose.
It might almost be said: "give a simile something to do, and it will
be poetic". The comparison of sodium and potassium is not unpoetic because of the subject matter, but just because, for all practical
purposes, the two things are in fact indistinguishable, are like
Tweedledum and Tweedledee (note that the last simile is highly
poetic).
Simile is limited on the one side by the indistinguishability or
literal replacability of its terms, but it also has the same limit on the
other side, for beyond simile lies the realm of metaphor (rupaka),
where, despite differences great enough to permit scope to simile,
the terms of comparison are identified with each other-said in such
a way that sameness alone is suggested and not similarity-as in
the phrase "reahu of metaphor." The mode or the modal reality
ofthe comparison changes, but the terms of its description do not;
in rupaka, for instance, the object of comparison (upamiina) is
"projected onto" (meta-phor) or, as we say, identified with the subject
of comparison (upameya): not "her face is like the moon" but "her
face is the moon" (the moon of her face delights the evening crowd).
The common property is usnally not expressed, since the aim of
metaphor is to suppress all difference; the comparative particle of
course is necessarily absent (but cf utprek$ii, where it reappears in
a new sense).

range of literally irrelevant and incomparable aspects and connotations of each term so juxtaposed taken separately, and presents only
those two things as manifesting some common aspect, the tertium,
which by the force of this being abstracted and displayed alone, as
it were, redounds to the descriptive credit of the original subject.
Simile, accomplishes this feat of intellective specification by the use
of particles such as "like" (iva).
The simile is limited in its expressive power only by the ability
of the mind to comprehend the two things as common; the appropriateness of the simile is primarily a question of the comparing
object being precisely proportioned to the subject in just that aspect
which is contextually relevant,. although in rare cases the object
itself may have to be consideri,'d.
All Indian writers agree on analyzing the simile into the four component aspects we have introduced.;;(a) the upameya, or 'thing to be
compared': the subject of comparison, through which the simile is
related to the literal or outward sequence of ideas which constitute
the framework of the poem (compare this literal and grammatical
freedom of the subject in upamii with its uecessary subordination in
rupaka); (b) the upamiina, or 'agent of comparison': the object
introduced to concentrate attention on the essentials of aspect or
behavior; (c) the siidhiiravadharma, 'shared property': the quality
so singled out; and (d) the dyotaka, or 'clarifying' element: the
comparative adverb "like" (iva), or a similar indicator. This terminology goes back at least to PaI;lini, who uses it in describing certain
compounds which express comparisons (3.1.10, 3.4.45, 2.1.55-56,
etc.). The same concepts are also used to describe those figures which
depend upon a basic simile but do not express an explicit comparison,
such as rupaka, utprek$ii, vyatireka, etc. In this work, the words
"subject" and "object" are used in the senses given above unless
otherwise specified, and some care must be taken not to confuse
this usage with the more common philosophical or grammatical
subjects or objects.
All comparisons necessarily involve an element of non-identity,
but of course the terms of some comparisons are far more "realistic"
(sc. similar) than others, as: "Featured like him, like him with friends
possessed" (Shakespeare). Vamana alone of our authors Seems to
have perceived this problem and allows a simile called tattviikhyiina,
or 'literal', where the end is not praise or blame, but merely precision.
Simile here seems to leave the strictly poetic realm, in the sense

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GLOSSARY

In this way, the various figures involving a duplication of the

context are explained and reduced to similes. We ueed not characterize them more fully here, since at least half of this work is concerned with just that problem. However, some accounting of the
various classifications proposed for simile itself is necessary.
The general tendency is for the discriminations or subtypes more
and more to be based on the quadripartite structure we have given.
The earlier writers, however, while obviously recognizing that
structure in defining the basic figure, tended to classify simile in
terms of the end or final cause of the comparison. This is especially
interesting in view of the universal preoccupation with structure,
even among the early writers, in classifying ri1paka. This difference
seems to reflect the character(;f the problem under consideration.
Since comparison is always a mqtter of degree, it would appear
appropriate to consider the usageo;ptthe various degrees, which is
not a questiou of structure, but of theokinds of things compared
and the reasons for that selection of things; but metaphor, being
identification pure and simple, is never a question of degree (except
in the sense that the metaphor cqn pe more or less well specified
in its parts, or complete), and the only relevant question concerns
the scope of the identification, which has little to do with the things
themselves, but is entirely a matter of the poet's employing or
not employing the ideal metaphorical type (see ri1paka).
In classifying upama, the non-structural, or contextual, tradition
may be said to begin with Bharata himself, for he allows similes of
praise (prasaYflsa) and blame (nindii), as well as three similes which
differ as to the~;degree of comparability intended by the poet:
sadrSi, or entirely comparable, that is, where the subject and object
possess the same property to a great degree; kiYflcitsadrSi, where the
same subject shares comparable qualities with several objects
and is therefore partially comparable; and kalpita, where, strictly
speaking, no comparability at all is alleged; that is, no property is
described as common to both subject and object, but rather different
descriptive properties are assigned to both which are, in fact, similar
(the similarity is not literal, but analogical).
The other, or structural, tradition may claim almost the same
antiquity, for Bhllmaha, who specifically objects to the classification
by praise and blame as irrelevant (2.37), enumerates only three
kinds of upama, depending only on the grammatical device by which
the similitude is expressed. We have mentioned previously only the

adverb "like" in this connection, but Bhiimaha allows two others

beside yathevasabda upama, namely samasa, where the simile is
expressed by a compound word instead of the adverb (moon-faced),
and vati, ('possessing the suffix -vat'), where the upamana is also
in bound form-bound not by the upameya, but rather by an adverbial suffix having the same meaning as iva (moon-like face).
It is in this context that the argument as to the relative antiquity of
Bhamaha and DaJ)<!in finds its moment. The two authors appear
to be engaged in mutual refutation. Bhiimaha not only rejects a
sequence of similes in exactly the order in which Daw!in gives them
(nindaprasaYflsiicikhyasa), mentioning acikhyasa, which term is
peculiar to Dar;><;lin, but in reply, Dar;><;lin appears to belittle the
classification by grammatical type in his rather offhand enumeration
of approximately fifty words and conventions for expressing simile
(2.57-65). Elsewhere, Dar;><;lin objects to figures which are peculiar
to Bhiimaha (upamari1paka, utprek~iivayava, ananvaya, sasaYfldeha) iu
2.358-59. Much controversy has been occasioned by this chronology,
and we make these comments only insofar as the problem may compliment that of the sequence of analytical models proposed for simile.
Dar;><;lin accepts Bharata's point of view entirely, but advances the
classification to an undreamed of degree of snbtlety. His treatment
of upama is probably unequaled in the history of alaYflkarasastra
for its length, perspecuity, and philosophical interest. The thirtyfour types illustrate a variety of intuitioual situations which the
upama may facilitate. From the old varieties of 'praise' and 'blame',
we progress to 'judiciousness' (acikhyasa), 'confusion' (moha),
'amazement' (adbhuta), 'flattery' (ca{u). All of these are specific
ways of representing (or misrepresenting) the basic similitude, the
singled-out property.
An important distinction introduced by Dar;><;lin and accepted by
later authors is that between simile of quality and simile of mode of
action. The former is regarded as the typical comparison, and is
that which has been described above; in the latter, the notion of
common property is broadened to include modes of action; in
effect, adjectival similes are replaced by verbal similes (he is as swift
as a horse; he runs like a horse). Because the subject and object are
related now through a verb, the latter type of simile is called
vakyiirtha, or 'referring to the entire phrase' (of noun and verb).
The simple simile, or simile of property, does not involve the verb.
Vamana also mentions this distinction.
0

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The contextual point of view loses ground after Dat.l<;lin; only the
Agni PuriiQa is fully committed to it. Vamana allows the threefold distinction "stuli [for praimllsii] nindii tattviikhyiina", presumably
more on the authority of Bharata than Dat.l<;lin, but at the same time,
he suggests another distinction which soon becomes dominant, and
which is clearly based on the method of Bhiimaha. This distinction
is the first which clearly sets forth the four elements of simile as
criteria. A simile in which all four elements are explicit is called
pi1rQa, or 'complete'; if one or more of the elements is implicit only,
the simile is called lupta, or 'deficient'. Bhiimaha's samiisopamii
would be an example of a lupta upamii, since neither the tertium
nor the particle are expressed. },Jdbha;a, who follows Bhiimaha in
most matters, here adapts the purQa-lupta distinction to his predecessor's three types and comes up w.ith fourteen varieties of simile.
Calling It/pta saYflk$epa, or 'ellipsis1i'Ydbha;a defines four varieties
depending on which element or elemlmtsate not expressed (tertium,
particle, both, both plus subject). (See siimyaviicaka, tadviicisaYflk$epa.) Mammata takes up this problem again and goes to
absurd lengths to illustrate certain possible ellipses (cf. upameyadyotakalupta). These types usually amount to Bhiimaha's samiisopamii,
but some involve other principles.
Udbhata also improves upon Bhiimaha's category vali, where,
it will be remembered, the object of comparison was bound by a
comparative suffix -vat. Admitting this type, Udbhata then finds
certain other morphological contexts where the object of comparison
in some form or'other appears in bound form with verb-, adverb-,
or adjective-forming suffixes. The Sanskrit language, in fact, allows
any noun to be made into a verb having the sense of "behaves like X"
(see iiciira); likewise an adverbial accusative in -am, always distinguished from the accusative case, may express the idea of similitude
when suffixed to the object of comparison (see Qamul). Lastly, other
taddhita suffixes than -vat are comparative in meaning (-kalpa, g.v.).
Rudra;a in a way represents a summation of the structural
tradition. He allows the same three types as Bhiimaha and Udbhata,
calling them viikyopamii (not the same as Dat.l<;lin's viikyarthOpamii)
for Bhiimaha's yatMvaiabdopamii, as opposed to samiisopamii,
which name Rudrata keeps, and pratyaya, or suffixed similes, by
which term Rudra;a apparently intends all those formed by suffixation as described by Udbhata. In reference to samiisa upamii, it
might be remarked that the compound so formed is a bahuvrihi, or

GLOSSARY

147

adjectival compound, thus distinguishing the compound which forms

a simile from that which forms a ri1paka and which is a karmadhiiraya
type of tatpuru$a. The terms of that compound, as we remark elsewhere, are inverted. From the simile "moon-face(d)", we get the
metaphor "face-moon", but this inversion is just a transparent way
of illustrating the contrast in compound type.
As viikyopamii, that is, similes expressed through free (not bound)
nouns and adverbs, Rudrata admits six types, all of which are
known from other authors but whose selection here again typifies the
author's preoccupation with system. The first type (unnamed) is a
canonical pi1rQa upamii with all fonr elements explicit; the second
shows ellipsis of the common property (siimiinytibhiiva~the same
as Dat.l<;lin's vastu upamii). This pair illustrates the standard simile
in which the only variable element is the tertium. Next come two
similes which may be called reciprocal or reflexive, in which the
subject is in effect compared to itself: this may be done either by
not mentioning an object at all (ananvaya: "her face is like her face"),
or, when an object is given, by immediately proposing that object
as subject (ubhaya: "the moon is like her face"). This is Dat.l<;lin's
upameyopamii. Lastly, we may have similes in which either the property (tertium) or the object are assumed to be hypothetical for the
purposes of the poet (kalpita and utpiidya, or abhi1ta).
Rudrata also mentions a simile which is evidently patterned on
the standard treatment of ri1paka and which shows very well the
influence of the structural approach to the definition of these figures:
he distinguishes samastaviSaya from ekadeiin, assnming the standard
metaphorical whole (cf. ri1paka).
atisaya, 'pre-eminence': (1) an upamii in which the similitude is expressed
by minimizing the difference between the things compared to the
point where they appear as bare facts without qualitative differentiation. (2) D 2.22. (3) tvayy eva tvanmukhaYfl dmaYfl driyate divi
candramiib I iyaty eva bhidii nanyii (DaJ.l<;lin: "Your face is seen on
you, the moon is seen in the sky; so much are they different and
no more"). (4) "For the time being he had lost the primitive faculty
that instinctively classifies the various sensory impressions according
to their relative values. One afternoon he saw a transport truck run
into an automobile. But this bloody accident impressed him no
more vividly than the sight, a few minutes later, of a scrap of newspaper fluttering in the wind" (Carson McCullers). (5) For variations
on the theme of minimizing the difference, see catu, tattvakhyiina.

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GLOSSARY

Here the common property is not shared to different degrees, yet the
two similars are not "confused" as in salflsaya. In ca!u, the common
property is shared to different degrees, but that difference is overlooked. See also pratiyamana vyatireka, bhedamatra vyatireka,

149

(2) D 2.18. (3) taviinanam iviimbhojam ambhojam iva te mukham

(DaJ:1Qin: "Your face is like a lotus; the lotus is like your face").
(4) "She walks iu beauty, like the night / Of cloudless climes and
starry skies; / And all that's best of dark and bright / Meet in her
aspect and her eyes" (Byron). (5) Anyonya is the same as upamey6pama of Bhamaha, Vamana, Udbhata, and Mammata; as paraspar6pama of the Agni Purava; as ubhay6pama of Rudrata.
abhiita, 'not happened': (I) an upama in which the object of comparison
is a hypothetical universal and is, strictly speaking, nonexistent.
(2) D 2.38. (3) sarvapadmaprabhasaral; samahrta iva kvacit /
tvadananalf! vibhati (Dal,lQin: "Like the distilled essence of every
lotus' beauty, your face is lovely"). (4) "I am thinking of himloosely I admit-very much as some political cartoonist might think
of a generalized and consolidated figure that turns a deaf ear to the
Bolshevist and his sinister whisperings ..." (Oliver Onions). (5) The
idea is that the object is never exposed to the pettiness of mere
experience, yet it can be expressed as an extrapolation on experience.
The subject is thus, a fortiori, elevated above the mundane. In
adbhuta, there is a transfer of property from subject to object; here
the object is impossible in its own terms. In utpadya, the object
is hypothetical, bnt not generalized.
asaJllbhava, 'impossibility': (1) an upama in which an incongruons
property, in fact belonging to the subject, is predicated of the object
of comparison. (2) V 4.2.20. (3) cakasti vadane tasyal; smitacchtiya
vikasinal; / unnidrasyiiravindasya madhye mugdheva candrika (Vamana:
"A smile appears on her bright face like pure moonlight among
sleepless lotuses"). (4) "Holt was constantly attentive: the Admiral's
flag-lieutenant hung over her like a decorated cliff" (Nicholas
Mollsarrat). (5) Asalf!bhava differs from asalf!bhtivita only in being
stated positively, and from adbhuta in being stated as a proposition.
asaJllbhiivita, 'impossible': (I) an upama in which the subject ofcomparison
is, strictly speaking, nonexistent; that is, the common property
proposed is incongruous or unlikely. (2) D 2.39. (3) candrabimbad
iva vi~alf! candanad iva pavakal; / paru~a vag ito vaktrat (Dal,lQin:
"A harsh word from her mouth would be like poison from the moon's
disc or fire from sandal-paste"). (4)" 'There's that Bessy Cranageshe'll be flauntin' i' new finery three weeks after you're gone, I'll
be bound: she'll no more go on in her new ways without you, than
a dog 'ull stand on its hind-legs when there's nobody looking'"
(GeorgecEliot). (5) This is ironical comparison, for two things are

vyatirekariipaka.

adbhuta, 'marvellous': (1) an upama in which a real property of the subject is predicated of the object; a presumed similitude is thus expressed. (2) D 2.24, AP 344.16. (3) yam kilf!cid bhavet padmam
udbhru vibhrantalocanam / tat te mukhasriyalf! dhattam (Dal,lQin: "If
there were a lotus with arching brows and roaming glance, then it
would have the beauty of your face"). (4) '''It's lovely, lovely, lovelY',
she said, with diminishing caden.S', ending in pensiveness once more.
'Do you see that little bit just there? No, not where the trees are-that
bare spot that looks brown and "Yarm in the sun. With a little
sage-brush, that spot would look s<in;~thing like a place I know on
Bear Creek. Only, of course, you don't get the clear air here'"
(Owen Wister). (5) Cf. abhiita, asadharaJ}a.
auauvaya, 'lack of consequence': (I) self-comparison; an upama in which
the subject doubles as object. (2)R ~.11 (12). (3) iyam iyam iva
tava ca tanul; ... (Rudrata: "Your body resembles itself alone").
(4) "It was always a source of great preoccupation with the ladies
that no bit of pad should show through the natural hair. Often
they put up a tentative hand to feel, even in the midst of the most
absorbing conversation; and then their faces wore the expression
which is seen only on the faces of women whose fingers investigate the
back of their heads" (Vita Sackville-West). (5) This figure is an
iudependent ala/ttkara for Bhamaha (3.44), Vamana (4.3.14),
Udbhata (6.4), and Mammata (135). Dal,lQiu (2.358) considers it
equivalent to his asadharava upama.
aniyama, 'absence of restriction': (1) an upama in which the similitude
is said to extend to any object exhibiting the common property.
(2) D 2.20, AP 344.12. (3)padmalf! tavat taviinveti mukham anyac ca
tadrsam / asti ced astu tatkari (Dal,lQin: "Your face resembles the
lotus, and whatever may be said to be similar to the lotus-why your
face resembles that as well"). (4) "When, dearest I but think of thee, /
Methinks all things that lovely be / Are present, and my soul
delighted" (Sir John Suckling). (5) Cf. niyama. This figure differs
from acikhyasa in that there the idea is that we are debating the
appropriateuess of the object of comparison.
anyonya, 'mutual': (1) au upama in which the similitude is made reciprocal.

150

151

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GLOSSARY

compared through a property they do not have in order to express

the opposite property. The other forms of unreal comparison
(adbhuta, abhitta) are exaggerations only.
asadbaraJ)a, 'particular': (I) an upama in which the absence of proper
objects of comparison is described. (2) D 2.37, AP 344.19. (3)

satisfied with that, / Satisfied if a troubled mirror show it, / Before

that brief gleam of its life is gone, / An image of its state" (William
Butler Yeats). (5) The figure is not defined by Bhiimaha, who considers the term otiose. Here the intention of the speaker is neither
praise nor blame (cf prasaf[lsa, ninda, to which acikhyasa stands
as third in a triad); the speaker is rather unable to decide between
the two.
arthi, 'implied': (I) a type of pitrlJa upama in which the similarity of
two things is inferred or indirectly expressed. (2) M 127. (3) duralokab sa samare nidaghiimbararatnavat (Mammala: "His aspect is
as painful to look upon as is the summer sun"). (4) "The candles'
... flames looked at me like the eyes of tigers just waking from sleep"
(Joyce Cary). (5) A subtlety is intended. A comparison, strictly
speaking, is the expression of a relation of similitude between two
things which have a property in common. But properties are
distinguished from modes of action or behavior. A comparison
based npon a like action permits only an inference as to the similitude
of the things as possessing properties. In the example, candles are
compared to eyes in virtue of their having a capacity in common"looked at me":. the flame looked at me just as the eyes of tigers
might look at me. We may then presume that the eyes resemble
the flame as to color, size, or what have you, but this, the literal
comparison (cf sabdi) is not made explicit. The same distinction
is involved in the definition of the vakyiirtha upama.
ntpadya, 'invented': (I) an upama in which the object of the comparison
exists only in the poet's hypothesis and exhibits a striking quality
of the subject. (2) R 8.15 (16). (3) kumudadaladidhitinaf[l tvak

candriiravindayob kak~yam atikramya mukhaf[l tava / iitmanaiviibhavat

tulyam (DaJ.l<,lin: "Exceeding the style of the moon or lotus flower,

your face is indeed like itself alone"). (4) '''She [Nature] is', the
secretary coutinued, 'like an assemblage of blondes and brunettes,
whose tresses-' 'Oh, bother the blondes and brunettes!' 'Well, she
is like a picture gallery, where the features-' 'No, no; Nature is
like Nature; why introduce simil,s?'" (Voltaire, quoted by E. M.
Forster). (5) AsadhiiralJa is a vifiation of ananvaya, from which it
differs in that the object of compari~on, though ultimately rejected,
is m e n t i o n e d . ) O T
acara, 'conduct': (I) a type of upama in wlllch the object is expressed in a
verbal form. (2) U 1.17,19. (3) sa dubsthiyan krtiirtho'pi nibSe~ai
Svaryasaf[lpada / nikamakamaniye'pinarakiyati kanane (Udbha!a:
"He [Siva], all goals fulfilled in his infinite power, nevertheless suffered
[behaved himself in the manner of one suffering] in that forest lovely
yet filled with the tortures of hell [behaving like hell; helling]").
(4) "The hills belly-rumbled with thunder" (McDonald Hastings).
(5) This facility of Sanskrit is a function of the denominative conjugation, whereby any noun or adjective can be transformed into a
verb having the sense of "resembling, acting like X" (paJ.lini 3.1.10).
In the following example, a comparison is first drawn, then the object
is cleverly substituted for the grammatical subject in order to produce
a similar effect: "And there he would lie all day long on the lawn
brooding presumably over his poetry, till he reminded one of a cat
watching birds, and then he clapped his paws together when he had
found the word ..." (Virginia Woolf). By other writers, this type of
comparison is classified differently: see pratyaya, upameyadyotakalupta, dharmadyotakalupta.

Compare also colloquial English "to rat", and "to dovetail," etc.
ac!khyasa, 'wanting to explain': (I) an upama in which the propriety
or aptness of the comparison is in doubt. (2) B 2.37, D 2.32. (3)
candrelJa tvanmukhaf[l tulyam ity acikhyasu me manab / sa gUlJo
viistu do~o va (Da(l<,lin: "Your face is indeed like the moon, but I

can't decide whether this is a virtue or a vice"). (4) "Some moralist

or mythological poet / .Compares the solitary soul to a swan; / I am

saf[lbhitya cyaveta yadi tiibhyab / idam upamiyeta taya sutanor asyab

staniivaralJam (Rudra!a: "If skin could be imagined on the reflec-

tions of the lotus petals (in the pond), and if that skin might be
touched-there would be something that might be comparable to
the gossamer of her breasts"). (4) "The new moon behind her head,
an old helmet upon it, a diadem of accidental dewdrops round her
brow, would have been adjuncts sufficient to strike the note of
Artemis, Athena or Hera" (Thomas Hardy). (5) In adbhuta upama,
a property is hypothetically transferred from subject to object; here
the object is hypothesized as a substratum for the property. Compare
the following ritpaka, where the basis of the identification is likewise
hypothesized: "Dr. MacBride had fixed upon me his full, mastering
eye: and it occurred to me that if they had policemen in heaven,

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he would be at least a centurion in the force" (Owen Wister).

'opined': (I) an upama in which the similitude is expressed
as a relative and subjective opinion about which of several objects
of comparison is most likely or approriate. (2) D 2.23. (3) mayy

utprek~lta,

evasya mukhasrfr ify alam indor vikatthanai!; / padme'pi sa yad asty

eva (DaJ.l4in: "Enough of the moon's boasting 'I alone rival the
beauty of her face'; her loveliness is found in the lotus, too"). (4)

"... I give you your choice which was the bluest-the aimlessly
fluttering butterflies, the nodding harebells, or her demure and
reprehensible eyes" (Oliver Onions). (5) The name of this simile
may be taken in the sense of "reflected, considered", in which case
the emphasis in the examples sB,?uld be placed on the judicious
meditation of the speaker vis-avis the scope of his simile. Utprek$ita differs from salflsayopama in that the confusion in the latter is between the object and the subject, and from nir~aya in that
the object in that case is distinguish~d from its own subject, not
putatively, as here, from several other objects.
upamiiuadharmadyotakalupta, 'ellipsis of the object, common property,
and the particle of comparison': . (I) self-explanatory term. (2)
M 134. (3) mrganayana harate muner mana!; (Mammata: "Gazelleeyes' steals the ascetic's mind away"). (4) "Perhaps he lurks in
yonder woodbine bower / To steal soft kisses from her lips, and
catch / Ambrosial odours from her passing sighs" (William Whitehead). (5) The compound mrganayana ('gazelle-eyed') and the phrase
"ambrosial odours" are alone relevant here. Each is a simile in
miniature when interpreted, for example, "whose eyes are like the
eyes of a gazelle";';'Only the subject is explicit: "eyes" and "odours"
are mentioned but once and are taken as the subjects of comparison.
Cf upameyadharmadyotakalupta.
upamiinalupta, 'ellipsis of the object': (I) an upama in which the object of
comparison is not made explicit. (2) M 129. (3) sakalakara~a
paraviSramasrfvifara~alfl

na sarasakavyasya / drsyate'tha niSamyate

alflsalflsamatre~a

(Mammata: "There is nothing seen

or heard which even in the smallest part resembles mood poetry-nothing at all which provides such joyful relaxation of all the
senses"). (4) "Per Hansa stood there in the darkness of the winter
night, looking after the disappearing figure .... No, her equal was not
to be found!" (0. E. Rolvaag). (5) Mammata's example can be taken
in two ways. The obviousness ofthe first borders on pettiness: true poetry is like nothing (ellipsis through non-existence). This would amount
va sadrsam

GLOSSARY

153

to asadhiira~a upama; for example : "Fair was this meadow, as thought

me overall; / With floweres sweet embroidered was it all; / As for to
speak of gum, or herb, or tree, / Comparison may none y-maked be"
(Chaucer). A more likely interpretation is that poetry is implicitly
compared to yoga through the qualificatiou "providing relaxation
of all the senses". We have followed the latter interpretation in
givingthe English example: the absence ofa proper object is mentioned
only to suggest that Per Hansa's wife has supra-feminine qualities.
"She could be both minister and father confessor, that woman!"
upameyadyotakalupta, 'ellipsis of the subject and particle of comparison':
(I) self-explanatory term. (2) M 133. (3) krpa~6dagradorda~i/a!; sa
[raja] sahasrayudhfyati (Mammata: "With a sword held in his
outstretched hand, the King resembles a man having a thousand
weapons (sahasrayudha)"). (4) "Then Jesse Jones brought a new
note into the self-congratulatory deliberations. In a hectoring speech,
he advised the banks to improve their capital position ..." (Arthur
Schlesinger, Jr.). (5) The point here turns upon a rather flimsy
grammatical exegesis. "In a hectoring speech" must be taken to
mean "in a speech in which he behaved himself like Hector", as the
Sanskrit is taken to mean "he behaved himself like Sahasrilyudha".
"Himself" becomes the subject of the comparison as grammatical
object of the verb "behave" and parallel to "Hector". Hence the
ellipsis. Many of Mammata's classifications are similarly far-fetched.
Cf iicara.
upameyadharmadyotakalupta, 'ellipsis of the subject, the common
property, and the particle of comparison': (I) self-explanatory term.
(2) U 1.17. (3) talfl saSicchayavadaniilfl ... gaurflfl prati mano dadhau
(Udbhata: "[Siva] contemplated Gauri, whose face had the beauty
of the moon"). (4)" ... he recognized the pail-of-water-over-the-head
experience ..." (Margery Allingham). (5) In the Sanskrit, "[the
beauty of whose] face [is like] the beauty of the moon", only the
latter beauty is explicit. In the English, the experience which the
pail of water, etc. suffices to characterize is not named in so many
words. Cf upamanadharmadyotakalupta. For the problem of
distinguishing such similes from metaphors (rilpaka), see lupta
upamii.
ubbaya, 'both': (I) same as anyonya. (2) R 8.9.
ekad.siu, 'having parts, partial': (I) a multiple upama wherein several
corresponding parts of the subject and object are compared without
that comparisou being extended to the principal terms themselves.

154

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GLOSSARY

155

certina with a hole in it" (Joyce Cary). (5) Cf sadrsavyatireka.

kiIpcitsadrsi, 'somewhat similar': (I) an upamli in which one subject is
compared to several objects by means of several properties. (2)
NS 16.46 (51), AP 344.21. (3) sarrzpurQacandravadana nflotpaladalek~aQa / mattamlitafigagamana sarrzprlipteyarrz sakhi mama (Bharata:
"My friend has been at last secured whose face is like the full moon,
whose eyes resemble the petals of the blue lotus, whose walk is
undulant like a rutting elephant"). (4) "Eustacia's dream ... had as
many ramifications as the Cretan labyrinth, as many fluctuations
as the Northern Lights, as much colour as a parterre in June, and
was as crowded with figures as a coronation" (Thomas Hardy).
(5) This figure differs from utprek#ta in that property is there unique,
from ekadeSin in that the similitudes are there subsidiary in a whole,
and from samuccaya in that there we have but one object.
gamana, 'going': (I) probably the same as rasana upamli (2) AP 344.20.
(5) Since the Agni PuraQa gives no examples, the definition of this
unique item is subject to caution. The text reads: "upameyarrz yad
anyasya tad anyasyopama matli / yady uttarottararrz ytiti taddsau
gamanopama" ('if the upameya of one term is deemed the upama of
another, and the sequence is continued, then this is gamana').
cato, 'flattering words': (I) an upamli in which the real difference between
subject and object-that of possessing the common property to a
lesser and a greater degree, respectively-though recognized, is
voluntarily ignored. (2) D 2.35. (3) mrgek~aQdfikarrz te vaktram
mrgeQaivdfikitah saSf / tathapi sarna evdsau notkar~i (Dal)Qin: "Your
glance is learned from the gazelle. The moon is marked with the
gazelle itself: he is thus quite similar, but in no way superior").
(4) "Ask me no more where Jove bestows, / When June is past,
the fading rose; / For in your beauty's orient deep / These flowers,
as in their causes, sleep" (Thomas Carew). (5) Ca!u differs from
atisaya in that there the difference between the subject and object,
as far as the common property is concerned, is cancelled.
l}amuI (fictive for the accusative absolute in -am): (1) an upama in which
the force of the comparison is rendered by means of such a construction. (2) U 1.20. (3) sa dagdhavigraheQdpi viryamlitrasthitdtmana /
Spr~(ah klimena samanyapraQicintam acintayat (Udbhata: "Touched
by Love, though Love's body was consumed and his force consisted
of heroism alone, Siva remained pensive with cares common to all
men"). (4) "Another head came into view from behind the wings of a
chair, and its owner glared at us with a Harvard accent" (peter de

(2) R 8.29 (3 I). (3) kamaladalair adharair iva dasanair iva kesarair
virlijante / alivalayair alakair iva kamalair vadanair iva nalinyah
(Rudrata: "The lotuses are splendid-their petals like lips, their
filaments like teeth, bees like locks of hair swarming about their
face-like blooms"). (4) " ... Mr. Moseley came in and knocked on
the counter with a half crown. His face was as red as red ink; and
he had a complete new colour scheme, all in browns. Brown suit,
the colour of old ale. Golden brown tie like lager. Brown boots
shining like china beer handles. Guinness socks. And a new brown
bowler, the colour of bitter beer, over his left eye" (Joyce Cary).
(5) See samastavastu upamli, in which the major terms are mentioned.
'."
ekababu, 'singular-plural': (1) an upamli in which the subject is plural
and the object singular. (2) NS 16.42 (43). (3) sasafikavat praklisante
jyotirrz# (Bharata: "The stars shinelil<.e the rabbit-marked moon").
(4) "These parties oftheirs ... were like chain-smoking: each cigarette
was lighted in the hope that it might be more satisfactory than the
rest" (Vita Sackville-West). (5) By later writers, non-parallelism
of number is considered a defect (vacanabheda do~a). Here we have
a curious inconsistency in the general tendency to preserve a classification at any cost. The terms of most similes are, of course, parallei: "She stood breast-high among the corn, / ... Like the sweetheart of the sun" (Thomas Hood).
kalpapprabhrti, 'having the form of, etc.': (I) an upamli which contains
such an expression of comparison instead of the comparative particle
("as", "like"). (2) U 1.21. (3) caQl/.iilakalpe kandarparrz plu${Vli
mayi tirohite / sart!jlitdtulanairlisyli kirrz sli soklin mrtli bhavet (Udbhata: "While I was hidden there in the form of an outcaste man, Love
was consumed; and she [Parvati], in whom an immense despair was
born, appeared about to die of sorrow"). (4)" ... drawn with Diireresque vigor and dash" (Thomas Hardy). (5) For other examples of
similes formed with taddhita suffixes, see s.V. and sadrsa, samlisa.
kalpita, 'artificial': (I) an upamli wherein the similitude is stated in terms
of comparable properties of the subject and object, but not through
one property, common to both. (2) NS 16.46 (49), AP 344.21, R 8.13
(14). (3) mukham lipurQakapolarrz mrgamadalikhitdrdhapattralekharrz
te / bhiiti lasatsakalakalarrz sphu(allifichanam indubimbam iva (Rudrata: "Your face, full-cheeked and bearing the beauty marks of musk,
resembles the full moon's orb with its argent spots"). (4) "I saw
the professor winking:at me so hard that his face was like a con-

157

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GLOSSARY

Vries). (5) The English example illustrates the grammatical point

only grosso modo, of course. The comparison of Harvard glances
with Harvard speech is expressed via an adverbial clause which is
functionally similar to the Sauskrit "had the cares which all men
have". Mamma!a (130) calls this a type of ayotakalupta.
tattvlikhyana, 'literal description': (I) an upamii in which the similitude
is assumed to lend itself to a coufusion, so that one is obliged to
identify the subject and object of the comparison. (2) D 2.36.
(3) na padmarrz mukham evedarrz na bhriigau cak$U~f ime (Da!).qin:
"That is no lotus, that is a face; those are not bees, they are eyes").
(4) "I have seen roses damask'd, red and white, / But no such roses
see I in her cheeks" (Shakespe~re). (5) This figure differs from
ninJaya in that there a state of doubt or suspicion is assumed, here
there is merely a possibility of confu~ion. In hyperbolic exaggeration,
tattvakhyiina is the next step beyond;c!lft'. Cf tattvapahnava riipaka.
tattvlikhyana (II): (I) an upamii in which the aim is merely to representneither to praise or blame. (2) V 4.2.7. (3) tiirrz rohilJfrrz vijiinfhi

proud and haughty"). (4) "And then the hyena laughed out. Pleased
at such an arrangement! Pleased at having her enemy converted
into a dean with twelve-hundred a year! Medea, when she describes
the customs of her native country ... assures her astonished auditor
that in her land captives, when taken, are eaten. 'You pardon them?'
says Medea. 'We do indeed,' says the mild Grecian. 'We eat them!'
says she of Calchis, with terrific energy. Mrs. Proudie was the Medea
of Barchester; she had no idea of not eating Mr. Slope" (Anthony
Trollope). (5) Cf tulyayogitii alarrzkiira where the same conjunctiou
is expressed literally and not through the use of figurative devices
(simile or metaphor).
dyotakalupta, 'ellipsis of the comparative particle': (I) self-explanatory
term. (2) M 130. (3) tatab ... kiiminfgalJapiilJunii / ... candrelJa
miihendrf dig alarrliqtii (Mamma\a; the Sanskrit translates literally as
"Iover's-cheek-pale moon": "The eastern quarter is adorned by the
moon pale as a lover's cheek"). (4) "Her forehead ivory white"
(Edmund Spenser). (5) Mamma!a also includes here certain denominative constructions: cf iiciira and dharmadyotakalupta. This variety
of ellipsis is also known as tadviici, pratyaya, viidi, q.v.
dbarma, 'property': (I) an upamii in which the similitude is spelled out by
mentioning the comparable property or aspect of the two terms.
(2) D 2.15, AP 344.10. (3) ambhoruham ivatiimrarrz mugdhe karatalarrz
tava (Da!).qin: "The palm of your hand is like a pale lotus"). (4)
"River roughed up with little waves like the flat side of a cheese
grater" (Joyce Cary). (5) Cf vastu, where that property is implicit.
The notion of property is here taken in an exact sense, and presumably excludes those similes based on mode of action or result; cf
viikyartha. Vamana uses the word gUlJa instead of dharma; cf the
commonplace distinction gulJa-kriyii. Here is an example of a simile
whose common property is a mode of action: "Richard arrested
his resumption of speech, and he continued slowly to fizz like an
ill-corked effervescence" (George Meredith).
dbarmadyotakalupta, 'ellipsis of the common property and the particle of
comparison': (I) self-explanatory term. (2) M 131. (3) savitii

156

jyoti~iim atra malJale / yas tanvi tiirakiinyiisab sakatakiiram iisritab

(Vamana; Rohi!).! or Taurus, the ':re<;l one", is so called from Aldebaran, the main star: "Know that configuration of stars to be
Rohi!).! which in form resembles a cart"). (4) "To my notion all of
the early part of Mourning Becomes Electra has the sinewy and
homely narrative strength of-let me reach for a comparison which
does him neither too little nor too much honor-a novel by Charles
Reade" (Alexander Woollcott). (5) For Vamana, this is the middle
term in the triad:stuti ... nlndii. Cf DaJ:lqin, where tattvakhyiina is
replaced by iicikhjiiisii-doubt as to the appropriateness of praise or
blame.
taddbita, 'secondary suffix': (I) an upamii utilizing such a suffix to express
the comparison. (2) U 1.20, M 127. (3) (4) For examples, see
subtypes vati, kalpapprabhrti. (5) The well-known grammatical
term. Mamma\a distinguishes taddhita upamii from similes formed
by samiisa (compounding), q.v.
tadvacisaJllk~epa:ellipsis of the comparative particle': (I) same as
dyotakalupta. (2) U 1.18.
tulyayoga, 'conjunction of equals': (I) an upamii in which the object is of
strikingly exalted station vis-It-vis the subject. (2) D 2.48 (49).

vidhavati vidhur api savitarati tathii dinanti yiiminyab / yiiminayanti

diniini ca sukhadubkhavasfkrte manasi (Mamma!a; in the Sanskrit,
all the upamiina are denominative verbs: "The sun resembles the

moon and the moon, the sun; the hours of the night are as those of
the day and those of the day, the night for one whose mind is afllicted
by the round of pleasure and pain"). (4) "No profane hand shall

(3) divo jiigarti rak,siiyal pulomarir bhuvo bhaviin / asuriis tena hanyante
savalepiis tvayii nrpiib (Da!).qin: "Indra keeps watch in heaven and
you, 0 Lord, on earth; demons are slain by him and by you, the

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dare, for me ... to Bowdlerize my Shakespeare ... " (Anon., quoted in

Burton Stevenson; here one is enjoined from turning the author's
edition into one like Dr. Bowdler's in the matter of expurgation-the
common property). (5) The figure is also known as siimyatadviicivicyava. Cf. iiciira. Udbhaia's example is tridasddhiSaSiirdUia/:t ('Indratiger'), an epithet of Siva; compare a term like "moonstone".
dharmalupta, 'ellipsis of the common property': (1) self-explanatory
term. (2) M 128. (3) riijivam iva te vaktralJ1 netre nflotpale iva
(DaJ.l4in: "Your face is like a lotus; yonr eyes are like lotus petals").
(4) "My delight and thy delight / Walking, like two angels white,
/ In the garden of the night" (Robert Bridges). (5) This figure is
also known as vastu, siimyaviiqakasalJ1k$epa. Cf. dharma upamii.
dharm6pamanalupta, 'ellipsis of thetommon property and the object of
comparison': (I) self-explanatory term. (2) M 132. (3) !U1J!uviiyamiino
mari$yasi kaQiakakalitiini ketakii;q~iini / miilalikusumasadrk$alJ1
bhramara bhraman na priipsyasi (Mafum.aia: "Buzzing about in the
thorny ketakl groves, 0 bee! you will surely die; yet you will not
resemble the miilatiflower"). (4) "For her own person, I It beggar'd
all description" (Shakespeare). (5) Mammaia's example requires
snch a tortuous interpretation that this commentator blushes to
give it. "You will never attain similarity with the miilali flower" is
taken to mean: "the miilati flower is like nothing else in the world
insofar as you are concerned". Cf. upamiinalupta and the note thereon.
ninda (I), 'blame': (I) an upamii whose intention is to depreciate or
belittle and whose object of comparison is therefore pejorative.
(2) NS 16.46 (48), V 4.2.7. (3) ... kalatralJ1 / hiiliihalalJ1 vi$am
ivtipaguQam (Viimana; the poison was so deadly it threatened to
kill all life: "An evil wife is like the poison Siva swallowed"). (4)
"Both of you are good at keeping secrets-like onions on the breath
... " (Joyce Cary). (5) Nindii is the opposite of stuti, 'praise'. Cf.

niyama, 'restriction': (1) an upamii in which the similitude is said to be

limited to the object in question. (2) D 2.19, AP 344.12. (3) tvanmukhalJ1 kamalenaiva tulyalJ1 ntinyena kena cit (DaJ.l4in: "Your face
may be compared to the lotus and to the lotus alone"). (4) "He
looked over his paper with that plump, gratified satisfaction at a
chance to shine which in the dog world is the peculiarity ofthe hound"
(Margery Allingham). (5) Cf. aniyama.
nir~aya, 'deduction': (I) an upamii in which the two comparable things
are distinguished from one another through a deduction based upon,
but critical of, their excessive similarity. (2) D 2.27. (3) na padma-

syendunigriihyasyendulajjiikari dyuti/:t / atas tvanmukham evdam

(DaJ.l4in: "That can't be the gleam of a lotus putting the moon to
shame, since the lotus is liege to the moon; it must be your face").
(4) "He was as a ghost, all whose power of wandering free through
these upper regions ceases at cockcrow; or rather he was the opposite of a ghost, for till cockcrow he must again be a serf" (Anthony
Trollope; reference is made to the dependence of the Bishop on his
wife). (5) In tattvtikhyiina, the same distinction is made, but without
the semblance of an argument.
oiscaya, 'decision': (I) probably the same as nirvaya. (2) AP 344.12.
(5) No example is given, but the commentary on D 2.27 equates
this term with nirvaya.
padarthavrtti, 'whose scope is the meaning of a word': (1) an upamii which
expresses a relationship between things in terms of a common property, not between actions in terms of analogy. (2) V 4.2.3. (3)

haritanu$u babhrutvagvimukhiisu yiisiilJ1 / kanakakavasadharmii

miinmatho romabheda/:t (Vamana: "On whose golden bodies, now
divested of their clothes of reddish bark, was seen the lovely thin
line of hair resembling a string of golden beads"). (4) "Her breast
like to a bowl of cream nncrndded ... " (Edmund Spenser). (5) Cf.

vakytirthavrtti, dharma.

iicikhyiisii, tattvtikhyiina.
ninda (II): (1) an upamii wherein, by an ironic depreciation of the object,

paraspara, 'mutnal': (I) same as anyonya. (2) AP 344.11.

p~a, 'full': (1) an upamii in which the four characteristic elements of
the comparison are explicitly stated. (2) V 4.2.5, R 8.5 (6), M 126.

flattery of the subject is intended. (2) B 2.37, D 2.30, AP 344.21.

(3) padmalJ1 bahurajas candra/:t k$ayi tiibhyiilJ1 tavtinanam / samiinam

api sotsekam (DaJ.l4in: "The lotus is spotted with pollen, the moon

(3) svapne'pi samare$U tViilJ1 vijayasrir na muiicati / prabhiivaprabhaval!' kiintal!' svddhinapatikii yathii (Mammala: "Even in the sleep

wanes; your face, though similar, is more proud"). (4) "If When the
sun at noon displays / His brighter rays, / Thou but appear, / He then
all pale with shame and fear, / Quencheth his light, / Hides his dark
brow, flys from thy sight, / And grows more dim / Compared to
thee than stars to hini" (Thomas Carew). (5) See above.

between battles, the Goddess of Victory cleaves to you, 0 King,

like a faithful wife to her excellently beautiful lover"). (4) "The moon
was coming up ... making ... the houses look like fresh cut blocks
of coal, glittering green and blue" (Joyce Cary). (5) The four charac-

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teristic elements of every simile, whether explicit or not, are (a)

the snbject of comparison (upameya: "honses"), (b) the object of
comparison (upamana: "blocks of coal"), (c) the common property
(sadhtiravadharma: "glittering ..."), and (d) the comparative particle
(dyotaka: "like"). Cf lupta and the various terms mentioned for
examples of ellipsis. See upama for the problem of translation,
and the appropriate terms for a discussion of their meaning and
context. Pilrva is described by Rudrata, but not named.
prativastu, 'counterpart': (1) example; an upama in which the object of
comparison is introduced as the subject of another situation which
manifests the relevant common property and in which the comparative
particle is absent. (2) B 2.3+~5 (36), D 2.46 (47). (3) naiko'pi
tvadrso'dyapi jayamane$u rajasiij nanu dvitfyo nasty eva parijtitasya
padapal; (DaJ;l<)in: "There is not ev~n one who resembles you among
the victorious kings; but then, the cilr~l tree has no imitator either").
(4) "Follow a shadow, it still flies yoil; I Seem to fly it, it will pursue:
I So court a mistress, she denies you; I Let her alone, she will court
you. I Say, are not women, truly, then, I Styled but the shadows
of us men?" (Ben Jonsou). (5) Prativastu is cousidered by others
to be a separate figure, perhaps because the comparative particle is
uecessarily abseut. In this it differs from vakyartha upama.
prati~edba, 'prohibition': (1) an upama in which certaiu flaws of the object
are said to vitiate the comparison. (2) D 2.34. (3) najtitu saktir indos
te mukhena pratigarjitum I kalaiikino jatjasya (DaJ;l<)iu: "Indeed
the moon cannot rival your face; mark its cold and blemished air").
(4) "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? I ... Rough winds do
shake the darling' buds of May, I And summer's lease hath all too
short a date" (Shakespeare). (5) This fignre differs from nindti in that
here the mood is the indicative rather than the "optative". In
vyatireka, the virtne of the subject, rather than the vice of the object,
is usually alleged as prohibition.
pratyaya, 'suffix': (1) an upamti in which the force of the comparison is
rendered by a verbal suffix. (2) R 8.23 (24). (5) Pratyaya is considered
by Rudrata to be an ellipsis of the comparative particle. Cf dyotakalupta. The same as ticara.
prasaljlsa, 'praise': (1) un upama whose intention is to appreciate or
praise, that is, whose upamana is mejorative. (2) NS 16.46 (47),
B 2.37, D 2.31, AP 344.21. (3) brahmavo'py udbhaval; padmas
candral; sambhusirodhrtal; I tau tulyau tvanmukhena (Da]J<)in: "The
lotus is born of Brahman, the moon is fixed on the brow of Siva;

both resemble your face"). (4) "She stood breast-high among the
corn, I Clasp'd by the golden light of morn, I Like the sweetheart of
the sun, I Who many a glowing kiss had won" (Thomas Hood).
(5) This figure illustrates the definition of the upamana (object of
comparison) as "that term in which the property resides to a higher
degree"; by drawing a comparison with an exalted object, the subject
necessarily participates in its elevation. Cf ninda, which can also
praise the subject through irony. Prasalflsa is the same as stuti.
babu, 'many': (1) an upama in which a number of different objects are
mentioned. (2) D 2.40, AP 344.14. (3) candanOdakacandralflsucandrakanttidisftalal; I sparsas tava (DaJ;l<)in: "Your touch is cool as
moonstone, as the fall of moonbeams, as sandal-water"). (4) "As
lightning, or a taper's light, I Thine eyes, and not thy noise, waked me"
(John Donne). (5) Bahudiffers from utprek#ta in that here there is no
effort to find the right object; from mala 11 in that there the multitude
of objects manifests a multitude of properties, here there is but one
property.
babveka, 'plural-singular': (1) an upama in which the subject is singular
and the object plural. (2) NS 16.42 (44). (3) syenabarhivabhtisanalfl
tulyarthal; [sa kascit] (Bharata: "He is like eagles, peacocks, and
hawks"). (4) "Behold a critic, pitched like the castrati" (Theodore
Roethke). (5) See the note on ekabahu. An example of comparing
plural with plural is: " ... elegant shoppers wrapped like dainty
bears" (Edgell Rickword). Bharata, not an accomplished classifier,
neglects the possibilities offered by the Sanskrit dual.
milla (I), 'garland': (1) an upama in which a series of comparisons are
given which not only involve the same similitude, but in which a
qualification of that similitude becomes the subject of the following
simile. (2) D 2.42. (3) pil$VY atapa ivahniva pil$a vyomniva vasaral; I
vikramas tvayy adhtillak$mfm (Dawpn: "Victory founded its good
fortune on you, just as the heat did in the sun, the sun did in the day,
and the day did in the sky"). (4) "He moves among men as most
men move among things" (Bernard Shaw). (5) This type of malti
differs from the following in that there but one similitude is stated.
It differs from rasana in that the architectonic moves from substratum
to manifestation rather than from subject of comparison to object
of comparison. Cf asalflbhtivita.
milla (11): (1) an upama in which one subject is compared to several objects
through one or several properties. (2) AP 344.15, R 8.25 (26), M 134.
(3) sytimiilateva tanvi candrakatevatinirmala sa me I halflsiva kalalapa

160

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eaitanyal1' harati nidreva (Rudrala: "Slender as the dark creeper, spotless as the new-born, waxing moon, soft-throated as the swan,
she steals my reason as do dreams"). (4) "What follows should be
prefaced with some simile-the simile of a powdermine, a thunderbolt, an earthquake-for it blew Philip up in the air and flattened
him on the ground and swallowed him up in the depths" (E. M.
Forster). (5) This figure is the same as kil1'citsadrSi, except that
here the possibility of one property is allowed, at least by Mammala:
"My heart is like a singing bird I Whose nest is in a water'd shoot; I
My heart is like an apple-tree I Whose boughs are bent with thickset fruit; I My heart is like a rainbow shell I That paddles in a halcyon
sea; I My heart is gladder than,~!1 these, I Becanse my love is come
to me" (Christina Georgina Rossetti). Bhiimaha (2.38) mentIOns
the term miilii, but not in a way th~t would permit precise definition
of its significance.
<::~> .
moba, 'bewilderment': (I) an upamii in wh.iSh thetwo terms ofcomparison
are confused with one another. (2) D 2.25, AP 344.17. (3) sasity
utprek~ya tanvaiigi tvanmukhal1' tvanmukhiisayii I indum apy anudhiiviimi (Dal.u;!in: "Now I'm runniqg ~bout after the moon, seeking
for your face, for I thought that your face was the moon"). (4)
'''When I slung my teeth over that,' he remarked, 'I thought I was
chewing a hammock'" (Owen Wister). (5) Moha differs from bhriintimat alal1'kiira only in that the comparability of the two confused
terms is here necessarily paramount.
yatbC'vasabda, 'the words yathii (as) and iva (like)': (I) an upamii wherein
the force of the comparison is borne by one of these words, the usual
adverbial particles of comparison. (2) B 2.31, U 1.16. (3) k~aJ;lal1'
kiimajvarotthityai bhuyab sal1'tiipavrddhaye I viyoginiim abhuc eiindr;
eandrikii eandanal1' yathii (Udbhala: "The moonlight of the full
moon, like sandal paste, rouses the sudden fever of love in parted
lovers and so increases their suffering"). (4) "And there was Hetty,
like a bright-cheeked apple hanging over the orchard wall" (George
Eliot). (5) Yathevasabda is to be distinguished from those similes
expressed through compounding (samiisa). See also dyotakalupta
upamii.
rasaua, 'rope': (I) a concatenation of upamiis in which the subject of
comparison of the first simile is the same as the object of comparison
of the following. (2) R 8.27 (28), M 134C. (3) nabha iva vimalal1'
salilal1' salilam iviinandakiiri sasibimbam I sasibimbam iva lasaddyuti
tarUlJ;vadanal1' sarat kurute (Rudrala: "The autumn season makes

the crystal water clear as sky, the round, refreshing moon limpid as
water, the maiden's coquettish mien like the glancing moon"). (4) "If
when the sun at noon displays IHis brighter rays, IThou but appear, I
He ... I ... I ... grows more dim I Compared to thee than stars to
him" (Thomas Carew).
lupta, 'ellipsis': (I) an upamii in which at least one ofthe four characteristic elements is not explicitly stated. (2) V 4.2.6, M 126. (3) (4) See
the various subtypes grouped under the names of the element dropped: upameya, upamiina, dyotaka, dharma. (5) All the writers implicitly recognize this type, beginning with Bhiimaha who distingnlshes
similes containing a particle of comparison (yathevasabda) from
those formed by compounding and therefore without such a particle.
Likewise, Dal)<;lin distingnlshes dharma and vastu upamiis on the
basis of the former mentioning the common property and the latter
not. The distinction between punJa and lupta upamii has, however,
become such a commonplace in the later poetics that it is usually
imposed by commentators whenever possible upon the earlier writers,
even though they manifestly had other reasons for arranging their
distinctions in the way they did. Mammala shows the way, being
the first writer to' ignore completely considerations of subject matter
and intention in defining simile in favor of elements of construction.
This may be called the triumph of the material principle over the
final.
I have the following simile to add to Mammala's collection, which
seems to exhibit ellipsis of both the subject and object of comparison:
"Smell of boot polish like a lion cage" (Joyce Cary). Here someone's
boots are being compared to those of a lion tamer.
vati, 'the suffix -vat ('like'): (I) an upama wherein the force of the comparison is borne by such a particle suffixed to the object of comparison. (2) B 2.33, U 1.20-21; M 127. (3) dvijiitivad adhite 'sau
guruvac canuMsti nab (Bhiimaha: "Brahmin-like he studies; gurulike he instructs us"). (4) "Lion-like March cometh in" (W. D.
Howells). (5) This is the example par excellence of the use of a
taddhita suffix in forming similes. In English, the same word may be
used in or out of compound, but in Sanskrit, the morphemes are
different: -vat only in compound, iva never in compound. In the
ordinary uncompounded simile (ef viikyarthavrtti and piidarthavrtti),
this type is subdivided into those which express a nominal comparison
and those which express a verbal comparison. The examples given
illustrate the latter subtype, which seems more natural. Compare the

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phrase" ... drawn with Dureresque vigor and dash" (Thomas Hardy),
which expresses a purely nomiual similitude (vigor like that ofDurer).
This type is recognized by Yaska (3.17), who asserts that it
expresses a perfect or total similitude (siddha), as opposed to a
partial or presumed similitude expressed by iva.
vastu, 'the real thing': (1) same as dharmalupta upamti. (2) D 2.16, AP
344.10. (5) The name implies, according to the commentary, that
the emphasis is to be placed on the things compared, rather than on
the common property. See the note on lupta.
viikya, 'phrase': (I) an uparnti in which the comparison is expressed in
the form of a phrase, that is, a relation of independent words. (2)
R 8.5-16, M 127. (3) svapne'pi sqmare~u tvtif/1 vijayasrir na muficati /
prabhavaprabhavaf/1 kantaf/1 svtidhinapatika yatha (Mammata: see
pur1)a for the translation). (4) "Let us go then, you and I / When
the evening is spread out against tli~.~kY / Like a patient etherized
upon a table" (T. S. Eliot). (5) In this sensb,the term is.distinguished
from similes formed by compounding and those which are telescoped
into verbs (cf samasa, taddhita, pratyaya). As an instance of the
baroque complexity which these classifications can attain, take the
two terms pur1J[l uparna and vakya uparna. For Mammata, vakya is
the first subtype of pUY1)a; for Rudrata, pur1)a is the first subtype of
vakya. Although both authors define the term vakya in approximately the same way, the system of classification in which the term
figures obliges us to modify that meaning slightly and consider its
two occurences to be of different scope. For Rudrata, a dharmalupta
upama is a type ofvakya on the same level as apur1)a; for Mammata,
it is simply a noii'pur1)a and mayor may not be a vakya.
viikyiirtbavrtti, 'whose scope is the phrase': (1) an upama whose two
terms extend each to an entire phrase .or sentence. (2) D 2.43 (4445), V 4.2.3, AP 344_19. (3) tvadananam adhrrak~arn avirdasanadidhiti /
bhramadbhriigam ivalak~yakesaraf/1 bhati paiikajam (Dal).gin: "your
face of gently roaming glance and lustrous smile gleams like a lotus
with its darting bees and filaments so fine"). (4) "The readers of
the Boston Evening Transcript / Sway in the wind like a field of ripe
corn" (T. S. Eliot). (5) These similes extend to the entire phrase in
the sense that the similitude involves, and in fact is basically a function of, the verb. On the other hand, a "simple" simile expresses a
direct relationship between two nouns through a common property
(cf padarthavrlli) and does not involve the sentence itself, that is,
the grammatical asso6iation of noun plus verb. A simile extending

to the verb is thus coextensive with the phrase and is sometimes

thought of as a simile of actiou or mode of behavior. A good test for
discriminating such a phrasal simile is this: the same verb is either
repeated, as: "The daylight struck down with a pallid glare upon the
tatters of soot draping the flue as sea-weed drapes a rocky fissure"
(Thomas Hardy), or must be supplied in the other of the two phrases
(as in the example from Eliot) to make sense. "My Luve's like a red,
red rose" (Robert Burns) requires no such suppletion.
viidilopa, 'ellipsis of va, etc.': (I) same as dyotakalupta. (2) M 130. (5) va
is a term standing here for the ensemble of comparative particles.
Though its usual meaning is 'or', it can be taken in the sense of iva
according to Bohtlingk and Roth.
vikriyii, 'transformation': (1) an uparna in which the subject ofcomparison
is expressed as a transformation or modification of the object. (2)
D 2.41, AP 344.15. (3) candrabimbiid iVOtkir1)af/1 padrnagarbhiid
tv6ddhrtam / tava tanvaiigi vadanam (Dal).gin: "0 slender-limbed,
your face seems carved from the moon's circle or raised from the
lotus' bud"). (4) "Lowood shook loose its tresses; it became all
green '" and it made a strange ground-sunshine out of the wealth
of its wild primrose plants" (Charlotte Bronte; here the object is
expressed as a transformation of the subject). (5) In the post-dhvani
or encyclopaedic writers on figuration, this variety of simile is raised
to the status of a separate figure, called pari1)ama (transformation).
Cf Ruyyaka, Alaf/1karasarvasva (KM edition, p. 51).
viparita, 'reversed': (I) probably the same as viparyasa. (2) AP 344.11-12.
viparyiisa, 'transposition': (1) an uparnii in which that term which in the
order of nature is the subject of comparison is cast in the form of
the object, and, similarly, the object term is cast as the subject.
(2) D 2.17. (3) tvadtinanarn iviJnnidrarn aravindam abbat (Dal).gin:
"The full-blown lotus was like your sleepless face"). (4) "The flowers
did smile, like those upon her face" (William Drummond). (5) By
"order of nature", we refer to the definitions of the subject and
object as those terms in which the common property resides to a
lesser and to a greater degree, respectively. In this type of simile,
each of the two terms is expressed in the formal position naturally
appropriate to the other, thus exaggerating the prominence of the
in fact inferior subject. In calu, there is merely a cancellation of this
difference, not an inversion.
virodba, 'opposition': (I) an upamii in which the similitude is so expressed
as to imply rivalry on the part of the things compared. (2) D 2.33.

I
C

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(3) satapattrall'l saraccandras tvaddnanam iti trayam I parasparavirodhi (Dav.gin: "The hundred-petaled lotus, the autumn moon, your

167

(fantastic, I confess) I It may be Prester John's balloon I Or an old

battered lantern hung aloft I To light poor travellers to their distress'"
(T. S. Eliot). (5) If such a doubt is subjected to reasoning, we have
nir1)aya; if related to other people's opinion, mata. See also sall'ldeha
alall'lkara and subtypes.
saJ!!k~epa, 'ellipsis': (1) same as lupta. (2) U 1.l7. (5) Only four types are
given by Udbhata: ellipsis of the property, of the particle, of both,
and of both plus the subject. See samyavacaka, tadvaci. Mammata
gives nineteen types of lupta in all.
sadrsapada, "the word 'resembling"': (I) an upama wherein a word such
as sadrsa expresses the force of the comparison. (2) U 1.16. (3)

face-these three are warring"). (4) '''Speak,' she said, 'thou fairest; I
Beauty thou impairest ... '" (Henry Constable; here Venus addresses
Adonis). (5) The idea seems to be that nothing breeds incompatibility
like similitude. In atMaya, the difference between the terms of comparison is minimized; here that minimum is dialectically turned into
its opposite: mutual contradiction.
vyatireka, 'distinction': (1) an upamd of the Agni Pur(1)a whose meaning
is unclear. There are no parallels. (2) AP 344.14. (5) The text
reads: "yad ucyate'tiriktatvafll vyatirekopama tu sa" ("where pre~
eminence is expressed, that is ca1t2d vyatirekiJpamd"). This figure is
probably the same as atMaya upama.
sranti, 'audible': (1) an upama in which. the force of the comparisou is
made explicit. (2) M 127. (3) svapn~'lH samare~u tvall'l vijayasrlr na
muiicati I prabhavaprabhavall'l kantart! sVddhlnapatika yathii (Mammata; see piir1)a for the translation). (4) "However, I kept myself
safe yet, though I began, like my Lord Rochester's mistress, that
loved his company, but would notadJllit him farther, t6 have the
scandal of a whore, without the joy" (Daniel Defoe). (5) A subtlety
is intended: cf. arthf and vakya upama.
sle~a, 'double-entendre': (1) an upama in which the common property
is replaced by a pun. (2) D 2.28. (3) sisirdll'lSupratispardhi srlmat
surabhigandhi ca I ambhojam iva te vaktram (DaJJQin; "rival"means
"enemy" when applied to the lotus, "similar to" when applied to the
face, and Sri refers to the goddess when applied to the lotus, to
"beauty" when applied to the face: "Like the lotus is your face:
moon's rival, abode of Sri, perfumed"). (4) '''Now it's time I was
up at the office to get my vay-bill and see the coach loaded; for
coaches ... is like guns-they requires to be loaded with wery great
care, afore they go off'" (Charles Dickens; the venerable Mr.
Weller, Sr. speaking). (5) Here we have an example of the ubiquity
of sle~a alall'lkara; DalfQin regularly expresses interrelationships of
figures hy considering one a subtype of another.
sa'llsaya, 'doubt': (1) an upama in which douht is expressed as to
which of the two things being compared is which. (2) D 2.26, AP
344.18. (3) kill'l padmam antarbhrantdli kill'l te lolek~a1)all'l mukham I
mama dolayate cittam (DalfQin: "My mind doth ponder well:
is it a lotus bud with captive bees or a sloe-eyed maiden's face?").
(4) "I observe: 'Our sentimental friend the moon! I Or possibly

prabodhiid dhavalall'l riitrau kiiijalkdllna~a!padam I piir1)endubimbena

samail' asit kumudakananam (Udbhata: "The lotuses were quite
similar to the orb of the full moon-freshly white from blooming
and drawing the night bees to their pollen cups"). (4)" ... and their
other North Oxford acquaintances of the same kidney" (Michael
Innes). (5) Udbhata probably intends by this term that large and
vague category of words capable of expressing the idea of resemblance. He thinks of the two most common (yatha, iva) as different,
probably in the sense that they set up the norm to which the others
approximate.
sadrsi, 'similar': (1) an upama in which two things are represented as
fully comparable. (2) NS 16.50, AP 344.21. (3) yat tvayMya krtall'l

karma paracittdnurodhina I sadrsall'l na tathaiva syad atimanu~a

karma1)a/:l (Bharata: "What you did today out of compassion for
another could be compared only to the deed of a superhuman soul").
(4) "T. S. Eliot resembles one of those mighty castles in Bavaria which
are remarkably visible, famed for their unsightliness, and too
expensive to tear down" (Karl Shapiro). (5) SadrS! is distinguished
on the one hand from kill'lcitsadrS!, where one thing is compared
to several others through its aspects (partial similitudes), and on
the other from kalpita, in that the similitude is here actually present
in both terms, and the common properties apply literally to both
suhjects; the similitude is not just an analogy of qualities which they
severally possess.
samastavi~aya, 'the whole matter': (1) an upama in which two things and
their several corresponding parts are systematically compared. (2)
R 8.29 (30). (3) alivalayair alakair iva kusumastabakai/:l stanair iva
vasante I bhiinti lata lalana iva p(1)ibhir iva kisalayai/:l sapadi (Rudrata:
"The climbing vines resemhle maidens, their clouds of bees like

d't

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tresses, their clusters of blossoms like bosoms, their tendrils like

clasping arms"). (4) "She summed her life up every day; I Modest
as morn, as mid-day bright, I Gentle as evening, cool as night"
(Andrew Marvell). (5) See also ekadesin. These two terms are but
tardy extensions of a commonplace distinction usually applied to
rupaka alalJlkiira.
samana, 'uniform': (1) an upamii in which the common property is
replaced by a play on words. (2) D 2.29. (3) biilevOdyiinaliiteyalJl
siilakiinanasobhinf (DaJ;lqin: "The young girl is like a forest creeperof beautiful tresses [alaka] and aspect [iinana]" or "beautifying the
forest [kiinana] of siil trees [siila]"). (4) "Why is a lady like a hinge?
Because she is a thing to adore';JM. E. W. Sherwood, quoted by
Russell Lynes). (5) A play on wbrds differs from a pun in that the
latter plays upon a legitimate duplicity ofmeaning (double-entendre):
a word can in context be taken in~i!her of two senses (cf sle$a
upamii). But here there are no words' at the base of the play, only
the appearance of words (hence the name 'uniform') which must be
differently construed to obtain the two desired senses. Only as the
construction of the sentence is decid~d are the words themselves
determined. This is, as it were, a syntactical pun. The Sanskrit
example is clearer because the component words of the two senses
don't even have a common phonemic basis; they are functions of a
different analysis of the long compound word siilakiinana as saalaka-iinana and siila-kiinana.
samasa (1), 'compound': (I) an upamii in which the object of comparison
occupies the first position in a compound word. (2) B 2.32, AP 344.89, R 8.17-22. (3y[sii] kamalapattrak$f sasaiikavadanii (Bhamaha:
"Lotus petal-eyed, moon-faced, she ..."). (4) "Dawn broke in London, clear and sweet, dove grey and honey" (Evelyn Waugh). (5)
Several subtypes are recognized, depending on what element of the
simile completes the compound: the common property (as in Waugh's
example), the subject of comparison (as in the Sanskrit; compare
"pot-belly"), and the Agni Puriiva seems to include here compounds
of type indusamam ('moon-like'), in which the comparative particle
takes second place. It is important to remark that all such compounds are adjectival, but that none involve the object of comparison
in second position (see rupaka).
samasa (II): (1) an upamii in which the object of comparison is in an
oblique case and is compounded with, that is, followed by, the
comparative particle/' (2) M 127. (3) atyiiyatair niyamakiiribhir

GLOSSARY

169

uddhatiiniilJl divyai/z prabhiibhir anapiiyamayair upiiyai/z I saurir

bhujair iva caturbhir ada/z sadii yo lak$mfviliisabhuvanair bhuvanalJl
babhiira (Mammala: in the Sanskrit, the two terms of comparison,
'arms' and 'powers', are in the instrumental case: "Like Srikr~t;la,
who supports the world with his four arms where Lak~mi finds
delight, [this King supports the world] with the four royal powers,
wide extending, punishers of the haughty, divinely glorious, and
eternal"). (4) "There was a great clock ticking, and every time it
ticked the tears all fell together with a noise like broken glass tinkling
in a plate" (Joyce Cary). (5) In addition to the commonplace example mentioned in connection with the Agni Puriiva in the previous
entry, Mamma!a includes in the present category of simile this
bizarre and unparalleled instance whereby we are given to understand that the comparative particle (iva, 'like'), when preceded by
its object of comparison in an oblique case, is considered to form a
compound with it. In the grammatical literature, such compounds
are admitted.
samnccaya, 'accumulation': (I) an upamii in which a second common
property cumulates the effect of the first common property. (2)
D 2.21, AP 344.13. (3) na kiintyafva mukhalJl tava I hliidanakhyena
canveti karmavendum (DaJ;lqin: "Not only in beauty is your face
likened to the moon, but in its gladdening charm"). (4) "The sun's
beams seemed to hit the white road with a directed energy and bounce
back like a rubber ball" (Somerset Maugham). (5) This figure differs
from utprek$ita upamii in that here the properties alone are relevant
" ... to hit ... and bounce back ..."); no question is intended as to
the adequacy of the object to represent the comparison. Samuccaya
differs from miilii upamii in iterating only the property, but not the
object. It has no relation whatever to the upamiisamuccaya alalJlkiira
of Rudrala.
.
silmanylibhava, 'ellipsis of the common property': (1) same as dharmalupta
upamii. (2) R 8.7 (8).
samyatadvacisatpk~epa, 'ellipsis of the common property and the comparative particle': (1) same as dharmadyotakalupta. (2) U 1.18.
silmyavacakasatpk~epa, 'ellipsis of the common property': (I) same as
dharmalupta. (2) U 1.17.
samyopameyatadvacisatpk~epa, 'ellipsis of the common property, the
particle of comparison, and the subject of comparison': (I) same as
upameyadharmadyotakalupta. (2) U 1.17.
stuti, 'praise': (I) same asprasalJlsii upamii. (2) V 4.2.7.

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171

upamiiriipaka (II): (I) same as paraY[lparita riipaka. (2) V 4.3.31-32. (5)

This is one of the two kinds of multiple figure (saYflSr#i) given by
Vamana (cf. utprek~avayava).

betu, 'cause': (I) au upamii in which the common property is expressed

as the cause of the similitude. (2) D 2.50. (3) kiintyii candramasaY[l
dhiimnii siiryaY[l dhairyelJa carlJavam / riijann anukaro~i (Dal).<;lin:
"0 King, you rival the moon with your beauty, the sun with your
glory, the sea with your steadfastness"). (4) "At the edge of this
box there lies a great wooden doll, which, so far as mutilation is
concerned, bears a strong resemblance to the finest Greek sculpture,
and especially in the total loss of its nose" (George Eliot). (5)
Specifically intended is that the common property be expressed
grammatically as a cause would be expressed; for example, with
the instrumental or, in the English, with "in."

upamiisamuccaya
upamiisamuccaya, 'simile-conjunction': (I) same as samiina upamii.
(2) R 4.32 (34).
upamey6pamii
upamey6pamii, 'comparison of the compared': (I) same as anyonya
upamii. (2) B 3.36 (37), V 4.3.15, U 5.14, M 136. (5) Another name
for the same concept is ubhaya upamii.

upamiiriipaka
upamiiriipaka (I), 'simile-metaphor': (I) <l figure consisting of a riipaka
to which is subordinated, in completji:m' of the image, an upamii
('simile'). (2) B 3.34 (35). (3) samagragaganayiimamiinadalJtfo
rathanginal;z / piido jayati siddhastrimukhl!ndunavadarpalJal;z (Bhamaha; according to the commentator, D. T. Tatacharya, the figure
concerns only the final attributive compound: "mukham indur iva
mukhl!ndul;z / tasyiibhiitapiirvo darpm;a ivl!ti"-Iiterally, foot-mirror
[riipaka] for the moonlike faces [upamii]: "May Visl).u's foot be
victorious, which is the measuring stick of the entire heaven and
a new mirror for the moon-like faces of the celestial maidens").
(4) "Thou [West Wind] on whose stream, 'mid the steep sky's commotion, / Loose clouds like earth's decaying leaves are shed"
(Shelley). (5) The (Iefinition which Bhiimaha gives is clearly different
from that for the lfgure upamiiriipaka of Vamana (see paraY[lparita
riipaka), but his example is inconclusive. Mukhl!ndu ('face-moon')
would by later writers be considered not an upamii, but another
riipaka (see samasta riipaka); th~ figure would show then a riipaka
subordinated to another riipaka, and indeed illustrate a paraY[lparita
riipaka. Our English example appears to illustrate Bhiimaha's
intention better than his own example: a completely articulated simile
(clouds like leaves) is subjoined to the main metaphor (wind-stream)
in order to give added force to the identification of property or
aspect which that metaphor suggests. Likewise, this independent
figure should not be confused with the upamii, a subspecies of
riipaka, delineated by Dal).<;lin; in this latter case, the metaphorical
identification is completed by a mention of the common property
which justifies it.
.

ubhayauyiisa
ubbayanyiisa, 'introducing both': (I) a figure in which the statement
of two general remarks suggests a parallel between them, which may
in turn suggest a specific reference but in which there is no explicit
comparison. (2) R 8.85 (86). (3) sakalajagatsiidhiirm;avibhavii bhuvi
siidhavo'dhunii viraliil;z / santi kiyantas taraval;z susviidusugandhiciiruphaliil;z (Rudrata: "Rare indeed are those genial souls whose
dominion is spread throughout the world; how many trees are there
sweet smelling and bearing tender fruit?"). (4) "When the lute is
broken, / Sweet tones are remembered not; / When the lips have
spoken, / Loved accents are soon forgot" (Shelley). (5) This figure
is peculiar to Rudrata and seems to fill the classificatory gap occasioned by his definitions of arthantaranyiisa and dr~tanta: here we
have adjunction of remarks general; in dr~tanta, of remarks specific;
and in arthantaranyiisa, of a remark specific and its appropriate
universal. The purpose of this figure is both illustrative and comparative and may be seen as a continuation of prativastu (prativastiipamii) alaY[lkiira and dr~tanta. Though the references seem to be
general in both examples cited above, a particular (a beneficent king,
a departed mistress) is obviously intended.
iirjasvi
iirjasvi, 'violent': (I) the expression of extraordinary self-assurance or
arrogance. (2) B 3.7, D 2.294 (293), U 4.5. (3) apakartaham asmlti
hrdi te mii sma bhiid bhayam / vimukhe~u na me khatfgal;z prahartuY[l
jiitu viiiichati (Dal).<;lin: "Let there be no fear in your heart from thinking yourself an evil rogue; my sword never wishes to strike the backs

172

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173

and style, acting and mood; a blend of vigor and gentleness. (2)
AP 345.5. (5) This is one of the six sabddrthala'flkara enumerated by
the Agni PuraQa in an unparalleled treatment (cf abhivyakti, the
sixth such figure). All six are elements of style rather than forms of
speech and belong rather to that subject (guQa). It is difficult to say
precisely what is meant in the text, both due to the lack of examples
and because the Agni PuraQa also gives an entirely unique account
of the guQas themselves. It seems safe to say that Dal).gin's and
Vamana's list of ten has been differently sorted out, some now being
called sabddrthala'flkaras, as kant!, some gUQas, as sle$a. The
catalytic factor may indeed be the dhvani theory (see abhivyakt!),
for the term aucitya is of extreme importance in that latter speculation (Dhvanyaloka, chap. 3); there seems to be no specific reference
to such a concept among Dal).gin's ten gUQas.

of those who flee from me!"). (4) "Nor Mike Fink along the Ohio
and the Mississippi, half wild horse and half cock-eyed alligator,
the rest of him snags and snapping tnrtle. '1 can out-run, out-jump,
out-shoot, out-brag, out-drink, and out-fight, rough and tumble,
no holds barred, any man on both sides of the river from Pittsburgh
to New Orleans and back again to St. Louis. My trigger finger itches
and 1 want to go redhot. War, famine and bloodshed puts flesh on
my bones, and hardship's my daily bread'" (Carl Sandburg).
(5) As the third in the trio preyas, rasavat, urjasvi, this figure may
originally have meant "excess in the portrayal of a rasa", and this
explanation is in fact adopted by Udbhata, though his example in
no way differs from the one giv\,p. The other two writers seem to
pair urjasvi with preyas (excess ofanimosity and excess ofcompliance).
Mammata treats this trio, not under. ala'flkara, but in 'subordinated
suggestion' (guQfbhfltavyangyadhvani.;'g6ff.). He tries to reintegrate
Anandavardhana, who was not interested in figures except as they
manifested a kind of imperfect dhvani, into' the poetic tradition.
Cf rasavat and udatta.

aupamya
aupamya, 'comparative': (I) a generic term for those figures based
ultimately on upama ('simile') or describable in terms of the same
structure (upameya, upamana). (2) R 7.9, 8.1. (5) Rudrata divides
arthtila'flkara into four subtypes: aupamya, vastava (descriptive),
atMaya (hyperbolic), and sle$a (punning). In this, he improves upon
Vamana, who wanted all the figures involving meaning to be derived
from upama.

eklivali
eklivali, 'a single row': (I) a figure in which a series of statements is so
arranged that a notion introduced as a qualification (direct object,
etc.) in a preceding statement becomes the subject of the following
qnalification, and so on. (2) R 7.109 (110-11), M 198. (3) salila'fl

kanti
kaut!, 'loveliness': (I) agreeable or pleasant utterance in appropriate
circumstances. (2) AP 345.4. (5) This is one of the six sabddrthala'flkara of the Agni PuraQa (see aucitya and abhivyakti). Kant!
may be related to the guQa "kanta" of Dal).gin. See prasast!.

vikasikamalam kamalani sugandhimadhusamrddhani I madhu lfndlikuldkulam alik~lam:api madhuraraQitam iha (Rudrata: "The stream is

abloom with lotuses and the lotuses are replete with sweet-smelling
nectar; the nectar is attracting bee swarms, and the bees are gently
buzzing"). (4) "I come from the city of Boston, I The home of the
bean and the cod, I Where the Cabots speak only to Lowells, I And
the Lowells speak only to God" (Anon.). (5) Compare karaQamala,
where a similar causal sequence is portrayed, and sara, where a
gradation of excellences constitutes the "necklace". Mala ('garland')
has of course been associated with many figures, notably upama,
as a series of (usually) concatenated comparisons. The present
figure illustrates a rhetorical form only-that of superad4ed qualification.

karal).amala
karal).amalii, 'garland of causes': (I) a figure wherein an effect (a term so
introduced) is said to be the cause of a subsequent effect, and so on.
(2) R 7.84 (85), M 186. (3) vinayena bhavat! gUQavan guQavat!
loko'nurajyate sakala/z I abhigamyate'nurakta/z sasahiiyo yujyate
lak$mya (Rudrata: "By just actions one attains virtue; the whole

world delights in a virtuous man. When one is loved, he is never

alone; a befriended man enjoys prosperity"). (4) "By the side of a
murmuring stream an elderly gentleman sat. I On the top of his
head was a wig, and a-top of his wig was his hat. I The wind it blew

aucitya
aucitya, 'appropriateness':"(J) the appropriate correspondance of subject

I
l

GLOSSARY

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174

175

more than an effort to take account of that hypothetical objection:

he does not himself define a figure hetu and indeed says, in discussing
the figure kara/Jllmala, "purv8ktakavyalifigam eva hetul;" ('the figure
hetu is indeed nothing but the previously mentioned figure kavyalifiga'). Mamma;a's three examples show qnite forcefully that he
intends the expression of the relation of cause and effect to be other
than descriptive-definitely conventional and presumptive; the
figure thus resembles Ida (I).

high and blew strong, as the elderly gentleman sat; / And bore from
his head in a trice, and plnnged in the river his hat. / The gentleman
then took his cane which lay by his side as he sat; / And he dropped
in the river his wig, in attempting to get out his hat. / His breast it
grew cold with despair, and full in his eye madness sat; / So he flung
in the river his cane to swim with his wig, and his hat. / Cool reflexion at
last came across while this elderly gentleman sat; / So he thought
he would follow the stream and look for his cane, wig, and hat. /
His head being thicker than common, o'er-balanced the rest of his
fat; / And in plumped this son of a woman to follow his wig, cane,
and hat" (George Canning). (5) The figure is nothing but a string of

kavyahetu
kavyaheto, 'poetic cause': (1) same as smarmJa alatr/kara. (2) U 6.7.
(5) In the text, Udbhaia also calls this kavyalifiga; Mamma;a uses
the name kavyalifiga for another figure and calls this one smarmJa.
Kavyahetu is a jfiapaka hetu whose purpose is comparison.

causes enchainees.
kavyadr~t~nta

kavya~tanta, 'poetic example': (1) s~P'!~as dmanta. (2) U 6.8. (5)

krama

Udbha;a has been reading Bhamaha:, where dr~liinta has its logical
connotation only.

krama, 'series': (1) same as yathiisatr/khya. (2) D 2.273, V 4.3.17.

gnmphana

kavyaliiiga
kavyaliiiga, 'poetic cause': (1) a figure in which a metaphorical relation
of cause and effect is expressed conventionally either as intention
or rationale. (2) M 174. (3) pralJayisakhfsalTlaparihiisarasiidhigatair

gnmphana, 'stringing'; (1) composition. (2) AP 342.31. (5) Gumphana

is skill at managing the sequence of the narrative; it is paraphrased
by the term racana. If the SarasvatikaljlhiibharalJa (2.118) can be
allowed to have preserved the poetic tradition of the Agni PuralJa,
the term may mean only balanced composition and be similar to the
figure yathiisatr/khya.

lalitasirf~apu~pahananair

api tamyatl yat / vapu$i vadhiiya tatra tava

sastram upak$ipatal; patatu sirasy akalJt;!e'yam adalJt;!a iviii~a bhujal;

(Mamma;a; the snbject phrase "may my arm fall" describes the conventional effect and riposte to the cause: the attack of the love god:
"My body suffets from the blows of gay siri~a flowers that you
stole from the mocking games of her dearest friends 1 You have
certainly shot these weapons in the hope of killing me. May my
defenceless arm fall for once on your head I"). (4) "When he saw
in their bright eyes the shadow of the registry office, he told them
that the memory of his one great love would always prevent him
from forming any permanent tie" (Somerset Mangham; the registry
office is the cause of the convenient memory). (5) There is little
ground for distinguishing this rather obscure figure from the ordinary
hetu (q. v.). The main structural argnment for the distinction is that
the canse is here specified as poetic; for hetu, snch a determination has
always been implicit. Yet the figure has been rejected by several
authors on the ground that it involves no element of vakr8kti,
metaphorical utterance. Mamma;a's kavyalifiga may represent no

citra
citra, 'glitter' (and du~kara, 'difficult', krft;!a, 'play'): (1) names used
variously by the different authors to cover four separate phenomena,
but grouped together because of their basis in pure word play. (2)
D 3.186, AP 343.22-31, R 5.1-33, M 4, 121. See also (5) and the
terms there defined. (5) After the triumph of the rasa-dhvanitheory,
the term citrakavya comes to be used for the third and lowest kind of
poetry, where mere verbal virtuosity precludes the expression of any

rasa.
(a) In the most obvious sense, "word play" refers to the composition of various puzzles and games, riddles and conundrums, and
the like. None of the authors, except perhaps the Agni PuralJa,
goes as far as calling this sort of thing poetry, but several treat of
it because of its obvious function of entertaining the same audience

176

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for whom the poetry was destined and also because in some manner
it does demonstrate the virtuosity of the "poet" who wrote it. Dat;l<;lin
gives sixteen different types of conundrum in treating of prahelika.
The Agni PuraJ;la and Rudrata give approximately the same list
of six games, but the former calls them citra (the eighth sabdalall'kara of nine), and the latter kria, appending the topic to a discussion
of citra (types [b] and [c] below), a sabdalall'kara. In both treatments,
prahelika is but one of six games given, the others being cyUla,
guha (or gupta),prasna, and samasya (variously subdivided to make
six).
A more important category of word play, however, is the various
kinds of patterned verses, which probably have their origin in the
figure yamaka ('cadence'). Threitiypes can be distingnished, depending upon the principle of repetitiol1 involved. (b) Included here are
verses whicb, through a geometric~llimitation of the sequence of
their syllables, can be read in more'thall one way to give the same
meaning. The most transparent example is the palindrome (pratilomanuloma), which specifies that the sequence of syllables be the
same when read backwards. But the Indian authors have been
ingenious in inventing other principles of total repetition, such as
'hop-scotch' (anulomaviloma), 'zig-zag' (gomutrika), 'criss-cross'
(muraja), 'double palindrome' (sarvatobhadra), 'elephant-walk'
(gajapada), and 'knight-at-chess' (turagapada). The geometric 'carttrack' (rathapada) is two palindromes separated by non-geometrical
sequences and could be taken as an example of the next type. No
specific name has been given to these geometrics. Dat;l<;lin treats
them as an extellsion of yamaka, along with (d), following in what
he calls du~kara. The Agni PuraJ;la may intend this type by its category vikalpa du~kara, but some examples of it (sarvatobhadra) are
included in bandha du~kara (c). Rudrala and Mammata treat both
this and the next type (c) under the category citra, though Rudrata
does not mix the examples indiscriminately, which perhaps implies
that he was aware of a difference of principle.
(c) When the principle of limitation is not applied to the entire
sequence of syllables, but requires repetition only of certain strategically placed syllables in terms of which the whole verse can be arranged in imitation of natural objects, we have a type of word play
most commonly known by tbe name bandha (Agni PuraJ;la, Mammata); examples are: khaga ('sword'), cakra ('wheel'), dhanu
('bow'), padma ('lotJls'), musala ('pestle'), sara ('arrow'), sakti

177

('lance'), sala ('spike'), and hala ('plough'). Rudrala apparently

considers pictorial verses citra par excellence, for they get first place
in his account. He gives no specific name, however; type (b) above
is also considered citrakavya.
Lastly (d), the principle of repetition may be located not in the
verse at all, but in the individnal syllable; that is, the place of the
syllable is not specified, bnt rather its phonemic quality. Dat;l<;lin
and the Agni PuraJ;la call this type niyama, and Dat;l<;lin gives examples
of verses composed of four or fewer vowels or consonants, inclnding
one tour de force the only consonant in which is the phoneme
"n".
The last three types depart in certain respects from the classic
yamaka, which is a repetition of phonemically identical syllable
sequences in specifically defined and symmetrically related parts of
the verse. The first type (b) can be seen as a variation on the mahtiyamaka (q.v.), inasmuch as the entire verse is somehow repeated;
but the repetition is subjected to conditions which in turn limit the
occurrence of syllables within the verse, and this is foreign to yamaka.
The second type (c) involves a repetition only of specifically placed
syllables and does not refer to symmetrically related parts of the
verse. Type (d), of course, pnts no restriction at all upon sequence.
It may be seen from the preceding that not all authors agree
either on the terminology or typology of citrakavya. Dat;l<;lin, the
earliest writer to deal with the subject, defines types (a), (b), and
(d), calling them prahelika, du~kara, and niyama. The Agni PuraJ;la
seems to refer to all four under the names (a) citra, (b) vikalpa, (c)
bandha, and (d) niyama, and groups the last three together as
dU$kara. Rudrata, in turn, considers (a) kria, (b) and (c) citra,
but ignores (d). Lastly, Mammala, who uses only the term citra,
treats indiscriminately of (b) and (c).
Citra, as a category of poetry, is extremely important in the history
of Indian poetic speculation. The growing contempt for the poet's
virtnosity on the part of the critics probably reflects in part the
increasing dependence of the poets on these devices, a fact that
Sanskrit literary history has often remarked. From its origins perhaps ultimately in religious symbolism, citrakavya has passed from
one extreme (Dat;l<;lin's view that it is a kind of recreation of the poet
and his audience) to the other, becoming more and more a central
issue opposing the poet to his audience (the critics). The development
of the tantric religious systems may have accentuated this divorce,

;,'

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

for the magical undertone, especially of the pictorial verses, is

apparent.
aoulomaviloma, 'with the grain, ignoring the grain': (I) a type of word
play in which the syllables of a second half verse or second verse
repeat in a leapfrogging sequence those of the first (half) verse.
(2) R 5.22-23. (3) samaraiJamahitopii yiistaniimaripiitii ... saramaQahimatoyapiistamiint1ritiipii ... (Rudraia: "Those who destroy the
enemies of the Gods and cause to fall the enemies of those whose
glory is decayed by having departed, the sufferings of his enemies,
being arrogance, were assuaged by applications of water borne from
snow to a lover"). (4) The form is: A Ba Ca Da Ea Fa Ga Ha Ja /
A Ca Ba Da Fa Ea Ga Ja Ha. (5) Cf pratilomiinuloma; the word
viloma also means 'against the''grain', but the connotation of the
pre-verb vi- is simply 'irrespective of' rather than 'contrary to' as
conveyed by prati-. Lorna means 'hai(; the idea conveyed is that of
stroking hair in the way it naturally lies, or the inverse.
ambuja, 'lotus': (I) same aspadma. (2) AP 343.46.
arthacitra, 'word play of sense': (I) another term for alalflkiira. (2) M 70.
(5) Mammata is following Anandayar~hana, who thinks that fignres
of speech which do not evoke any rasa are mere word play, distinguished from riddles and cadence (sabdacitra) only in that they involve
the meanings of the words instead of their outward form (sabda).
They lack the poetic charm which alone derives from an appropriately
evoked rasa. Mammaia mistakes this rhetorical remark for a classification of citra and reproduces it in that context.
ardhabhrama, 'half-rotation': (I) a type of word play in which a verse,
each of whose foUr piidas is written on a separate line, can be read
either in the normal way or as a helix, from outer verticals inwards.
(2) D 3.80 (81), AP 343.39 (text reads ardhiibhyiim in error), R 5.3
(18). (3):
mii no bha va ta vii nf kalfl
no da yii ya na mii ni nf
bha ya da me yii mii mii vii
va ya me no ma yii na tao
DaJ:\4in
("0 Liebesgott, vor dem wir uns verneigen! Dein Heer, die Grollende,
.triigt den Sieg davon; wir mogen ein Vergehen begangen haben oder
nicht, so empfinden wir doch aus Furcht eine unermessliche Pein"
(Biihtlingk). Or: "0 God of Love! your beloved, phalanx-like, is
,certainly not for our/misfortune! May we not be deemed sinners!

Our incompassible sufferings are from fear of you alone !") (4) The
form is:
ABC D E F G H
BIJKLMNG
CJOPQRMF
D K PST Q L E
(5) Reading as a helix, that is, downwards on the first column,
upwards on the eighth, then downwards on the second and upwards
on the seventh, and so on, gives exactly the same sequence of syllables
as reading from left to right in the normal way. Compare sarvatobhadra, where the verse can be read backwards and forwards as well.
kiirakagii4ha, 'concealment of the subject': (I) a grammatical riddle in
which the subject at first reading is concealed by a false salfldhi, but
which another reading (dividing the words differently) reveals.
(2) R 5.26 (30). (3) pibato viiri taviisyiilfl sariti sariiveQa piit/tau kena
(Rudraia; piititau has no subject, but by reading sariiveQa 'with a
dish' as sariiv eQa, 'arrows, 0 antelope', the subject is supplied;
"While drinking water in this stream with a dish, by whom have been
shot at you?"). (4) Read the example under kriyiigi1(1ha on "Why did
the raise her bilt(razorbill) raise her bill?" (Oliver Onions; deformed
for our purpose here). (5) Rudraia lists six games (krf(1a) of which
this is one; cf kriyiigi1(1ha.
kriyiigii4ba, 'concealment of the verb': (I) a grammatical puzzle in
which the verb at first reading is concealed by salfldhi. (2) R 5.26
(30). (3) viiri siSiralfl ramaQYo ratikhediid apuru$asyeva (Rudrata;
ramaQYo, 'ladies' requires a verb; by reading apuru$asyeva, 'as though
of a non-man' as apur U$asy eva, 'drank only at dawn', it is supplied:
"The ladies, exhausted from passion, the cool water as though of ,a
non-man"). (4) "Why did the razorbill razorbill?" "So the seaurchin could sea-urchin" (Oliver Onions). (5) See kiirakagi1(1ha.
kri4ii, 'play': (I) puzzles or conundrums. (2) R 5.24. (5) A cover term
for six games: miitracyuta, binducyuta, prahelikii, kiirakagi1(1ha,
kriyiigi1(1ha, and prasnottara. Rudrata distinguishes these six from
citra, which are syllable arrangements and legitimate fignres (cj:
pratilomanuloma), by calling them "merely playful"; that is, they
serve no function of embellishment and are not poetic. But Rudrata,
following DaJ:\qin, treats of them presumably because they please
and divert the same sophisticated audience for which the poetry
was intended. The six games are wider in scope than our conundrums, which term could usefully translate the third type, prahelikii;

178

179

180

types one and two depend on altering the written verse in a systematic way, types four and five on false smpdhi, and six is a question
which answers itself.
khatlga, 'sword': (I) a verse or pair of verses whose syllables can be
arranged, in terms of certain repetitions, in the visual form of a
sword. (2) R 5.2 (6, 7), M 121. (3) mlirarisakrarlim6bhamukhair
lislirarmphasli / slirarabdhastavli nityall' tadartihara~ak$amli / mlitli
natlinlill' sall'ghattab sriylill' biidhitasall'bhramli / mlinyatha simli
rlimli~lill' sail' me disylid umadijli (Rudrata: "May Uma, the first
born, show me favor-she who is praised most excellently and with the
violence of a cloudburst by Siva, Indra, Rama, and GaJ;l8sa, and
who is able to remove their su!j"erings, mother of the devoted and
collection of bounties, who cancels error, and who serves as the
honorable model of women"). (4) T(1e reader is referred to the appendix of Rudrata's text, where he wil~/)inH the "picture" which this
verse defines. (5) Such picture verses, generally referred to as bandha
('ligature', 'bond'), are first mentioned in the Agni Purli~a and constitute probably the most original and indeed the most curious
contribution of that text to poetics. The tantric symbolism of these
verse arrangements is evident, but their actual function is not so.
Some late writers, like Magha, employ them, but it is clear that they
have no other purpose than to demonstrate the virtuosity of the
author. One chapter (the nineteenth) of the SiSuplilavadha contains
a great number of these devices, and one may wonder if there is
not some relation between the virtuosity so demonstrated and the
concurrently rendered climax of the poem: the fight between
Klwa and Sisup~la.
gajapadapiitha, 'elephant-gait-version': (I) a verse which, when each of
its four plidas is placed on a separate line, can be read either by vertical
pairs of syllables from left to right, or in the normal way. This
horizontal movement of two syllables at once is likened to the gait
of the elephant, whose two legs are always in unison. (2) R 5.2
(16). (3):
ye nli nli dhi nli vii dhi rli
nli dhi vii rli dhi rli rli jan
kill' nli nli sail' nli kall' sail' te
nli sali kan te'sall' te te jab
Rudrata
("Those of your courtiers, 0 King, who preserve the force of
various epithets, are powerful, who eradicate obstacles and who do

181

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GLOSSARY

not preserve non-wisdom, why do they not notice your heavenly

grace, replete with many desires? [They do not observe that] your
glory is not auspicious".) (4) The form is:

A B B
B

C
E

B
C

D C E
E E F

(5) The same syllable sequence is obtained by reading the left vertical
pair from top to bottom, then the second vertical pair, and so on.
gupta, 'hidden': (I) probably the same as (klirakakriyli) gur;lha. (2) AP
343.22 (26). (5) As always with the Agni Purli~a, no examples are
given, but the context suggests that Rudrata's two krir;lli are meant.
gomiitrika, 'cow piss': (I) a verse the syllables of whose constituent
plidas, when placed on separate lines, can be read either by zig-zagging from one line to the other, or in the regular way. (2) D 3.78-79,
AP 343.36-38. (3):

ma da no ma di rli k$i ~Ii ma pli ligli stro ja ye da yam

ma de no ya di tat k$i ~a ma na ligli ylin ja iiII' da de
DaJ;l\lin

("Should the love-power of drunken-eyed women, armed with sidelong glances, conquer me-if this my sin should finally be destroyed,
I would give thanks to the Love God".) (4) The form is:

ABC D
AI
CJ

E F G H
EKGL

(5) The same syllable sequence can be obtained by reading lower

first vertical (A), upper second vertical (B), lower third vertical (C),
and so on. This amounts to requiring that every other syllable be
the same as the corresponding syllable in the next plida. The Agni
Purli~a gives three other names for this type of limited verse:
dhenu ('cow'), aivapada 'horse track'), and jdlabandha ('lattice').
The appropriateness of the more common name is evident.
cakra, 'wheel': (I) a series of verses which can, in terms of certain significant repeated syllables, be arranged in the visual form of a wheel.
(2) AP 343.47-54, R 5.2 (6-13). (3) See RUdrata's examples for
khar;lga, musala, dhanu, sara, sala, sakti, and hala, in that order.
(5) The first half verse of each sloka begins with the same syllable
(mli), and this constitutes the "hub". The first half verse itself
is the spoke and the second half verse the part of the felloe to the
right of the spoke, up to the next spoke. The syllable at the junction
of the spoke and the felloe is thus part of three half verses and is

182

GLOSSARY

consequently the same in all three: last syllable of the preceding

verse, last syllable of the first half verse, and first syllable of the second
half verse following. In Rudrata's example, eight verses are given,
constituting a wheel of eight spokes.
cakrllbjaka, 'wheel-lotus': (I) presumably some combination of cakra
and padma. (2) AP 343.55. (5) No examples and no similar type
in the other texts.
cyuta, 'fallen': (I) a group of conundrums which operate by dropping
significant parts of the written Sanskrit sentence, such as vowel
indicators, nasal vowel marks (anusviira), final aspiration (visarga),
and perhaps consonants ("r" in c1nsters). (2) AP 343.22, 28. (4)
"There's a little old fellow and,.he has a little paint-pot, / And a
paucity of brushes is something:that he ain't got, / And when he
sees a road sign, the road sign he betters, / And expresses of himself
by eliminating letters. / Thus 'ThrQ~gh Road' / Becomes 'Rough
Road' / And 'Curves Dangerous' / Is transformed to 'Curves Anger
Us ...'" (Morris Bishop). (5) No Sanskrit examples are given, but in
part cyuta is evidently the same as Rudrala's miitracyuta and
binducyuta. The idea is that by dropping these discriminating elements, another meaning is obtained. The possibility of this game,
of course, depends on the fact that short "a" is inherent in all
syllables and is "what is left" when superscripts are dropped.
cyutadatta, 'dropped-added': (I) apparently a combination of cyuta and
datta; perhaps certain discriminating elements are replaced by others.
(2) AP 343.22, 30. (5) No example is given. Cf cyuta, datta.
turagapada, 'horse path': (I) a verse whose syllables, when arranged by
piidas on separate'lines, can be read either in the manner of the
moves of a knight at chess or in the regular way. (2) R 5.2 (15). (3):
se nii Ii Ii Ii nii nii Ii
If nii nii nii nii If Ii Ii
nii Ii nii Ii Ie nii If nii
If If Ii nii nii nii nii Ii
Rudrala

("I praise the army whose leader is mighty in play, which is devoted
-I, who am not acquainted with untruth, whose men are mounted
in carts and keep together in various rows, who does not perpetrate
meaningless deeds for his dependents, who has generals who assume
the leadership of happy men, who has men of several sorts and no
fools". (4) The form is':

GLOSSARY

183

5
2

6
8
4
10
3
II
7
9
(5) This amounts to the famous puzzle of moving the knight so
that it touches every square only once. I am indebted to V. Raghavan
for suggesting the nature of the solution. It is beyond my powers
to complete it.
dal;tIJa, 'stick': (I) probably the same as kha4ga. (2) AP 343.37,55. (5)
No example.
datta, 'given': (I) probably a group of conundrums which function by
adding certain significant parts of the written Sanskrit sentence, as
vowel indictors, nasal vowel marks (anusviira), final aspiration
(visarga), and perhaps consonants. (2) AP 343.22, 29. (4) "But the
old fellow feels a slight dissatisfaction / With the uninspiring process
of pure subtraction. / The evidence would indicate he's taken as his
mission / The improvement of the road signs by the process of
addition. / Thus 'Traffic Light Ahead' / Becomes 'Traffic Slight
Ahead' / And 'Gas and Oi!' / Is improved to 'Gasp and Boil .. .'''
(Morris Bishop)., (5) No Sanskrit examples are given, but the context
permits a comparison with cyuta and leads to the inference that
datta is the reverse of this. Like cyuta, the games depend on the
fact that the short vowel "a" is inherent in every syllable, and that
graphically other vowels and vowel aspects are superscripts to that
simple vowel. The second type, "consonantal" datta, presents mOre
of a problem, but may refer to adding parts of ligatures, as "r"
which is an obvious superscript.
du~kara, 'difficult to accomplish': (I) a general name for various types of
picture verses and geometric verses. (2) D 3.78, 83, AP 342.20,
343.32. (5) In general, dU$kara is distinguished from puzzles and
conundrums, which Daw;lin includes in prahelikii and the Agni
Purii/Ja calls citra. DU$kara then refers to those extensions of yamaka
in which the principle of repetition is not linear, or in which the
limitation on occurrence applies only to certain letters (e.g., one
vowel or consonant) or to certain places in the verse (picture verses).
These two types are clearly delimited by DaI;lc;lin (reference cited),
who does not recognize any pictorial verses. (His gomutrika may
provide the key to the explanation of the origin of these latter: for
DaI;lc;lin, the zig-zag is clearly a geometrical verse with a graphic
name; it may have encouraged others, more literal minded, to

184

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

explore further the field of graphic representation.) The Agni

puraVa apparently follows Dal)qin's usage of the term, but it makes
an explicit distinction between three types of du~kara, only the first
aud third of which have clear parallels in Dal)qin (verses employing
only limited vowels or consonants and picture verses). The second
type (vikalpa) may refer to geometrical verses, for the palindrome
is referred to, yet sarvalobhadra is included in the third type (picture
verses or bandha).
dhanu, 'bow': (1) a verse whose syllables can, in terms of certain significant
repetitions, be arranged in the visual form of a bow. (2) R 5.2 (9).

185

bha forms the center of the lotus. The two syllables following or
preceding bha constitute the "petals". The "center" recurs after
every two "petals". One begins with bha, reads out along the first

petal and back along the second to the center, then out along the
third, back along the four:!h, and so on, until one reaches the last
petal, which should be the inverse of the first (here bhasale and Ie
sabha) and lead back to the center. In the present example, the petals
at the end of each pada and the beginning of the next are also inversions.
pratilomanuloma, 'against the grain, with the grain': (1) a type of word
play in which the syllables of a second half verse repeat in exact
inverse order those of the first half verse. (2) AP 343.34-35, R 5.3
(17). (3) veddpanne sa sakle racilanijarugucchedayalne'ramere

(3) mam abhida saravya mUIsadaivdrukprada ca dhi/; / dhira pavitra

sarplrasat Irasf~!ha matar arama ,JRudrata: "0 mother, save me

from fear and layoff! you who'}clispense confidence, are a refuge,

a giver of health always and uniquely enjoyable, wise, steadfast and
holy"). (5) The first half verse is the;r~B()w", the second, the"string".
The syllables joining at each end are dhi and ma (second of the first
half and last ofthe second; the Indian bow generally has an extension
at the top above the junction with the string). For metrical reasons,
Rudrata also refers to dhanu as baVdsa~a (same meaning).
niyama, 'limit': (I) a verse whose phonemic content is limited to certain
vowels, consonants, or points of articulation. (2) D 3.83 ff., AP
343.33-34. (3) srfdipti hrfkfrlf dhinftf gf/;prfti / edhele dve dve Ie ye
neme devese [only two vowels]; nunarrz nunntini niinena niinanenananiini

devdsakle'mudak~o

baladamanayadas lodadurgdsavase / sevasargad

udaslo dayanamadalavak~odamukle savade reme raIne'yadacche
gurujanitaciraklesasanne'padave (Rudrata: "A certain person, whose

eyes know no pleasures, who gives directions for countermanding

strength and who has ceased to desire serving o:!hers, delights in
this virtuous man, accomplished in the Vedas, agreeable, who strikes
down evil men and in whom is ingrained the struggle to eradicate
his own suffering, who is devoted to the Gods and inherently capable
of storming:!he bastions of sickness, who is free by having crushed :!he
droplets of pride in giving, garrulous, spotless, accepting a fall
from grace and devoted only to the trials born of attendance upon
his master"). (4) The form is A Ba Ca Da / Da Ca Ba A. (5) Note
that the pattern, as usual, is that of syllables (consonant plus vowel)
rather than that of phonemes. See also anulomaviloma. This is
not exactly a palindrome, since :!he meaning of the reverse reading
is not the same; cf "Madam, I'm Adam" and "Able was I ere I saw
Elba" (James Joyce).
prasna (prasnllttara), 'question' (or 'question-answer'): (1) a conundrum
in which the same word answers several questions, but is used as a
pun and is taken in a different sense for each question. (2) AP
343.22-24, R 5.26 (31-32). (3) udyan divasakaro'sau kirp kurule

nq/:t / niinenii nanu niinimenaineniiniinino nini/;l [one consonant]; aga

garp gaiigakakakagahakaghakakakaha / ahahaiiga khagaiikagakaiigakhagakakaka [only gntterals]. All these examples are from Dal)qin:

"They are not tw(',::nverlords who prosper there, they are prosperity
and beanty, shame and fame, wisdom and polity, celebrity and
pleasure"; the last two examples are unclear). (5) One well-known
example from literature of this virtuosity is the seventh chapter of
The Ten Princes (also by Dal)<}in) where no labials at all are employed,
on the pretext that the narrator has wounded his lips in love-making.
See (5) under du~kara, of which this is the first type.
padma, 'lotus': (1) a verse whose syllables can, in terms of certain significant repetitions, be arranged in the visual form of a lotus. (2)
R 5.21, M 121. (3) bhasale pralibhasara rasdbhaldhaldvibha /
bhavi/dlma subha vade devdbha vala Ie sabha (Mammata: "0 essence
of glory! your council is indeed brilliant, beautified by the eight
moods, of unbeatable beauty, in which is revealed the ultimate soul
of justice, clever in dispute, and similar to God"). (5) The syllable

kalhaya me mrgaydsu / kalhaydnindraya lalha kirp karavaVi kvavitakama/; / ahivavakamaladaldrUiJiva mavu phurattiva keva / javijjai
laruvfavassa niddha bhava aharel)a (Rudrata; the third question is
of course in Prakrit. Ahareva is the answer to all three: 'day' (ahar)
and 'night' (eva), 'stupid' (ahare) 'make noise' ('na, sarpdhi for ava),
'by her lower lip' (adhareva: "dh" becomes "h" in most Prakrits):

187

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

"What does the sun make when he rises? Tell me quickly, spy it
out! Say, stupid, what should I do if I want to be loud? How do
you tell when a girl is angry?"). (4) "What is that which will make
you catch cold-cure the cold-and pay the doctor's bills?" (Robert
Merry; answer: a draft).
bandha, 'delimitation': (I) the generic term for those verses which can be
arranged, in terms of certain significant repeated syllables, in the
visual form of natural objects, as swords, wheels, axes, etc. (2)
AP 343.33 (35-65), M 121. (3) ,(4) See sara, cakra, muraja, etc.
(5) For both Rudrala and Mammala, pictorial verses represent
citra par excellence; the older name of the Agni Purii/Ja is retained
only as a part of the name of e~Sl1 type, as kharjgabandha. In the
Agni Purii/Ja, moreover, bandhG'is one of three types of dU$kara
and is distinguished from citra, this last being a general name for
conundrums, puzzles, and the like),'ost probably this type of
verse with obvious magical connotanonsgrew out of the older
geometrically arranged verses (palindromes, etc.), which are prominent in DaJ,lgin. The bridge may have been the geometric gomillrika
('cow piss')-in DaJ,lgin simply a vivid name for a verse which can
be read in a zig-zag fashion. The Agni Purii/Ja significantly groups
gomutrika in bandha verses.
The only instance I know in English of a verse that is what it
means is: "Yet this I Prophesie; Thou shalt be seen, / (Tho' with
some short Parenthesis between:) / High on the Throne of Wit"
(John Dryden).
binducyuta, 'dropping the anuswira': (I) a type of word play in which
one phrase, by dfbpping a nasal phoneme, is transformed into
another phrase with another meaning. (2) R 5.25 (28). (3) kiinto
nayanfinandi batendu1;z khe na bhavati sadii (Rudrata: "The lovdy
young moon, delightful to see, is not always in the sky". By dropping
a nasal, we get "bale du1;zkhena" or "The lovely moon, delightful to
see, young girl, is always accompanied by sadness"). (5) See cyula.
Rudrala gives examples for only two of the Agni Purii/Ja's four types:
this one and miitracyula.
mlitracyuta, 'dropping the vowel sign': (I) a type of word play in which
one phrase, by dropping the graphic syllabic modification indicating
a vowel phoneme, is transformed into another phrase with another
meaning. (2) R 5.25 (28). (3) niyatam agamyam adrsyaJTl bhavali
kile trasyato ra/Jopiintam (Rudrala: "In truth, for the fearful the
environs of battle are"unapproachable and their sight canuot be

borne". By dropping the "i" in kila, we get kalalrasya lora/Jopanlam

or "For women, the environs of the city's gates are unapproachable
and their sight cannot be borne"). (5) Cf binducyula and cyula.
By dropping the vowel discriminator, a short "a" is obtained, since
this vowel is considered inherent in the syllable sign itself.
moraja, 'drum': (I) a verse whose syllables can be read either in a crisscross form similar to the lacing of an Indian drum (mrdaiigam), or
in the regular way. (2) AP 343.59, R 5.3 (19), M 121. (3):

186

sa ra Iii ba ha Iii ra mba

la ra Iii Ii ba Iii ra vii
vii ra Iii ba ha Iii ma nda
ka ra Iii ba ha Iii ma Iii

Rudrala, Mammala
("The autumn is full of the sounds of undulating armies of bees,
thick and long; dense with geese; where kings are quick and iimala
fruits are plentiful".) (5) The first and last lines can be read also on
the four-syllable diagonals up and down, beginning and ending
with the same syllables as the lines. The two internal lines must be
taken in halves, bnt the same principle applies.
mnsala, 'pestle':, (1) a verse whose syllables can be arranged, in terms
of certain significant repetitions, in the visual form of a pestle. (2)
R 5.2 (8). (3) miiyiivinaJTl mahiihiivii rasiiyiitaJTl lasadbhujii / jiilali/iiyathiisiiraviicaJTl mahi$am iivadhi1;z (Rudrala: "You, 0 mother, of
great blandishments and gleaming arms, in whom joy is fulfilled,
you have slain the buffalo demon, hiding in deceit, puffed up with
pride, whose words did not correspond to the truth"). (4) See the
appendix to Rudrala for the picture that this forms. (5) No mortar,
oddly enough.
ratbapada, 'cart path': (1) a verse wherein the two even or the two odd
piidas (but not both) are palindromes, thus producing the appearance
of a cart track. (2) R 5.2 (14). (3):
itik$itii suraiS cakre
yii yamiimamamiiyayii
mahi$aJTl piitu vo gauri
siiyatiisisitiiyasii

Rudrala
("Thus observed by the Gods, may Gauri, who without guile sent
the buffalo demon to the nether world, Gaud, who has slain those
demons who have destroyed property with their long arrows-may
she protect you I") (4) The form of the second and fourth lines is:

189

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GLOSSARY

ABC D DeB A and E F G H H G F E. (5) Two other padas

are gaja and turaga.
vikalpa, 'alternation': (1) a kind of duskara. (2) AP 343.33, 34. (5) No
example is given and there are no subdivisions; this may refer to
geometrical verses-those which can be read by rearranging the
syllables in a regular pattern (as palindrome). See duskara. The
text reads "vikalpa!; prlitilomytinulomyiid evtibhidhfyate I prlitilomyti-

is diety to the world's high rulers, she who is obedient to Siva and
fulfilled witb all success, she who is praised by all"). (4) See the
appendix to Rudrata for the picture that this forms. (5) The first
half Sloka constitutes the shaft; six syllables suffice for the three
prongs by reading forwards and backwards, each time adding the
final syllable of the first half.
samasyii, 'union': (I) a verbal game which consists in discovering the
words of one verse which have been hidden systematically in a
much larger verse. (2) AP 343.23, 31. (5) No examples are given,
but the puzzle is well known, at least as far as the letters of a word
are concerned, by the name "acrostic"; for example: "Dread monster,
ruthless foe I Ever travelling to and fro I And causing tears of grief to
flow, I The good, the loved, and those that be I Hale and strong,
mnst yield to thee" (Robert Blackwell).
sarvatobbadra, 'auspicious in all ways': (I) a verse, having the same
number of lines as syllables, which can be read backwards and
forwards both vertically and horizontally. (2) D 3.80 (82), AP 343.41,
R 5.3 (20), M 121. (3) slimliylimlimliyli mlisli mlirlinliylinlirlimli I
yiiniiviiriiriiviiniiyii maya rlima miiriiytima (DalJ-\lin; this verse is. also
deemed to make .sense when read backwards: by putting these two
verses together on eight lines of one plida each, the same double
verse can be read backwards or forwards along the horizontals, or
backwards or forwards along the verticals: "This lovely young lady,
an extension of the fever of Love, a union of devices for inducing
love, a snare made of the tinkling of her anklets, whose beauty is
sorcery, is destined quickly to be the death of me, along with the
moon"). (5) Cf ardhabhrama, which is conceived as a half verse which
can be so arranged.
spa~tapraccbannartba, 'whose hidden meaning becomes clear': (I) same
as ubhayacchanna prahelikli. (2) R 5.25 (29). (5) See prahelikli and

188

nulomyal"(! ca sabdentirthena jliyate I anekadhtivrttavan;wvinylisal!;

Silpakalpanli" (343.33-34; 'Vikalpa gets its name from the backwards

and forwards arrangement of syllables; the arrangement functions

on both the levels of word and sense and is a technical construction
of phoneme sequences repeated 1)1,0re than once').
vyiibrtartba, 'whose meaning is spoketi";(l) same as ekacchanna prahelikli.
(2) R 5.25 (29). (5) See prahelikli. The name vylihrttirtha probably
intends that the paradox is made expliqit in the riddle, and concerns
the nature of the thing rather than words (s",6 spastapracchannfirtha).
sakti, 'lance': (I) a verse whose syllables can be arranged, in terms of
certain significant repetitions, in the visual form of a lance. (2)
R 5.2 (12). (3) mlihislikhye rm;ze'nyli ?'U sli nu nlineyam atra hi I
himtitafiklid ivtimul"(! ca kal"(! kampinam upaplutam (Rudrata: "Was
it she or another in the battie with the buffalo demon? Was it he,
shuddering, who was consumed as though by the enemy of the
snow?"). (4) See the appendix to Rudrata for the picture that this
forms.
sabdacitra, 'word play of words': (I) citra, properly speaking. (2) M 70.
(5) See arthacitra.
sara, 'arrow': (I) a verse whose syllables can be arranged, in terms of
certain significant repetitions, in the visual form of an arrow. (2)
R 5.2 (10). (3) mlinanliparusal"(!lokadevfl"(! sadrasa sannama I manasli
slidaral"(! gatvli sarvadli dlisyam afiga tlim (Rudrata: "0 truly devoted,
approach respectfully and honor the world Goddess with your mind
and every effort from which anger has been driven out by service").
(4) See the appendix to Rudrata for the picture that this forms. (5)
The first piida is the shaft, the second is the point, and the third and
fourth are the feathers and bonds.
siila, 'spike': (I) a verse whose syllables can be arranged, in terms of
certain siguificant repetitions, in the visual form of a spike. (2)
R 5.2 (11). (3) mli muso rlijasa svtisul"(!l lokakutesadevatlim I tlil"(!
Sivlivlisitlil"(! siddhytidhylisitlil"(! hi stutlil"(! stuhf (Rudrata: "0 violent
one, do not delight in.Your own life: praise the Goddess-she who

vylihrttirtha.

bala, 'plough': (I) a verse whose syllables can be arranged, in terms of

certain significant repetitions, in the visual form of a plough. (2)
R 5.2 (13). (3) mlitafigfinafigavidhintimunfi piidal"(! tam udyatam I
tafigayitvli Sirasy asya niplitytihanti ral"(!hasli(Rudrata: "Gaur!, lifting
her foot and bringing it down on his head in the manner of a proud
elephaut, slew him violently"). (4) See the appendix to Rudrata for
the picture that this forms.

191

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GLOSSARY

chaya

tadgtIIJa

chaya, 'shadow': (1) clever imitation of other styles or dialects. (2)

AP 342.21-25. (5) This is the first sabddlafllkara of the Agni PurlilJa;
four styles are enumerated: the vernacular (lokokti), scholarly jargon
(chekokti), children's speech (arbhakokti), and the talk of drunks

tadgUl)a, 'having that thing's attribute': (1) a figure in which one thing is
said to assume the quality or property of another thing, from
which thereby it is made difficult to distinguish. (2) R 9.22-25. (3)

190

navadhautadhavalavasanas candrikaya sandraya tirogamita/;l / ramanabhavanany asaiikafll sarpanty abhisarlka!) sapadi (Rudra,a: "Hidden

(mat/okti).

by the thick moonlight, their garments white and newly washed,

the women approach fearlessly the homes of their lovers"). (4) "Half
a mile away across the young corn you saw her white sweater at
the cliff's edge, and it seemed part of the whiteness of the screaming
seabirds, of the whiteness of the awful glimpses of chalk where the
turf suddenly ended in air, of the crawling whiteness of the waves
far below" (Oliver Onions). (5) Rudra,a considers two types: one
in which the indistinguishables in fact share the property which
makes them indistinguishable, and the other in which they do not
but where the property of one imposes itself upon that of the other.
This latter resembles pihita and seems to differ from it only in definition: here the pre-eminent quality lends itself to the other subject;
there, the pre-eminent quality hides the other.
Tadgu!!a differs from bhrantlmat only as to the poetic end of the
confusion. Here, presumably, the end is not to compare, but to
portray the quality in a certain way. See note (5) to safllbhavyamandrtha atisayoktl: such subtle distinctions are necessarily subjective
and may not be entirely clear from the examples alone. See also

chekanuprasa
chekauuprasa, 'clever alliteration': (1) same as cheka, a type of anuprasa.
(2) U 1.3 (5). (5) Chekdnuprasa is considered by Udbha,a to be an
alafllkara separate from anuprasa strictly speaking.
jlia.
jati, 'genus': (1) same as svabhavokti.

R 7.30 (31-33).

tattva
tattva, 'reality': (1) an arthaSle~a in which puns, in appearance descriptive
"djectival qualifications of the subject, involve a second meaning as
predicate nouns which mernphorize the subject. (2) R 10.20 (21).

(3) nayane hi taralatara sutanu kapolau'ca candrakantau te / adharo'pi

padmaragas tribhuvanaratnafll tato vadanam (Rudra,a; the parts of
the girl's face are described by adjectives which are also names of
jewels which compliment that particular feature: "For her eyes are
glancing [two pearls of great price], her cheeks are beautiful as the
moon [moonstones], her lower lip has the color of the lotus [is a
ruby], and thus her face is the jewel of the three worlds"). (4)
'''Before you had those timber toes, / Your love I did allow, / But
then, you know, you stand upon / Another footing now!'" (Thomas
Hood; spoken by a lady whose soldier-lover has returned from the
wars minus both his legs: the pun on "footing" suggests that the lady
would prefer a lover with a complete set of limbs. He "stands on
another footing" in the direct sense because conditions have changed,
but that "other footing" refers also to his wooden legs and heightens
the force of the description). (5) The second meaning of this pun
transforms a simple description into the figure rupaka. The figure
differs from avayava sle~a in that the pun is not merely on the
qualification, but also on the status of the qualification as a grammatical adjective. The implicit rupaka of this type of sle~a, moreover,
distinguishes it from avayava, where the pun suggests at most a
flattering comparison.

atadgwJa.
tolyayogita
tolyayogita, 'equal joining': (1) a figure in which several subjects sharing
a property or mode of action, though in unequal degrees, are represented as equivalently endowed; the lesser subject is thus magnified. (2) B 3.26 (27), D 2.330 (331-32), V 4.3.26, U 5.7, M 158. (3)

seso himagiris tvafll ca mahanto gurava!) sthira!) / yad alaiighitamaryadM calantim bibhrtha k~itim (Bhiimaha: "The primeval serpent,
the Himalaya and you, 0 King, are weighty "nd firm; you three,
surpassing all limitation, support the unstable world"). (4) " ... he
had the harmlessness of the serpent and the wisdom of the dove"
(Samuel Butler). (5) Tulyayogita functions as a comparison, but
the common property is predicated of the subject and object jointly.
Da!!4in also gives a type of upama based upon the conjunction of
evident unequals. This figure can be subdivided as to its purpose

192

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

(nindii, stuti) and in relation to the grammar of its subject (prastiivabhiij).

193

priikaral)ika, 'relating to the subject of the utterance': (1) same as

prastiivabhiij. (2) M 158C.
stnti, 'praise': (1) a type of tulyayogitii whose purpose is praise or appreciation. (2) D 2.330 (331). (3) yamal; kubero varuQal; sahasriik$o
bhaviin api / bibhraty ananyavi$ayiil[l lokapiila iti srutim (Dal)Qin:
"The God of Death, the God of Wealth, the Lord Vi~l)u, Indra
himself, and you, 0 King, bear the unmistakable appellation "WorldProtector"). (4) " ... inquisitive with the inquisitiveness of a despot
and worried as with the responsibilities of a god" (G. K. Chesterton).

aprastavabhaj, 'not relating to the subject of the utterance': (I) a type of

tulyayogitii in which the concatenated terms are obliquely related
to the intentional subject of the utterance. (2) V 5.7. (3) tvadangamiirdaval[l dra$(ul; kasya citte na bhiisate / miilatiSasabhrllekhiikadaliniil[l ka(horatii (Vdbhala; the subject is the softness of Vma's

body; the concatenated terms share the opposite property and stand
as objects of comparison: "Who would not think the malati flower,
the crescent moon, or the plantain tree harsh and rough when he
had seen the softness of your body?"). (4) "The soundproof walls
shut out all noise from the street, and, in the hushed atmosphere
common to art galleries, cathe'ilrals, and banks, Max's melodious
drawl sounded less out of place ..." (Margery Allingham). (5) In
aprastiivabhiij, the concatenated tepllsare the topical subjects of
the utterance. The term appearsiri Mammala as apriikaraQika
(with the same meaning).
apriikaral}ika, 'not relating to the subject': (1) same as aprastiivabhiij. (2)
M 158C.
nioda, 'blame: (1) a type of tulyayogitiiwnich has blame or depreciation
for its purpose. (2) D 2.330 (332). (3) sangatiini mrgiik$iQiil[l

(5) Cf nindii.

dipaka
dipaka, 'enlightener': (I) a construction wherein several parallel phrases
are each completed by a single (unrepeated) word or phrase; zeugma.
(2) NS 16.40, 53-55, B 2.25-29, D 2.97-115, V 4.3.18-19, V 1.14, R
7.64-71, M 156-57. (3) sariil[lsi hal[lsail; kusumais ca vrk$iil; mattair
dvirephalS ca saroruhiiQi / gO$(hibhlr udyiinavaniini caiva tasmlnn
asunyiini sadii kriyante (Bharata: "In this city, the ponds are filled

with swans, the trees with flowers, the lotuses with drunken bees,
and the pleasure-groves with elite parties"). (4) "All things uncomely
and broken, all things worn out and old, / The cry of a child by the
roadway, the creak of a lumbering cart, / The heavy steps of the
ploughman, splashing the wintry mould, / Are wronging your image
that blossoms a rose in the deeps of my heart" (W. B. Yeats), (5)
Zeugma is one of the universal devices of any stylized literary mode
and is one of the four original figures of speech recoguized by
Bharata. The name dipaka (from dip-, 'shine'), which has been
translated as 'enlightener' or 'illuminator', is a more vivid formulation of the subjective effect of this alal[lkiira than is the static zeugma
('yoke'), which describes only the grammatical appearance or form
of the figure. The word which ties together the various phrases by
being at once a grammatical part of them all illuminates the entire
phrase, or at least those parts of it which require that word in order
to be understood. By multiplying the phrases dependent on the
zeugma, the effect of illumination in increased. The effect may be
compared to the Latin or German sentence in which the English
speaker waits breathlessly for the verb. The figure zeugma has been
classified in two ways by the Indian theorists: as to the place of the
common word in the total construction, and by the grammatical
role which the common word plays in the construction. The two

tarjidvilasitiini ca / k$aQadvayal[l na ti$(hanti ghaniirabdhiiny api

svayam (Dal)Qin: "Neither affairs with young ladies nor the fleeting

bolts of lightning last for more than a few moments-though begun

profoundly [begun in the clouds],,). (4) "Death lays his icy hand on
kings: / Sceptre and Crown / Must tumble down, / And in the dust
be equal made hYVith the poor crooked scythe and spade" (James
Shirley). (5) Cf stuti tulyayogitii.
prastavabhaj, 'relating to the subject of the utterance': (1) a type of
tulyayogitii in which the concatenated terms function as the intentional
subject of the utterance. (2) V 5.7. (3) piiQrjuk$iimal[l vadanal[l
hrdayal[l sarasal[l taviilasal[l ca vapul; / iivedayati [sic] nitiintal[l
k$etriyarogal[l sakhi hrdantal; (Mammala: "Your face, pale and

wan, your soulful heart and indolent form betray an incurable

disease in the soul"). (4) "The streets near the station were full of
the smell of beer and coffee and decaying fruit and a shirt-sleeved
populace moved through them with the intimate abandon of
boarders going down the passage to the bathroom" (Edith Wharton).
(5) Prastiivabhiij is to be distinguished from aprastiivabhiij. This term
appears in Mammala..as priikaraQika (with the same meaning).

194

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modes are not exclusive, and several authors employ both. First
of all, the shared word may occur at the beginning (iidi), in the middle
(madhya), or at the end (anta) of the total construction. These words
are usually interpreted to mean first, interior, or fourth quarters of
the verse and not absolute first or last position in the verse (see,
madhya dipaka). It is interesting in this connection to compare the
renaissance classification of zeugma into prozeugma, mesozeugma,
and hypozeugma (Taylor, p. 132-33). All the writers except Bharata
and Mammata reproduce this extrinsic triad, and it may represent
the oldest view on the figure. Dal).<)in, however, proposes a fourfold
division by part of speech, in line with his several other uses of the
same discrimination (ef. svabhiiv,IJ1!:ti, vyatireka, viSe$fJkti): the word
shared by the several phrases may be either an adjective (gu~a), a
verb (kriyii), a generic noun Uiiti), or an proper name (dravya).
Dal).gin does not abandon the thre~(9Id division, so his treatment
may be said to produce a twelvefold zeugma. This classification by
grammatical role is unknown only in the two earliest writers, Bharata
and Bhamaha. Since the encyclopaedist Mammata uses it exclusively, we may presume that the ,older threefold division was
no longer felt to be adequately diagnostic. However, the later
writers simplify Dal).<)in's four grammatical parts of speech into
two-kriyii, 'verb' and kiiraka or kartr, 'noun' (see kriyii dipaka)-and
Vamana accepts only kriyii as legitimate.
It should be remarked that the word "zeugma" is more commonly
applied in English rhetoric to a defect of construction whereby a
single word is related to two (or more) in such a way that the
construction is not the same for the two (for example: "She came in
a flood of tears and a bath chair", where "in" is used both modally
and locatively). This is a special case of the more general fignre,
but in usage the two must not be confounded, as no defect is intended
in our use of zeugma.
Oddly enough, the Agni Purii~a, which represents an independent
siil(lkhya-oriented poetic tradition, ignores the figure dipaka. This is
doubly curious, as that text in no way minimizes verbal figures-as
opposed to fignres founded on meaning (tropes)-and in view of
the fact that dipaka is one of the four fignres known to Bharata
(with upamii, riipaka, and yamaka).
anta, 'final': (I) a type of zeugma in which the grammatical element
shared by the several phrases occurs at the end of the entire construction. (2) B 2.25 (29)/D 2.102 (104-105), V 4.3.19, U 1.14, R 7.65

(68, 71). (3) diiriid

utka~thante

trasyanti vepamiiniil; sayane

195

dayitiiniil(l sarrmidhau tu lajjante /

vadhval; (Rudrata: "They

navapari~ayii

long when their lovers are far, are shy when they are present, in
bed are trembling and afraid-the newly-wed women"). (4) "The
new moon behind her head, an old hehnet upon it, a diadem of
accidental dewdrops round her brow, would have been adjuncts
sufficient to strike the note of Artemis, Athena, Or Hera" (Thomas
Hardy). (5) The examples also show kiiraka dipaka and kriyii. See
tidi, madhya.
lidi, 'initial': (1) a type of zeugma in which the grammatical element
shared by the several phrases occurs at the beginning of the entire
construction. (2) B 2.25 (27), D 2.102 (98-101), V 4.3.19, U 1.14,
R 7.65 (66,69). (3) nidriipaharati jiigaram upasamayati madanadahanasal(ltiipam / janayati kiintiisal(lgamasukhal(l ea ko'nyas tato
bandhub (Rudrata: "Sleep steals wakefulness away, calms the burning passions of love, excites the pleasure of meeting the beloved;
what else can be compared to it?"). (4) "Mrs. Pascoe stood at the
gate looking after them; stood at the gate until the trap was round
the corner; stood at the gate, looking now to the right, now to the
left; then went back to her cottage" (Virginia Woolf). (5) Both
examples also illustrate kiiraka dipaka (or dravya).
eklirtha, 'integral': (1) a type of zeugma in which the tenor of the several
conjoined phrases is complimentary. (2) D 2.112 (Ill). (3) haraty
iibhogam iisiiniil(l grh~iiti jyoti$iil(l ga~am / tidatte eiidya me prii~iin
asau jaladhariivali (Dal).gin: "The garland of rain clouds fills up the
expanse of the sky, sequesters the flock of stars, and steals away
my hopes"). (4) "A coyote sings more sweetly to me than any bird.
He pushes the horizon back with his voice. He makes a gift of
space. He says that something is still hidden. He reports escape.
He acknowledges himself. He celebrates survival" (Jessamyn West).
(5) Compare viruddhiirtha dipaka, where the tenor of the conjoined
phrases is contradictory or contrary, and also Sie$a dipaka, where the
phrases are neither contrary nor complimentary, but merely punned.
The Sanskrit example also illustrates anta dipaka and jiiti dipaka, the
English, iidi and jiiti.
kiiraka, 'nominal': (1) a type of zeugma in which the word common
to the several phrases is a noun, usually the subject of the entire
construction. (2) R 7.64 (69-71), M 156. (3) sral(lsayati giitram
akhilal(l glapayati eeto nikiimam anuriigab / janam asulabhal(l prati
sakhe prii~iin api mafik$u mU$~iiti (Rudrata: "Passion exhausts the

196

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GLOSSARY

body and makes the mind languid, but friend, when the loved one
is unattainable, it quickly steals one's life away"). (4) "No profane
hand shall dare, for me, to curtail my Chaucer, to Bowdlerize my
Shakespeare, or mutilate my Milton" (Anon., quoted in Burton
Stevenson). (5) This item covers two of Daw;lin's four types: jati
and dravya. The Sanskrit example also illustrates madhya dipaka,
the English, adi. Also called kartr ('agenf).
kriyii, 'verbal': (1) a type of zeugma in which the word common to the
several phrases is a verb. (2) D 2.97 (99, 104), V 4.3.18, U 1.14,

audience high nonsensical words; / Augusta Gregory seated at her

great ormolu table ..." (W. B. Yeats). (5) Both examples also
illustrate adi dipaka. Adjectival dipaka is noted only by DalJ.4in
and probably was not felt to be different from verbal (kriya) dJpaka
by later writers, inasmuch as the verb "to be" can be supplied in all
such cases.
jiiti, 'generic': (1) a type of zeugma in which the word common to the
several phrases is a generic noun. (2) D 2.97 (98, 103, 105). (3)

R 7.64 (66-68), M 156. (3) kanta dadati madanaf(l madanal;z saf(ltapam

asamam anupasamam / saf(ltapo maraQam aho tathapi saraQaf(l
nrQaf(l salva (Rudrala: "The b.doved woman imparts longing;

longing, unquenchable and inc6l:llparable passion; passion, death.

She is thus the only refuge of mer"). (4) "Not poets alone, nor
~rtists, nor that superior order of nll%<i which arrogates to itsdf all
refinement, feel this, but dogs and all men" (Theodore Dreiser).
(5) DalJ.4in recoguizes kriya dipaka as one of four types (see jati,
gUQa, dravya), Vamana as the only type, and the other authors, as
one of two types (see karaka). l'hi~ classification by the grammatical function of the common word (or phrase) is not known in
the oldest texts (Bharata and Bhiimaha), but DalJ.4in produces the
standard fourfold division here as in other figures (svabhaviikti,
vyatireka, vlSe$iikti). It becomes simplified later by the coalescing of
jati and dravya into karaka and the dropping of gUQa dipaka.
Vamana's ignorance of other varieties is curious, but is probably
due to his programmatic attempt to reduce all the figures to kinds of
simile. A zeugma.dn which the shared word is a noun does not fit
as well into the frame of comparison as does the verbal zeugma,
since the figure then recounts only different aspects of one subject
rather than the same aspect of two different subjects. The Sanskrit
example also shows adi dipaka (the verb occurs not first, but in the
first quarter stanza); the English shows madhya dfpaka.
gu..t a, 'adjectival': (I) a type of zeugma in which the word common to
the several phrases is an adjective of description. (2) D 2.97 (100).
(3) syamaltil;z pravr$eQyiibhir dlSo jfmiltapafiktibhil;z / bhuvas ea sukumarabhir navastidvaiarajibhil;z (DalJ.4in: "The sky is dark with great

ranks of rain clouds, the earth with sweet shoots of new grass").
(4) "Beautiful lofty things: O'Leary's noble head" / My father upon
the Abbey stage, before him a raging crowd / ... Standish O'Grady
supporting himself between the tables / Speaking to a drunken

197

pavano dak$iQal;z parQaf(l jfrlJOf(I harati vfrudham / sa evlivanatlifigfnaf(l

manabhafigaya kalpate (DalJ.4in: "The southern wind wafts away

the withered leaf of plants, calms the anger of modest women").

(4) "A book, like a person, has its fortunes with one; is lucky or
unlucky in the precise moment of its falling in our way, and often
by some happy accident counts with us for something more than its
independent value" (Walter Pater). (5) Both examples also illustrate
adi dipaka. Cf dravya, where a proper (specific) noun supplies the
unity of phrase.
dravya, 'material': (1) a type of zeugma in which the word common
to the several phrases is a proper name (or specific referent). (2)
D 2.97 (101). (3) vi$Quna vikramasthena danavanaf(l vibhiltayal;z /
kvlipi nital;z kuto'py asann anita daivatarddhayal;z (Dal).4in: "Some-

where the wealth and fortune of the Danavas were taken by Vi~l).u
victorious, from somewhere the success and prosperity of the Gods
were brought"). (4) "Old Professor Huxtable, performing with the
method of a clock his change of dress, let himself down into his
chair; filled his pipe; chose his paper; crossed his feet; and extracated
his glasses" (Virginia Woolf). (5) Both examples also illustrate tidi
dipaka. Cf jati, where a generic term occupies the common slot.
madhya, 'mid': (I) a type of zeugma in which the grammatical element
shared by the various phrases occurs in the middle of the entire
construction. (2) B 2.25 (28), D 2.102 (103-104), V 4.3.19, U 1.14,
R 7.65 (67, 70). (3) sraf(lsayati gatram akhilaf(l glapayati eeto
nikamam anuragal;z / janam asulabhaf(l prati sakhe praQan api mafik$u
mU$Qati (Rudrata: for the translation, see karaka). (4) "Her

presence brought memories of such things as Bourbon roses, rubies

and tropical midnights; her moods recalled lotus-eaters and the
march in 'Athalie', her motions, the ebb and flow of the sea, her
voice, the viola" (Thomas Hardy). (5) The "middle" of the construction is usually interpreted to mean the second or third quarter of a
verse (ef Rudrata's example for tidikriytidipaka, 7.66). The English

198

GLOSSARY

example runs contrary to this convention in that the word "recalled",

while standing third in its phrase, occnrs in the first of the phrases
nnited by the zeugma. The Sanskrit example also illnstrates karaka
dipaka, the English, kriya dipaka. See tidi, anta.
roalii, 'garland': (I) a type of zeugma in which the related phrases not
only share a common word, but express a sequence of ideas in snch
a way that the following phrase recalls or refers to the former. (2)
(2) D 2.108 (107), M 157. (3) suklab svetilrci~o vrddhyai pak$ab

GLOSSARY

199

are simply additional modes of expressing relation (usually similarity)

and can therefore reinforce the zeugma. The point may be that the
zeugma is entirely a formal device and may adjoin either legitimately
consequential notions (mala) or those whose similarity is entirely
verbal (Sli~ta).
du~kara

paiicasarasya sab / sa ca ragasya rago'pi yiina1'[l ratyutsavasriyab

dllllkara, 'difficult to accomplish': (I) a fignre defined and treated under

citra ala1'[lkara.

(DaJ;lgin: "The waxing phase makes for the prosperity of the whiterayed moon, the moon, of the Love God, he, of passion, passion, for
youths' happiness in festival ?flove"). (4)" ... while [the Wise
Youth] remained tranquil on his solid unambitious ground, fitting
his morality to the laws, his consci'ince to his morality, his comfort
to his conscience" (George Meredit~) .. (5) Both examples also show
tidi dipaka, in the sense noted under madhya (5). Various figures
illustrate this enchainement of ideas: notably upama, riipaka, and
nidarsana. See also the fignres kartItlamala and ekilvali, to which
mala dipaka seems merely the added ~pplication of a zengma.
viruddhartba, 'disparate': (I) a type of zeugma in which the tenor of
the several conjoined phrases is contrary or contradictory. (2)
D 2.110 (109). (3) avalepam anaiigasya vardhayanti balahakab /
karsayanti tu gharmasya marutfiddhataslkarab (DaJ;lgin: "The rain
clouds increase the arrogance of the Love God, but diminish the
summer's heat-their showers blown about by the wind"). (4) "Bnt
in sooth Mr. Slope was pursuing Mrs. Bold in obedience to his better
instincts, and the.. signora in obedience to his worser" (Anthony
Trollope). (5) See ekartha dlpaka, in which the partial phrases are
complimentary, that is, express compatible ideas.
sli~ta, 'punned': (I) a type of zeugma in which the related phrases not
only share a common word, but have appended puns expressing
similarity. (2) D 2.114 (113). (3) hrdyagandhavahas tuiigas tamalasyamalatvi~ab / divi bhramantijlmiita bhuvi caite mataiigajab (DaJ;lgin:
"Carrying pleasant odors, lofty, hides as dark as the tamala flower,
the clouds roam in the sky, here on earth, elephants"). (4) "As lines
so loves oblique may well / Themselves at every Angle greet: / But
ours so truly Parallel, / Though infinite can never meet" (Andrew
Marvell). (5) This should be compared with mala dipaka, where the
relation between the various phrases is based upon a real implication
of meanings. The puris have nothing to do with the zeugma, but

d!"'itanta
dr~tanta, 'example': (I) the adjunction of a second situation which bears
upon the same point as the first and where the purpose is entirely
one of illustration. (2) U 6.8, R 8.94 (95-96), M 155. (3) ki1'[lciltra
bahunfiktena vraja bhartaram apnuhi / udanvantam anasadya mahanadyab kim asate (Udbhata: "What's the point of talking further?
Go out and get yonrself a husband! What fate will befall the great
rivers if they do not fall into the ocean?"). (4) "Have you not in
a Chimney seen / A sullen faggot, wet and green, / How coyly it
receives the heat/ And at both ends does fume and sweat? ISo fares
it with the harmless Maid / Whenfirst upon her Back she's laid; /
But the kind experienced Dame / Cracks, and rejoices in the flame"
(John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester). (5) The relationship is here between
two specific situations, and the purpose of the rapprochement is
clarification. That is why a rigorous parallelism of element and
aspect is required. InprativastiJpama alarpkara, one Common property
is shared; the terms themselves need not be comparable. Note in
Wilmot's example the duplication which borders on double-entendre:
"sullen ... coyly ... heat ... fume", etc. Likewise, the intention ofthe
speaker is not necessarily substantiation (where a doubt might arise),
and in this dr~tdnta differs from arthdntaranyasa, even though there
is a general tendency to consider the latter a relation between two
remarks-a specific and its corresponding universal-which is more
an explanation of the process of explanation than a condition of the
relation between two terms which do clarify one another (c/.
DaJ;lgin's example for; virodhavat arthdntaranyasa). Both are illustrations, but the word "illustration" is equivocal. All these figures
(especially vakyilrtha upama) differ from simile in that the comparative
particle is lacking; but aside from this, all can be and usually are
described in the same terms (subject, object, common property or

200

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GLOSSARY

aspect). Rudrata carries this principle of explanation to the extreme

of excluding all considerations of intention on the part of the speaker
-a purely structural analysis-but there are so many figures to
account for that this apparent simplification really serves only to
confuse the many legitimate subtleties of analysis contained in
DaI,H;lin, for example. The example may be thought of as introduced
by the particle "so".
avivak~ita, 'not the intended subject': (I) a type of dr~tfinta in which the
subject term or phrase follows the object or example. (2) R 8.94
(96). (3) loka/?1 lolitakisalayavi~avanaviito'pi maiik~u mohayati /
Uipayatitarti/?1 tasyti hrdaya/?1 tvadgamanavtirtfipi (Rudrata: "The
forest wind, heavy with the frallJ:;l,nce of swaying buds, intoxicates
everyone; the news of your comin'g quickens the pain in her heart").
(4) "Do you know these flashes of the absolute and unalterable
rightness of a thing? One ofthem bliJi~~dSaul of Tarsus on the road
to Damascus; something of the same kind blinded me for the whole
length of Lower Regent Street" (Oliver Onions). (5) Cf vivak$ita.
vivak~ita, 'intended subject': (1) a type of dr~tfinta in which the term or
situation intended as subject by the speaker precedes the term or
situation intended as example or object. (2) R 8.94 (95). (3) tvayi
dr#a eva tasyti nirvtiti mano manobhavajvalitam / aloke hi sitfi/?1sor
vikasati kumuda/?1 kumudvatyii/z (Rudrata: "Her heart enflames with

love as soon as he appears; at the sight of the moon, the lotus

blooms"). (4) "But she was the bossiest human I'd ever seen, and
my father indicated the same, but following his style in such matters,
he conldn't say sC>o direct but referred her case to a play by a man
named Shakespeafe, saying she needed taming" (Robert Lewis
Taylor). (5) This figure is a good example of Rudrata's purely formal
classification (see note on dNtfinta).
vaidharmya, 'difference': (I) a type of dr~tfinta in which the phrase serving
as example (object) involves terms and aspect antithetical to the
phrase standing as subject. (2) M 155. (3) tavfihave siihasakarmasarmaQa/z kara/?1 krptiQfintikam tininf~ata/z / bhatti/z pare~ti/?1 vlSartirutii/?1 agur dadhaty avtite sthiratii/?1 hi pti/?1sava/z (Mammata: "You of

the violent deed! at your challenge the enemy's soldiers-their

sword-girt arms about to strike-perish utterly! So motes of dust
are steady as long as the wind does not blow"). (4) "The righteous
minds of innkeepers / Induce them now and then / To crack a bottle
with a friend / Or treat unmoneyed men, / But who hath seen the
Grocer / Treat housemaids to his teas / Or crack a bottle of fish-

201

sauce / Or stand a man a cheese?" (G. K. Chesterton). (5) The

classification is refnted by Rndrata (8.86C), who would consider
this a variation on samuccaya ala/?1ktira. See also the remarks under
dr~tfinta

vyatireka.

siidharmya, 'similitude': (1) a type of dmfinta in which the terms and

aspect of snbject and examples are in balanced concord. (2) M 155.
(3) tvayi dr#a eva tasyti nirviitt mano manobhavajvalitam / tiloke hi
himfi/?1sor vikasati kusuma/?1 kumudvatyti/z (Mammata; the example
is the same as that offered by Rndrata for vlvak$ita dr~tfinta). (4) "So

shuts the marigold her leaves / At the departure of the sun; / So

from the honeysuckle sheaves / The bee goes when the day is done; /
So sits the tnrtle when she is but one / And so all woe, as I since she
is gone" (William Browne). (5) This is, of course, dmfinta itself,
to be nnderstood as a subtype only in the sense that Mammata
recognizes an antithetical example, too (cf vaidharmya).

nidarSanii
nidarsanii (I) (neuter in Dal)<;Iin and Vamana), 'pointing to': (I) a fignre
in which a particular situation is translated into a general truth, and
a moral is drawn which is based upon the mode of action and the
ultimate tendency of that situation. (2) B 3.32 (33), D 2.348 (349-50),
V 4.3.20, M 150. (3) aya/?1 mandadyutir bhiisvtin asta/?1 prati yiytisati /
udaya/z patantiyiiti srfmato bodhayan nartin (Bhamaha: "The dull
red sun nears the western term, telling the wise that greatness is
but the precedent of decline"). (4) "Poor HALL caught his death
standing under a spout, / Expecting till midnight when NAN would
come out, / But fatal his patience, as cruel the Dame, / And curst
was the Weather that quench'd the man's flame. / 'Who e'er thou art,
that read'st these moral lines, / Make love at home, and go to bed
betimes'" (Matthew Prior). (5) This figure differs from arthfintaranyiisa in that the general truth is here expressed as the very meaning
of the particular situation, not as another and more valid formulation of it. Some writers (Dal)<;Iin, Vamana) define the figure as a
relation of two situations through a similar consequence: moral
instruction in terms of the final cause. The second situation is seen
not as extrinsic to the first, maintaining a relation of similitude to it,
but it is, as it were, a universalization of the same idea. This viewpoint gives a rationale for the transition to the second type, described
first by Mammata, which, in the modern writers (Candrfiloka),
snpplants the other.

202

203

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

asat, 'unauspicious': (1) a type of nidarsanii in which the instruction

given is baleful. (2) D 2.348 (350). (3) atyuccapad/idhyiisab pataniiyery arthasiilinal'(! samsat / iipiilJt/u patati patral'(! taror idal'(! bandhanagrantheb (Vamana: "The withered leaf falls from its once firm
stem on the tree, warning the attentive that the attainment of an
exalted position is but a pretext for a greater fall"). (4) "When
the leaves in autumn wither / With a tawny tanned face / Warped and
wrinkled up together, / The year's late beauty to disgrace; / There
thy life's glass may'st thou find thee: / Green now, grey now, gone
anon, / Leaving, worldling, of thine own / Neither fruit nor leaf
behind thee" (Joshua Sylvester). (5) Cf. sat.
sat, 'auspicious': (I) a type of nidariq~ii in which the instruction given is
auspicious. (2) D 2.348 (349). (3) udayann e~a savitii padme~v
arpayati sriyam / vibhiivayitum rdlthfniil'(! phalal'(! suhrdanugraham
(DaJ.lQin: "The rising sun has wrought;peauty in the lotus, conveying
the results of success, pleasing to friimds"). (4) "He thus became
immensely Rich, / And built the Splendid Mansion which / Is called
/ 'The Cedars, / Muswell Hill'. / Where he resides in Aflluence still /
To show what Everybody might / Be~ome by / SIMPLY DOING
RIGHT" (Hilaire Belloc). (5) Cf. asat.
nidariiana (II): (I) negative illustration; a figure in which the illustrative
example demonstrates in the negative the point originally made in
the negative. (2) M 149. (3) kva siiryaprabhavo val'(!sab kva dilpavi~ayii matib / titfr~ur dustaral'(! mohiid ut/upenasmi siigaram (Kalidasa,
quoted by Mammala; the poet thus indicates his modesty before
the task he has set himself: telling the true history of the Riighava:
"How can my feeble skill cope with a race born of the sun? I am
about to cross the fearsome ocean in a rowboat"). (4) "I've heard it
said my father was a bang-up poker player. But there wasn't much
chance of his winning, not with those chaps. Mostly, they were
serious, hard-working professional men-thieves, forgers, cntthroats,
small-time river pirates and a backslid preacher or two-as interesting
spoken a group as you would care to meet, bnt they conld no more
have gambled honest than they would have been comfortable in
church" (Robert Lewis Taylor). (5) According to Mammala, this
illustration through two negatives or opposites suggests a simile.
Indeed, the positive understanding derived from the figure is a
simile: "crossing the sea in a rowboat is like describing the Riighava";
"those who gamble dishonestly resemble those who are uncomfortable in church". Yet the point seems rather truistical and implicit

in the notion of illustration anyway. The figure serves as the negative

of both the figures nidarianii (I) and dr#anta, depending on whether
illustration or instruction is intended. Cf. also vidarsanii.
mala, 'garland': (I) a type of nidarsanii in which several situations are
expressed as equivalent to the sitnation standing as subject of the
ntterance. (2) M 149C. (3) dorbhyiil'(! titfr~ati taraiigavatfbhujafigam
adatum icchati kare harilJafikabimbam / merul'(! lilafighayi~ati dhruvam
e~a deva yas te gUlJiin gaditum udyamam adadhiiti (Magha, quoted by
Mammala: "He who arrogates to himself the task of extolling your
virtnes, 0 King, is attempting to swim across the limitless ocean, is
trying to grasp the moon in his hand or to climb the primeval
mountain"). (4) "I'd love to waltz with you. I'd love to have my
tonsils out, I'd love to be in a midnight fire at sea" (Dorothy Parker).
(5) This figure is merely a repetition of nidarsanii II.
parikara
parikara, 'entourage': (I) a figure in which the adjectival qualifications
or epithets of a thing are multiplied with a view to re-enforcing the
distinctiveness of that thing. (2) R 7.72 (73-76), M 183. (3) upacitaparilJamaramyal'(! sviidu sugandhi svayal'(! kare patitam / phalam
utsrjya tadanfl'(! tiimyasi mugdhe mudhediinfm (Rudrata; the excellence
of the "fruit" abandoned is thus emphasized: "Abandoning this
fruit, which has ripened in its own time and, sweet smelling, has
fallen of itself into your hand, you now regret, 0 lovely-how
uselessly!"). (4) "This wimpled, whining, purblind, wayward boy; /
This senior-junior, giant-dwarf, Dan Cupid; / Regent oflove-rimes,
lord of folded arms, / Th'anointed sovereign of sighs and groans, /
Liege of all loiterers and malcontents, / Dread prince of plackets, king
of codpieces, / Sole imperator and great general / Oftrotting paritors:
-0 my little heart!- / And I to be a corporal of his field, / And wear
his colours like a tumbler's hoop!" (Shakespeare). (5) Rudrata
gives four examples, each illustrating one of the four genera of
meaning:jiiti, kriyii, gUlJa, and dravya. The example cited is dravya;
the English example, a potpourri.
pariVj"tli
pariVj"tli, 'exchange': (I) a figure expressing non-literally an exchange of
ideas or things; "give and take". (2) B 3.40 (41), D 2.355 (356),
V 4.3.16, U 5.16, R 7.77 (78), M 172. (3) sastraprahiiral'(! dadatii
bhlijena tava bhiibhujiim / ciriirjital'(! hrtal'(! te~iil'(! YaBab kumudapiilJ-

204

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GLOSSARY

205

parisa!pkhya
parisa!pkhyii, 'delimitation': (I) an alaJ!lkiira identical with niyamavat
sle$a. (2) R 7.79, M 185. (5) The name most generally means
'enumeration', but the logicians use the term in a special sense:
'exhaustive enumeration'; hence the application here, where a
series of ideas are limited to special senses through an enumeration
based upon mention of those limitations.

duram (Daw}in: "Striking blows with your sword, 0 King, your arm

has seized the long possessed and lotus-pale glory of this earth's
princes"). (4) '''By whose direction found'st thou out this placeT
'By love, that first did prompt me to enquire. He lent me counsel,
and I lent him eyes'" (Shakespeare). (5) The idea that one action
entails both an acqnisition and a loss is central to all the varieties of
parivrtti mentioned by our authors. The differentiating criteria are
extrinsic to the notion of exchange and concern only the things
exchanged; they may be similar or dissimilar (Vamana); if dissimilar,
better for worse or worse for better (Mammata, Udbhata); the exchange may be anspicious or inauspicious (Udbhata), literal or
figurative (Rudrata). Only Bh~waha, the earliest of the writers,
diverges in any way from this sterile mechanism by asserting that
the exchange must be seconded by dr.awing a moral (arthilntaranyiisa,
q.v.), as: ''pradiiya vittam arthibhya!Jsq.yasbdhanam Mita / saliiJ!l viSvajanfniiniim idam askhalitaJ!l vratam" ('GiviIigwealth to all who ask, he
obtains a treasure of glory: such is the inescapable duty of the just').
nyiina, 'deficient': (I) a type of parivrtti in which the item exchanged is
inferior in quality or station to the .item acquired. (2) U 5.16,
M Inc. (3) netriJragavalabhriimyan mandartidrisirascyutai!J / ratnair
iipurya dugdhfibdhiJ!l ya!J samiidatta kaustubham (Udbhata; Vi~l).u
is referred to: "He filled up the sea of milk with jewels fallen from
the primeval mountain top where he wandered in the Snake King's
caves; then he took from the sea a magic jewel of inestimable price").
(4) "Seeing my flesh must die so soon, / And want a head to dine
next noon,- / Ju.st at the stroke, when my veins start and spread, /
Set on my soul atn,verlasting head" (Sir Walter Raleigh; in expectation of his execution).
visi~ta, 'qualified': (I) a type of parivrtti in which the item exchanged is
superior in quality or station to the item acquired. (2) U 5.16,
M Inc. (3) latiis tv adhvanyiiniim ahaha drsam iidiiya sahasii dadaty
iidhivyiidhibhramiruditamohavyatikaram (Mammata; the wanderers
are reminded of their distant loves: "The lovely creepers steal the
sight of wanderers and give back pain, suffering, loss, sobbing, and
confusion"). (4) "Even such is Time, that takes in trust / Our youth,
our joys, all we have, / And pays us but with age and dust" (Sir
Walter Raleigh).
sarna, 'equal': (I) a type of parivrtti in which the item exchanged and the
item acquired are similar or of equal value. (2) U 5.16, V 4.3.16,
M Inc. (3) (4) See parivrtti.

paryiiya
paryiiya (1), 'synonym': (1) same as aprastutaprasaJ!lsii II. (2) R 7..42
(43). (5) This term evidently snppletes the otherwise absent
figure aprastutaprasaJ!lsa in Rudrata. The definition alone could be
inter.rreted as the figure paryiiyiJkta, also absent in Rudrata. It is
the inverse of bhiiva II.
paryiiya (II): (I) same as viSe$a II. (2) R 7.44 (45-46), M 180-81. (5) A
single thing is represented in several contexts, or several things in
one context. The unique thing is generally a state of soul, such as
happiness or valor, and the poetic force of the figure is presumably a
function of a figurative denial of the law of the excluded middle.
There is no obvious relation to the figure paryiiyiJkta or to the other
variety ofparyiiya given by Rudrata. Mammata accepts bothparyiiya
in sense two and paryiiyiJkta, establishing them as separate figures.
paryiiyokta
paryiiyokta, 'periphrasis': (I) a figure in which a speaker conveys his
intention without reference to the evident motive which prompts
his utterance; oblique reference. (2) B 3.8-9, D 2.295-97, U 4.6,
AP 345.18, M 175. (3) dasaty asau sahakiirasya manjarfm / tam
ahaJ!l viirayi$yiimi yuviibhyiiJ!l svairam iisyatiim (Dal).<:lin: "The
cuckoo is eating the mango blooms; I'll go shoo him off. You two
sit down here in peace"). (4) '''I should like that very much. Where
shall we go l' I reflected a moment and answered, 'I hardly like to
suggest a public bar, but I notice the Eagle is close by, and though
it is but a primitive place with a small bar and very hard chairs, it
is a free house. The beer is said to be drinkable'. 'The only difficulty
is that I am forbidden by my doctor to drink beer'. 'I understand
that the Eagle frequently has whisky, rum, and gin, as well as beer'.
'I was hoping that we might find more congenial surronndings at
your studio'. 'I'm afraid my studio is in process of cleaning. We
should not be comfortable there. Why not come and try the lemonade

206

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GLOSSARY

at the Eagle?''' (Joyce Cary; neither speaker has any money).

(5) The figure might be called "pretext" (both examples illustrate this
kind of oblique reference), but the term would be too limited for
the Sanskrit cases, some of which would make good illustrations for
Anandavardhana's dhvani. The specific alleging of a pretext is the
figure ida. Bhamaha's example from the Ratndharm;la shows a
periphrasis without the alleging of a pretext: "grhdv adhvasu va
ndnnarp bhunjmahe yadadhftina/z / na bhunjate dvijas ..." ('We do not
eat food, either at home or while travelling, which learned Brahmins
have not tasted'). This is uttered by Kr~l}a in order to avoid being
given poisoned food. Similarly, the example from Dal}gin is spoken
by a go-between who has arral\ged the rendez-vous and now takes
her leave. All these cases share the common trait of makiug an
oblique reference without that reference being based in any way
upon simile or its elements. Tb"~gllre samasokti also involves
oblique reference, but to an object which is understood as the subject
of a comparison and by means of a recitation of properties presumably common to both the implicit and explicit subject. Aprastutaprasarpsa reposes on other kinds of relation (such as cause-effect),
but that relation is commonly evident in the examples. Paryayokta,
however, depends upon nothing but context and connotation for its
comprehension, and it need not serve even a descriptive (let alone
comparative) end. It would seem that all cases of suggestion not
otherwise classifiable should be referred to this head. Mammaia
gives paryayokta as well as paryaya II, establishing the two as different figures.

207

cancellation as far as the onlooker is concerned. Pihita could be

mentioned as a special kind of iidhikya atisayokti: there the exaggeration of the force of the quality also minimizes another quality.
It differs from atiSayokti in that the qualities in pihita are not
contraries, but may be any two not normally concomitant.
ponaruktibhlisa
ponaruktibhlisa, 'appearance of redundancy': (I) a figure in which two
homonyms are used in the same sentence in different senses. (2)
U 1.3, M 122-24. (3) tanuvapur ajaghanyo'sau karikunjararudhira ktakharanakhara/z / tejodhama maha/z prthumanasam indro hariji$1;lu/z
(Ma=aia; tanu-vapur is not, as one might be led to believe,
'body-body', but 'slight-bodied': "The lion, accustomed to conquer,
slender bodied, first among beasts, the nails of his paws red with
the blood of lordly elephants, a repository of splendor, majesty
itself, the Indra of the ambitious"). (4) " ... for if I was a light of
literature at all it was of the very lightest kind" (Samuel Butler).
(5) Compare avrtti, where the repetition is not apparent, but real.
For Ma=aia, this is the only alarpkara which involves both
sabda and artha.

pUrva
piirva (I), 'previous': (I) a figure in which the subject of comparison is
said to precede in the order of creation or time the object to which
it is compared. (2) R 8.97 (98). (3) kale jaladakuldkuladasadiSi
purvarp viyoginfvadanam / galadaviralasalilabhararp pascad upajayate
gaganam (Rudraia; the face of the woman separated from her lover
was created before the sky: "In the season when the ten directions of
the sky are obscured by legions of clouds, the face of the separated
wife appears first; only then does the sky release its load of incessant,
flowing rain"). (4) "Be you not proud of that rich hair / Which
wantous with the love-sick air; / Whereas that ruby which you wear, /
Sunk from the tip of your soft ear, / Will last to be a precious stone /
When all your world of beauty's gone" (Robert Herrick; the beauty
of the ruby will outlast the beauty of her hair). (5) There are a
confusing number of figures and subtypes which involve in some
way or other tampering with the normal time sequence. In the
present case, since we are dealing with an implicit comparison, an
assumption of the object's natural primordinateness is legitimate
because, for the purposes of the comparison, it possesses reality in a

pihita
pihita, 'hidden': (I) a figure in which a quality or attribute is pictured as
withstanding, and predominant over another quality which in the
normai state of affairs would he the stronger. (2) R 9.50 (51). (3)
priyatamaviyogajanita krsata katham iva taveyam ange$u / lasadindukalakomalakantikalape$u lak$yeta (Rudraia; the thinness of her
aspect is obscured by her moon-like glamour: "The thinness which
you suffer in separation from your lover is not easily perceived,
for your limbs are effulgent with beauty gentle as the glimmer of
the waning moon"). (4) "He that looks still on your eyes, / Though
the winter have begun / To benumb our arteries, / Shall not want
the summer sun" (William Browne). (5) Cf tadgu1;la. Unlike
sambhiivyamanartha,.there is no transference of quality here, only

208

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

higher degree (that aspect of reality which is relevant-the common

property). By inverting this assumption, we obtain an effect somewhat like vyatireka. Usually, however, the temporal inversion serves
as a modality for exaggerating a quality of presumed effect (ktiryaktira/Japaurvaparyaviparyaya atiSay8kti), or it is simply one of the
ways in which the causal process is distorted, for whatever effect
(ktiryanantaraja hetu and purva II).
piirva (II): (I) same as ktiryanantaraja hetu (2) R 9.3 (4). (5) See purva I.
Expressed as an inference, this figure is also noted by Rudra,a
under anumiina.

209

subject with which they are implicitly compared. All of Mamma,a's

examples show an affectation of inferiority for or on the part of the
object of comparison. Rudra,a, however, though he gives the same
example in one case, says that the inferiority attaches to the subject of
comparison and thus amounts to an ironic affirmation of that subject's comparability. He interprets the example already given as a
taunt cast at the girl who is unable to bear the sight of the lotuses.
Compare the following example: "The Model Boy of my time-we
never had but the one-was perfect: perfect in manners, perfect in
dress, perfect in conduct, perfect in filial piety, perfect in exterior
godliness; but at bottom he was a prig; and as for the contents of
his skull, they could have changed place with the contents of a pie, and
nobodywould havebeen the worse offfor it but the pie" (Mark Twain).

prativastilpamli
prativastopamli, 'counterpart simil~": (I) same as prativastu upamti.
(2) V 4.3.2, U 1.22-23, M 154. (5) Prativastupamti involves the repetition of the common property; ther~~~ed be no parallelism of terms
within the two situations. At any' rate,' this figure differs from
dmanta in that the emphasis is placed upon the repetition and not
on the parallelism. Cf also ubhayanytisa. ,II' !;if'"' (I,L,> " D, I,I~)

pratyanika
pratyanika, 'counter-attack': (I) a figure in which the object of comparison
is represented as taking revenge for a set-back initially suffered at
the hands of the subject. (2) R 8.92 (93), M 196. (3) yadi tava tayti
jigf$oS tadvadanam ahari ktintisarvasvam / mama tatra kim tipatita'fl
tapasi sita'flso yad eva'fl mtim (Rudra,a: "The beauty of the cool-

pratipa
pratipa,'against the grain': (1) a simile in which an affected pity or blame
is directed at the subject of comparison in the presence of the object,
or vice versa. (2) R 8.76 (77-78), M 201. (3) garvam asa'flvtihyam

rayed moon, contesting my beloved's glance, has been claimed away;

how does it happen then, 0 moon, that the sight of you consumes
me?"). (4) "Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, / Who is
already sick and pale with grief / That thou her maid art far more
fair than she" (Shakespeare). (5) This is a vyatireka with the tables
turned. The term on whom the revenge is wreaked is ordinarily a
neutral, but may also be the subject of comparison. The English
example is perhaps wide of the mark in that the object of comparison
itself is not only set back initially (by the girl to whom the remark is
directed) but is also finally dishonored (by the sun); but the intent is
the same as that of the Sanskrit: the speaker is disturbed by the
suggestive beauty of the pale moon. Cf pratfpa, where the object
is determined as resentful, but where no element of riposte is present.

ima'fllocanayugalena vahasi ki'fl bhadre / santidrstini diS! dlSi sarabsu

nanu nf/ana/lntini (Rudra,a, Mamma,a; interpreted differently, see

below: "How can your eyes bear such insupportable arrogance?

There are hundreds of blue lotuses in all the ponds"). (4) "Cupid
and my Campaspe played / At cards for kisses-Cupid paid: /
He stakes his quiver, bow and arrows, / His mother's doves, and team
of sparrows; / Loses them too; then down he throws / The coral of
his lip, the rose / Growing on's cheek (but none knows how); / With
these, the crystal of his brow, / And then the dimple of his chin: /
All these did my Campaspe win. / At last he set her both hiseyes, /
She won, and Cupid blind did rise. / 0 Love! has she done this to
thee? / What shall, alas, become of meT' (John Lyly: the speaker
pities himself as he watches his rival, Cupid). (5) This figure seems
to be a minor variation on vyatlreka in which the outright distinction
between the two terms compared is qualified or mediated by an
expression of affected pity or blame. In the two examples given
above, the lotuses am!- Cupid are depicted as exciting the envy ofthe

prasasti
prailasti, 'flattery': (1) skill at employing words capable of melting the
resistance of others. (2) AP 345.3-4. (5) Prasasti may be divided
into prem8kti ('speaking kindnesses') and stuti ('praise'). Ktinti,
the next sabdarthtilamktira, is described as the use of such flattery in
appropriate circumstances.

210

GLOSSARY

prasna
prasna, 'question': (I) a figure wherein a question or remark suggests its
answer or reply. (2) R 7.93 (95). (3) kirrz svargiid adhikasukharrz
bandhusuhrtpalJlJitail;z samarrz lak~mil;z I sauritjyam adurbhik~arrz
satkitvyarasamrtdsvitdal;z (Rudrata; poetry is preferable to salvation:
"Is the nectar-like taste of true poetry-a prosperous empire which
knows no famine and the good fortune of relations, friends, and
teachers alike-more agreeable than salvation?"). (4) "Was this the
face that launch'd a thousand ships, I And burnt the topless towers of
Ilium?" (Christopher Marlowe). (5) The rhetorical question. Rudrata calls this also uttara (g.v.), but since it is the reverse of the first
type, we give it here. Prasna differs from parisarrzkhyit in that the
answer alone is intended, not the nature of the concept.
praheliki>
prahelikli, 'riddle': (I) a puzzle, riddle, conundrum; a phrase, statement,
or question constructed deliberately so that its meaning shall be
misconstrued, but in some way intimating a solution to the difficulty
thus created. (2) B 2.19, D 3.96-124, AP 343.22, 25-26, R 5.25 (29).
(3) katham api na drsyate'sitv anvak~arrz harati vasanitnl (Rudrata;
answer: viiyul;z; "He is not at all visible though he seizes most
obviously their clothing" ; answer: the wind). (4) "What is that which
is often brought to table, often cut, but never eaten?" (Robert Merry;
answer: a pack of cards). (5) Prahelikit is first mentioned by
Bhamaha as an illegitimate extension of yamaka ('cadence'); serving
no poetic purpO$I', this topic was apparently soon adopted into the
growing rag bag citrakitvya. Dal)<;lin, who gives the most extensive
treatment (enumerating sixteen types), also avers that such puzzles
serve only as recreation for scholars or critics and perhaps can be used
to demonstrate the prowess of one writer over another_a sort of
verbal jujitsu. The Agni Purit1;la and Rudrata both mention only
two types of riddle: one in which the answer is already contained
in the riddle phrase by a different reading of words (spa$(apracchanndrtha), and the other, the most frequently met variety, in which an
apparent paradox is proposed (vyithrta). Both types can be found in
Dal)<;lin, the first as ubhayacchanna, the second as ekacchanna. The
example given above illustrates the second type. Since neither the
names or the types found in Dal)<;lin are met with elsewhere, the
sixteen varieties will be given here.
ubhayacchanna, 'both concealed': (I) a conundrum in the form of a

of

GLOSSARY

211

question in which the key to the solution is hidden, usnally by a

grammatical device. (2) D 3.105 (122). (3) kena kal;z saha sarrzbhilya
sarvakitrye"u sannidhim Ilabdhvit bhojanakitle tu yadi dr${o nirasyate
(Dal)<;lin; the answer is "the hair" and is given by understanding kena
as the instrumental not of the interrogative, but of the noun ka
('head'); it is considered improper to show one's hair during eating:
"What with which coexisting in all their actions, and having come
together during meal time, is, nevertheless, as soon as seen, pnt
aside?"). (4) "What kind of cat is most valued in Snnday-school?"
(Robert Merry; answer: a catechism). (5) The paradox here is
entirely concealed because neither the answer nor a paradoxical
reference which wonld suggest the natnre of the solution is given
explicitly in the statement; in fact, the first reading does not suggest
that a paradox is even intended. In the examples, the key is given
by a linguistic interpretation of one of the words of the statement
(kena from ka; catechism as a kind of cat). Cf vaiicita and paru~a.
This and the following type (ekacchanna) represent a different kind
of classification in that they necessarily involve the question form.
Most Sanskrit riddles are not questions, unlike the English ones.
The majority of the prahelikit concern the mode of conceahnent
(riddle-ness), whereas these two concern the mode of solution (given
a question).
ekacchanna, 'partly concealed': (I) a conundrum in the form of a question
iu which the key to the solution is partly given by a descriptive
qualification. (2) D 3.104 (121). (3) na sprsaty ityudharrz jittu na
stri1;litrrz stanama1;lt/alam I amanu~yasya kasydpi hasto'yarrz na kUdphalal;z (Dal).<;lin; intended is the gandharva-[amanu~ya] hasta, a name for
the era1;lt/a tree: "He touches no weapon and not even the breast of
woman; the hand of this umnasculine thing is nevertheless provided
with fruits"). (4) "Who prolongs his work to as great a length as
possible, and still completes it in time?" (Robert Merry; answer:
the rope-maker). (5) The name "partly concealed" refers to the fact
that a part of the truth must be given in order for the paradox to be
understood. In the Sanskrit examples, the fruit (of the tree) is
regarded as giving just enough clarity for the paradox to function.
In the English, the word "length" fulfills the same function, for it
candidly refers to the rope, too. This and the preceding type represent a different level of classification and are opposed to one another
in the sense that ubhayacchanna involves only an apparent paradox.
Compare viSe~{jkti alarrzkitra, virodha, and virodhi1bhitsa.

213

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

niimantarita, 'of another name': (I) a conundrum whose solution is

effected by understanding that the statement in fact implies a name
and not the subject apparently intended. (2) D 3.102 (116). (3)
adau ra..lety adhfrak,'i parthivab ko'pi gfyate I sanatanas ca naivasau
raja napi saniitanab (Dal)<;lin; answer: the tree rajatana, i.e., raja
accompanied by [sa] absence of rna] non- [a] posterity [tana]. This
tree is neither a king nor eternal [sanatanab]: "There is a certain
earth-lord, called a 'king' at first, who is eternal; but he is neither a
king nor eternal"). (4) "What word is that to which if you add a
syllable yon will make it shorter?" (Robert Merry; answer: the word
"short"). (5) In effect, the connndrum is here the obfuscation of a
name. It differs from paru~a prahelika in that the statement of the
conundrum conceals the name',jtself, which is then put in quotes,
rather than simply concealing anothfll possible interpretation (usually
etymological) of the name.',;.
nibbrta, 'hidden': (I) a conundrum whose'solution is hidden by a sequence
of descriptive qualifications, each of which involves a parallelism of
attribute between the hidden subject and the apparent meaning of
the statement. (2) D 3.102 (117). (3) hrtadravya'fl nara'fl tyaktva
dhanavanta'fl vra..lanti kab I nanabhafigisamakr#aloka veSya na
durdharab (Dal)<;lin; here the prostitutes are to be taken as "rivers",

dve~f satrub kar1;las tasya gurub pita siiryas tasya piidaib kira1;laib hatab
santapitab" and "himtipaho vahnib tasyamitrani ..lalani te~a'fl dharair
..laladharaib meghaib vyaptam"; the example is written in what
amounts to a code; translation would not clarify anything). (4)
"When does a temperance lecturer say a grammar lesson?" (Robert
Merry; answer: when he declines a drink). (5) "Drink" as a verb
refers to "declines" in one sense, as a potion, in another. Strings
such as the Sanskrit offers are unobtainable in English. This conundrum is identical with a later do~a, neyarthatva.
paru~a, 'hard': (I) a conundrum whose solution is given by applying an
apparent or false etymology (which is not justified by any usage)
to a word in the statement. (2) D 3.100 (113). (3) surab suralaye

212

the penniless man as "mined mountains", the rich man as ~'the sea"

(as the repository of jewels), the coquetry as "ripples", and so on.

Instead of reading "what prostitute is not difficult to support?"
the phrase now reads "what rivers are not to be bathed in [vesya]?"
The translation is.: "Which prostitutes are not difficult to put up with,
to whom men are,attracted by various artifices and who abandon a
man when they have taken his money in favor of one who has
money?"). (4) "What is that which, supposing its greatest breadth
to be four inches, length nine inches, and depth three inches, contains a solid foot?" (Robert Merry; answer: a shoe). (5) This
conundrum differs from samanariipa only grammatically: the latter
should involve a similarity of form (nominal comparability), the
former a similarity of qualification (adjectival comparability).
parihiirikii, 'avoiding': (I) a conundrum whose solution is effected by
interpreting a series of words, in secondary senses, in such a way
that each succeeding one refers to the preceding secondary sense.
(2) D 3.104 (120). (3) vijitatmabhavadve~igurupiidahato ..lanab I
himapahfimitradharair vyapta'fl vyomabhinandati (Dal)<;lin: "vina
[inst.] garudena jita indras tasyatmabhavab putrab arjunas tasya

svairarrz bhramanti dasanarci~<;ii / majjanta iva matttis te saure sarasi

sa'flprati (Dal)<;lin; by taking surab 'gods' as sura asti ye~a'fl te surab,
the meaning 'drunkards' is obtained. This satisfies the paradox of
the 'gods' being intoxicated: "The Gods wander freely in heaven
showing their teeth, like drunken elephants in your celestial tank).
(4) "What vessel is that which is always asking leave to move?"
(Robert Merry; answer: can-I-ster).
prakalpita, 'arranged': (I) a conundrum whose solution is given by understanding the context in which the statement is made, and does not
depend on any power of words to convey several meanings. (2)
D 3.101 (115). (3) gira skhalantya namre1;la Sirasa dfnaya drsa I
ti$fhantam api sotkampa'fl vrddhe ma'fl nanukampase (Dal)<;lin; it
would appear that this is addressed to an old lady, and therefore
seems out of place; the solution is given by takiug vrddhe as a name
for Lak~mi: "You have no pity on me, aged lady, though I stand
here agitated, with affiicted visage, bent head, and faltering voice").
(4) "'Now then: five crows were sitting in a tree .... A man came by
with a gun. He shot one of them. How many were left in the tree?'
'That is no problem', said Sofie. 'There were four crows left, of
course'. 'Yes, if they were such dumb crows as you .... Now, Hans,
how many were left?' 'None', answered Hans, thoughtfully. 'Righta!. There were none left .... But say, Hans, what do you think
became of the others?' ' ... I suppose they flew away'" (0. E. Rolvaag). (5) Vrddha is not a pun, for Lak~ml bears that epithet in
approximately the sense of 'thefully developed one'. The conundrum
plays only on the legitimate connotations of the one word. Similarly,
Rolvaag seems to be referring to a single crow, whereas in fact his
question concerns the species crow and its social behavior. There

214

GLOSSARY

is no pun in the strict sense (compare vaiicita prahelika); the puzzler

simply phrases his statement in such a way that the listener is led to
consider the wrong context for the statement.
pramu~ita,

'distracted': (1) a conundrum in which the solution is hidden

by a series of extremely difficult, archaic, or irregular words. (2)
D 3.99 (111). (3) khdtayal; kani kale te sphiitayal; spharhavalgaval; /
candre sak$ad bhavanty atra vayavo mama dharilJal; (Dal).4in: "Young
lady! [kani] your words [air-goers], full of sense, are sweet to my
desire in this your lovely [moon-like] condition; my life [winds] is now
secure"). (5) The best English equivalent for this puzzle is the rebus,
a sequence of pictures and words whose puns, synonyms, and spatial
arrangement are the key to comprehending the meaning. Compare
this one from Robert Merry which involves only diagrams: "Mr.
-wood being at the . of king of terrors, 10 mills for his quakers,
and who, which and what. They ~~?r for Dr. Juvenile Humanity,

Iwho I

to Dr. Hay preservers, and little" devil behold scarlet his

assistance; but B 4 he arrived, the not legally good changed color,

taker
and the was ct. for" (Mr. Dashwpoq, being at the point of death,
sent for his friends and relatives. They sent for Dr. Childs, who
inclosed a few lines to Dr. Barnes and imp-lo-red his assistance.
But before he arrived, the invalid died, and the undertaker was sent
for).
Bohtlingk expresses indignation at this sort of thing, calling it too
difficult for man or beast: "Ein solches Ratsel kann nur ein Inder
losen and wenn e~uns die Losung mittheilt, fragen wir, wie konnte
DalJt/in ein Ratse! aufgeben, das ein normal gebildetes aehim nie
und nimmer losen wird?" Such scholarly impatience is too often
met with-a regrettable ethno-centrism. Puzzles of this sort are
common in all literate cultures, especially among the un- or undereducated; but when an Indian is obscure, the Western critic deems
it his specific vice and never considers the purpose of the obscurity
orits nature. Would Bohtlingk condemn all light verse? Comparative
studies, such as the present one, may in some measure dispel this
unwarranted prejudice which, in its way, is quite flattering to the
Sanskrit language, for it would seem to imply that anything writteu
in Sanskrit is ipso facto serious and great.
vaiicita, 'deceived': (1) a conundrum whose solution is obtained by taking
one of the words in th.e statement of the conundrum in a secondary,

GLOSSARY

215

but not lexically unjustifiable, ~ense. (2) D 3.98 (109). (3) kubjam
asevamanasya yatha te vardhate ratil; / naivalfl nirvisato narfr
amarastrfvit/ambinfl; (Dal).4in; kubja ('humpback') should be taken
in the secondary sense of kanyakubja (the city), that is, Kanauj):
"Your passion grows as you consort with the hunchback woman;
you have no use for women who outdo the wives of the Gods").
(4) "Who was the first that bore arms?" (Robert Merry; answer:
Adam; arrived at by taking "arms" in the sense of "upper extremities"). (5) In these two examples, the obvious context suggests that
kubja be taken in the sense of 'female hunchback', and that "arms"
be taken as "firearms". The writer uses this evident primary sense
to deceive us.
vyutkranta, 'out of order': (1) a conundrum whose solution is obtained
by rearranging the words of the statement. (2) D 3.99 (110). (3)
dalJt/e cumbati padminya halflsal; karkasakalJ!ake / mukhalfl valguravalfl kurvalfls tUIJt/endfigani gha!!ayan (Dal).4in; the proper sense is
given by reading "karkasakalJle dalJt/e padminya afigani gha!layan
valguravalfl kurvan halflsas tUIJt/ena (padminyal;) mukhalfl cumbati":
"Rubbing the members of the lotus on its stalk rough with spines,
the swan kisses the face [of the lotus] with his beak, making a soft
murmuring"). (4) "Was he short taken" (James Joyce; an example of
the classical "anastrophe"). (5) This is a sort of anagram of words
instead of letters.
salpkirl).a, 'mixed': (I) a riddle containing more than one of the riddles
listed under prahelika. (2) D 3.105 (123-24). (3) sahaya sagaja sena
sabhaleyalfl na cej jita / amatriko'yalfl milt/hal; syiid ak$arajiiai ca
nal; sutal; (Dal).4in; a mixture of namdntarita (sahaya and sagaja
taken as 'consisting of ha, ya, ga, and ja') and vaficita (sena in the
unusual sense of sa-ina); but would this not more properly be interpreted as pramu$ita? "If that army, with horse, elephant, and foot
not be conquered, then our son, though he know the ineffable
[ak$ara], is indeed unlettered and stupid"; or, "If the alphabet,
with its 'h, y, g, j, i, n, bh, t' be not learnt, then our son, though
he know letters, is indeed ... "). (4) "In what ship, and in what
capacity, do young ladies like to engage?" (Robert Merry: answer:
in court ship, as marry-ners; the first illustrates namdntarita, the
second, paru"a).
saJPkbyata, 'counted': (1) a conundrum whose solution is given by
interpreting qualities in another way than that intended by the
statement. (2) D 3.101 (114). (3) nasikyamadhya paritas caturvarlJa-

216

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

vibhil$itti

asti kticit purl yasytim

a~lavaYlJdhvayti

nrpti/z (Dm;H;lin:

"There is a certain city, adorned with the four castes, in the midst of
the Nasikyas, whose kings are called 'eight fold"'; or: "There is a
certain city with a nasal in the middle, surrounded by four phonemes,
whose kings bear a title of eight phonemes"; the answer is Kane!,
capital of the Pallaval). (4) "What has four eyes and can't see?"
(Trad.; answer: Mississippi).
samiigata, 'conjoined': (1) a conundrum whose solution is already
contained in the statement of the conundrum and is revealed by a
different reading of the constituent words (sarrzdhi). (2) D 3.98 (108).
(3) na maya gorasdbhijnarrz ceta/z kasmat prakupyasi I asthiinaruditair
ebhir a/am iilokitek~aQe (Dal)<,lin; .the answer is obtained by reading
na me ago-rasdbhijnarrz, etc.: "I'did not mark my mind with cow

milk; why are you angry? Quit t!:lese inappropriate sobbings, my

love of sidelong glances"; or: "My~nd is not distinguished by a
taste for sin ..."). (4) "What is that which is invisible, but never out
of sight?" (Robert Merry; answer: by reading "in visible", the letters
"i" or "8").
samanariipa, 'of the same appearance': (1) \i conundrum whose solution
is given by interpreting several related words of the statement in
appropriate secondary meanings. (2) D 3.100 (112). (3) atrodyane
maya dr$/a vallari pancapallava

pallave pallave tamra yasyarrz

kusumamaiijarf (Da1)gin; the "creeper" is her arm, the "shoots"

her fingers, and the "bud" her red fingernail: "I saw in the garden a
creeper with five shoots, and on each shoot a scarlet flower bud").
(4) "Why is it profitable to keep fowl?" (Robert Merry; answer: for
every grain they give a peck). (5) This type appears to be the same
as vancita, but with the added qualification that more than one word
be taken in a secondary sense. The relation of the secondary senses
then suggests the solution to the conundrum; as neither "grain"
nor "peck" by itself is sufficient to enlighten the reader, their conjunction alone suggests the secondary sense (relating to grain as a collective) in which they both are to be taken.
samiinasabda, 'composed of the same words': (I) a conundrum whose
solution is effected by substituting synonyms for identifiable morphemic elements of less than word length. (2) D 3.103 (118). (3)
jitaprakmakddkhyo yas tavdbhumisdhvaya/z I sa mam adya prabhutotkarrz karoti ka/abhii~iQi (DaJ;l<,lin; the girl's lips are meant. Consider
'having the same name' (sdhvaya/z) as 'non-earth' (a-bhami). A
synonym for bhumi is dhara: substituting, we get a-dhara, which (not

217

so morphemicized) is a common word for the lips (adhar-a is the

lower one); likewise, prakr$/akda is to be taken as pra-viila by the
same process of substitution, and this is the name of a creeper:
"surpassing the praviila creeper": "Something of yours, famed for
having conquered excellent hair, and with the name ofnon-earth, now
makes me awaken to desire"). (4) "Father plugs an abbreviation"
(Robert Merry; this is so decoded as the name of a river: the "Pataps-co" in Baltimore). (5) Compare pramu$ita, where the etymological analyses are in theory legitimate (though our English example
shows some of this type).
salpmii4ba, 'confused': (I) a conundrum whose solution consists in properly interpreting the intentional force of the statement, that is, in
grasping fully its syntactical relationships. (2) D 3.103 (119). (3)
sayanlye paravrtya sayitau kaminau krudhii I tathaiva sayitau ragat
svairarrz mukham acumbatam (Dal)<,lin; by taking tathaiva not as "in
the same position" but as "turning over again", the statement is no

longer paradoxical: "In the bed the two recumbent lovers turn
over from anger; likewise recumbent they kiss each other's faces in
passion"). (4) "How can five persons divide five eggs, so that each
man shall receive one, and still one remain in the dish?" (Robert
Merry; answer: one takes the dish with the egg). (5) This type is
similar to praka/pita, but here the context in which the phrase is
spoken does not provide the key; rather the reverse: the ability of
the phrase to correctly represent the occurrence is at issue. One
egg can remain in the dish when it is realized that this does not
preclude the dish itself being appropriated. As in the Sanskrit
example, the confusing word is "still", for the mind is, as it were,
compelled to conceive of an entirely unchanged first condition: that
the egg not only remains in the dish, but that the dish is still. on the
table. The mind is thus carried beyond the actual descriptive content
of the phrase, where only one aspect of the original condition is
unchanged, and falls into the syntactical blunder of overextending
the prodosis in the apodosis. As in praka/pita, however, no power
of words to convey two meanings is here employed.
preyas
preyas (I), 'more agreeable': (I) the expression of affection in an extraordinary way. (2) B 3.5, D 2.275 (276). (3) adya ya mama govinda
jiita tvayi grhdgate

I ka/enai~a

bhavet pritis tavaivdgamanat puna/z

(Bhamaha, DaJ;l<,lin; spoken by Vidura: "The joy which I feel at

218

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your coming today, Govinda, will return only when you come again !").
(4) "Dear Mrs. A., I Hooray, hooray, I At last you are deflowered. I
On this as every other day I I love you. -Noel Coward" (quoted by
Wolcott Gibbs; telegram sent to Gertrude Lawrence on the occasion
of her marriage). (5) See rasavat, ilrjasvi.
preyas (II): (1) that quality of a work of art by which descriptive situations
elicit and sustain in every way appropriately the basic mood (rasa)
ofthe work. (2) U 4.2. (3) iyaffl ca sutavallabhyan nirviSe~a sprhiivatiI
ullapayitum arabdhii krtvi!maffl krotja iilmana/z (Udbhaia; Piirvati
is fondling a young fawn: "Paying no heed to the difference and made
loving through tenderness for all offspring, she began to hum and
took it to her breast"). (4) "There will be a rusty gun on the wall,
sweetheart, I The rifle grooves curling with flakes of rust. I A spider
will make a silver string next in the darkest, warmest corner of it. I
The trigger and the range-finder, J~jy,too will be .rusty.rf And
no hands will polish the gun, and itwilLhang on the wall. I Forefinger and thumbs will point absently and casually toward it. I It
will be spoken among half-forgotten, wished-to-be-forgotten things. I
They will tell the spider: Go on, you're doing good work" (Carl
Sandburg; the title of this poem is "A. B. F." and its mood is santa).
(5) Udbhaia incorporates several elements of the rasa theory into
the traditional corpus of alafflkara. His pretext is the figure rasavat,
which from the time of Bhamaha could be determined in any
passage in which a rasa was evident or pre-eminent. The two figures
closely allied to rasavat, namely ilrjasvi and preyas, which originally
meant only 'arrogance' and 'compliance' and so contrasted with
rasavat (as reposing upon the ego and not upon bhiivas common to
all and especially the audience), are reinterpreted as special cases of
rasavat: excessive demonstration of any rasa, and the present adaptation of situation and mood. We need not go into the precise and
sometimes subtle analysis of situation (vibhiiva, anubhiiva, etc.);
suffice it to say that the present figure can be explained (and is by
later writers) as a composition whose situational elements are consistent and evocative of the proper final mood.

219

iijarisanathakaram I pasyantya bhavati muhur nitaraffl malina

mukhacchiiya (Rudraia; the girl's troubled look [visible effect],
with its cause (the flower in the youth's hand], suggest her emotion
(despair], since the cause is seen to be a secret signal that the rendezvOus must be postponed: "The girl's face is troubled as she looks
upon the village youth with a new garland of hibiscus in his hand").
(4) " ... we had a small game, I And Ah Sin took a hand: I It was
Euchre. The same I He did not understand; I But he smiled as he
sat by the table, I With a smile that was child-like and bland. I ... I
But the hands that were played I By that heathen Chinee, I And the
points that he made, I Were quite frightful to see, - I Till at last he
put down a right bower, I Which the same Nye had dealt unto me.
I Then I looked up at Nye, I And he gazed upon me; I And he rose
with a sign, I And said, 'Can this be? I We are ruined by Chinese
cheap labour', I And he went for that heathen Chinee" (Bret Harte:
Nye's Sigh (visible effect], with its cause [right bower in wrong hand],
suggest his emotion [thirst for revenge], since the cause is seen to
be an indication of dishonest play). (5) This figure is testimony
to the efforts of the stricter poeticians to include suggestion [dhvani]
within the realm of figure as traditionally conceived. Bhiiva is
more limited in scope than rasavat alafflkara, aiming only at suggesting a specific, temporally limited emotion, rather than a mood
[rasa] which would be a general characteristic of the work itself.
It is a kind of periphrasis of the soul; but since we know from the
Dhvanyaloka that the soul can only be obliquely referred to, bhava
is hard to differentiate from the notion of suggestion itself. The
figure differs from aprastutaprasafflsii both in that the intimated
snbject is there capable of representation, and in that the means of
suggestion are similitudes of subject and explicit object. See
paryayokta.
bhiiva (II): (1) a figure in which a literal truth is expressed for the purpose
of conveying a hidden intention. (2) R 7.40 (41). (3) ekakini yad
abala tarUl)i tathfiham asmin grhe grhapatis ca gato videSam I kiffl
yiicase tad iha vasam iyaffl varaki svasrilr mamandhabadhirii nanu
miit}ha pantha (Rudraia; the girl is inviting the wayfarer to bed:
"I am alone and weak and innocent, and my husband has left this
house for a far country; why do you ask refuge here? Don't you
realize that my mother-in-law is about, deaf and blind? Stupid
traveller!"). (4) '''Good night. If I get to talkin' and tossin', or
what not, you'll understand you're to-' 'Yes, I'll wake you'. 'No

bhiiva
bhiiva (1), 'emotion': (I) a figure wherein the visible effect of an emotional
state, together with its apparently unrelated cause, suggests the nature
of that emotional state, which, in turn, explains the relevance of the
cause. (2) R 7.38 (39): (3) griimataruljal]1 taruljya navavaiijulama-

r!
220

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221

pratyanfka, Rudrala decrees that the two things confounded are

don't yu', for God~s sake!' 'Not?' 'Don't yu' touch me'. 'What'll
I do?' 'Roll away quick to your side. It don't last but a minute ....
Oh, just don't let your arm or your laig touch me if I go to jumpin'
around. I'm dreamin' of Indians when I do that. And if anything
touches me then, I'm liable to grab my knife right in my sleep'"
(Owen Wister: the Virginian wishes to avoid sharing a bed with the
drummer). (5) Cf paryiiyfJkta, where the hidden intention is conveyed by a remark with no apparent relevance. This figure, like
vyiijfJkti, conveys a type of irony, but does not involve speaking
the opposite of one's real intent.

subject and object of an implied simile; Mammala is more imprecise.

Of course, any terms capable of being so confused must be similar,
so the question is really one of whether the aspect of similitude is
the predominant feature or not-the motive, as it were. As Rudrala's
example shows, this need not be the case, for there the alleged confusion of sacrificial smoke aud clouds is subordinate to the flattery
of the king, which is the obvious motive.
mata
mata, 'deemed': (I) a figure in which one thing, conventionally well
known and functioning as the subject of comparison, is taken to be
another thing (the object) by a specially qualified observer. (2)
R 8.69 (70-71). (3) madiriimadabharapiilalam alikulanfliilakiilidha-

bhiivika
hhiivika, 'expressive': (I) the cohererfb~ of the entire work in a clear and
realistic unity. (2) B 3.53-54, D 2.3~1-66, U 6.6. (3) (4) No examples
are offered by Bhamaha or Dal)gl:ng (5). This curious alalpkiira,
defined as a quality [guva] of the enti;e work, perhaps represents the
extreme interpretation of the extent of the figure of speech. Here is
clearer than usual the etymological sense of alalpkiira: a 'making
adequate' of the work of art. Bhiivika is perceived in such aspects
as the relevance of the various parts of the story to one another, the
clarification of difficult contexts by an emphasis on a chain of events,
the suitability of the story to be represented in the form chosen,
clarity of language, and so on. Dal)gin explains that this figure is a
function of the poet's intention or desire (abhipriiya) and can be seen
as a competent rendering of that unity in the work. For a speculative
treatment of the ~gure, see the Introduction, pp. 50ff.

mmillam / taruvfmukhamitiyadidarpkathayati lokal;z samasto'yam /

manye'ham indur e~al;z sphulam udaye'ruvarucil;z sthitail;z pasciit /
udayagirau chadmaparair niSiitamobhir grhita iva (Rudrala: "What

the common herd deem to be a maiden's face, flushed with the first
ecstasies of drink and framed in hair whose br~ids are dark as a
cloud of bees, I know to be the ruddy-glowing risen moon, attacked
by the black vapors of night hidden like secrets behind the eastern
mountain"). (4) "The fairness of that lady that I see / Yond in
the garden roamen to and fro, / Is cause of all my crying and my
woe. / I noot wher she be woman or goddess; / But Venus is it,
soothly, as I guess" (Chaucer). (5) Like thefigurespratfpa,pratyanfka,
and bhriintimat, this figure may be thought of as an implicit simile,
on the principle that what is confusable is comparable. But the
intention of the speaker mayor may not be to compare: in the second
example, the point of the rapprochement lies in the striking antithesis
rather than in the similitude of the two things. As a good example
of how those writers go astray who classify only by formal criteria,
the Sanskrit example, which is a simile, reads also 'what looks like a
girl's face to the unwashed is the moon to me'.

hhriintimat
bhriintimat, 'confused': (I) a figure in which one thing, usually the object
of comparison, is mistaken for another, usually the subject of comparison. (2) R 8.87 (88), M 200. (3) piilayati tvayi vasudhiirp vividhMhvaradhumamiilinfl;z kakubhal;z / pasyanti duyante ghanasamayiisafikayii
harpsiil;z (Rudrala: "While you, 0 King, protect the earth, the moun-

tain peaks are blackened by the smoke of so many sacrifices that

the geese, looking on, mistake them for the rain clouds and are sad").
(4) " ... her eyes in heaven / Would through the airy region stream
so bright / That birds would sing and think it were not night"
(Shakespeare). (5) No element of doubt is admitted by those defining
this term; confusion is complete to the point of mistake. In this
the figure differs from:iarpsaya and from rupaka. As in pratfpa and

miIIta
miIita, 'fused': (I) a figure wherein two qualities or aspects of the same
thing are said to be indistinguishable, one imposing itself on the
other. (2) R 7.106 (107-108), M 197. (3) madiriimadabharapiilalakapolatalalocane~u vadane~u

/ kopo manasvinfniim na lak~yate kiimibhil;z

prabhavan (Rudrala: "The anger caused by teasing lovers cannot be

222

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223

yamaka
yamaka, 'doubled' or 'restraint': (I) a figure in which a part of a verse,
specified either as to length or position or both, is repeated within
the confines of the same verse, usually in such a way that the meaning
of the two readings is different; word play (one of the meanings
usually given to paronomasia). (2) NS 16.59-86, B 2.9-20 (definition,
17), D 3.1-72, V 4.1.1-7, AP 343.12-17, R 3.1-59, M 117-18. (3) na

seen on the faces of the spirited women whose cheeks are flushed and
whose eyes are bloodshot from devotion to spiritous liquor").
(4) "The hippopotamus's day / Is passed in sleep; at night he hunts;
/ God works in a mysterious way- / The Church can sleep and feed
at once" (T. S. Eliot). (5) If this figure is to be distinguished from
ordinary aliSayokti, the difference is most probably that the confusion
ofthe two states through a property is to be understood literally and
not as exaggeration. If so, the figure would be au asserted salflsaya:
it is not that the redness of her cheeks due to wine imposes itself
figmatively ou the reduess of passion; one really can't tell from the
redness alone what causes it. Milila differs from pihila in that the
states confused are similar, not"i\isparate.

Ie dhfr dhfra bhoge~u ramal}fye~u salflgalii / munfn api haranly ele

ramal}f ye~u salflgalii (Bhamaha; second repeats fourth piida: "0

steadfast, your consciousness is not acquainted with delightful

pleasures; they seduce even the sages with whom a beautiful woman
is involved"). (4) From an anonymous poem, entitled "London, sad
London", written during the early part of the Civil War:
What wants thee, that thou art in this sad taking?
A King.
What made him first remove hence his residing?
Siding.
Did any here deny him satisfaction?
Faction.
Tell me whereon this strength of Faction lies.
On lies.
What did'st thou do when the King left Parliament?
Lament.
What terms would'st give to gain his company?
Any.
But how would'st serve him, with thy best eudeavour?
Ever.
(5) Yamaka, one ofthe four original alalflkiiras (with upamii, rupaka,
aud dipaka), resembles a kind of paronomasia which goes by that
somewhat inexact name "word play" in English. But because of
its highly developed and formal character in Sanskrit, I have chosen
a more appropriate rendering: "cadence". The etymology of the
word can be traced either directly to the root yam- ('restrain') or
to the derived form yama- (which can mean 'twin') from the same
root. The application of either is obvious. Yamaka is a pun spelled
out. Except for the earliest writer, Bharata, it is specifically stated
that the meanings of the repeated portions must be different, and
this involves either splitting the words differently (different morpheme
boundaries) or taking each word as a double-entendre. Either way,
a kind of pun is recalled (see sle~a): in the former, bhinnapada, in the

mudr;i
mudra, 'seal': (I) the ability of the poet!iJ express his intentions clearly.
(2) AP 342.26. (5) This is the secondsabdiilalflkiira of the Agni
Purii1;la and can also be called sayyii ('bed'). Presumably, what is
meant is the old idea of siihilya as the unity of word and meaning,
the expression of just the right idea in just the right way. In the
Sarasvatfka1;l!hiibhara1;la (2.125), the term is described as the able
renderiug of the context of an idea.
yathasaqJkhya
yathasaqJkhya, 'each to each': (I) a figure consisting of ordered sequences
of terms, such as nouns and adjectives or subjects and objects of
comparison, so arranged that item one of the first sequence matches
item one of thd"second, item two of the first matches item two of
the second, and so on. (2) B 2.89 (90), D 2.273 (274), V 4.3.17,
U 3.2, AP 346.21, R 7.34 (36-37), M 164. (3) dhruvalfl Ie corilii
lanvi smiti!k~a1;lamukhadyulih ! sniitum ambhah pravi~!iiyiih kumudolpalapaiikajaih(DalJCJin: "As you entered the water to bathe, you

certainly stole the beauty of your smile, eyes, and face from the red
lotus, the blue lotus, and the white lotus"). (4) "The Piazza, with
its three great attractions-the Palazzo Pubblico, the Collegiate
Church, and the Caffe Garibaldi: the intellect, the soul, and the
body-had never looked more charming" (E. M. Forster). (5)
Da(l<,liu gives as alternate names for this figure krama and salflkhyiina;
Vilmana uses only krama. In the Agni Purii1;la, yalhiisalflkhya
is considered a gU1;la rather than an alalflkiira!

224

GLOSSARY

latter, abhinnapada (different or identical words). The term "paronomasia" can be used loosely either of word play or ofpunning (doubleentendre): when the two meanings of an identical sequence of words
are obtained simultaneously, we have sle$a or pun; when they are
obtained sequentially, we have yamaka or 'cadence'.
In English poetry, the figure yamaka is generally restricted to
light verse and doggerel: "But from her grave in Mary-bone / They've
come and boned your Mary" (Thomas Hood; referring to bodysnatchers; a parivrlti yamaka). Occasionally, it serves a satirical
purpose, as in Joyce Cary's" watercolour
slaughtercolour .
mortarcolour ... scortacolour tortacolour
thoughtacolour ",
a samastapiida yamaka based on the movie industry's overuse of the
suffix "~color" ("technicolor,))vistacolor", etc.). Nowadays, in
America at any rate, yamakas are f(lund most frequently in advertisingjargon, where it is apparently beti~jed that they awaken curiosity:
"For news you can depend on, depeird onethe Chicago Daily News".
This is also a parivrtti yamaka.
The figure yamaka is closely related to, and probably the progenitor
of, several other figures, notably liiJanupriisa and the various kinds
of citra. The former involves repetition of contiguous words (like
Bharata's yamakas), and the latter depend on principles of repetition
other than the obvious linear one (such as zig-zag, palindrome,
hop-scotch, etc.). The figure has been minutely subdivided, especially
by Bharata, Dal).gin, and Rudrala, but all the distinctions relate
only to the scope and place of the repetition in the verse (first piida,
beginning offirstpiida, first half offirstpiida, etc.). For this reason,
I have not attempted to give an English example for each variety.
English verses employ yamakas in no such consistent fashion (all
would be classified as samuccaya yamakas by the precious), and
most of the English yamakas are not found in verse, anyhow. All
the infinite varieties reduce to the same uniform notion: repetition
of word spans with different meanings.
Udbhata alone of the early writers does not mention yamaka,
though h~ devotes much thought to an elaborate classification of
liitanupriisa. The other writers differ largely as to the degree to
which the analysis is carried. Bhamaha proposes only five types,
Vamana a half-dozen, and Mammala, though admitting the infinity
of possible types, illustrates only five. Bharata, however, describes
ten varieties, which is rather surprising considering that he finds only
four types of upamii. ...Dal).gin's elaborate classification differs from

GLOSSARY

225

Rudrala's only in detail and in the fact that he proposes little special
terminology to cover the multitude oftypes. Rudrata gives a technical
name for each variety, only a very few of which seem to have been
traditional (see samudga yamaka). Both writers distinguish yamakas
whose scope is the entire piida (quarter verse) from those whose
scope is only a fraction of a piida (samastapiidaja, piidalkadesaja).
In the former category are included half sloka and whole sloka
yamakas (samudgaka, mahiiyamaka). (See also mukha, sal'fldal'flsa,
iivrti, garbha, sal'flda$taka, puccha, pafikti, parivrlti, and yugmaka
yamakas). The latter variety is, of conrse, infinite, and both writers
classify as to where and how much of the piida is involved (iidimadhyanta yamakas, etc.) and also as to how many piidas exhihit yamakas, and how many times the yamaka itself is repeated. Many of
these varieties have no name. Rudrata, the supreme technician,
divides "partial" yamaka into those whose scope is the half piida
and those whose scope is a quarter or a third of a piida (see antadika,
valelra, iidimadhya, etc.). All writers profess to be incapable. of
dealing with yamaka in its entirety.
Mter the triumph of the dhvani theory, yamaka comes to be considered the type par excellence of citrakiivya, the lowest of the three
varieties of poetry, which embodies nothing of poetic value and
displays mere verbal virtuosity. (See citra.) Yamaka and citra are,
however, distinguished from one another very sharply by the
tradition. Cf the consistent yamakas of Raghuval'flsa 9th canto.
ak~ara, 'syllable': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements
are syllables which occur either once, at the beginning of each piida,
or in such a way that the entire piida or verse is composed of doubles.
(2) V 4..1.2. (3) niiniikiire/Ja kiintiibhrur iiriidhitamanobhuvii / viviktena
viliisena tatak$a hrdayal'fl nr/Jiim (Vamana: "The eyebrows of a
lovely girl strike into the heart of a man with varied coquetry,
each of their shapes delightful to the Love God"). vividhadhavavanii
niigagargharghaniiniivivitatagagniiniimamajjajjaniinii (Vamana; unclear in meaning). (5) Most yamakas are repetitions defined in piidas
or parts of piidas, rather than in single syllables, but compare piidlidi
yamaka, where only the location of the repetition is specified.
anta, 'end': (I) see piidanta.
antiidika, 'final-initial': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements
are the last half of the first piida and the first half of the second. (2)
R 3.23 (24). (3) niiri/Jiim alasal'fl nabhi lasanniibhi kadambakam /
paramastram anafigasya kasya no ramayen mana/:! (Rudrata: "Whose

GLOSSARY

226

227

GLOSSARY

BzzB CxxC DxxD. (5) Type (a) is not illustrated; it is the inverse of
antiidika.
amre~ta, 'reiterated': (I) a type of yamaka in which the word at the end
of eachpada is repeated. (2) NS 16.79 (80), AP 343.16. (3) vijrmbhitam nihsvasitam muhur muhu!; katharrz vidheyasmaravarrz pade pade /
ya;hti ~a te dh~anam idarrz puna!; punar dhruvarrz gatiite rajani vina
vina (Bharata: "Again and again yawning and sighing; why is your
remembrance fixed on these several situations? Just as your meditation returns again and again, so indeed the night passes without her,
without her"). (5) This yamaka of Bharata is peculiar in referring
to the repetition of words; in fact, the later definitions of yamaka
specify that the two readings obtained by repetition must have a
different word base, and that the scope of the repetition is usually the
pada or a fractional part thereof(that is, must be entirely independent
of the semantic content of the utterance). Bharata is less strict on
this point; amre(!ita yamaka resembles la{iinuprasa, except that the
repetition of words is confined to the end of the pada.
avali, 'necklace': (I) a type of yamaka showing varied types of repetition
within the confines of single padas. (2) B 2.9 (14). (3) sitiisitiik~irrz
supayodhariidhararrz susarrzmadarrz vyaktamadarrz lalamadiirrz / ghanaghana nilaghana ghaniilakarrz priyam imam utsukayanti yanti ca
(Bhamaha: "The great dark heaps of clouds come to and cause to
pine my love, thick locked, with eyes both light and dark, her body
with such lovely breasts and lips, by whom passion is manifested,
giver of ornament"). (4) The form, for this example only, is: AAxxBB
xCxCxC DDxDDx xxxxEE. (5) This type of random repetition
shows the close relation between alliteration (anuprasa) and cadence
(yamaka). Later writers tend to extend the scope of the repetition
to larger parts of the verse and thus lessen the possibility of such
free play.
avrti, 'covering': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements
are the first and fourthptidas. (2) R 3.3 (6), M 118C. (3) mudiirata(!i
samariijiriijita!; pravrddhateja!; prathamo dhanu~matam / bhavan
bibhartlha nagas ca medinim udarata(!isamarajirajita!; (Rudrala; text
and commentator agree in taking "beautiful ..." as a nominative
masculine, agreeing with "mountain", though the sense would seem
better served by interpreting it as an accusative feminine, with
"earth". No metrical change would be occasioned. "With pleasure
crushing your enemies, unconquered on the field of battle, of mature
glory, first among archers, you, 0 Kiug, support here the world as

heart would not be delighted by the army ofyoung women, langorous,

trepid, with gay navels-indeed the great weapon ofthe Love God?").
(4) The form is: xA Ax xx xx. (5) Cf vyasta, samasta.
ardhapariVj1ti, 'alternation by halves': (I) a type of yamaka consisting of
a samasta plus an tidyanta yamaka. (2) R 3.34 (35). (3) sasara
sakarrz darpeva karrzdarpelJQ sasarasa / sarannavana bibhrava niivibhrava sararrz nava (Rudrala: "The autumn now appears, replete with
ducks and the proud God of Love, her new cart bearing grass to
the accompaniment of the chirpings of birds"). (4) The form is:
AB BA CD DC. (5) The samasta yamaka accounts for the internal
repetition (BB, DD), the tidyanta for the enveloping repetition (A..A

c..C).

','

avyapeta, 'uninterrupted': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated

sequences are contiguous. (2) D 3,1(4-18), AP 343.12. (3) ramavi
ramaniya me pa{aliipa{aliirrzsuka !v'q,ruvivqruvibhiitasaurabha saurabhiis;adam (Dal).<;lin: "My beloved is lovely as the western sky
illuminated by the setting sun, her gown flecked with pink and sweet
smelling"). (4) The form, for this example only, is: AAx BBx CCx
DDx. (5) Cf vyapeta yamaka.
adi, 'beginning': (I) see ptidMi.
adimadhya, 'initial-mid': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated
elements are the first and second third of each ptida. (2) R 3.52
(53). (3) sa rave sara1Jena nrpo balitavalitiirijana!; / padam apa damat
svamater ucitarrz rucitarrz ca nijam (Rudrala: "The King, whose
enemies were enveloped by his strength, attained that station in
battle by means.. of his vehicle and through his self-restraint which
was appropriate"]n his own view and pleasant"). (4) The form is:
AAx BBx CCx DDx. (5) Compare tidyanta, type (b), and madhyiinta.
Only Rudrala divides the pada into thirds for purposes of defining
the scope of yamaka.
adyanta, 'initial-final': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated
elements are: (a) the first half of the preceding ptida and the last
half of the following ptida, (b) the first and last third of each ptida,
(c) the first and last quarter of each ptida, or (d) the first and last
half of eachpada. (2) R 3.32, 3.50 (54),3.44(46), M 118 (365). (3)
dina danavi~tidlna sariipaditabhisara / sena tena parase na rave
purrzjiviterave (Rudrata; type (c) is illustrated: "Oh man, the army,
afllicted, whose leader was desperate and in whom the wound
of fear was produced by showers of arrows, was defeated by him
in a battle which exciled the lives of men"). (4) The form is: AxxA

228

GLOSSARY

does the Himalaya, beautiful with even rows of lofty tai trees").
(4) The form is: A x x A. (5) Compare mukha, garbha, etc.
ekfintaraplida, 'ptidas with one (ptida) intervening': (1) a type of yamaka
iu which the repeated elements are corresponding parts of nonadjacent padas. (2) V 4.1.2. (3) udvejayati bhatani yasya rajiiab
kusasanam / siltlhlisanaviyuktasya tasya k$ipralJl kustisanam (Yamana:
"The evil government of a king who afflicts mankind will quickly
be transformed into residence among the kusa grass for him, when
his lion-throne is lost"). (4) The form is: xx xA xx xA. (5) The scope
of the repetition is not specified; the example shows half padas.
Naturally, the repetition could occur at the beginniug or iu the
middle of non-adjacent ptidas as well.
kliiici, 'Conjeeveram': (I) a type of yiWlaka in which the repeated elements
are located severally at the beginning and end of each pada, or, in
the manner ofa combination of madhya yamaka and adyanta yamaka,
are the first and last quarters and sMond .and third quarters of each
pada. (2) NS 16.66 (67), AP 343.15, R 3:44 (47). (3) yamalJl yamalJl

candravatinalJl dravatinalJl / vyaktdvyakta sarajaninalJl rajaninam

(Bharata: "The going, going of the goldeu rivers; appear aud disappear the nights, like butter"). ya manitdnitdyama lokddhlra dhirdloka / sendsannasanna sena sdralJl hatvdha tva saram (Rudra!a:
"Your army, supported by haughty women, greatly expanded,
expelliug the sufferings of mankind, terrible to see, is ready and near.
Having felled the enemy, your army thus reports to you"). (4)
The forms are: AAxBB CCxDD, etc. and ABBA CDDC EFFE
GHHG. (5) See madhya and tidyanta yamaka. The name kanci
probably refers tq the city, but may be intended only in the sense of
'girdle'.
...
garbha, 'womb': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements are
the second and third ptidas of the verse. (2) R 3.7 (8). (3) yo rajyam

asadya bhavaty acintab samud ratdrambharatab sadaiva / samudrataralJl bharatab sa daivapramavam arabhya payasy udtase (Rudra!a:
"The king who, having attained empire, becomes careless, iudulgent,
and spends his time in making love is, as it were, attempting to
cross the ocean by swimming and, by the will of fate, finds himself
abandoned in the water"). (4) The form is: x A A x. (5) Cf. avrti

yamaka.
cakraka, 'circular': (I) a type of yamaka in which the last half of each
ptida is repeated by the first half of the following ptida, and in which
the first half of the firs~ptida is repeated by the last half of the fourth

GLOSSARY

229

ptida. (2) R 3.30 (31). (3) sabhtijanalJl samaniya sa maniyab sphulann

api / sphulalJl na pihitalJl cakre hitalJl cakre sabhtijanam (Rudra!a:
"He is haughty who, though brilliant, gatheriug his courtiers, does
good iu the kingdom, not obviously, but covertly, evidenciug pleasure"). (4) The form is: AB BC CD DA. (5) In effect, this is a combiuation of all the kinds of antddika yamaka listed iu R 3.23-30.

Cf. valJlsa, samasta, vyasta, madhya.

cakravlila, 'circle': (1) a type of yamaka in which the last part of
each ptida is the same as the first part of the following ptida. (2)
NS 16.72 (74), AP 343.16 (alternate reading). (3) sailtis [talais;
alternate reading], tathti satrubhir ahatahata / hatas ca bhuyas tv

anupulJlkhagaib khagaib / khagaiS ca sarvair yudhi salJlcitiiS citas /

citddhiritha nihatas talais talaib (Bharata: "Struck again and again
by the enemy arrows, true to their shafts, collected and heaped up
by birds who grasp at the death of the stricken"). (5) The example
shows a triple yamaka in each pada, but the definition does not make
this obligatory. If the reading taiaib is accepted, then this type is the
same as the preceding except that the scope of the repetition is
not specified (the interior of each ptida is not involved).
caturvyavasita, 'determined by fours': (I) a type of yamaka in which all
fonr padas are the same. (2) NS 16.81 (82), AP 343.17. (3) varavanam

ayam eva kalo varavanamayam eva kalab / varavanam ayam eva kalo
va ravanam ayam eva kaiab (Bharata: "This is the season of varava
flowers, the time when elephants have no diseases, when death
stalks his enemies and suggestion is of battles"). (5) Note that
minor variations in salJldhi do not vitiate the identity of the yamaka.
Each pada, though phonemically identical, has a different morphemic
analysis; the first and third, which appear the same morphemically,
are assigned to different homonyms: varava (a 'flower' and 'enemy').
This is the same as pafikti yamaka.
du~kara, 'difficult': (1) a yamaka involving greater limitation on occurrence
and scope than is usual. (2) D 3.38 ff. (3) (4) See, for example,
mahayamaka. See also under citra.
paiikti, 'series': (1) same as caturvyavasita. (2) R 3.10 (12).
parivrtti, 'exchange': (I) a type of yamaka in which the fourth pada
repeats the first and the third repeats the second; this is, in effect,
a combination of avril and garbha yamakas. (2) R 3.13 (14). (3)

muda ratasau ramal}i yata yalJl smarasy ado'lalJl kurutena vohti /

smarasyado'lalJlkurute'navohtim udaratasau ramaviyatayam (Rudrafa: "The girl whom you have married is devoted to you from pleasure

230

GLOSSARY

[and not from hope of gain]. You think on this too much; it is
appropriate in matters of the heart: excess of love always ornaments
a proud woman"). (4) The form is: A B B A. (5) Cf yugmaka

yamaka.
padamadhya, 'middle of the piida': (1) a type of yamaka in which a
repetition occurs in the middle of one, or each piida, or in which
one or both of the middle (second and third) piidas contains the
repetition. (2) B 2.9 (12), D 3.1-2 (5-6), V 4.1.2, AP 343.15. (3)

mcghanadena har[lsanar[l madano madanodina / nunnamanar[l mana!;

strfOam saha ratya vigahate (DaIl4in; here the yamaka occurs in
the second pada: "Love, together with his wife, Passion, enters the
anger-freed minds of women by means of the thunder, which also
drives out the pride of the swans"). (5) The scope of the repetition
is not prescribed: compare madhJ!a yamaka of Rudra(a. Bharata
recognizes piidiidi and piidtinta xwpakas, but not piidamadhya.
The equivocation iu the meaning of"middle" is shared by the two
other terms. Rudra(a attempts to specify the scope of all repetitions,
but the earlier writers are sometimes satisfied by indicating merely
the place of the repetition-here the middle of the piida, or the middle

piida.
padayor adimadhyiintayamakani, 'yamakas involving two piidas': (1) same
as padtidi, padamadhya, and padtinta yamakas, except that the scope
of the repetition is two adjacent jJadas, rather than one pada alone.
(2) V 4.1.2. (3) bhramara drumapu$paQi bhrama ratyai piban madhu/
ka kundakusume prfti!; kakur[l dattva virau$i kim (Viimana: "Bee,
go roam from flower to tree-flower for pleasure drinking honey;
what joy is therejn the jasmine bloom? Why do you make such a
noise, murmuring?"). (4) The form, for this example only, is:
Axxx Axxx Bxxx Bxxx. (5) For Vamana, a piidtidi yamaka has only
the form AAxx BBxx CCxx DDxx; hence this variation in which the
word pada appears in the dual.
padasamudgaka, 'piida-casket': (1) a type of yamaka where the repeated
elements are the first and second half of the same piida. (2) R 3.36
(37-39). (3) rasasara rasdsara vida raQavidaraQa / bhavatdrambhavatdrar[l mahfyatam ahfyata (Rudra(a: "0 essence of the earth! 0
shower of moods! 0 exterminator in battle! By you, wise and enterprising, the enemy, sent to earth, has been slain"). (4) The form is:
AA BB CC DD. (5) Rudra(a gives two other examples, in which
not all piidas show repetition (AA xx BB xx; xx AA xx BB). Compare

samudga yamaka.

GLOSSARY

231

padiidi (1), 'beginning of the piida': (1) a type of yamaka in which each
pada begins with the same word. (2) NS 16.77 (78). (3) vi$Qu!; srjati

bhUtani vi$Qu!; sar[lharate praja!; / vi$Qu!; prasute traiiokyar[l vi$(lur

lokiidhidaivatam (Bharata: "Visllu creates all things; VislJU destroys
men; VisllU evolves the three worlds; VisllU is the all high God!").
(5) Like iimrel}.ita yamaka, this early type violates the rule requiring a
different morphemic contentfor eachrepetition. Comparelii{tinupriisa.
padiidi (II): (1) a type of yamaka in which a repetition occurs at the
beginning of one, or of each piida, or in which the first piida contains
the repetition. (2) B 2.9-10 (11), D 3.1-2 (4), V 4.1.2, AP 343.15.

(3) mtinena miinena sakhi pra(layo bhut priye jane / khavl}.ita kaQlham
asli$ya tam eva kuru satrapam (DalJ4in: "Friend, don't show affection
for your lover by such anger! Though betrayed, you must embrace
him aud make him ashamed"). (5) See piidamadhya. Vamana's
example shows each pada beginning with a different yamaka (note
the difference from padtidi I, where the same word, not repeated,
begins each piida). The scope of the repetition is not specified.
padiiuta (I), 'end of the piida': (1) a type of yamaka in which each piida
ends with the same word. (2) NS 16.63 (64). (3) dinak$ayiit sar[lhrta-

raimima(ll}.alar[l divlva lagnar[l tapanfyamaQl}.alam / vibMti tamrar[l divi

suryama(ll}.alar[l yathii taru(lya!; stanabhiiramaQl}.alam (Bharata: "The
burnished sun seems fixed in the western heaven at the close of day,
its orb of rays restrained. The copper-colored sun disk shines in
the sky like a young girl's heavy breast"). (5) See pad/idi I.
padiinta (II): (1) a type of yamaka in which a repetition occurs at the end
of one, or of each pada, or in which the first pada contains the repetition. (2) B 2.9-10 (12), D 3.1-2 (7), V 4.1.2, AP 343.15. (3) ara(lyar[l

kaiScid akrantar[l kaiscit sadma divtiukasam / padatirathanagiisvarahitair ahitais tava (DaIl4in: "Some of your enemies, shorn of
soldiers, chariots, elephant, and horse, have retired to the forest,
some to the seats of the Gods"). (5) See piidiidi II.
padiibbyasa, 'repetition of the piida': (1) same as samastapiida yamaka.
(2) B 2.9 (13), D 3.53 (57-66). (5) Bhiimaha gives an example
illustrating Rudra(a's sar[lda${aka yamaka (second and fourth piidas
identical). Dall4in illustrates piida repetition in all possible loci,
including triple repetitions.
padiiikadesaja, 'relating to parts (only) of piidas': (1) a generic term for
all those kinds of repetition whose scope is less than pada length.
(2) R 3.2 (20-55). (5) The opposed term is samastapiidaja ('referring
to the entire piida'). This division classifies all yamakas in the most

"'-

233

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

general way, and each alternative is itself minutely subdivided.

Partial ptida yamakas are either half piMa, one-third ptida, or onefourth piMa in length. For examples, see antadika, tidimadhya,
vaktra yamakas.
puccha, 'tail': (I) a type of yamaka where the repeated elements are the
third and fourth ptidas. (2) R 3.10 (11). (3) uttungamtitangakuldkule
yo vyaje$/a satrun samare saddiva / sa stiram tiniya maMri cakram
sastira mani yamahdricakram (Rudrala: "The insolent King, slayer
of Death, approached the circle of the enemy carrying his best widespoked discus; he triumphed in the battle over his enemies confused
with herds of lofty elephants"). (4) The form is: x x A A. (5) For
Dal)gin, this is an unnamed sub!ype of samudga yamaka (D 3.63).
Cf. mukha yamaka.
., '
pratiloma, 'against the grain': (I) same "as pratilomdnuloma citra; palindrome. (2) D 3.73 (74-77). (5) Tlii~isthe last yamaka treated by
Dal)gin before going on to dU$kara(iFomutrika, etc.). On the difference between citra and yamaka see citra.
prahelika, 'conundrum': (I) a bad yamaka. (2) B 2.19. (5) Bhiimaha
probably is referring to repetitive verses in which the principle of
repetition is not linear, as gomutrika, 'muraja, turagapada, and the
like. These are not 'conundrums' properly speaking, and the use of
"prahelika" is misleading. For a discussion of the difference between
these extensions of yamaka, see citra, prahelika.
bhaiiga, 'analysis': (I) juncture. (2) V 4.1.3 (4-6). (5) A category in the
analysis of yamaka; accordiug to Vamana, the yamaka is successful
if the repeated elements of the verse show different word junctures
for each reading.>He gives three illustrations: (a) srfikhala, 'chain';
where the juncture occurs between different (successive) syllables for
each reading, that is, not between the same syllable for both readings.
For example: kali-kama-dhug and kalika-madhu. (b) parivartaka,
'exchange'; where the juncture varies only by one consonant, attaching that consonant by one reading to the preceding word and, by the
other, to the following. For example: -dhug-arhitam and -madhugarhi/am. (c) cunza, 'mixture'; where the juncture by one reading
breaks up a consonant cluster which is, by the other reading, within a
word. For example: -unmukta-sukti-minarrz- and -unmukta-suktiminarrz-. Yamakas which do not involve these charming junctures
are, in fact, dull and uninspired in that both readings repose upon
the same words, distinguishable only as puns. Nevertheless, certain
puns also show junctures of this sort.

madhya, 'middle': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements

are either the last and first halves of the second and third padas,
or the second and third quarters of each ptida. (2) R 3.27 (28),
3.44 (45). (3) samastabhuvanavyapiyasasas tarasehate / raseha te
priyarrz karturrz pra~air api mahipate (Rudrata: "The earth desires
quickly to do you favor, even with its life, 0 great King! Your glory
penetrates the whole world"). (4) The form is: xx xA Ax xx. (5)
The other madhya, whose scope is only the quarter ptida instead of
the half ptida, would have the form xAAx xBBx xCCx xDDx. The
literal appropriateness of the name is revealed by a cursory examination of the schemata. Compare ptidamadhya yamaka, where the
scope is not so exactly determined.
madhyauta, 'mid-final': (I) a type ofyamaka in which the repeated elements
are the second and last thirds of each ptida. (2) R 3.52 (55). (3)
asatam ahi/o yudhi sarataya rataya / sa tayoruruce ruruce paramebhavate bhavate (Rudrata: "0 widely renowned, this person, in battle
the nemesis of evil men, is pleased with you, possessor of fine elephants, because of your pithiness, and out of pleasure"). (4) The
form is: xAA xBB xCC xDD. (5) The example has no yamaka in the
first pada. Compare tidimadhya and tidyanta yamakas.
mahayamaka (I), 'great yamaka': (I) a type of yamaka consisting of
four identical ptidas, each of which is itself a yamaka of half-ptida
scope. (2) D 3.70 (71). (3) samanayasa manaya samanaydsamdnayti /
samtinayti samtinayti samana yti samanaya (Dal)gin: "0 unequalled!
o uniformly active! With this universal arrogance, join me! 0
haughty! Arrogance which is beautiful and decisive!"). (4) The
form is: AA AA AA AA.
mahayamaka (II): (I) same as slokdbhyasa yamaka. (2) R 3.16 (18-19).
mala (I), 'garland': (I) a type of yamaka in which each half ptida is itself
a complete yamaka; it consists, that is, of repeated quarter padas.
(2) R 3.40 (43). (3) bhitdbhita sanndsanna senti sendgatydgatya /
dhirddhirdha tva hatvti sarrztrtisarrz trayasvayasva (Rudrata: "0
steadfast! 0 expeller of misery ! The opposing army with its leader,
drawn up in front and fearful, miserable and near, having advanced
because it had no other choice, thus informs you: 'Having reduced
us, please save us from fear!' Your coming is their only remaining
hope"). (4) The form is: AABB CCDD EEFF GGHH. (5) In
effect, this is a combination of vaktra and sikhti yamakas.
milla (II): (I) a type of yamaka in which one consonant is repeated, and
the syllabic vowel is varied. (2) NS 16.83 (84). (3) hali bali hali

232

234

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

malf khelf malf salf jalf / khalo balo balo malo musalf tv abhiraksatu

235

vikrlinta, 'overstepped': (I) a type of yamaka in which the second and

fourth padas are the same. (2) NS 16.70 (71), AP 343.16. (3) sa

(Bharata: the translation is approximate; "May Baladeva pr~tect

you: with a plow, strong, from Rala, garlanded, shaking, having a
different garland, a sal flower, and water; cruel, strong, Bala, a
forest").
mukha, 'face': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements are
the first and second piidas. (2) R 3.3 (4). (3) cakral'{l dahataral'{l
cakranda hatiiram / khat;lgena tavajau rajann arinarf (Rudra!a: "0
King, the wives of your enemies, struck by your sword, quickly
scourging the mass of your enemies in battle, moan"). (4) The form
is: A Ax x. (5) Compare puccha, sal'{ldal'{lsa, avrti, garbha, and
sal'{lda${aka yamakas for other types of whole pada repetitions.
yugmaka, 'pair': (I) a type of yamaKa in which the second piida repeats
the first, and the fourth the third. (2) R 3.13 (15), M 118 (361). (3)

piirval'{l vara/Jo bhiitva dviSriiga iva parvatal,z / abhavad dantavaikalyiid

viSriiga iva parvatal,z (Bharata: "That elephant was formerly like a
two-peaked mountain, but now, for the loss of Ws tusks, is like a
peakless mountain"). (4) The form is: x A x A. (5) Bharata, as usual,
allows entire words to be repeated. Compare sal'{lda${aka yamaka.
vyapeta, 'interrnpted': (I) a type of yamaka in wWch the repeated sequences are not contiguous. (2) D 3.1, 19 (20-32), AP 343.12. (3)
karo'titamro rama/Jal'{l tantrftat;lanavibhramam / karoti ser$ye [or
ser$yal'{l (D. T. Tatacharya)] kante ca srava/Jotpalatat;lanam (Dal).<;lin:
"The red-Iac'd hands of the beloved coquettishly strum the lute;
and when her lover makes her angry, they disarrange the flowers at
her ear"). (4) The form, for this example only, is: Axx xxx Axx xxx.
(5) Dal).<;lin gives thirteen examples without introducing special
terminology. They illustrate various possible loci of the interrupted
sequences and could be classified in the same way as uninterrupted
yamakas (see piidMi, piidamadhya, paddnta).
vyapetavyapeta, 'interrupted-uninterrupted': (I) a type of yamaka in
which a contiguous repeated sequence is itself repeated in a noncontiguous place. (2) D 3.33 (34-36), AP 343.12. (3) kalal'{l kiilam

vinayam enD nayatd sukhiidina~i11.9. yamenonayata sukhiidina /

mahiijano'dfyata manasad aral'{l mahiijtlnodfyatamanasadaram (Rudrata: "This noble person, suffering no blemish, alone, yet destroying
the arrogance of his enemies, extirpating those who disrupt festivals,
is quickly carried away by Death, defying the doctors, who has
approached, hungry for life, the great reaper, consumer of
happiness"). (4) The form is: A A B B. (5) In effect, this is acombination of mukha and puccha yamakas. Compare parivrtti, which is a
combination of garbha and avrti (A B B A).
valJlsa, 'flute': (I) a type of yamaka in which the first half of each succeeding pada repeats the second half of the preceding piida. (2) R 3.27
(29). (3) grf$me/Ja mahimdnfto himanitoyasobhital,z / yaso'bhital,z
parvatasya parviJ:,tasya hi tan mahat (Rudrata: "The grandeur of
the mountain, heautified by the melting snow, has been wrought by
the summer heat, and its glory is all about, for its festival is of great
extent"). (4) The form is: xA AB BC Cx. (5) This is a combination
of madhya and samasta yamakas. A cakraka yamaka completes the
circle by having the last half of the fourth pada repeat the first half

analak$yataratarakam fk$itum / taratdramyarasitam kalam kalamahaghanam (Dal).<;lin: "What woman is able to look ~t the ireat black
rain clouds in their season, hiding the myriads of stars and, deathlike and fearsome, resounding in the great distances"). (5) Dal).CJin
gives two other examples illustrating different loci for this noncontiguous repetition ofcontiguous repetitions. See vyapeta yamaka.
vyasta, 'separated': (I) a type of yamaka in which the repeated elements
are the second half of the third piida and the first half of the fourth
piida. (2) R 3.23 (25). (3) pasyanti pathikal,z k6masikhidhiimaSikhiim
iva / imal'{l padmdlaydlfnal'{l laydlfnal'{l makavalfm (Rudrata: "The
passersby observe a great column of bees, thickly entwined, above
the lotus pond, like a tongue of smoke from the fire of Love").
(4) The form is: xx xx xA Ax. (5) The name probably signifies only
that this is half of a samasta (complete) yamaka. The same pattern
in the first two piidas is called antddika.
sikhli, 'tuft': (I) a type of yamaka in which the last half of eachpiida is a
yamaka consisting of repeated quarter padas. (2) R 3.40 (42).

pada.
vaktra, 'mouth', 'origin': (I) a type of yamaka in which the first half
pada of each pada is a yamaka consisting of repeated quarter padas.
(2) R 3.40 (41). (3) ghanaghanabhinilanam astham asthaya siiSvatfm /
ca/{icaltipi kamale linalfnam ikavalf (Rudra!a: "Moving and motionless on the lotus adheres a wreath of bees, dark as the rain cloud,
perpetually in place"). (4) The form is: AAxx BBxx CCxx DDxx.
(5) Cf sikhii and mala yamakas.

(3) yasal'{l citte mano'mano nilrfr bhiiyo'ral'{l ta ranta / saraprema

sanndsanna jayetaivdnanta nanta (Rudrata: "May the virtuous man,

236

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

237

soul of fury because of my unfaithfulness; her leaving did not

make me suffer too much"). (4) The form, for this example only,
is: xxA AxB BxC Cxx. (5) The scope of the repetition is unspecified;
otherwise, this yamaka resembles va/flsa yamaka.
salpda~taka, 'pincers': (I) same as vikranta yamaka. (2) R 3.7 (9). (5)
The earlier version of Bharata allows a certain amount of word repetition; Rudrata, of course, proscribes it. Mammala offers an example
(lI8, 364) which the commentator calls a sa/flda${aka yamaka, but
it shows repetition only of the last half of the second and fourth
padas (xx xA xx xA). The figure is mentioned in B 2.10, but is not
illustrated.
samasta, 'entire': (I) a yamaka in which the first half of the second and
fourth pildas repeat the last half of the first and third, respectively.
(2) R 3.23 (26). (3) pU$yan vili1sa/fl nariQa/fl sanniiriQa/fl kulalqayam /
a kalpa/fl vasudhilsara sudhtisara jagaj jaya (Rudrala: "0 essence of
the earth! 0 shower of nectar! May you rule the earth till the end
of the age, encouraging the coquetry of women and promoting
the familial rnin of your crushed enemies!"). (4) The form is: xA
Ax xB Bx. (5) In effect, this is a combination of antiidika and vyasta

the able lover, obedient and always agreeable, be quickly victorious

over women, who are so numerous and so near and in whose minds
is immeasurable pride"). (4) The form is: xxAA xxBB xxCC xxDD.
(5) See vaktra and mala yamakas.
slokabhyasa, 'repetition of the sloka': (I) a yamaka in which the repeated
element is the entire verse. (2) D 3.67 (68-69). (3) vinayakena bhavata

vrtt6pacitabahuna / svamitr6ddhilriQiibhfta prthviyam atuliisrita /

vinayakena bhavata vrttapacitabahuna / svamitrOddhtiriQa bhUa
prthvi yamatuliisrita (DaI;l<;lin: "This incomparable earth, confident,
is devoted to you who remove obstacles, whose powerful arms are
round, and who upholds his friends. This earth, like death, has taken
refuge and is afraid of your prese,ut enemy who is leaderless, whose
arms are engaged in laying waste, and who seized both property and
friends"). (5) This is the same as ma/zilyamaka II.
salJIdalpsa, 'tongs': (I) a type of yamakailt:wfuch the repeated elements
are the first and third pildas. (2) R 3.3 (5)." (3) sannaribharaQamayam

aradhya vidhusekharam / sanniiribharaQo'mayas tatas tva/fl prthivi/fl

jaya (Rudrata: "Having pleased Siva, moon on his brow, who resorts
to Uma, the support of chaste women, Y9u will certainly conquer the
earth, for the elephants of your enemies have been lost, and you
are free from disease"). (4) The form is: A x A x. (5) See sa/flda-

yamakas.
samastapada (1), 'allpildas': (I) same aspildiinta 1. (2) B 2.9 (15).
samastapada (II): (I) a type of yamaka in which the same repetition
occurs at the end of each pilda. (2) V 4.1.2. (3) natannatabhrugati-

{ltaka.
salpda~ta

(I), 'pinched': (I) a type of yamaka in which the word at the

beginning of each pada is repeated. (2) NS 16.75 (76), AP 343.16
(alternate reading). (3) pasya pasya raQam asya me gUQan yena yena
vasaga/fl karoti miim / yena yena hi mamiiiti darsanam tena tena
vasaga/fl karoti miifn (Bharata; should undoubtedly be ~mended to
ramaQasya me: "Look, look at the virtues of my lover, by which he
makes me do his will! For by them I have my view of him, and by
them he makes me do his will!"). (5) This is the opposite of amredita
yamaka and is one of Bharata's peculiar yamakas which m;kes
reference to units of meaning, rather than to sequences of phonemes
of necessarily different meaning.
salpda~ta (II): (1) a type of yamaka in which the first part of the succeeding pada repeats the last part of the preceding pada for the three
pilda junctures within the verse. (2) D 3.51 (52). (3) up6ljharagiipy

baddhalasya/fl vilokya tanvi/fl saSipeSaliisyam / manab kim uttamyasi

caiicaliisya/fl krn smariijiia yadi pU$kala syam (Vamana; first two
pildas in third person, third in second, and fourth in first: "Looking
at this slender girl whose face is gentle as the moon, where the dance
is formed by the rising and the falling of her brow, why do you lose
heart? The fickle authority of Love should be recognized in her,
if I am any judge"). (4) The form, for this example only, is: xxxA
xxxA xxxA xxxA. (5) This differs from samastapilda I only in not
referring to words. It differs frompildanta (of Vamana) in that there
a different yamaka occurs at the end of each pada (not the same
word in all pildas).
samastaplidaja, 'referring to whole pildas': (I) a generic category for
those yamakas whose scope is not less than an entire pada. (2)
R 3.2 (4-19). (5) Samastapadaja is opposed to padiiikadesaja yamaka ;
for illustrations, see mukha, paiikti, samudgaka, mahayamaka, etc.
It is the same as paddbhyasa yamaka.
samuccaya, 'collection': (I) a yamaka which is composed of several

abala madena sa / madenasa manyurasena yojita / na yojitiitmanam

anaiigatapita/fl / gatiipi tapaya mamiisa neyate (DaI;l<;lin: "Though
she had been made am?rous with drink, the young woman would
not join her love-sick 'self to me, as she was inspired by the very

238

GLOSSARY

randomly related yamakas. (2) M 118. (5) No example is given.

samudga, 'round box or casket': (1) a type of yamaka in which the entire
half sloka is repeated. (2) NS 16.68 (69), B 2.10, D 3.53 (54-56),
AP 343.16 (the text reads sa1[lsarga), R 3.16 (17). (3) naniima loko
vidam iinavena mahi na diritramud iiradhfram / na ntimalo'kovidamiinavenam ahfnaciiritram udiiradhfram (Rudra!a: "The people, festive
and not without spotlessness, honor with praises the wise man who
does not delight at the salvation of his enemies but afflicts their
consciences, and whose master is the arrogance of the stupid, whose
behavior is integral, who is noble and steadfast"). (4) The form is:
A/A. (5) Samudga shows to best advantage the requirement of all
yamakas that the two readil)l$s involve different meanings and
different word separations. In'repeating the entire half Sloka, this
type demonstrates its close afflnity with sle$a, where it would be
expected that the two meanings;,'ej11erge from a single reading.
Samudga(ka) is the only type of ydl11aktr(aside from the threefold
distinction into lidi, madhya, and anta) whose name is consistently
and universally used. Compare sa1[lda$!a, also found in many texts,
but varying widely in acceptation.
yavadarthata
yavadarthata, 'correspondence to the needful': (1) absence of either
superfluity or inadequacy in either word or content. (2) AP 345.6.
(5) This is the fifth sabdtirthtila1[lkiira of the Agni Purii1;la. See
aucitya and abhivyakti. In principle, there appears to be little difference between t~is term and the sabddlarpktira "mudrti."; however,
there may be irifimded here simply a reference to prolixity and its
contrary defect, terseness, and not to the adequacy of the word to the
sense, as such.
yukti
yukti, 'junction': (I) a figurative usage. (2) AP 342.29-30. (5) This is

the fourth sabdtirthtila1[lkiira; it is defined literally as the joining of a

word and a meaning which appear to be unrelated one to the other
("ayuktayor iva mitho viicyaviicakayor dvayob / yojaniiyai kalpamiinii
yuktir uktii manf$ibhib"). The examples given in the Sarasvatfka1;l!htibhara1;la (2.98ff.) suggest that this term may signify, like Dal).c;1in's
gu1;la "samiidhi", the use of a word in a secondary sense-the function
called in mfmii1[lsii "rilljhi" (cf Mamma!a, chap. 2, kii. 18). Like
Kuntaka's vakrokti,,,,the scope of this figuration is sixfold: relating

GLOSSARY

239

to words, meanings, sentences, intentions, contexts, and entire

compositions.

rasavat
rasavat, 'expressing a mood': (1) a figure in which is clearly expressed a
mood or rasa-usually sriigiira, the amorous. (2) B 3.6, D 2.275
(280-92), U 4.3-4, M 66 (123C.). (3) mrteti pretya sa1[lgantu1[l yayii
me mara1;la1[l matam / stii$tivantf mayii labdhii katham atrtiiva janmani
(Dal).c;1in; sriigiira rasa: "She whom I thought had gone beyond to
death, who made me want to follow her, did it happen that I won her
to me in this present life, my Viisavadattii?"). (4) "Everywhere
the vastness and terror of the immense night which is roused and
stirred for a brief while by the day, but which returns, and will
remain at last eternal, holding everything in its silence and its living
gloom" (D. H. Lawrence; perhaps siinta rasa). (5) This figure becomes crucial for the tenants of the dhvani theory, who want to establish the autonomous expression of rasa vis-it-vis the figures of
speech. Should there be a figure which itself is the expression of a
rasa, the contrary would a fortiori be proven, and the rasa would be
subordinated to the general notion of the figure. The outcome of
the argument allows rasavat as the general term for those figures
which contain a touch of rasa, but where the rasa is not the major
end of the poet employing that figure. Rasaas the proper end is
pure dhvani and not related to any figure (Dhvanyiiloka 2.5).
riipaka
riipaka, 'having the form of': (I) metaphorical identification. A figure
in which the subject of comparison is identified with its object by a
specific process of grammatical subordination. (2) NS 16.56-58,
B 2.21-24, D 2.66-96, V 4.3.6, U 1.11-13, AP 344.22-23 (the definitions
of both Bhiimaha and Dal).c;1in are repeated), R 8.38-56, M 139-45.
(3) tat/idvalayakak$yii1;lii1[l baliikiimiilabhiiri1;liim / payomucii1[l dhvanir
dhfro dunoti mama tii1[l priyiim (Bhiimaha; the lightning is characterized as a bracelet, the cranes as a garland: "The roaring of the
great clouds, wearing a bracelet of lightning and a garland of cranes,
frightens my love"). (4) "The flute of morning stilled in noon- /
noon the implacable bassoon- / now twilight seeks the thrill of
moon, / washed with a wild and thin / despair of violin" (e. e.
cummings). (5) Rupaka, one of the four original ala1[lkiiras, is
considered by all writers to be a development of upamii and is, in

240

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

(her face is the moon). The identification is so evident here as not

to require explanation; the difference between upama and rilpaka is
also best perceived in this case. The grammatical subordination
is that of the imposition of the object on the subject. A subjective
genitive is often employed in English to express an identification;
although our language permits compounding, the use of this device
is restricted, compared to Sanskrit at any rate, and prepositional
phrases having the object of comparison in the syntactically free
position are generally nsed instead (the face of time, rather than the
time-face). The irreversibility of this construction is even clearer
than in the case of direct compounding: careful consideration may
be required to distinguish the upama "lotus-eye" from the rilpaka
"eye-lotus", but the rilpaka "the lotus of her eye" simply cannot be
turned into a simile "the eye ofheriotus". For one reason, the genitive
is no longer subjective. A comparative idea must somehow be
introduced into the genitive (as, "her eye of lotus hue") where the
notion of the common property is made explicit ("of lotus hue" is
"lotus-hued").
Since rilpaka is an identification of two things, the classifications
of this figure have generally followed the line of specifying the degree
of identification or the kind of (non-) parallelism involved in the
fusion. The notion of "degree" implies and is always discussed in
terms of a standard metaphorical type, usually referred to as
samasta-[vastu]vi~aya or complete metaphor, wherein not only the
two terms themselves (the major terms) are identified, but several
aspects or parts of each major term are likewise identified with
parallel aspects of the other major term, resnlting in a total hnage.
A metaphor in which only some of the subordinate aspects of the
two major terms are identified-in which, in other words, some of
the aspects associated with the subject of comparison are not metaphorically identified-is considered a partial metaphor (ekadesavivarti). DaJ;l<;lin, in turn, enumerates several different types of
partialness as the non-metaphorized term or terms is or are the subject
of comparison itself (major term, avayavi), the subordinate aspects
of the subject term (avayava), only some of the subordinate aspects
(vi~ama), or, finally, the major and some of the subordinate aspects
(ektifiga). The other terms in all of these types, which are understood
from a comparison with the complete metaphor already described,
are, in fact, metaphorical identifications. The elements of the hnage
are implicit. DaJ;l<;lin also considers two types of avayava rilpaka,

principle, a simile or comparison. While in upama the two terms

(subject and object of comparison, or upameya and upamana) are
literally compared, usually through the use of a comparative particle
such as "'like"

Or

241

"as", in rilpaka that comparison is expressed as

an identification of the two. No longer is her face "like" the moon,

it is the moon. We use the word identification in the root sense:
the "making identical" of what is different. By virtue of this identification, the behavior and properties of the moon (or object) are
ipso facto transferred to the face (or subject), and propositions which
are literally true of the moon are now understood as applying, in
the poet's intention, to the face exclnsively (the moon is brilliant;
her face-moon is brilliant). ()f course, this transfer of property
constitutes the aim of the poe't' who nses rilpaka, as well as allied
figures, such as utprek~a; but the, manner and the technique of the
transfer (metaphor) differ for each;"fcthe figures. This formal difference constitutes the distinctive, o~""ssential feature of each figure
and naturally preoccupies the writers on the subject.
By "identification" is meant the specific characterization of one
thing (the subject of comparison) Cf~ another (the object). Both
terms must be mentioned specifically (thus distinguishing rilpaka
from samas6kti), and the relation between them must be immediate
and substantial rather than through an aspect or a property, as in
utprek~a or upama. The proper grammatical form through which
this substantial identification is expressed is ideally the compound
noun, with the object of comparison following (as, face-moon; see
samastarilpaka)., Siuce the object alone is grammatically free, the
syntax of the sentence relates to it exclusively; from this total
subordination-morphological as well as syntactio-of the subject
(face-), the suggestion of identification or fusion derives. It is not
the compounding of the terms which defines the rilpaka, but rather
specifically the snbordination of the snhject to the morphologically
free object. This is shown most directly by the interpretation of
inverse compounds (where the object is grammatically subordinated
to the subject, as moon-face) as upamas (similes) showing ellipsis
of the common property (tertium). (Cj. R 8.21 ff. For exceptions,
see samasta rilpaka.) Two other varieties of grammatical subordination must be allowed as rilpakas, since they accomplish the same
expressive end: simple predication and the use ofa subjective genetive.
Both DaJ;l<;lin and Rudraia define an uncompounded (asamastarilpaka) metaphor where the object is simply predicated of the subject

242

GLOSSARY

for the subsidiary aspect of the subject of comparison may be

identified with aspects of the object which subtend a very different
relation to each other than do the aspects of the subject (ayukta
rupaka); for example, in terms of the standard total image of the
girl's face (subject) and the lotus pond (object), the smile may be
identified with the moonlight and the eyes with the "lotuses". Now,
if the lotuses are that type which bloom only during the day, they
will be related to the moonlight in a quite different way than the
eyes are to the smile of the girl. This approaches what we mean by
mixed metaphor, but more often the latter is a kind of utprek~ti.
Rudrata, admitting the same complete metaphor in his descriptive
model, classifies it in a somewhat different way. Instead of allowing
certain aspects of the total image to be treated (almost at random)
in terms of the subject only and outside the metaphor, Rudrata
distinguishes only the two cases w~rl'eall or some of the subsidiary
aspects are drawn out in metaphor (savayava), or none at all are
(niravayava). The latter case is not the same as Dal,l<;lin's avayavi,
since Dal,l<;lin requires that the total image be present at least implicitly
in the descriptive qualifications of the subject. Rudrata intends that
only the major term be mentioned. The savayava category is then
divided into three types, not according to which subordinate aspects
of the subject are or are not identified, but as to the nature of the
aspect vis-a-vis the aspect with which it is identified. The aspects of
the subject and the object may be inherent qualities of the subject
and object respectively (sahaja), or they may be accidental (tihiirya),
or those of one )!lay be inherent and those of the other accidental
(ubhaya). The classification recalls the ayukta rupaka of Dal,l<;lin in
that it introduces a philosophical discrimination, but here the criterion
of consistency is not primary.
Rudrata goes on to consider several types of niravayava rupaka,
that is, metaphorical identifications not involving subsidiary metaphors. Of course, the simplest type is metaphor itself: one subject
and one object so identified (suddha). But there are certain cases of
metaphor involving more than one identification which are not to
be taken as expressing a total image. The several metaphors are not
comprehended in a relation of subordination, as were those analyzed
in terms of a major term and its aspects. Three such "compound"
but not "complex" metaphors are recognized by Rudrata: the same
subject of comparison may be identified with a number of different
objects of comparis9n, giving a 'garland' of metaphors (mtilti);

GLOSSARY

243

the object ofcomparison of the first metaphor may become the subject
of comparison of the following, and so on, giving a chain of metaphors (rasanti); lastly, the object of comparison of one metaphor
may itself imply a second, completely independent, metaphorical
identification which, as it were, grows out of the first (para'!1parita,
or "continuous" metaphor). Mammata considers this last a separate
type, not a subtype of niravayava rupaka. Otherwise, his classification is a simplified version of Rudrata's.
Dandin as is his wont, completes the discussion of rupaka by
consid~ri;g the implications of other figures for this figure. Among
the rupakas so qualified are viruddha (the figure virodha), hetu, sli~ta
(the figure sle"a), upamti, vyatireka, tik~epa, and rupaka itself. This
last is a three-member metaphor differing from the types of complex
and compound metaphors in that the three terms are identified
with each other as such and imply no relation of subordination or
qualification. Further categories proposed by Dal,l<;lin and illustrating various principles are (sa)viSe~alJa rupaka, where the metaphors
are grammatically adjectival, that is neither compounded (samasta)
nor predicated (asamasta); samtidhtina rupaka, where an inconsistency
in the metaphor is alleged and explained; and the curious tattvapahnava or "denial of identity", which at first glance appears to be the
very inverse of rupaka or "identification". See that term.
The other writers propose classifications which adumbrate those
more fully outlined by Dal,l<;lin or Rudrata.
The definitions of rupaka are remarkably unIform, yet some authors
(Dal,l<;lin, Udbhata, Rudrata) emphasize the negative aspect of
identification and thus relate the figure explicitly to upamti, while
others (Bhamaha, Vamana) consider the identification in a positive
way. The rapaka is, for the former group, a simile with the difference
between the two things suppressed (tirobhutabheda) and, for the latter
group, is simply an identification (tattva) of the two things.
ayukta, 'unrelated': (I) a type of complex rupaka in which the objects
of the subsidiary metaphors are not mutually related in terms of
some well-known cliche or image which in fact suggests a contrary;
mixed metaphor. (2) D 2.78. (3) idam tirdrasmitajyotsna/1l snigdhanetropala'!1 mukham (Dal,l<;lin; "moonlight" and "day lotus" are not
usually connected in popular usage: "This face is radiant with its
moonlight of tender smiles and the soft day lotus of its eye"). (4)
"'De sun is made of mud from de bottom of de river; f De moon is
made 0' fox-fire, as you might disciver'" (Owen Wister; fire and

244

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

mud). (5) Cf yukta riipaka and ekdfiga riipaka. See also sa,!,kfYl;la,
where the "mixed metaphor" is more generally defined and is not
limited to an opposition of ideas.
avayava (I), 'part': (1) a complex riipaka in which the subsidiary aspects
of the identified subject and object are themselves explicitly identified
and become members of the total metaphor, but in which the
principal metaphor is only implicitly expressed, the subject alone
being mentioned. (2) D 2.72 (71). (3) akasmad eva te ealp!i sphuritddharapallavam / mukha,!, muktiirueo dhatte gharmdmbhabkal;lamaiijarfb (DawJin; her lip is metaphorically a blossom, her beads of
sweat are blossoms, but her face is just her face: "Suddenly your face,
o cruel one! the blossom of its!9wer lip bursting forth, gives to the
garland of beads of sweat the appearance of pearls"). (4) "In striving
to avoid that terrible Charybdis of a, Slope she was in great danger of
falling into an unseen Scylla on th~d)ther hand, that Scylla being
Bertie Stanhope" (Anthony Trollope:; Mrs.' Bold is not here metaphorically identified with Ulysses). (5) Cf avayavi.
avayava (II): (1) a complex metaphor showing identification of subsidiary
aspects. (2) R 8.41-42 (43-45). (3) (4) See the terms mentioned
under (5). (5) The figure is subdivided into three types, depending
upon how necessarily related to the principal metaphor are the
subordinate metaphors: sahaja (the sub-aspects of both are inherent
qualities), iihiirya (they are accidental qualities), and ubhaya (the
sub-aspects of one are inherent, of the other, accidental).
The text reads sdvayava.
avayavi, 'whole': (1) a.complex riipaka in which certain subsidiary aspects
of the principal sUbject are mentioned descriptively, while it alone
is described metaphorically. (2) D 2.74 (73). (3) vaigitabhru galadgharmajalam iilokitek"alJam / vivriJoti maddvasthiim ida,!, vadanapafikajam (Dal)<Jin; the face is a lotus, but the brows, sweat, and eyes
are but themselves: "The lotus of her face betrays intoxication with
its fluttering brows, dripping beads of sweat, and inviting glances").
(4) "But two men in an aeroplane are twins in a womb. The very
pulse of one must be the pulse of both, their senses, glances, thoughts,
such a unison of co-operation as the former world never saw"
(Oliver Onions). (5) Cf avayava, the inverse case.
asli~ta, 'not punned': (I) a riipaka in which the descriptive qualifications
apply to one or tbe other of the metaphorically identified terms
(usually the object) and not to both, in the manner of a pun. (2) M
145. (3) niravadhi ea,iziriisraya,!, ea yasya sthitam anivartitakautu-

245

kaprapaiieam / prathama iha bhaviin sa kiirmamiirtir jayati eaturdasalokavallikandab (Mammata; here the qualifications apply primarily

to

Vi~l)u,

not to the "fourteen-world-Iotus-root": "May the Lord

ofa tortoise be victorious, infinite and independent,
source of inexhaustible amazement, the root of the vine of the fourteen worlds!"). (4) "Give me ... / My scrip of Joy, immortal diet; /
My bottle of Salvation; / My gown of Glory, hope's true gage; /
and thus I'll take my pilgrimage" (Sir Walter Raleigh; "diet" applies
to the scrip, not the joy, and "gage" to glory, not the gown). (5)
Cf s!i$/a. This subtype does not concern the metaphor properly
speaking, but only the descriptive qualifications appended thereto.
This aside, as!i$/a is indistinguishable from the genus metaphor itself.
asamasta, 'uncompounded': (I) a riipaka in which the subject and object
of identification are expressed as grammatically independent words;
identification by predication. (2) D 2.68 (67). (3) aiigulyab pallaviiny
iisan kusumiini nakhatvi$ab / bahii late vasantasrfs tva,!, nab pratyak$aeiiriiJf (Dal)<Jin: "Your fingers are new sprouts, the beams fromtheir
nails are flowers, your arms are vines; indeed, you are the beauty of
spring in visible form"). (4) "And she balanced in the delight of her
thought, / A wren, happy, tail into the wind" (Theodore Roethke).
(5) The object is predicated of the subject (or parenthetically
predicated of it) instead of standing as final member in a compound
word. Cf samasta and the discussion thereunder. This case is
distinguishable from upamii (simile) only in the absence of the
comparative particle (iva, 'like'), but later writers have also distinguished similes without the comparative particle (ef dyotakalupta
upamii), as "dawn-eyed". But the two cases, even in their similarity,
are necessarily distinct, for the riipaka is by nature uncompounded
(reposing upon a predication), while the upamii is always compounded
(with the object preceding). The case "gauze of evening" (Virginia
Woolf; ef samasta) is equivocal, but because it does not involve a
predication explicitly, I have considered it under samasta riipaka.
Asamasta is the same as Rudrata's "first" riipaka (R 8.38, 39).
asamasa, 'not a compound': (1) same as asamasta. (2) R 8.38 (39).
iik~epa, 'challenge': (1) a riipaka in which the adequacy of the metaphor
is challenged by pointing out in the subject a property which the
object does not in fact possess. (2) D 2.91. (3) mukhaeandrasya
eandratvam ittham anyopatiipinab / na te sundari sa'!'viidi (Dal)<Jin:
"The qualities of the moon, 0 Lovely, do not entirely correspond
with those of your face-moon which makes others suffer"). (4)
Vi~l)u in the form

246

GLOSSARY

"Re-enter LION and MOONSHINE .... LYSANDER: This lion is

a very fox for his valour. THESEUS: True, and a goose for his
discretion. DEMETRIUS: Not so, my lord; for his valour cannot
carry his discretion; and the fox carries the goose. THESEUS: His
discretion, I am sure, cannot carry his valour; for the goose carries
not the fox. It is well: leave it to his discretion, and let us listen to
the moon" (Shakespeare).
iihiirya, 'adventitious': (I) a complex rupaka in which the subsidiary
metaphors repose upon accidental properties ofthe subject and object
of the principal metaphor. (2) R 8.42 (44). (3) vikasitatiiriikumude
gaganasarasy amalaeandrikiisalile / vilasati sasikalahafflsal.z priivrtjvipadapagame sadyal.z (Rudrata; the moon and stars are only occasional aspects of the sky; the"lotus and the swan are occasional
aspects of the lake: "At the close of, the oppressive rainy season, the
great swan of the moon diverts hi#J.s,(1f 'in the lake of the sky, of
blooming lotus-stars, of ripples of dear moonbeams"). (4) "Up in
the heavenly saloon / Sheriff sun and rustler moon / Gamble, stuck
in the sheriff's mouth / The fag end of an afternoon" (James Michie;
sun, moon, and afternoon are occasiol\al properties of the heavens;
sheriff, rustler, and cigarette are similarly occasional properties of a
saloon). (5) Ahiirya is a subtype of sdvayava rupaka contrasted with
sahaja and ubhaya, q. v. The basis of this classification seems to be
the logical notion of inherence (samaviiya). If a term (concept,
thing, property, or any mixture thereof) is related to another so that
the destruction of the second entails the destruction of the first,
the relation of the first to the second is said to be inherent. This
does not imply that the relation itself is eternal or cannot be subject
to modification. Blue is said to be an inherent property of the pot,
not because the pot is necessarily blue, but because the destruction
of the pot cannot be conceived without destroying its color. (Note
that the reverse is not the case, by which we mean that the pot is
not inherently related to blue; the relation of inherence is not necessarily reciprocal.) Similarly, the relation of a lotus to its parts (ef
the example under sahaja) is inherent, while the relation of the sky
to its members (sun, moon, and stars), though eternal, is not inherent,
since their absence is perfectly compatible with the continued existence of the sky (at night, at new moon, and during the day; or when
the sky is overcast). Of course, scientific astronomy wonld take a
different view, bnt poets are allowed a certain license.
upamii, 'simile': (I) a type of rupaka in which the property which under-

GLOSSARY

247

lies the metaphorical identification of the subject and object is made

explicit for each of the terms. (2) D 2.88 (89). (3) ayam iilohitaeehiiyo
madena mukhaeandramiil.z / sannaddhOdayariigasya eandrasya pratigarjati (Dal).Qin: "Themoon ofher face, slightly fiushedfrom drink, disputes with the moon, ruddy above the eastern hills"). (4) "She was
a limpet, with the sensitive side of her stuck to a rock, for ever dead
to the rush of fresh and beautiful things" (Virginia Woolf). (5) Cf
vyatireka rupaka. The difference between simile and metaphor is
here exemplified. Both repose upon a similitude (shared property or
aspect), but metaphor adds a second dimension by proposing an
identification of the two similar things. Simile is thus in principle a
realistic figure, while metaphor is necessarily figurative. But as the
various subclassifications of simile show, the similitude may be
exaggerated beyond any probability (ef ealu, tattvdkhyiina); it is,
however, that element of exaggeration which defines the figure as
simile: in metaphor, no exaggeration is possible because the two
things have become one. As far as the common property is coucerned,
there is no distinction between the figures. That is why, throughout
this work, figures whose specificity relates to the common property
may be exemplified by metaphors, even where the original calls for a
simile, and vice versa. This was generally recognized by the Indian
authors themselves, who usually classify simile in reference to the
elements of similitude (among which is the common property), while
metaphor is classified almost exclusively in reference to the complexity of the identification involved.
ubhaya, 'both': (I) a complex rupaka in which the subsidiary metaphors
repose upon the inherent properties of one, and the accidental
properties of the other of the two terms in the principal metaphor.
(2) R 8.42 (45). (3) alikulakuntalabhiiriil.z sarasijavadaniis ea eakraviikakueiil.z / riijanti hafflsavasaniil.z safflprati viil)iviliisinyal.z (Rudrata;
the bees, lotuses, etc. are accidental concomitants of the tank; the
tresses, faces, etc. are inherent properties of the girls: "The forest
maidens-the river Vatji-are lovely with their lotus-faces and chignons of bees, their breasts of nightingales and clothes of swans").
(4) "A steamer, probably bound for Cardiff, now crosses the horizon,
while near at hand one bell of a foxglove swings to and fro with a
bumble-bee for a clapper" (Virginia Woolf; the bumblebee is accidentally related to the foxglove; the clapper is inherent in the bell).
(5) This figure is a type of sdvayava rupaka, contrasted with sahaja
and iihiirya. For the meaning of "inherence", see iihiirya (5).

248

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GLOSSARY

ekadeSavivarti, ekadesi, 'partial': (1) a complex rzipaka, some ofthe aspects

of whose subject, subordiuate or priucipal, are uot metaphorically
identified with the corresponding aspect of the object, but are described literally. (2) B 2.22 (24), U 1.12, R 8.41 (56), M 141. (3)
yasya ra1;lantabpure kare kurvato ma1;lqalagralattim / rasasarrzmukhy
api sahasti partiiimukhf bhavati ripusenti (Mammata; the battleharem and sword-vine are metaphors, but ueither the king nor his
enemy are specified as lover or rival: "When the King puts his hands
to the vine of his sword in the harem of battle, his enemy's army,
though at first filled with passion, is quickly chased away"). (4)
"America, for many of us, used to mean a very large apron, covered
with a patteru of lozenges, edged by a frill, and chastely suspended
by a boundary tape rouud the ample waist of Canada" (E. M. Forster). (5) All the authors emphasize that the mere incompleteness of
the total metaphor is not the only QR11sideration: those aspects not
specified must in fact be articnlating 'parts,of the metaphor and be
readily inferrible as such. "Mixed" metaphor is definitely not de

tryaiiga, etc. (two-membered, three-membered). As the figure stands,

however, only one metaphor is explicit and therefore must be simple
(suddha); we may see this type as complex by definition (as DallQiu
certaiuly does): the fourth possibility in the quartet samastavastu
(principal and subordinate), avayavi (principal), avayava (subordinate), ekaiiga (part of the subordinate). If so, it differs from avayava
in that there all the subordinate aspects described must be made
subjects of the metaphor. Here some must be left literal, as, in
Maugham's example, the soul or the night.
tattvapabnava, 'denial of the real': (1) a type of rzipaka in which ilie
existence of the real subject is denied, and the object is affirmed in
place of it. (2) D 2.95 (94). (3) naitan mukham idarrz padmarrz na
netre bhramarav imau / etani kesara1;ly eva naita dantfirci$as tava
(DallQin: "This is no face, but a lotus; these are not eyes, but bees;
these are flower filaments and not the gleams of her teeth"). (4)
"What looks like a stone wall to a layman is a triumphal arch to a
corporation lawyer" (Finley P. Dunne). (5) Formally, this figure is
just the inverse of tattvakhyana, where the subject is affirmed in
place of the object, but affirmation is classified as simile, deuial as
metaphor. This difference testifies again to that more basic distinctiou between simile and metaphor: the former is in principle realistic,
the latter is in principle figurative (cf upama rzipaka). Denying the
existence of the object of comparison does no more than reaffirm
the "pre-similar" nature of things, whereas denying the existence of
the subject strikes at the very heart of all actuality (which, for the
purposes of poetics, we may take as a complex of subjects, attributes,
and actions).
niravayava, 'without members': (1) a non-complex metaphor; that is,
one showing no metaphorical identification of subsidiary aspects or
elements. (2) R 8.41,46. (3) (4) See (5). (5) Cf savayava. This
figure is subdivided into four types: suddba (one metaphor), mala
(several independent metaphors), rasana (several interdependent
metaphors), and pararrzparita (a single metaphor with a multiple
predicate or object). See these terms for examples.
paralJlparita, 'continuous': (I) a type of non-complex rzipaka in which
the main metaphor is continued by a second which is grammatically
subordinate to the object of the first aud which gives a rationale for
its identification. (2) R 8.46-47 (51), M 145. (3) smarasabaracapaya$[ir jayati jananandajaladhisaSilekhti / lava1;lyasalilasindhub
sakalakalakamalasaraslyam (Rudra!a; the girl is metaphorically

rigeur.

Ekade!;avivarti is the opposite of samastavastuvi$aya; Bhamaha

and Udbha!a know only this single distinction for all of rzipaka,
which then amounts to "complete" and "partial". In the more subtle
classifications of DaJ)Qin and Rudrata, the term is the equivalent of
several others or has several subclassifications. Cf avayava, avayavi,
ekaiiga.
ekaiigil, 'one member': (1) a simple (but potentially complex) rzipaka in
which one aspect is treated metaphorically, the whole and the oilier
aspect are treated,descriptively. (2) D 2.76 (75). (3) madapti[alaga1;lqena raktanetrotpalena te / mukhena mugdhab so'py e$a jano
rtigamayab krtab (DallQin; the "eye-lotuses" are an aspect of the
face, but the face itself and its other aspects (flushed cheeks) are
not metaphorically identified with anything else, though the whole
is probably meant to imply a lotus poud: "Anyone bewildered by
your face, its cheeks pink wiili drink and its eye-lotuses tender with
affection, is turued into a passion"). (4) "It was a night so beautiful
that your soul seemed hardly able to bear the prison of the body.
You felt that it was ready to be wafted away on the immaterial air,
and death bore all the aspect of a beloved friend" (Somerset
Maugham). (5) We say potentially complex because of the possibility
that several subsidiary aspects be metaphorically identified in this
way. According to I:!allQin, the proper terms would be dvyaiiga,

249

250

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

identified with a bow; this, in itself, is unclear until the bow is said to
belong to the love-hunter: she is the love-hunter's bow: "This lovely
maiden conquers all-she is a lotns pond of all the arts, a river of
beauty, a crescent moon on the lake of earthly joys, the bow of the
love-hunter"). (4) "Our caresses, our tender words, our still rapture
under the influence of autumn sunsets, or pillared vistas, or calm
majestic statues, or Beethoven symphonies, all bring with them the
consciousness that they are mere waves and ripples in an unfathomable ocean of love and beauty" (George Eliot). (5) The termparalflparita is defined with differing emphases by the two authors who use
it: Rudrala draws attention to the formal peculiarity of the compound word which expresses the"metaphor; namely, that it contains
one subject but two objects otcomparison (love, subject; hunter,
object; bow, object), this second o~ject referring to a second subject
which is outside the compound: tJtergiri. This verbalistic account
seems to avoid the main point, which is "the relation of inclusion or
extension obtaining between the object of the principal metaphor and
the second metaphor (bow? which bow? love-hunter's bow). Mammala, with uncharacteristic insight, fixes upon this conceptual relationship and expresses it as that of condition and conditioned (only
by knowing that the bow is that of the love-hunter does it make
sense to equate it with the girl.)
Paralflparita is classified as a type of niravayava rfipaka, a noncomplex metaphor without subordinate metaphorical identifications;
that is, the relation ofsubordination discussed above does not involve
the relation of a whole to its parts, which is what is intended by the
term "complex".:Cf siivayava, niravayava. Analytically,paralflparita
is the inverse of avayava, for the metaphor that in avayava would be
the whole (love-hunter) is here the subordinate (at least grammatically), and the part (girl-bow) is the principal. But tWs is not the point
at issue, for the form of paralflparita is not merely the inverse of the
form of siivayava (where the principal, neatly spelled out, is accompanied by metaphorically identified aspects, neatly spelled out and
inserted at appropriate places in the larger idea: an architectonic of
metaphor); rather, in paralflparita the subordinate metaphor (which
is the principal of siivayava in meaning) is both a grammatical and
conceptual element of an aspect (the object) of the principal metaphor. Instead of being founded upon a part, it is a part: it is integrated in what is analytically its own consequence.
Paralflparita is apparently identical with the upamarfipaka alalfl-

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251

kara of Vamana, which is defined as a rfipaka (metaphor) founded

upon an upama (simile). The examples, however, are the same:
Vamana probably takes "rajanipuralfldhrirodhratilaka1) sasr "('the

moon is the beauty mark of the night-woman') to mean: 'of the

night, wWch resembles a woman'. It is upon this idea of similitude
(though expressed as a metaphor) that the identification of moon and
beauty mark is predicated. An alternative explanation would be:
"the night with the moon is like a woman with her beauty mark",
though one fails to see in tWs case just how this figure differs from
simple metaphor (wWch is also founded upon a similitude). Vamana
is eager to reduce all figures to a basic simile, so perhaps his contortions have no other rationale.
TWs integration of metaphor into metaphor should be distinguished from rfipaka rfipaka, wWch is only a triple metaphor
(identification of three terms).
bhedabhiij, 'distinct': (I) another name for asli${a rfipaka.
miilii, 'garland': (I) a type of non-complex metaphor in which the same
subject is successively identified with a number of objects, each
suggesting a different property or aspect. (2) U I.I3, R 8.46 (49),
M 144. (3) kusumiiyudhaparamiistralfl lavaIJyamahMadhir gUlJQnidhanam / anandamandiram aho hrdi dayita skhalati me salyam

(Rudrata: "Alas, that lady has shot an arrow into my heart! She
is the ultimate weapon of the God of Love, an ocean of beauty, a
treasure-trove of qualities, a palace of pleasure!"). (4) "TWs royal
throne of kings, tWs scepter'd isle, / This earth of majesty, this seat
of Mars, / This other Eden, demi-paradise, / This fortress built by
Nature for herself / Against infection and the hand of war, / TWs
happy breed of men, tWs little world, / TWs precious stone set in
the silver sea, / ... TWs blessed plot, tWs earth, tWs reahu, tWs
England, / This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings ..."
(Shakespeare). (5) Cf niravayava; most of the common figures
(upama, vyatireka) are capable of this extension, since they are all
analyzable into the same elements: tWng compared, object of
comparison, common property, etc. Mammala also gives an example
for a garland of paralflparita metaphors. No new principle is
involved.
ynkta, 'related': (I) a type of complex rfipaka in wWch the objects of
the subsidiary metaphors go together, that is, are mutually related
in terms 9f some well-known cliche or image. (2) D 2.77. (3)
smitapu$pojjvalalfl lolanetrabhrfigam idalfl mukham (DaJ.l4in; bees

252

253

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

and flowers, with which the eyes and the smile are identified, are
thus mutually related: "This face is radiant with its smile-flower
and the bees which are her roaming eyes"). (4) "Saratoga perhaps
deserves our greater homage, as being characteristically democratic
and American .... Let us, then, make Saratoga the heaven of our
aspiration, but let us yet a while content ourselves with Newport as
the lowly earth of our residence" (Henry James). (5) Cf ayukta
riipaka. In DaJ:1<;lin's classification, this term is to be taken as a
subtype of dvyaiiga (or tryaiiga) riipaka, which is itself an extension
of ekdiiga, q.v. That is to say, when more than one sub-aspect of an
image is made the subject of a metaphorical identification, these
identifications may be classified as to their mutual compatibility.
We may not apply this classification to those metaphors in which the
principal identification is explicit" since presumably in that case
all the subsidiary objects will be a~pects of the principal, and thus
a fortiori go together.
rasana, 'rope': (I) a series of riipaka in which the object of identification
of the preceding metaphor becomes the subject of the following,
and so on. (2) R 8.46 (50), M 145C. (3) kisalayakarair latiiniil"(l

metaphor. This figure is a rasanii riipaka in which the term taken as

both subject and object is expressed only once. It differs from
paral"(lparita in that only a term is metaphorically subordinated to
the principal metaphor, not another metaphor.
viruddha, 'obstructed': (I) a riipaka in which the metaphorical identification takes place in the presence of and despite characteristics sufficient
to distinguish the two terms. (2) D 2.83. (3) na mflayatl padmiini na

karakamalalh kiiminiil"(l jagaj jayati' / nalinfniil"(l kamalamukhair

mukhendubhir yo$itiil"(l madanah (Rudra;a; the bud-hands of the

creepers, then the hand-lotuses of the girls: "The Love God conquers
the entire world with weapons which are the bud-hands of creepers,
with the hand-lotuses of lovers, with the lotus-faces of the blue lotus
plant, with the face-moons of maidens"). (4) "Nor doth this wood
lack worlds of company, / For you, in my respect, are all the world"
(Shakespeare). (5) This figure is the inverse of rasanii upamii.
riipaka, 'metaphor': (I) a riipaka in which the object of a simple metaphorical identification is itself taken as the subject of a further metaphor; a triple metaphor. (2) D 2.93. (3) mukhapaiikajaraiige'smln
bhriilatiinartakf tava / lfliinrtyal"(l karoti (DaJ:1<;lin; on the stage which
is a lotus which is her face: on the face-lotus-stage: "On the stage
of your face-lotus, the player of your brow-creeper acts out a
divertissement"). (4) "In those mirrors, the minds of men, in those
pools of uneasy water, in which clouds forever tnm and shadows
form" (Virginia Woolf; in those mind-mirror-pools). (5) If the two
identifications are independently taken, a miiliiriipaka is formed.
I think, however, that in Virginia Woolf's example, the "pools"
should be taken with the "mirrors" rather than with "minds",
since it is their reflecting surface which is to be emphasized by the

nabho'py avagiihate / tvanmukhendur mamdsiiniil"(l haraQiiyalva kalpate

(DaJ:1<;lin: "The moon of your face does not cause the lotuses to close
and does not swim amongst the clouds, but it does seem uniquely
able to enslave me!"). (4) "You are a tulip seen to-day, / But,
dearest, of so short a stay / That where you grew scarce men can
say" (Robert Herrick). (5) Viruddha differs from vyatlreka riipaka
in that the identification overrides the distinction. The "obstruction",
specifically, is the non-performance by the subject of the metaphor
of an act which is characteristic of the object: the moon causes
lotuses to close; a tulip grows in a garden.
vise~aQa, 'qualification': (I) a riipaka which descriptively qualifies another
word. (2) D 2.82 (81). (3) haripadah Sirolagnajahnukanyiijaldl"(lsukah
/ jayaty asuranihankasuriinand6tsavadhvajah (DaJ:1<;lin; Vi~J:1u's foot
is said to be wreathed with "Ganges water-gauze"; note that the
Ganges is said to have sprung from a footprint of Vi~l)u: "May the
foot of Vi~J:1u be victorious: the banner of the festival of joy of the
Gods who were made fearless [by that foot] of the hosts of demons,
[the banner] being the water-gauze of the Ganges attached to the
mast [of Vi~J:1u's foot]"). (4) "Books were on his shelves by Wells
and Shaw; on the table serious sixpenny weeklies written by pale
men in muddy boots-the weekly creak and screech of brains rinsed
in cold water and wrung dry-melancholy papers" (Virginia Woolf).
(5) These metaphors differ from samastavastuvi$aya riipaka in that
a relation other than that of whole to part underlies the subordination of one to the other component metaphor. In the examples, it is
that of substantive and qualification. Of course, this formal distinction does not affect the meaning or subject matter of the metaphor,
and it should be possible to express the matter as a samastavastuvi$aya
by stating the terms in that relation.
vi~ama, 'uneven': (I) a complex riipaka in which the principal identification is made explicit together with only some of the subordinate
identifications; the remaining aspects are treated descriptively and
unmetaphorically. (2) D 2.79 (80). (3) madaraktakapolena man-

254

255

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

mathas tvanmukhendunii ! nartitabhrUlateniilaf[l mardituf[l bhuvanatrayam (DalJ.cJ.in; "face-moon" is explicit, along with "brow-creeper",
but "cheeks flushed with drink" is descriptive and does not continue
the metaphor: "The God of Love has punished the world enough
with the moon of your face, its cheeks flushed with drink, its browcreeper dancing"). (4) "Let us by reverend degrees draw near, ! I
feel the Goddess here. ! Lo I, dread Sack, an humble priest of thine!
First kiss tWs cup thy shrine. ! That with more hallowed lips and
inlarg'd soul! I may receive the whole" (Anon., "In Praise of Sack";
"Sack Goddess" should be taken as the principal; the drinker and
his cup are identified with the priest and the shrine, but neither the
"priest's" soul nor his lips is metaphorically identified). (5) This
figure amounts to a combinatfon of avayavi and ekiiiiga rilpakas.
It is a samastavastuvi$aya rilpakq with some of the subordinate
aspects not metaphorically identifi,iq;
vyatireka, 'distinction': (1) a rilpaka in which a distinction is drawn
between the metaphorically identified object and its real counterpart;
a literal re-evaluation of the metaphor itself. (2) D 2.88 (90). (3)
candramaJ,z pfyate devair maya tvqnmukhacandramaJ,z ! asamagro'py
asau sasvad ayam apilrljamOl;uJalaJ,z (Dal}gin: "The moon[beams] are
drunk by the Gods, [the beams from] your face-moon I drink; the
former is often less than full, the latter ever and always perfect").
(4) "I will be Paris, and for love of thee, ! Instead of Troy, shall
Wertenberg be sacked" (Christopher Marlowe; Faustus is speaking).
(5) Vyatireka differs from viruddha rilpaka in that the distinction is
specified for both the subject and object, giving the subject a positive
content (Werteriberg), whereas, in viruddha, the inadequacy alone of
the subject is shown, hence the name "obstructed".
Cf upama rilpaka. This subfigure is vyatireka alaf[lkara expressed
in the form of a metaphor, just as upama rilpaka was a simile expressed as a metaphor. In the more formal classifications which
follow Dal}gin, such combinations would be relegated to the etcetera
category saf[lkfr(la, q.v.
vyasta, 'separate': (1) same as asamasta. (2) D 2.68. (5) Used only in
the term samastavyasta.
suddha, 'simple': (1) a non-complex rilpaka without subsidiary metaphors
of any kind. (2) R 8.46 (48), M 143. (3) kaJ,z pilrayed ase$an kaman
upasamitasakalasaf[ltapaJ,z ! akhiliirthinaf[l yadi tvaf[l na syaJ,z kalpadrumo rajan (Rudrala: "Who would fulfill the numberless wishes of your
suitors, 0 King, were you not the veritable tree of desire through

which all suffering is assuaged"). (4) "Christ, Whose Glory fills

the Skies, ! Christ, the true, the only Light" (Charles Wesley). (5)
The point is not that the metaphor is uncompounded (cf asamasta),
but that the image coined by the metaphor is not extended by other
metaphors or metaphorical usages dependent in some way upon
that first metaphor.
TWs is the type par excellence of niravayava metaphor; according
to Rudrala, maW, rasana, and paraf[lparita are variously defined
combinations of suddha rilpakas. All are called niravayava ('lacking
members') for this reason. See these terms.
sli~ta, 'punned': (1) a rilpaka to which certain descriptive qualifications
are appended which are to be taken differently for each of the two
terms of the metaphor. (2) D 2.87, M 145.. (3) rajahaf[lsopabhogiirhaf[l bhramaraprarthyasaurabham ! sakhi vaktriimbujam idaf[l tava
(Dal}gin; for the lotus, "swan-enjoyed" and "bee-beloved"; for the
face, "king-enjoyed" and "suitor-beloved": "Friend, the lotus of
your face is worthy of being enjoyed by the Great King [the swan]
and so sweet as to attract a lover [bee]"). (4) "A Woman is a book,
and often found! To prove far better in the Sheets than bound: /
No marvel then why men take such delight / Above all tWngs to
study in the night" (Anon.). (5) Mammata takesSli~ta to be a category
in the determination of paraf[lparita rilpaka, along with maW. There
is no clear reason why puns may not serve in other metaphors as
well.
sakata, 'whole': (1) same as samastavastuvi$aya. (2) D 2.70 (69).
salpki'nJa, 'mixed': (1) a complex rilpaka in which a principal subject
and several of its aspects are metaphorically identified with objects
having no mutual relation. (2) R 8.52-55. (3) lak$mfs tvaf[l mukham
indur nayane nilotpale karau kamale ! kesaJ,z kekikalapo dasana api
kundakalikas te (Rudrala: "You are Lak~mi; your face is the moon,
your eyes, blue lotuses, your hands, wWte lotuses, your tresses, a
peacock's tail, and your teeth, jasmine buds"). (4) "One man is a
living soul, but two men are an india rubber milking machine for a
beer engine, and three men are noses off and four men are an asylum
for cretins and five men are a committee and twenty-five are a meeting
and after that you get to the mummy house at the British Museum,
and the Sovereign People ""nd Common Humanity and the Average
and the Public and the Majority and the Life Force and Statistics
and the Economic Man brainless, eyeless, wicked spawn of the
universal toad sitting in the black bloody ditch of eternal night and

256

GLOSSARY

croaking for its mate which is the specter of Hell" (Joyce Cary;
the principal, mankind, has its parts, one man, two men, three men,
etc., severally identified with uuinterrelated objects). (5) In popular
nsage, a "mixed metaphor" has a much wider application. The
majority of current examples would probably fall into other categories thau riipaka; for example: "The crowued heads of Europe
were quaking in their boots", where "heads" is an example of
vakr6kti II (lak$a1;!ii) and "quaking ..." an example of utprek$ii.
But the essential poiut-a lack of parallelism in multiple figurative
predication-is well illustrated by the present case. The clearest
instance is riipaka, for all the terms-subject, object, and aspects-are
there necessarily explicit; in utprek$ii and vakr6kti II (lak$a!Jii),
the subject is implied by a sort ,,(Shorthand. Some mixed metaphors
may not be vicious, as the exampl7s show. Cary's mixtnre serves a
specific poetic purpose in that iti~'\'feases the emphasis of the sequence itself. In ayukta riipaka, am()r~.explicit opposition in the
objects of identification is required, making the metaphor more
mixed than this.
samasta, 'compounded': (I) a riipaka in which the subject and object of
identification are compounded into a single granuuatical word,
the subject preceding. (2) D 2.68 (66). (3) biihulatii ptil)ipadmalll
caraIJapaliavab (DaI.l<;lin; three separate examples: "Arm-vines, handlotuses, foot-buds"). (4) "The weeds wear moon mist mourning
veils" (Carl Sandburg). (5) English is sufficiently like Sanskrit to
permit a valid illustration of this grammatical point. A riipaka is
the identification of a subject (literal) with an object (figurative).
This identificatidn may be accomplished by the simple assertion of
an identity lesee asamasta), but it may also repose upon an implication grounded upon a granuuatical feature of the language, namely,
that the last member of a compound alone has a direct relation to
the rest of the sentence (it carries the case termination, plural
termination, etc.). The first member has syntactical reality only
through the second and therefore is subordinated to and is taken
when possible as an equivalent of the second. Through grammatical
identification, concrete identification is implied. Now, into this
syntactic framework the poet inserts words freely and particularly
seeks those expressions whose intuitive or logical structure differs
from that, implied and ready made, of the granuuar. Such is "moon
mist mourning veils", where the literal and primary fact, "mist",
is granuuatically sUb<;>rdinated, in the manner described above, to

GLOSSARY

257

that idea which is only a figurative and intuitive qualification of

"mourning veil". Grammatically, the primary fact is now "veil",

and through this confusion of primacy and subordination on different levels, the identification of the two terms is accomplished. In
the phrase "dear tiger-lily, fanged and striped" (Conrad Aiken),
the literal fact and the grammatically defined primary term coincide
in "lily". Here is no instance of identification, because the consistency of the various levels reasserts a fortiori the literally acceptable
subordination of the first term: "lily like a tiger". For this reason,
the Indian aestheticians consider such compounds upamti (simile),
not metaphor. The degree of subordination is limited by the intuitive possibilities of the terms involved. The compound "milkmachine" is neither a riipaka nor an upamii, for the subordination is
merely teleological and can have nothing to do with the representation of the terms themselves. Which is to say, in Pfu).inean phraseology, that tatpuru$a compounds can be figurative only when they
are karmadhiiraya, where both members have the same case relationship (samtinlidhikaralJatva). We have, however, one skew case in
English, as in Virginia Woolf's phrase "gauze of evening": there is
not much question that this is a metaphor in the Indian sense, as it
identifies the evening (subject) with gauze (object). It does not mean
"the gauze belonging to evening"; it is the equivalent of "eveningganze", but since English does not offer the same facility for compounding as Sanskrit, poets employ this "of" of identification (see
Twain's example under samastavastuvi$aya). A case relationship
implying subordination is used to indicate equivalence. We may
ordainfor English a karmadharayagarbhatatpuru$asamiisa. Such an
"of" of identification must be carefully distinguished from the other
"ofs": a sine qua non is that'the granuuatically independent term
(ganze) is the representation of the term thereto snbordinated (evening), as "moon mist mourning veils". In the example: "And there
the lion's ruddy eyes I Shall flow with tears of gold" (William Blake),
"tears of gold" does not satisfy this criterion; rather, "gold" is a
representation of "tears", and we have upamti, not ritpaka.
'referring to the entire thing': (I) a riipaka in which

samastavastnvi~aya,

the subject of identification and its several parts or aspects are

identified in rigorously parallel fashion with the object and its
several parts; complex metaphor. (2) B 2.22 (23), U I.I2, R 8.4155, M 140. (3) jyotsniibhasmacchuralJadhavalti bibhratf ttiraklisthfny
antardhanavyasanarasikti riitrikiipiiliktyam I dvipiid dvipalll bhramati

Db

258

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

dadhati candramudrakapale nyastalfl siddhiiiijanaparimaialfl laiichanasya cchalena (Mammata; the principal subject "night" is identified
with the principal object "beggar woman"; their respective parts
are the subjects of various subordinate identifications: "moonlightash smeared body", "stars-beads", "moon-bowl", etc.: "The beggar
woman of the night, white with the smeared ash of moonbeams,
who wears a necklace of stars and shows great interest in hidden
things, wanders from island to island gathering in the begging bowl
of the moon fragrances and magic ointments, dark appearing").
(4) "We see bursting upon us the domes and steeples of Saint Paul,
giant young chief of the North ... carving his beneficent way with
the tomahawk of commercial enterprise, sounding the war whoop of
Christian Culture, tearing off tlif' reeking scalp of sloth and superstition" (Mark Twain). (5) In distinguishing this metaphor from ekadeiavivarti, the important thing i~::f~at none of the aspects of the
subject be descriptively treated (nor identified metaphorically).
Samastavastuvi~aya is the type of complex rupaka whose many
variations herein described are simply the non-identification of
one or another characteristic part: qvayava (the principal subjectobject), avayavi (the subordinates), ekdiiga (the principal and some
subordinates), and vi~ama (some subordinates). All these terms are
types of ekadeiavivarti, but only DaJ:l<;lin goes beyond the basic
distinction to elaborate types of partiality. The relation of the submetaphors to the main metaphor is that of a part or aspect to the
whole. For a discussion of other kinds of subordination, see
paralflparita and. viSe~aQa rupaka.
samastavyasta, 'compounded and separate': (I) two rupakas in the same
expression, one of which is in the form of a compound word, the
other not. (2) D 2.68. (3) smi/alfl mukhendor jyotsna (DaJ:l<;lin: "The
smile is the beam of her face-moon"). (4) "Walled in by towering
stone- / Peaked margin of antiquity's delay" (Allen Tate). (5) This
is paralflparita rupaka defined in a purely formal fashion, without
reference to the kind of relation existing between two metaphors.
samlidhlina, 'justification': (I) a rupaka in which a justification is offered
for a previously expressed inconsistency in the metaphor. (2) D 2.92.
(3) mukhendur api te caQ<!i malfl nirdahati nirdayam / bhagyado~an
mamaiva (Dat;l<;lin: "Even the moon of your face, 0 cruel girl,
consumes me fierily! Such is the defect of my fate !"). (4) "LION: ...
For all the rest, / Let Lion, Moonshine, Wall, and lovers twain /
At large discourse while here they do remain. THESEUS: I wonder

if the lion be to speak. DEMETRIUS: No wonder, my lord. One

lion may, when many asses do" (Shakespeare; the player Snug has
introduced himself as the Lion: a theatrical metaphor). (5) In
ak~epa rupaka, a property sufficient to distinguish subject from object
is pointed out, and the metaphor itself is cast into doubt; here an
attempt is made to override that suspicion and thereby to save the
original metaphor. In viruddha, the same difference is expressed
negatively (non-performance by the subject of an action proper to
the object), in vyatireka, positively (the proper action of the subject
is also given), but in both, the mode is the indicative; in samadhiina and ak~epa, the adequacy ofthe metaphor has yet to be decided.
samlisa, 'compound': (I) same as samasta. (2) R 8.40. (5) All types of
rupaka given by Rudrata, except asamasa, are examples of samasa.
savise1jat;la, 'with a qualification': (I) another term for viSe~aQa rupaka.
slivayava, 'having parts': (I) another name for avayava II.
hetn, 'cause': (1) a rupaka in which a cause is given for the identification
of the subject and object; or, in which the common property underlying the identification is expressed in the form of a cause. (2) D 2.86.
(3) gambhiryeQa samudro'si gauravelJdsi parvatah / kamadatvac ca
lokanam asi tvalfl kalpapiidapah (DaJ:l<;lin: "You are the ocean for
depth, 0 King, and the mountain for weightiness; having granted
boons to all men, you are the tree of desire!"). (4) "LYSANDER:
This lion is a very fox for his valour. THESEUS: True, and a
goose for his discretion" (Shakespeare). (5) Cf hetu upama.

259

llitlinuprlisa
llitlinnprlisa, 'Gujarati alIiteration': (I) same as latiya, a type of anuprasa.
(2) U 1.8-10. (5) Udbhata considers it a separate alalflkara.
lesa
lesa (I), 'trace': (I) a figure in which a pretext is alleged to cover an
embarrassing or otherwise unpleasant situation. (2) D 2.265 (26667). (3) anandfisru pravrttalfl me kathalfl dr~tvaiva kanyakam / ak~i
me pu~parajasaviit8ddhatena kampi/am (DaJ:l<;lin; the lover is ashamed
to admit his tears of joy: "Why should I cry for joy at the sight of
that maiden? My eyes are only bothered by some wind-blown
flower pollen"). (4)" 'I was a-stannin' heah, an' de dog was astannin' heah; de dog he went for de shell, gwine to pick a fuss wid
it; but I didn't; I says, "Jes' make youseff at home heah; lay still
whah you is, or bust np de place, jes' as you's a mind to, but I's got

260

261

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

business out in de woods, I has!"'" (Mark Twain; the darky's

"business" is a pretext for his hasty withdrawal; the scene is the siege
of Vicksburg). (5) The figure is rejected by Bhiimaba (2.86) as not
involving vakrokti.
leSa (II): (I) a figure in which a quality is portrayed as involving a defect,
or vice versa. (2) R 7.100 (101-102). (3) hrdayalfl sadafva ye~iim
anabhijnalfl gUl)llviyogaduf.zkhasya / dhanyiis te gUlJahfnii vidagdhagO~lhirasflpetiif.z (Rudrata: "They whose simple minds are unaware
of the pains of iguorance are indeed blessed, for they feel no compulsion to attend the assemblies of the wise"). (4) " ... bankruptcy
itself can be a pleasure. I'd been bankrupt four times. There's
nothing like a good smash for !l$?tting rid of small worries, the things
that don't matter, but peck a lhan to death" (Joyce Cary). (5) The
Sanskrit example shows a defect implying a virtue, the other a
virtue implying a defect: "Every cli::l1-1<lhas a silver lining".
lesa (III): (I) same as vyiijastuti. (2) D 2:268'72.

that a second meaning is read into that remark.' (2) R 2.14-17,

M 103. (3) aho kenMrSi buddhir diiruQii tava nirmitii / triguQii sruyate
buddhir na tu diirumayi kvacit (Mammala; also a pun on the
philosophical sense of "buddhi": in the threefold manifestations of
sativa, tamas, and rajas; "Hey, who made your will so pitiless
[diiruQa]? Will is said to be threefold, but never, ever made of wood
[daru]"). (4) "'I mean: what do I tell Jane? She's down at the apartment by now. She called me. She was worrying that bad about
you'. 'What's she want?' 'It has all different names', Captain Dyer
said. 'They use like a bed for it. You ought to know, sonny boy'"
(James Gould Cozzens). (5) This is one of the rare figures which are
essentially dialectical, involving the development of an idea from
thesis to antithesis. We are here very close to our own idea of irony
if we take this to mean reference to something through its opposite,
or, at any rate, its other. It differs from irony in requiring that the
thesis, that is, the conventional formulation which is to be referred
to through its opposite, be explicit. Although vakrokti can be expressed through a pun (see sle~a vakrokti), it differs from pun in
requiring that the pun be a reinterpretation of something previously
mentioned, not simply a self-contained play on words.
kiiku, 'intonatiou': (I) a type of vakrokli in which the rejoinder is not
stated, but is conveyed through an ironic inflection of the voice.
(2) R 2.16 (17), M 103. (3) gurujanaparatantrataya durataralfl ddam
udyato gantum / alikulakokilalalite naf~yati sakhi surabhisamaye'sau
(Mammata; meaning: "he will surely go": "He intends to go to a far
land out of obedience to his teacher; surely he will not leave in the
sweet-smelling season gay with the sounds of bee and cuckoo !").
(4) "'I don't want to interfere', she said, using the tone and the phrase
to mean its exact opposite" (Margery Allingham). (5) This is vakrokti
in the sense that the conversation proceeds on the basis of the understanding, not the remark. There is no reply because it is not necessary. The phrase is its own rejoinder and conveys its reinterpretation
through an inflection rather than mere verbal stuff. Stated linguistically, the two senses of kaku vakrokli are carried one by the segmental morphemes, the other by the suprasegmental; in sle~a vakrokti, they are carried by two different sequences. That irony is considered a type of vakrokti in this sense, shows that the Indian writers
were aware of it as a function of the continuum of speech, not, as
might appear on the face of it, as a static relation of two superimposed meauiugs, like Sle~a. This is a profound view of irony and

vakra
vakra, 'crooked': (I) an artha sle~a in which underlying the doubleentendre is a further equivocation ofmood (rasa). (2) R 10.9. (3)
iikramya madhyaddalfl vidadhat salflviihanalfl tathflfigiiniim / patali
karaf.z kancyiim api tava nirjitakiimarupasya (Rudrata; taking the
nouns as names of countries gives one rasa (vira), as parts of the
female anatomy, another (srfigiira); "Overcoming Madhyadesa
[grasping her waist], sending your army against [caressing] the Aiigas
[her limbs], your hand has fallen even on Kaiici [on her girdle], 0
you who has conquered Kamariipa [hested the Love God]"). (4)
"License my roving hands, and let them go / Before, between, behind,
above, below. / Oh, my America, my Newfoundland, / My kingdom's
safest when with one man manned" (John Donne). (5) Here the
equivocation is thought of on two levels: literal (the word itself
having two meanings) and contextual (the two literal meanings
implying contrary or contradictory emotions). As such, there are
four meanings here being punned, and the form presents a uice
problem to the dhvani theorist: is the sle~a here subordinate to the
expression of the rasa, or vice versa?
vakrilkti
vakrilkti (I), 'evasive speech': (I) a figure in which a rejoinder is appended
to a certain remark, either by the speaker or another, in such a way

262

GLOSSARY

shows how the idea of a figure cau be treated quite iudependently

of the expressive modes which it may entail. A conversation is
here reproduced, not in its accustomed time continuum, but quite
simultaneously, indifferent to time.
sle~a 'double-entendre': (I) a type of vakrokti in wWch the second sense is
conveyed through a rejoinder based on a pun or a play on words.
(2) R 2.14 (15), M 103. (3) kilfl gauri miilfl prati rU$ii I nanu gaur
ahalfl kupyiimi kiilfl prati I mayity anumiinato'halfl jiiniimy atas I
tvam anumiinata eva satyam (Rudrata: "SIVA: Why are you angry
with me, Gauri? SHE: Why am I deemed a cow [gaur] by you? With
whom should I be angry? HE: I know by inference [anumiinato]
that you are angry with me. SHI;;,indeed, you are anumiinato [anumiinata: not devoted to Vma, another name for Gaur!],,). (4) "POLONIVS: My honourable lord, I will, most humbly take my leave of
you. HAMLET: You cannot sir ta1(~'fr6m me anything that I will
more willingly part withal: except my life; except my life, except my
life" (Shakespeare). (5) As in Sle$a arthantaranyiisa, a second topic
is, intimated through a pun, but here that duality is comprehended
in the form ofrepartee-a conversation (or monologue) on two planes.
vakrokti (II): (I) a figure wherein a word is used in a figurative sense
based on similitude; metonymy of resemblance. (2) V 4.3.8. (3)
salflsthiinena sphuratu subhaga/l svarci$ii eumbatu dyiim (Vamana;
"kiss" is used in a figurative sense: "May the blessed one be brilliant
with excellence; may he kiss the day with his darting rays"). (4)
"She stood breast-Wgh among corn, I Clasp'd by the golden light
of morn" (Thomas Hood). (5) The Indian writers distinguish several
types of figurative usage (lak$flIJii), depending on the kind of relationship existing between the literal and secondary senses. For example,
the relation of proximity underlies "the grandstand roared with
approval"; that of whole-part in "Washington was scandalized by
it". Vamana specifies that the relation be understood in this figure
as being restricted to similitude only: though light cannot "clasp"
anytbing, the meaning is obtained here through the striking similarity of that act with the literal effective manifestation of the light.
The figure utprek$ii, as described by DaJ:.lc;1in, appears identical with
this one, but involves a totally different orientation.
This one figure, sauf erreur, marks the only effort of an Indian
iilalflkiirika to define a poetic figure in the referential usage of single
words (trope, metonymy) which plays such a large role iu our own
rhetorics. See the Introduction.

GLOSSARY

263

viikoviikya
viikoviikya, 'dialogue': (I) a figure containing a remark and a reply.
(2) AP 342.32-33. (5) Viikoviikya may be divided iuto rjukti and
vakrokti. The latter is the well-known alalflkiira of Rudrata and
Mammata cousisting of a reply wWch consciously mistakes the content of the questiou; irouy. J!.jukti is defined as 'inherent' (sahaja)
speech, perhaps conversation. Again the scope of the figures is
demonstrated (ef bhiivika). Viikoviikya constitutes the sixth sabdiilalflkiira. Other figures involving conversation are prasna and uttara.
viistava
viistava, 'descriptive': (I) a generic term for those figures which are
neither comparative nor hyperbolic. (2) R 7.9-10. (5) Rudrata
intends those figures which are more rhetorical than poetic, involving
arrangemeuts and sequences of terms, or descriptive intimations.
The list is given in 7.11-12. See aupamya, atMaya, and sle$a.
vidarsanii
vidarsanii, 'making apparent': (I) a figure in wWch a similitude is suggested by attributing to one subject a property which is characterized
as really belonging to another. (2) V 5.10. (3) vinoeitena patyii ea
rupavaty api kiimini I vidhuvandhyavibhiivaryii/l prabibharti visobhatiim (Vdbhata: "A girl without a husband, though she be beautiful,
offers a sight rivalling in ugliness the moonless night"). (4) "In
phrases full of the audible equivalents of Capital Letters, he now
went on to assure Mr. Stoyte ... " (Aldous Huxley). (5) Just as one
woman cannot carry the ugliness of something else, so capital letters
cannot be an attribute of the spoken word; nevertheless, the adjunction suggests comparability-of the woman and the night, of
audible and visible sententiousness.
But for the example wWch Vdbhata offers, this figure would be
indistinguishable from nidarSanii II of Mammata, for the definitions
are almost equivalent. In Mammata, the rapprochement is via a
similar or common result, and two distinct verbs underlie the contrast;
here there is but one verb, which does not apply literally to .the sense
expressed, and the rapprochement is simply with the object of that
verb, as taken figuratively. This figure is perhaps a "portmanteau"
of nidarsanii.
A second type is mentioned by Vdbhata in the definition, wherein
the two situations are in fact related, but no example is offered.

264

GLOSSARY

He may be referring to the more common nidarsana 1. The examples

also suggest that vidarsana is similar to utprek,a, but the figurativeness
of the ascription is literally pointed out.
vin<lkti
vin<lkti, 'speech including the word "without"': (1) a figure in which two
things are presented as excluding one another. (2) M 171. (3)
arucir nisayii vinii saSi sasinii sdpi vina mahattamal; I ubhayena vina
manobhavasphurita1[l naiva cakasti kiiminol; (Mammata: "The moon
without the night has no brilliance; the moonless night is fearful
and dark; without both, no thonght of love comes to the minds of
lovers"). (4) "Through want of m~ssion] she had sung without being
merry, possessed without enjoyillg, outshone without triumphing"
(Thomas Hardy). (5) Vin6kti is
obvious inversion of sah6kti
("speech including the word 'with'
vibhlivanli
vihhlivanli, 'manifesting': (1) a figure in which an effect is realized in the
absence of its normal or conventional yause, thus implying another,
unusual cause. (2) B 2.77 (78), D 2.199-204, V 4.3.13, U 2.9, AP
344.27, R 9.16 (21), M 162. (3) apftamattiil; sikhino diSo'nutka1Jthitdkuliil; I nipo'viliptasurabhir abhra$/akalu,a1[l jalam (Bhamaha; a
description of the rainy season: "The peacocks are drunk without
having imbibed, the skies are confused without being in love, the
nipa tree is sweet smelling without being anointed, the water is
corrupt without having sinned"). (4) "0 world invisible, we view
thee, I 0 world intangible, we touch thee, I 0 world unknowable, we
know thee, I Inapprehensible, we clutch thee!" (Francis Thompson;
presumably a description of religious man). (5) Outwardly, this
figure resembles a simple virodha (contradiction); its peculiarity
reposes in the fact that the two terms contradicted are cause and
effect, not any two coexistent properties. According to DaJ;lqin
and the Agni Pural,la, vibhiivana is of two sorts, depending on whether
another (less common) cause is implied (kiiral,ldntaram), or whether
the nature of the thing itself provides the explanation (svabhiivika).
Rudrata, finally, divides the former into vibhiivanii of the subject
(abhidheya) and vibhiivana of an aspect of the subject (vikara).
kliral}antaram, 'another condition': (1) a type of vibhiivana in which a less
usual cause is to be inferred as explanation of the seeming contradiction. (2) D 2.199 (200), AP 344.28, R 9.16 (17). (3) apftak,ibakii-

GLOSSARY

265

dambam asa1[lmr#dmalt!mbaram I aprasiiditasuddhtJmbu jagad asin

manoharam (DaJ;lqin; the cause of these paradoxical phenomena is
the autumn weather: "The geese are intoxicated without having
drunk, the sky is clear without having been cleaned, the waters are
pure and have not been given grace: the world is so lovely!"). (4)
"My tale was heard, and yet it was not told; I My fruit is fall'n,
and yet my leaves are green; I My youth is spent, and yet 1 am not
old" (Chidock Tichborne; written just before his execution at the
age of twenty-eight). (5) See svabhiivika.
svlihhlivika(tva), 'natural(ness)': (I) a type of vibhiivanii in which the
nature of the thing so described is implied as the explanation of the
seeming contradiction. (2) D 2.199 (201), AP 344.28, R 9.20 (21).
(3) anaiijitdsita dr#ir bhrur aniivarjita nata I araiijito'rul,las cdyam
adharas tava sundari (DaJ;lqin; her anger is the "cause" of her paradoxical appearance; she doesn't love him: "Your glance is dark
without eyeshade, your brow is arched with no one bending it,
your lip is full colored and not a touch of lipstick"). (4) "1.0, lot
how brave she decks her bounteous bower, I With silken curtains
and gold coverlets, I Therein to shroud her sumptuous belamour, I
Yet neither spins nor cards, nor cares nor frets, I But to her mother
Nature all her care she lets" (Edmund Spenser; the lilies bloom
"naturally"). (5) See kiiral,ldntara.
virodba
virodba, 'contradiction': (1) a figure in which contradictory properties
are expressed of the same subject; the affirmation of the excluded
middle. (2) B 3.24 (25), D 2.333-39, V 4.3.12, U 5.6, AP 344.28, R
9.30-44, M 166-67. (3) upantariil;/h6pavanacchiiyasftdpi dhar asau I
viduradeSiin api val; sa1[ltapayati vidvi,al; (Bhamaha; the king's
"cool" sovereignty inflames his enemies: "The royal sovereiguty,
cool in the shade of the city's environing groves, consumes his
enemies, though they be in a distant land"). (4) "I find no peace,
and all my war is done; I 1 fear and hope, 1 burn, and freeze like
ice; I 1 fly aloft, yet can 1 not arise; I And nought I have, and all
the world 1 seize on" (Sir Thomas Wyatt; "Description of the contrarious Passions in a Lover"). (5) This figure is elaborately catalogued by Rudrata, probably following DaJ;lqin's sketchy and unnamed sixfold division, into fourteen types based on the commonplace distinction jiiti, gU1)a, kriya, dravya ('genus', 'attribute', 'act',
'substance'). (Rudrata asserts, however, that one of the fourteen

266

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GLOSSARY

and tender, of celebrating a festival, as if two emotions were called

up in her, one profound-for what could be more serious than the
love of man for woman, what more commanding, more impressive,
bearing in its bosom the seeds of death; at the same time these
lovers, these people entering into illnsion glittering eyed, must be
danced around with mockery, decorated with garlands" (Virginia
Woolf). Both examples show only a situation of contrasts, not
contradiction (D 2.336).
gtU]akriyii, 'attribute-verb': (1) a type of complex virodha where incompatibility is shown between actions and qualities or traits of the same
subject. (2) R 9.39, M 167. (3) sa komaliJpi dalayati mama hrdayalfl
(Rudrala: "0 how that tender one causes my heart to break!").
(4) "Of course I don't deny that if I were thoroughly unscrupulous
I could make a sensation. It would be rather amusing to show the
man with his passion for beauty and his careless treatment of his
obligations, his fine style and his personal hatred for soap and water,
his idealism and his tippling in disreputable pubs; but honestly,
would it pay?" (Somerset Maugham).
jat!, 'genus': (I) a type of virodha where generic incompatibility is shown
in the same subject. (2) D 2.335, R 9.37, M 167. (3) ekasyam eva

types-jati dravya-is theoretical only.) The contradiction may

exemplify any of these categories, or may involve terms from any

two of them. (For an example of multiple or complex virodha, see
gu~akriya virodha.) Mammala copies this scheme. Virodha differs
from pihita and like figures in emphasis only. Where the intention
is to show two incompatibles as equally valid, and where no implicit
decision is made, we have virodha; if the intention is to exaggerate
one of the incompatibles at the expense of the other, we have hyperbole, which uses contradiction as a means. Like all the subtle
distinctions of alalflkarasastra, the properly understood intention of
the poet is the ultimate clue. For this reason, it might be added,
the body of poetic distinctions c~!;1, be a powerful adjunct in coming
to grips with the poet's often murky thoughts.
kriya, 'verb': (1) a type of virodha wher!" the incompatibility is that of
two actious of the same subject. (2}'P 2.334, R 9.36, M 167. (3)
bii1amrgalocanaytiS caritam idalfl citramatr'ayad asau mam I jaayati
salfltapayati ca diire hrdaye ca me vasati (Rudrala; "soothes" and

"inflames": "How can this doe-eyed girl perform such wonders? She
both soothes and inflames me from a, distance, yet she resides in
my heart !"). (4) "It's bad when they think well of you, Cokey,
because you get to think too much of yourself. And it's bad when
they think badly of you because you may get to think badly of them.
Take your mind off your work" (Joyce Cary; "think well" and
"think badly").
gtU]a, 'attribute': (1) a type of virodha where the iucompatibility is that
of two (adjectivally stated) attributes of the subject. (2) R 9.35, M
167. (3) satatalfl musaliisakta bahutaragrhakarmaghatanaya nrpate I
dvijapatnfnalfl kathinal; sati bhavati karal; sarojasukumaral; (Mammala; "harsh" and "soft": "The hands of the Brahmin ladies,
busily attached to the duties of the home, forever making foods and
sauces, have become rough; yet in your preseuce, King, those hands
are lotus soft!"). (4) "Behold a critic, pitched like the castrati, I
Imperious youugling, though approaching forty" (Theodore Roethke). (5) DaJ,lc;liu gives an (unclassified) example which, though based
ou gu~a, does not show virodha in any accepted sense: "tanumadhyalfl

tanau bibharti yugapan naratvasilflhatve I manujatvavarahatve tathiJiva

yo vibhur asau jayati (Rudra(a; "manliness" and "lionhood" in

speaking of a form of VisJ,lu: "May he be victorious, the Lord who

unites in one body humanity and lionhood, manliness and porcinity").
(4) "Now I am well aware that pettiness and grandeur, malice and
charity, hatred and love, can find place side by side in the same human
heart" (Somerset Maugham; "pettiness and grandeur"). (5) The
logical category "genus" is never given abstract substantiatiou, but
is always considered to be a peculiar kind of attribute. Iu this sense,
the important distinction is between genus and gu~a, not between
genus and species (dravya). This turns out to be largely a matter of
morphology: if a pot is red, then redness is a generic attribute of
its color.
dravya, 'particular thing': (1) a type of virodha where the incompatibility
is that of particular individual things or ideas. (2) D 2.337, R 9.34,
M 167. (3) atrendranilabhitti~u guhasu saile sada suveliJkhye I
anyonyiJnabhibhiite tejastamasf pravartete (Rudrala; tejas ['energy']
and tamas ['indolence'] paired with "glimmering" and "shadow":
"The glimmering and the shadow, ever contending, persist on the
sapphire-set walls of the caves of Mount Suvela"). (4) "[Theodore

prthusro~i raktiJu~tham asitek~a~am

I natanabhi vapul; strf~alfl kalfl

na hanty unnatastanam" ('Thin waisted and ample thighed, red lipped
and black eyed, with depressed navel and raised breasts-who would
not be striken by the body of a woman?'); compare: "This will
celebrate the occasion~a curious sense rising in her, at once freakish

267

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269

~thira are enemies in the Ramdya1ja and the Mahiibharata: "Your

arm is left, although it is right [clever], Pralamba [pendant] although
Balabhadra [strong], although Duryodhana [difficult to fight], it is
Yudhi~thira [firm in battle]"). (4) "Uutil yesterday I had no idea that
there were any families or persons whose origin was a Terminus"
(Oscar Wilde; Lady Brackuall refers to Jack's having been abandoned,
as an infant, in the cloak-room of Victoria Station). (5) This figure
differs from virodha III only in that the apparent paradox is borne
by the meanings of the words, rather than by a formal (positivenegative) contrast. Both are appearances of paradox, and both are
resolved in the same way.

Roosevelt] is an interesting combination of St. Vitus and St. Paul"

(1. Morely, quoted by Frederick Lewis Alleu). (5) These categories
are ill translated by our own: witness the example "energy" considered
as a category of substance.
virodha (II): (1) same as asarrtgati. (2) V 4.3.12. (5) The subject ofvirodha
has been fully developed in relation to the causal process. Various
contradictions or distortions of the normal relation of cause and
effect are exemplified by the figures anyonya, piirva, vyaghata,
asarrtgati, samadhi, and ahetu. An ordinary virodha concerns aspects
of one subject and does not extend necessarily to relations between
many subjects, nor is it based on any notion of the propriety of
such relationship, as implied, for example, by the notion of cause and
6d
.~.
.

vise~a
vise~a

(I), 'difference': (1) a figure in which a quality or thing is represented

without, or in separation from its natural substratum or basis.
(2) R 9.5 (6), M 203. (3) divam apy upayiilanam akalpam analpagu1jaga1ja ye~am / ramayanti jaganti giral,l katham iha kavayo na te
vandyal,l (Rudrata; the poet's voice is represented here in separation
from his body: "Why are the poets now gone beyond to heaven not
honored here-poets whose voices will delight the worlds and manifest numberless qualities till the end of time?"). (4) " ... when the
door opened, and a somewhat forbidding countenance peeped into
the room. The eyes in the forbidding countenance looked very
earnestly at Mr. Pickwick, for several seconds, and were to all
appearance satisfied with their investigation; for the body to which
the forbidding countenance belonged, slowly brought itself into the
apartment, and presented the form of an elderly individual in topboots-not to keep the reader any longer in suspense, in short, the
eyes were the wandering eyes of Mr. Grummer, and the body was
the body of the same gentleman" (Charles Dickens). (5) Cf adhika
II, where the substratum is exceeded or surpassed by the condition
which it limits. In the following example from Shelley, the substratum is actnally left behind: "My heart, for my weak feet were
weary soon, / Did companion thee".
vis~a (II): (1) a figure in which a single quality or thing is represented
as inhering in, or being in conjunction with, several natural substrata
or bases. (2) R 9.7 (8), M 203. (3) sa vasai tujjha hiae sa cciacchfsu
saa vaa1jesu / ahmarisa1ja sundara oaso kattha pava1jOm (Mammata;
spoken by a jealous wife about her rival: "She resides in your heart,
in your eyes and voice; where is there place for sinners like us?").

virodha (III): (1) an artha sle~a in whic)1 a positive term or thought is

directly contradicted by its negative,.,:~~.~resolution of the contradiction is effected by understanding one(i1sulilly the negative) as a pun.
(2) R 10.5. (3) sarrtvardhitavividhfidhikakamalo'py avadalitanalikal,l
so'bhiit / sakaldridararasiko'py anabhimatapardfiganasafigal,l (Rudrata; the first reading suggests that ,the king is both an enjoyer of
the wives of his enemies and uninterested in the wives of others, but
dara (first "wife") also means "sword": "Although he has nurtured
various excellent lotuses, he has destroyed lotuses [fools]; although
he is an amateur of all his enemies' wives, he disdains the embraces
of others' women [swords]"). (4) "In those old days, the Nymph
called Etiquette / (Appalling thought to dwell on) was not born.
/ They had their May, but no Mayfair as yet, / No fashions varying
as the hues of morn" (c. S. Calverly; "May" without "Mayfair"
appears to be a contradiction, until Mayfair is understood as a
[fashionable] quarter of London). (5) This figure is virodha alarrtkara
expressed through sle~a. See also virodhfibhiisa. This could better
be called paradox.
virodhlibhlisa
virodhlibhlisa, 'appearance of paradox': (1) an artha sle~a in which two
terms appear to contradict each other, and in which the contradiction
is resolved by understanding one or the other as a pun. (2) R 10.22.
(3) tava dak$i1jo'pi vamo balabhadro'pi pralamba e~a bhujal,l / duryodhano'pi rajan yudhi~lhiro'stity aho citram (Rudrata; the king's arm
is both ';right" and "left", but "left" also means "unpropitious" (for
his enemies); Pralamha and Balabhadra, Duryodhana and Yudhi-

.....

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271

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(4) "Mine eye and heart are at a mortal war, / How to divide the
conqnest of thy sight; / ... My heart doth plead that thon in him
dost lie, / A closet never pierced with crystal eyes, / Bnt the defendant
doth that plea deny, / And says in him thy fair appearance lies"
(Shakespeare; the same idea as in the Prakrit example with the added
fillip that the various "residences" of"her" are considered contestants;
cf the figure pratyanika).
vise~a (III): (I) a figure in which a single cause is represented as producing,
in addition to its usual effect, another, literally impossible effect.
(2) R 9.9 (10), M 203. (3) likhitaltl biilamrgak$yii mama manasi

in vibhiivanii rests entirely upon a negated cause as the cause of just

that "impossible" effect. In other words, we wonder, in vibhiivanii,
that the effect should come at all, but here we wonder at how it
has come about, or, to put it another way, the proximate cause is
denied in vibhiivanii, but in viSe$okti, only a condition is denied.
Dal)<,lin classifies viSe$okti into five sorts, using the common foursome-jiiti, gUl)a, kriyii, and dravya (cf virodha)-and adding a
fifth, called hetu, which is "qualified deficiency", much as viSi${advaita is "qualified non-dualism". Compare viSe$okti II, the exact
reverse of this term.
kriya, 'verb': (I) a type of viSe$okti in which the subject's deficiency is
that of an action usually contributing to a given effect. (2) D 2.323
(326). (3) na baddhii bhruku(ir napi sphurito dasanacchadal;z / na ca
raktabhavad dr,,(ir jitaltl ca dvi$atiiltl kulam (Dat:1<,lin; the king invests
his enemies without the slightest sigu of anger: "His brows unlowering, his lips not athrob, his glance uninflamed-yet he conquers the
hosts of his enemies!"). (4) "So forth those joyous Birds did pass
along / Adown the Lee, that to them murmur'd low, / As he would
speak, but that he lack'd a tongue, / Yet did by signs his glad affection show, / Making his stream run slow" (Edmund Spenser; the
stream is unable to speak, yet he shows his affection).
gtII.Ia, 'attribute': (I) a type of vise$okti in which the subject's deficiency
is that of a specific (adjectival) attribute usually associated with that
effect. (2) D 2.323 (324). (3) na ka(horaltl na vii tik$l)am iiyudhaltl
pU$padhanvanal;z / tathapijitam evasidamunii bhuvanatrayam (Dat:1<,lin:
"The Love God's weapon-his bow of flowers-is neither hard nor
sharp, yet with its aid he has snbdued the three WOrlds !"). (4) "The
turtle lives 'twixt plated decks / Which practically conceal its sex. /
I think it clever of the turtle / In such a fix to be so fertile" (Ogden
Nash).
jati, 'genus': (I) a type of viSe$okti in which the subject's deficiency is
that of a generic characteristic nsually associated with the given
capacity or effect. (2) D 2.323 (325). (3) na devakanyakii napi

tayii sariram iitmiyam / sphu(am iitmano likhantyii ti/akaltl vimale

kapolatale (Rudrata; applying cosmetics prodnces not only the
tilakam but also a mark on theyoung man's soul: "As she paints
the bright tilaka mark on her spotless cheek, her whole form is

graven in my mind"). (4) "Why ~.tte about thy wrist, / Julia, this
silken twist; / For what other reason is't/Bnt to show thee how, in
part / Thou my pretty captive art? / But thy bond-slave is my heart
..." (Robert Herrick). (5) Compare asaltlgati, where the only effect
produced is literally impossible. The present case seems to be the
combination of an ordinary hetu with asaltlgati.
vise~llkti
vise~llkti

(I), 'giving a difference': (I) a figure in which a deficiency (a

negative attribute), either natural or occasional, is pointed out in
.snch a way as to magnify or emphasize the capability of its subject.
(2) B 3.22, D 2.323. (3) ekas tri1;i jayati jaganti kusumayudhal;z /
haratapi tanultl yasya saltlbhunii na hrtaltl balam (Bhiimaha; though
incorporeal, Love conquers all with his flowered arrows: "One
Love God has conquered the three worlds, and though Siva stole
his body away, his force remains"). (4) "The eyes in front of their
[women's] face are not used for seeing with, but for improving the
appearance. Hang the thickest veil in front of them and a girl of
seventeen will still see the other woman, through two doors and a
brick wall, with the various organs of perception existing in her skin,
which changes color, her breasts which tingle, and her brain which
performs evolntions of incalcnlable direction and speed" (Joyce
Cary; though they cannot see, yet they are aware). (5) The present
case differs from vibhiivanii in showing only a deficiency in the ability
of the subject as a means to exaggerating the power of a given
cause which realizesAts effect in a normal way. But the emphasis

gandharvakulasaltlbhavii / tathtipye$ti tapobhaiigaltl vidhiitultl vedhaso'

py alam (Dat:1<,lin: "Though not one of the heavenly chorus, not

even a daughter of the Gods, she could still disrupt the penances of
Brahma!"). (4) '''I know I'm not a great novelist', he will tell you.
'When I compare myself with the giants I simply don't exist.... All
I want people to say is that I do my best .... And after all, the
proof of the pudding is in the eating: The Eye of the Needle sold

272

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thirty-five thousand in England and eighty thousand in America,

and for the serial rights ofmy next book I've got the biggest terms I've
ever had yet'" (Somerset Maugham; though not a great novelist,
his books sell). (5) See the remark on jiiti virodha; jtiti here means
'class'.
dravya, 'substance': (1) a type of viSe~{)ktiin which the subject's deficiency
is that of particular things which usually accompany its capacity or
effect. (2) D 2.323 (327). (3) na rathti na ca rniitafigti na hayti na ca
pattayab / strilJam apafigadr~!yaiva jiyate jagataf[l trayam (Dat;lQjn;
though unaccompanied by the accoutrements of war, Love conquers
all: "No chariots! No elephants or horses! No infantry! With
sidelong glances alone do the ladies conquer the three worlds I").
(4) "From thence to Heaven's',brideless hall, / Where no corrupted
voices brawl; / No conscience molten into gold; / Nor forged
accusers bought and sold; / No c~~~y deferred; nor vainspent journey; / For there Christ is the King'sAttorney, / Who pleads for all
without degrees, / And he hath angels, but no fees" (Sir Walter
Raleigh; though it lack the accoutrements of a courtroom, yet
justice is doue).
betu, 'cause': (1) a type of viSe~{)kti in which the subject's deficiency is
not total, but qualified; the deficient attribute is present but in an
unusual or improbable form. (2) D 2.329 (328). (3) ekacakro

down to his reading again, and he sauntered along by the brook and
stood leaning against the stiles, with eager, intense eyes, which looked
as if they saw something very vividly; but it was not the brook, or
the willows, or the fields or the sky" (George Eliot). (5) This figure is
just the inverse of vise~{)kti I, where the effect is present, the contributing cause absent. But, as Mammata shows, a clever scholiast
can turn black into white; he cites the example, originally from
Bhiimaha, which we have given under viSe~{)kti I and interprets it:
"Deprivation of body is usually followed by deprivation of power;
this does not happen in the case ofLove, whose power is unimpaired."
By taking as the effective cause the very deficiency which other
writers allege, the same example can be made to prove contraries.
The influence of Sanskrit logic, where double negatives are the
preferred modes of exposition (e.g., concomitance is the non-existence
of mutual absence), upon Mammata is evident, to the detriment of
his poetics.
Udbhata and Mammata subdivide into several classes: the explanation for the non-operation is given (nimittadr~!i) or left to
inference (nimittfidr~ti). Mammata adds in logical fashion a third
category-where the explanation is quite beyond us (acintyanimitta)
-but he gives the same example as for nimittadr~!i!
acintyauimitta, 'inconceivable cause': (1) a type of viSe~{)kti II whose
distinctiveness is questionable. (2) M 163. (5) See viSe~{)kti II.
The example offered is identical with that of anuktanimitta viSe~{)kti
(see nimittadmi).
annktanimitta, 'whose cause is not expressed': (1) same as nimittadr~!i
viSe~{)kti. (2) M 163.
nktauimitta, 'whose cause is expressed': (1) same as nimittadr~!i viSe~{)kti.
(2) M 163.
uimittadnti, 'evidence of cause': (1) a type of viSe~{)kti II in which an
explanation is given for the unexpected non-operation of the cause.
(2) U 5.5, M 163. (3) itthaf[l visaf[l~!hulaf[l dmva tavakinaf[l vice~!itam/
nOdeti kimapi pranum satvarasyapi me vacab (Udbhata; the reason
why he didn't speak is given; it was Parvati's stumbling gait: "Seeing
your hesitating gait, no words arose to put a question, though I was
eager"). (4) "Miss Thorne declared that she was delighted to
have Mrs. Bold and Dr. Stanhope still with her; and Mr. Thorne
would have said the same, had he not been checked by a yawn, which
he could not suppress" (Anthony Trollope). (5) The figure is called
uktanimitta in Mammata.

ratho yanta vikalo vi~ama hayab / akramaty eva tejasvi tathapy arko
nabhastalam (Dat;l<;!in; references are to the disc of the sun, the seven

days of the week, and the dawn, said to be anuru, 'lacking thighs':
"The burning sun still courses through the heavens, though his
chariot has but;pne wheel, his steeds are uneven, and his driver
maimed"). (4) "As I walked along the winding road ... I mused
upon what I should say. Do they not tell us that style is the art of
omission? If that is so I should certainly write a very pretty piece"
(Somerset Maugham; the author's style is present, but its form is a
bit unusual).
vise~6kti (II): (1) a figure wherein no effect obtains despite the presence
of an effective cause. (2) U 5.4, M 163. (3) nidranivrttav udite dyuratne sakh'ijane dvarapadaf[l parapte/ slathikrtasle~arase bhujalflge cacala
nalifiganato'figana (Mammata; the causes for awakening are present,

but the girl, exhausted by lovemaking, remains asleep: "The sun

has risen to put an end to sleep, the troop of friends awaits outside
the door, yet the lady departs not from a loose embrace in the arms
of a lover who has ta';Jled her passion"). (4) "But Adam could not sit

273

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274

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nimittadnti, 'non-evidence of cause': (I) a type of viSe~{)kti II in which

no explanation is given for the nnexpected interruption of the cause.
(2) U 5.5, M 163. (3) (3) maharddhini grhe janma rupalfl smarasuhrdvayal; / tathapi na sukhapraptil; kasya citriyate na dhil; (Udbhala;
fate is alleged to be the unspoken explanation for the girl's unhappiuess: "Though born in a family of great wealth, beautiful
and young and befriended by Love, she was not happy. Who does
not marvel at itT'). (4) '''A fine painter, Mr. Esdaile, it's a pleasure
to work for him', the old man ran on; and I did not reply that in my
experience few pleasures iu the world lasted quite so long. I was
thinking of other things, the nature of which you may guess at"
(Oliver Onions). (5) This and the previous type illustrate a topic
which preoccupies certain logitl~ns, since it is relevant to the consideration of what constitutes an inferrible proposition (thesis). A
cause, or condition is not sufficient.:i1'iitself to account for an effect:
the absence of counteracting causes orconditions is just as necessary;
thus the absence of certainty is also an element in the inferribleness of
propositions. Certainty causes the operation of the syllogism to be
fruitless. The figure is called anuktanimitta by Mammala.
vise~okti (III): (I) a striking identification of non-similar things, obtained
by expressing one of the terms on the distinctive level of reality
appropriate to the other. (2) V 4.3.23. (3) dyutalfl hi nama puru~a
sydsilflhasanalfl rajyam Mrcchakatika, quoted by Vamana); vyasanalfl
hi nama sOcchvasalfl mara1;UJm (Vamana: "Gambling for some men
is a kingdom without a throne!" "Sin is breathing death!"). (4)
"Fame is a food that dead men eat" (Henry Austin Dobson; food
and fame are on.tologically different entities: food is expressed on
the ideal plane appropriate to fame). (5) This figure is just the inverse
of vyatireka, where two otherwise similar things are said to be subject
to a point of difference which is generally figurative or at least
irrelevant. Here, two otherwise different things are said to be subject
to a point of similarity, which is just as figurative. Despite his
examples, Vamana's definition is misleading, for his terms resemble
those used by others for vyatireka ("ekaguvahanikalpanayalfl se~a
samyadarhyam"), but his definition of vyatireka is correspondingly
skew (in which the pre-eminence of the subject is expressed).
The issue is thus neatly avoided, since the pre-eminence is expressed
precisely by pointing out a defect in the other term.

275

vi~ama
vi~ama

(I), 'dissimilar': (I) a figure wherein the relationship between

two things, which may exist either in fact orin the mind ofthe speaker,
is considered incongruous. (2) R 7.47-50, M 194. (3) rupalfl kva
madhuram etat kva c!!dam asyal; sudiiruvalfl vyasanam / iti cintayanti
pathikas tava vairivadhulfl vane dr~tva (Rudrala; flattery of the
victorious warrior: '''How can such beauty exist in such sinful and
harsh condition l' Thus do the travellers wonder who see in the
forests the wives of your vanquished enemies"). (4) "Did He smile
His work to see? / Did He who made the lamb make thee?" (William
Blake; a tiger is referred to). (5) The relation under consideration
may not in fact exist, as: "He had the passion of Romeo in the body
of Sir Toby Belch" (Somerset Maugham); the incongruity is given
figurative force.
vi~ama (II): (I) a figure in which the causal process is described as
functioning in an incongruous way: either an outclassed cause
accomplishes its effect, or a potent cause somehow fails to accomplish
its effect. (2) R 7.51 (52-53). (3) tvadbhrtydvayavan api sohum
samare k~ama na te k~dral; / asidharapathapatitalfl tvalfl tu nihanya
mahendram api (Rudrata: "Your vile enemies can't withstand even
the little fingers of your dependents in battle; and you, 0 King,
would slay even Indra should he fall beneath your sword !"). (4) "Ah,
how can those fair Eyes endure / To give the wounds they will
not cure!" (John Dryden). (5) This figure resembles the two types
of viSe~6kti, but, unlike them, does not repose upon the idea of
deficiency. In viSe~{)kti, a cause must be specifically unable to
produce that effect; here no judgment is implied beyond the mere
improbability of the event.
vi~ama (III): (I) a figure in which a cause is described as producing the
contrary effect of the one desired. (2) R 7.54 (55), M 194. (3)
utkavtha paritapo ravaravakalfl jagaras tanos tanuta / phalam idam
aho maydptalfl sukhaya mrgalocanalfl dr~tva (Rudrala: "Longing,
sorrow, and regret, wakefulness and loss of weight-this is the result
I have gained when I songht her out for pleasure"). (4) "But thence
I learn, and find the lesson true, / Drugs poison him that so fell sick
of you" (Shakespeare; drugs only aggravate the sickness of love).
(5) Cf vise~a III and abhava hetu.
vi~ama (IV): (I) a figure in which a cause and its effect are described as
possessing incompatible qualities. (2) M 194. (3) sadyal; karasparSam
avapya citralfl rave rave yasya krpavalekha / tamiilanfla saradindu-

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plil:"ju YaSas trilokylibharaQaffl prosute (Ma=ta; the sword is

said to be dark blue and its effect, glory, to be the color ofthe autumn
moon: "Always in his hand, in battle after battle, that thin sword,
dark as a blue lotus, engenders in him glory worthy of the three
worlds and pale as the autumn moon"). (4) "My mother bore
me in the southern wild, / And I am black, but 0, my soul is white!"
(William Blake). (5) An example of cause and effect differing as to
mode of action is: "The walls were of old plaster ... marked with
the blood of mosquitoes and bed-bugs slain iu portentous battles
long ago by theologians now gone forth to bestow their thus uplifted
visions upon a materialistic world" (Sinclair Lewis). We are to
believe that the fight with bedbugs has prepared the theologian for
,,"
his later calling.

vyatire~,,,,
vyatireka (I), 'distinction': (I) a figure wherein two notoriously similar
things are said to be subject to a point of difference; usually the
subject of comparison is stated to excel the object, surpassing the
norm of its own comparability; hencq, an inverted simile. (2) B 2.75
(76), D 2.180-98, V 4.3.22, U 2.6, R 7.86-89, M 159. (3) kuvalayavanaffl pratyakhyataffl navaffl madhu ninditaffl hasitam amrtaffl
bhagnaffl sviidol.z padaffl rasasafflpadal.z / vi~am upahitaffl cintavyajiin
manasy api kaminaffl caturamadhurair matantrais tavlirdhavilokitail.z
(Vamana: "The lotus forest repudiated! The new springtime has
been put to shame! Honey has become a mockery, the state of sweet
satisfaction is ended, and poison, in the guise of longing, has been
put into the minas of lovers by your playful, passionate, coquettish
sidelong glance"). (4) "Eyes, that displace / The neighbour diamond,
and outface / That sunshine by their own sweet grace" (Richard
Crashaw). (5) The most extensive anatomies of this figure are given
by DaI}gin and Mammata and rest upon the same sorts of criteria.
Dal}gin divides first, into those dissimilitudes whose common
property is expressed (Sabdopadana), and second, into those where
it is implicit (pratfyamiina). Ma=ata follows suit, but subdivides
the former category as to whether a verbal or nominal similitude is
expressed (sabda, artha). Both authors admit formal criteria
depending upon the number, character, and scope of the differential
qualifications which express the dissimilitude (eka, ubhaya, iidhikya,
hetu). In the Sanskrit texts considered, there is but one example
offered of a vyatireka' whose fuuction is to extol the object at the

GLOSSARY

277

expense of the subject of comparison. Cf vyatireka II.

artha, 'implicit': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the comparative particle
(iva, 'like') is present, expressing a similitude of action or behavior.
(2) M 160. (3) asimatrasahayo'pi prabhi1tfiriparabhave / nfiivlinyatucchajanavat sagarvo'yaffl mahiidhrtil.z (Mammata: "Armed only
with a sword, in the midst of his enemies' rout, King Mahadhjii is
not swelled np with pride like the rest of the vain world"). (4) ", ..
and art, the most nervous of the three, musn't be pushed aside like a
butterfly" (E. M. Forster). (5) In sabda vyatireka, the comparative
particle expresses a nominal similitude, that is, a similitude of two
things through a co=on property. This same distinction was made
for simile (upama). It pervades the thinking of the Indian aestheticians: cf vakylirthOpama. Here the form of vyatireka is overlaid,
but the distinction (artha-sabda) concerns only the terms in respect
of their comparability. In Forster's example, an injunction forbids
us to push aside art like we push aside a butterfly (note the repetition
of the verbal idea when the figure is spelled ont; cf vakylirtha), but
the difference in our attitude is meaningful ouly insofar as the terms
are comparable. In ak~ipta vyatireka, the comparative particle is
not expressed. The form is artha in the commentary.
ahetu, 'without the cause': (I) same as nimittlidr${i vyatireka. (2) M 160.
(5) See sahetu vyatireka.
lik~ipta, 'implied': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the force of the distinction is carried by circumlocutions which avoid the comparative
particle entirely. (2) M 160. (3) iyaffl sunayana dasfkrtatamarasasriya /
ananenlikalafikena jayatinduffl kalafikinam (Ma=ata: "This girl
oflovely eyes and beauty which enslaves the day lotus-she conquers
the spotted moon with her unblemished face"). (4) "Bacchus must
now his power resign- / I am the only God of wine!" (Henry Carey;
instead of: Bacchus is unlike me, for I am a drinker). (5) Inpratfyamana, it is the similitude which is understood, not the comparative
particle. Cf artha, sabda-the other members of Mammata's triad.
lik~epa, 'refusal': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the underlying similitude
is admitted only tentatively, as a prelqde to showing the difference
(refuting the similitude). (2) D 2.186 (187). (3) sthitiman api dhfro'pi
ratnanam akaro'pi san / tava kak~affl na yaty eva malino makarlilayal.z
(Daw;lin: "Though it is steadfast and a mine of jewels, the ocean
cannot be compared to you, 0 King, for it is dark colored"). (4)
"Her sacred beauty hath enchanted heaven; / And, had she liv'd
before the siege of Troy, / Helen, whose beauty summon'd Greece

278

279

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GLOSSARY

to anns, I And drew and thousand ships to Tenedos, I Had not been
nam'd in Homer's Iliads" (Christopher Marlowe; Tamburlaine
praises his dead Zenocrate). (5) Here the interest resides in the form
the differentiation takes: we have only concessive similitude, so that
the distinction has the aspect ofa refutation of that similitude. UsuaIly, the similitude is unflinchingly admitted. Marlowe, however,
aIlows Helen her virtues only so long as the accidents of time are
respected; the similitude of Zenocrate and Helen is in fact a fiction
whose only purpose is to lead the unsuspecting reader to a more
forceful perception ofthe pre-eminence ofthe former. In the Sanskrit
example, the similitude is introduced by the word api, the discrimination by eva. This has the advanti\ge ofmaking the concession explicit.
lidhikya, 'superabundance': (I) a type of vyatireka in which both the
pre-eminence of the subject of comparison and the defectiveness of
the object in respect of the crite~$1 of differentiation are stated.
(2) D 2.192 (191). (3) abhriiviliisa"; QspNtamadariigalp mrgek~a/Jam I
idalp tu nayanadvandvalp tava tadgu/Jabhii$itam (DaJ.l<;lin: "The doe's
glance is unrelieved by coquettish brows, untouched by love's heady
passion; your two eyes redeem this lack"). (4) "Mr. Irwine was like
a good meal 0' victual, you were the better for him without thinking
on it, and Mr. Ryde was like a dose 0' physic, he gripped you and
wOITeted you, and after all he left you much the same" (George
Eliot; two preachers are being distinguished; note the subordinate
comparisons). (5) In bhedamiitra, the bare distinction is made
between the two things, and there is no expression of pre-eminence
since the distinction is entirely circumstantial. Note the subordination of the similes to the synchisis: a common "salpsr~ti" in English.
obhaya, 'both': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the point of difference is
made explicit for both things being distinguished. (2) D 2.184 (183).
(3) abhinnave!au gambhiriiv amburiisir bhavtin api I astiv aiijanasaiiktisas tvalp tu ctimikaradyutil; (DaJ.l<;lin: "You, 0 King, and the ocean
both are deep and limitless, bnt it has the appearance of coIlyriom
and you that of gold!"). (4) "Old black rooks flapping along the
sky and old black taxicabs flapping down the street" (Joyce Cary).
(5) Cf eka vyatireka, where the difference of one term only is given.
eka, 'one': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the point of difference is made
explicit for only one of the things being distinguished,. (2) D 2.182
(181). (3) dhairya!tiva/Jyagtimbhiryapramukhais tvam udanvatal; I
gU/Jais tu!yo'si bhedas tu vapu~aivedrsena te (DaJ.l<;lin: "You are indeed
similar to the ocean in steadfastness, kindness [saltiness] and depth;

however, you differ as to your aspect"). (4) "'I like the front
window', I said, 'for the view. As good as a RoIls. Better; higher
and not the same responsibility not to run over the poor'" (Joyce
Cary; in a London bus). (5) There is, of course, no mystery about
how the distinction applies to the other term (it being only the converse); the point is that for that term, the appropriate qualification is
only suggested (the ocean has another form; the driver of the RoIls
has a responsibility). Cf ubhaya.
gamyamlioa, 'being understood': (I) same as pratiyamtina vyatireka.
(2) V 4.3.22C.
jliti, 'genus': (I) a type of vyatireka in which an instance, usuaIly figurative,
is distinguished from its own genus by pointing out the sense in
which it is figurative. (2) D 2.198 (197). (3) aratna!okasalphtiryam
ahtiryalp siiryarasmibhil; I dr~tirodhakaralp yiintilp yauvanaprabhavalfl
tamal; (DaJ.l<;lin: "The passionate darkness bam of youth which
obstructs the vision of the young is impenetrable even to the clear
briIliance of jewels and cannot be dispeIled by the rays of the sun").
(4) "He had merely meant to express his feeling that the streams which
ran through their veins were not yet purified by time to that perfection, had not yet become as genuine an ichor, as to be worthy of
being caIled blood in a genealogical sense" (Anthony TroIlope; here
common blood is distinguished from noble blood, but the principle
is the same). (5) This amounts to specifying the two senses of a
legitimate double-entendre, insofar as one meaning is literal and
the other figurative. Cf s!e~a, where the duplicity of meaning is
founded upon a pun, not a double-entendre.
dntaota, 'example': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the distinction is cast
in the form of proposition and example, and where the example
involves the contrary property or aspect. (2) iU 2.7. (3) Sir/Japar1Jambuvtitiisaka~te' pi tapasi sthitam I samudvah~ntilp [Umtilp] napiirvamgarvamanyatapasvivat (Udbhata: "Uma was not overborne by
unprecedented pride like other ascetics, whose privations were made
difficult by a diet of withered leaves, water, and air"). (4) "I may be
nothing but an old failure, having muffed just about everything I
ever put my hand to; I seem to have the Midas touch in reverse"
(Saul BeIlow). (5) Udbhata says that this figure is the same as
vaidharmya dr${anta. This is a curious point, because Udbhata is
the first known writer to mention dr~tanta as a figure, and among
the later writers, only Mammata recoguizes a vaidharmya subtype.
Of course, all the figures ultimately go back to sources unknown

...
rim

280

281

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GLOSSARy

to us (in the sense, at least, that the writers never tell us when they
are innovating), but here is an example of a notion refuted before
it is stated. The issue is not major, for it reduces to a decision
as to which of the two figures (dr${anta, vyatireka) here combined is primary, and that seems to depend on the intention of
the speaker. In the example from Saul Bellow, the distinction seems
more important than the illustration (he is not looking around for
un mot juste at any rate).
nimittadr~ti, 'whose cause is evident': (I) a type of vyatireka in which a
cause explains the pre-eminence of the subject. (2) U 2.6. (3)
padmalJ ca niSi nibrikarrz divii candrarrz ca ni$prabham / sphuracchiiyena satatarrz mukhenadhab pra/fyrvatim [Umiim] (Udbha\a; Uma's
face surpasses both the lotus and the moon because it is beautiful
both by day and by night: "Un;>a, conquering with her everradiant face the lotus, at night url19yely, and the moon, dull by
day").
(4) "Return sweet Evening ... / Not sumptuously adorned, nor
needing aid, / Like homely featured Night, of clustering gems; /
A star or two, just twinkling on thy brow, / Suffices thee" (William
Cowper).
nimittdr~ti, 'whose cause is not evident': (I) a type of vyatireka in which
the cause of the subject's pre-eminence is only hinted at. (2) U 2.6.
(3) sii gauri sikhararrz gatvii dadarMmiirrz tapabkrsiim / riihupitaprabhasy@ndorjayantirrz duratas tanum (Udbha\a; the explanation-the
eclipse-is not given: Rahu is unable to obscure the moon for long,
whereas Uma's pale and intense tapas is coustant; "Gaurl, gone to
the mountain peak; saw Uma, frail through penance but conquering
from afar the beauty of the pale, eclipsing moon"). (4) "I think
that I shall never see / A billboard lovely as a tree. / Perhaps unless
the billboards fall, / I'll never see a tree at all" (Ogden Nash; why
trees are preferable to billboards is left to onr imagination). (5)
Udbhata subdivides vyatireka only in this way (cJ. nimittadT${i);
now, any distinctive qualification can be taken as a cause of dissimilitude or pre-eminence, but it seems that we should take Udbhata
more literally than that, and see his cause to be an effective and not
merely formal cause. Eka and ubhaya vyatireka concern distinctive
qualifications only as forms. In hetu vyatireka, the discrimination is
itself given the form of a cause; in the present case, the cause is
taken to mean the explanation of that discrimination.
pratiyamana, 'being understood, implicit': (I) a type of vyatireka in

which the similitude which underlies the discrimination is not

mentioned explicitly, but where the distinction is spelled out. (2)
D 2.189 (190-98). (3) tvanmukharrz kamalarrz cai dvayor apy anayor
bhidii / kamalarrz jalasarrzrohi tvanmukharrz tvadupiiSrayam (Dal.lQin;
their loveliness is not mentioned: "Your face and the lotus differ in
this: the lotus grows in the water, and your face appears only on
you"). (4) "A man's profession is not like his wife which he must
take once and for all for better or for worse without proof beforehand" (Samuel Butler). (5) This figure is the same as gamyamiina
ofVamana. Dal.lQin distinguishes vyatireka into two broad classesthis and sabdopiidiina (explicit)-and then subdivides each type
further. As examples, of iidhikya, bhedamtitra, jati. CJ. atisayopamti,
which differs from this type only in asserting that the difference
given is unique.
bbedamatra, 'the difference only': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the bare
and circumstantial difference of the two comparable things is stated.
(2) D 2.192 (190). (3) tvanmukharrz kamalarrz cai dvayor apy anayor
bhidii / kamalarrz jalasarrzrohi tvanmukharrz tvadupiisrayam (Dal.lQin;
see the translation under pratiyamiina). (4) "When a man bleeds
inwardly, it is a dangerous thing for himself; but when he laughs
inwardly, it bodes no good to other people" (Charles Dickens).
(5) This figure is to be distinguished from iidhikya, in which the
differentiation of the two terms involves the assignment of preeminent and defective status, respectively. Here the differentiation
is entirely circumstantial, eschewing such judgements. CJ. ca{u
upamii, which simile consists in overlooking the difference.
maIa, 'garlaud': (1) a type of vyatireka in which the subject of comparison
is distinguished from several objects in terms of several properties;
a series of vyatirekas having the same subject. (2) M 160C. (3)
haravan na vi$amadr${ir harivan na vibho vidhutavitatavr$ab / ravivan
na catidubsahakaratiipitabhUb kadiicid asi (Mammata: "Unlike Siva,
you have but two eyes, 0 King. Unlike Kr~l.la, you have not
overthrown the great bull demon (viz. vice personified as a bull).
Unlike the sun, you do not beat down upon the earth with rays
[hands] of great violence"). (4) "-But your voice, -never the rushing I Of a river underground, I Not the rising of the wind I In the
trees before the rain, I Not the feet of children pushing / Yellow
leaves along the gutters I In the blue and bitter fall, I Shall content my
musing mind I For the beauty of that sound" (Edna St. Vincent
Millay). (5) This category is introduced by Mamma\a only to show

1.

....

-----'-

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the futility of such classifications; cf artha, sabda, iik~ipta, hetu,

and elements of the structure of vyatireka.
vyasta, 'separate': (I) same as eka vyatireka. (2) R 7.86 (87). (5) Cf
samasta.
sabda, 'literal': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the comparative particle
is present expressing a similitude of two nominal ideas through a
common property. (2) M 160. (3) jitendriyatayii samyagvidyiivrddhani~eviQah / atigii4haguQasyasya niibjavad bhafigurii guQiih (Mammala: "Your virtues [garlands] are notfragile like those of the lotus,
for your qualities are deep rooted and you honor the aged sages by
your great self-control"). (4) "Men's muscles move better when
their souls are making merry music, though their merriment is of
a poor blundering sort, not af all like the merriment of birds"
(George Eliot). (5) Cf artha; the distinction is the same as that
applied to simile (cf iirtha, siibda)~Il.? concerns only the interpretation of the comparative particle. .For afnll discussion, see viikyarthavrtti. In the example offered under artha vyatireka, "like" expresses a verbal similitude ("pushed aside"), here a nominal similitude
("poor blundering sort"). The distinction is linguistic and not
absolute: the former could be expressed nominally ("as light as"),
the second verbally ("blunders"). The form siibda is found 4n the
commentary.
sabdopiidiina, 'literal': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the similitude
which underlies the differentiation of the comparable things is
spelled out. (2) D 2,180-88. (3) tvanmukha/fl pUQ4arika/fl ca phu/le
surabhigandhini j,bhramadbhramaram ambhoja/fllolanetra/fl mukha/fl
tu te (DaI;u;lin: "Your face and the lotus are full blown and sweet
smelling, but the flower is surrounded by wandering bees and the
face has a coquettish glance"). (4) "All human things are subject to
decay, / And, when Fate su=ons, Monarchs must obey: / This
Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young / Was called to Empire
and had govern'd long: / In Prose and Verse was own'd without
dispute / Through all the reahns of Non-sense, absolute (John
Dryden). (5) Cf pratiyamiina, where the similitude is only implied.
See kalpitopamii.
sle~a, 'double-entendre': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the similitude
on which the distinction is founded is punned upon. (2) D 2.186
(185), M 160. (3) akhaIJ4amaIJ4alah sriman pasyai~a prthivipatih /
na niSiikaravaj jiitu kaliivaikalyam iigatal;z (Mammala: "Regard that
great Lord of prosperoils court [whose disc is full] and who embodies

good fortune [beauty]; unlike the full moon, he need never suffer
decrepitude [enter the waning phase]"). (4) "a politician is an arse
upon / which everyone has sat except a man" (e. e. cummings).
(5) In Dan<;\in's example, the qualifications which serve to discriminate
the two things are also punned: "tva/fl samudras ca durviirau maMsattvau satejasau / aya/fl tu yuvayor bhedal;z sa ja4iitmii pa!ur bhaviin"
("You and the ocean, 0 King, are indomitable [uncrossable], of
great character [containing many substances], violent [stormy]; this,
however, is the difference between you: the ocean is cold [stupid]
souled; you, however, are acrid [keen witted]"). Compare: "When I
am dead, I hope it may be said: / 'His sins were scarlet, but his
books were read'" (Hilaire Belloc).
sadrsa, 'similar': (I) a type of vyatireka in which the distinction is itself
cast in terms which suggest comparable aspects of the two things.
(2) D 2.192 (193-95). (3) candro'yam ambarotta/flso ha/flso'ya/fl
toyabhii~alJam / nabho nak~atramiilldam utphu/lakumuda/fl payal;z
(Dan<;\in; the four terms are distinguished, but all are expressed as
ornaments of the distinguishing feature: "The moon is an ornament
of the sky, the swan adorns the lake; the skY has a necklace of stars,
the lake is abloom with lotuses"). (4) "That punctual servant of all
work, the sun, had just risen, and begun to strike a light on the
morning of the thirteenth of May, one thousand eight hundred and
twenty-seven, when Mr. Samuel Pickwick burst like another sun
from his slumbers, threw open his chamber window, and looked
out upon the world beneath" (Charles Dickens). (5) This is instead
of stating the distinction as an adjunction to the description of the
similarity of the two things (cf sabdopiidiina).
samasta, 'conjoined': (I) same as ubhaya or iidhikya vyatireka. (2) R
7.86 (88). (5) Cf vyasta. Rudrala's classification stops at this
distinction. His intention is probably closer to the iidhikya of Dan<;\in,
since there it is a question explicitly of pre-eminence and inferiority,
not just of distinctive qualifications applied to both terms.
sabetu, 'including the cause': (I) same as nimittadr~!i vyatireka. (2)
M 160. (5) Mammala distinguishes four types, according to whether
the cause for the discrimination is given for both, for one or the
other, or for neither of the two compared things. He offers examples
only for the first category.
hetn, 'cause': (1) a type of vyatireka in which the distinctive qualification
is cast in the form of a cause (of that difference). (2) D 2.186 (188).
(3) vahann api mahi/fl krtsnii/fl sasailadvipasiigariim / bhartrbhiiviid

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GLOSSARY

bhujaiigiinii'fl se~as tvatto nikr~yate (Dal).<;Iin: "Although you both

support the whole world with its islands and mountains and seas,
you surpass the great Serpent who is only the first among snakes").
(4) "In Germany the Reformation was due to the passionate conviction of Luther. In England it was due to a palace intrigue" (E. M.
Forster). (5) Cf. nimitttidr~ti.
vyatireka (II): (I) a vyatireka in which the expression of difference focuses
upon the pre-eminence of the object of comparison. (2) R 7.89 (90).
(3) k~fQab k~fQo'pi saSi bhuyo bhuyo vivardhate satyam / virama
prasfda sundari yauvanam anivarti yiita'fl (Rudrata: "The waning
moon grows less and less, but will become again complete. Be kind,
o lovely, and leave off anger; youth once gone does not return").
(4) "Still do the stars impart th'~jr light / To those that travel in the
night; / Still time runs on, nor dqth the hand / Or shadow on the
dial stand; / The streams still glide l!~4,constant are: / Only my mind /
Untrue I find / Which carelessly / Neglects to be / Like stream or
shadow, hand or star" (William Cartwright). (5) Though tWs could
easily be included in the first variety of vyatireka, it is worthy of
note that of the thirty or forty exall'1plys offered in the different texts,
only this one of Rudrata fails to exWbit the usual exaggeration and
consequent flattery of the subject of comparison (in the present
case, the mind). Of course, in English poetry, such instances are if
anytWng more frequent than the flattery, and several have been
included as examples of subtypes of vyatireka I where the point at
issue is formal and does not contest with the intention of the speaker
(cf hetu, sabda). Rudrata's late arrival does, however, pose one
interesting problem of interpretation. If the intention of the speaker
is flattery, the vyatireka amounts to an elliptical simile, for the differential qualifications all operate to the disadvantage of the object or
the advantage of the subject, and thus reinforce their basic similitude
by cancelling the natural relation of the subject (which shares the
property of comparison to a lesser degree) and the object (to a
greater). However, once the discrimination of the two terms is
divested of tWs function, the character of the figure assumes only
secondary importance, for it then acquiesces in the natural mode of
expression of its own terms and becomes either a matter of fact
distinction or an anti-simile, as above. It cannot be said that the
intention of the poet is to compare mind and stream, etc., in the
same sense as that in which moon and face are habitually compared;
his intention is rathe,no express the peculiarity of the subject, not

GLOSSARY

285

ironically (cf asiidhiira1)a upamii), but factually. In tWs effort, the

underlying comparability of the distinguished terms is only a condition or a means to the end of that distinction, and far from assuming primary importance (through irony), it is effective only as it
remains just below the level of interest, as the basses in an orchestra.
vyiighiita
vyiighiita, 'obstacle': (1) a figure in wWch a cause, for some reason
obstructed in its operation, is carried through to its effect in another
way by another cause wWch is a modified version of the obstruction.
(2) M 206. (3) drsii dagdha'fl manasija'fl jfvayanti drSiiiva yiib /
virupak~asya jayinfs tiib stuve viimalocaniib (Mammata; Love,
consumed by the fire of Siva's glance, is reanimated by the glances of
the young ladies: "I praise their lovely, conquering eyes in whose
glances the God of Love again lives, whose body was consumed by
another's glance"). (4) "Catherine rushed to congratulate him, but
knew not what to say, and her eloquence was only in her eyes. From
them, however, the eight parts of speech shone out most expressively,
and James could combine them with ease" (Jane Austen). (5) The
cause, as it were, is shown getting the best of its Wndrance by taking a
form whereby that Wndrance can be turned to its own ends. This
figure is neither viSe~6kti, because the first cause, though obstructed,
does contribute to the final effect, nor is it asa'flgati, because a
mediating cause is introduced to explain the effect.
vyiighiita (II): (I) same as viSe~6kti II. (2) R 9.52 (53). (5) There may be a
slight difference in that the absence of obstruction is specifically
alleged.
vyiija
vyiija, 'pretence': (1) an artha sle~a in which praise is understood from
apparent blame, or vice versa. (2) R 10.11. (3) tvayii madarthe
samupetya dattam ida'fl yathii bhogavate sarfram / tathOsya te duti
krtasya sakyii pratikriyanena na janmanii me (Rudrata; spoken by a
girl to her messenger after learning that her lover found the messenger
a bit too pliable and not uniquely concerned with arranging the
rendez-vous: as apparent praise, bhogavate is taken as 'lover' and
pratikriyii as 'recompense'; but as blame, as 4snake' and 'vengeance'.
The snake image is further suggested by the messenger's returning
with [the lover's] teeth wounds on her lips; "You have gone for my
sake and given your body to my lover [serpent], 0 procuress; I will

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GLOSSARY

never be able in my life to repay you [get even with you]"). (4)
"When other fair ones to the shades go down / Still Chloe, Flavia,
Delia, stay in town: / Those ghosts of beauty wandering here reside,
/ And haunt the places where their honour died" (Alexander Pope;
the pun is on two kinds of death). (5) Both examples show apparent
praise which is blame. This Sie$a differs from vyajastuti alalflkara
only in that a pun is at the bottom of the irony. It is perfectly
possible, ofcourse, to express such pretence of praise without actually
employing puns.

depends upon some aspect of their grammatical, phonemic, or

metrical form, and not upon the idea they couvey. (2) B 1.15-16,
D 3.186, V 1.1.1,4.1.1 (vrtti), U 5.12, AP 342.18-19, R 2.13, M 103C.
(5) See artha. The common examples of sabddlalflkara are anuprasa
(alliteration), yamaka (word play, cadence), certain kinds of punning
(Sie$a), prehelika (conundnun), and the citra, or verses arranged in
imitation of visual forms. Only the Agni Pura~a deviates significantly
from this canonical list, by adding six figures which have no parallel
except in much later works (Sarasvatika~lhdbhara~a). They are (a)
chtiya, imitation of specific verbal styles, (b) mudra, the poet's
ability to translate his intentions into plausible situations. (c) ukti,
use of injunctions, (d) yukti, figurative usage, (e) gumphana, ability
to construct the narrative, and (f) vakovakya, conversation. These
notions, which have to do with the technical skills of the poet, are
matched by certain stylistic figures which the Agni Pura~a treats
under sabdiirthdlalflkara and which relate to the congruence and
appropriateness of the different aspects of the poem to one another
(see prasasti, kanti, aucitya, Salflk$epa, yavadarthata, and abhivyakti).
These irregular notions of poetic style have been incorporated into
the traditional treatment of the figures. Anuprasa and the others are
treated as the seventh, eighth, and ninth sabdiilalflkara. The five
figures ak$epa, aprastutastotra, samas6kti, apahnuti, and paryay6kta
are considered subtypes of abhivyakti. The arthdlalflkara are the
usual ones, mainly based on simile. A fusion of several different
systems is indicated also by the fact that the Agni Pura~a, despite
tWs incorporation of style into the figures, treats at length (though
again with innovations) the traditional topic of style (kavyagu~a).
One figure (yathtisaY(lkhya) finds its way into this category. This
early attempt at broadening the notion of verbal figure was not,
however, viewed with favor by later writers. With the triumph of
the dhvani school, an eclipse of the sabdiilalflkara is evident, at least
among the poeticians. Mammala goes so far as to view even yamaka
as a citra. The previously elaborate classifications of yamaka and
anuprasa are reduced or are even iguored entirely (Rasagaiigiidhara).
This is doubly curious, since the poetry written during tWs period
(eleventh-sixteenth centuries) is, for the most part, alleged to depend
upon such verbal devices.

vyajastuti
vyajastuti, 'deceptive eulogy': (1) a figure in which apparent blame conceals real praise or appreciation. (2) B 3.30 (31), D 2.343-47, V
4.3.24, U 5.9, R 10.11 (12-13), M 169. (3) pUlflsaiz pura~tid acchidya
sris tvaya paribhujyate / rajann'/k;$vakuvalflsyasya kim idalfl tava
yujyate (Dal1J;lin; Sri is the wife of-ViglU: "0 King, you have stolen
Sri [prosperity] from her former spouse and enjoyed her! Can this
deed be condoned in the scion of the IkFiiku clan ?"). (4) "The poor
. man's sins are glaring; / In the face of ghostly warning / He is caught
in the fact / Of an overt act- / Buying greens on Sunday morning"
(T. L. Peacock; really a defense of the lower classes). (5) The earlier
writers consider only the case of blame concealing praise (although
Da114in in his unique interpretation of the figure aprastutaprasalflsa,
considers it to be blame concealed as praise of something irrelevant).
But Rudrala and Mammala extend the figure and take account of
the other pos.sibility-that of praise concealing blame: "tvaya
madarthe samupetya dattam idalfl yathti bhogavate sariram I tathdsya
te diUi krtasya sakya pratikriydnena na janmana me (Rudrala; for
translation, see vyaja); or: "Lament him, Mauchline husbands a', /
He often did assist ye; / For had ye staid whole weeks awa', /
Your wives they ne'er had missed ye" (Robert Burns; "praise" of
the gay deceased).
Rudrala groups this figure with those based upon a pun. See
vyaja.
vyajokti
vyajokti, 'pretext': (1) same as lesa I. (2) V 4.3.25, M 184.
sabda
sabda, 'word': (1) a gelleric term for those figures whose poetic effect

sabd~rtha,

i
i

e/,\"

287

sabdilrtha
'word-sense': (1) a generic term used to indicate those in-

288

GLOSSARY

determinate figures whose poetic effect cannot be assigned exclusively

to either their formal character or to the meaning they convey, but
rather involves both. (2) AP 345.1, M 124. (5) See sabda,l artha.
This category in the Agni Purii~a includes six figures: prasasti,
kiinti, aucitya, Salflk$epa, yiivadarthatii, and abhivyakti. All are
aspects of literary style concerned with the integration of the various
elements of a poem, and the most interesting is the last: abhivyakti.
Here are treated the various kinds ofmeaning-direct, connotational,
and secondary-which a word or phrase may convey, and five
modes of relating the suggested meaning to the major senSe of the
poem are outlined. All five happen to be traditional alalflkiiras:
iik$epa, aprastutastotra, samiis~kti, apahnuti, paryiiyokta, and in this
sense they are taken as exaniples of dhvani. The category dhvani
is not otherwise noted, and we may here be in the preseuce of one
of the forerunner theories involvin~lhis term. Out of this may have
grown the dhvani which denied all association with figures of speech
as expressively necessary. It is easy to see how this uotion may have
arisen out of an examination of those figures of speech which do
convey a second meaning, not literally expressed, as abbreviated
metaphors (samasokti). It is, however, just as possible in theory
to take the Agni Pura~a as a conservative text attempting to reintegrate an already proposed dhvani (the kiirikiis of the Dhvanyiiloka
may have been approximately contemporary) into a traditional
.structuring of the figures.
sayya
sayya, 'bed': (1) same as mudrii. (2) AP 342.26.
sli~ia
sli~!a,

'punned, conjoined': (I) a variant form of sle$a.

sle~a

sle~a,

'adhesion' or 'conjoined': (I) paronomasia; pun; double-entendre;

the simultaneous expression of two (or more) meanings. (2) B 3.14,
D 2.310, V 4.3.7, U 4.9, R 4.1, 10.1, M 119, 147. (3) iikmamalama~(ialagrarucayabsalflnaddhavak$absthaliib siJ$mii~o vra~ino vipak$ahrdayapriJnmiithinab karkasiib / udvrttii guravas ca yasya vasinab
syiimiiyamiinananii yodhii miiravadhiistanas ca na dadhuh ksobham sa
vo'vyiij jinab (Vamana; all the descriptive adjectives h~ve 'one s~nse
when taken with the noun "warriors", another when taken with

GLOSSARY

289

"women's breasts": "May he alone conquer you who is unaffected

by soldiers and the breasts of lovely women, brilliant with their

spotless drawn scimitars [the nipples of whose spotless circles gleam
when revealed], whose chests are girded [whose chests are full
blown], lively [heaving], scarred [wounded], striking fear into the
hearts of their enemies [producing agitation in the hearts of their
rivals], rough [firm], arrogant [swollen], stolid [heavy], and whose
faces are dark with rage [whose tips are dark]"). (4) "Beneath in the
Dust, the mouldy old Crust / Of Moll Batchelor lately was shaven,
/ Who was skiIJ'd in the Arts of Pyes, Custards and Tarts, / And
every Device of the Oven. / When she'd Iiv'd long enough, she made
her last Puff, / A Puff by her Husband much prais'd; / And here she
doth lie, and makes a Dirt Pye, / In hopes that her Crust may be
rais'd" (Anou.; the puns here relate the kitchen and the tomb).
(5) The confusion of terms is here significant and oddly appropriate
to the concept involved; the first two writers to define pun, Bhamaha
and DaJ:l4in, prefer the term Sli$!a, perhaps to distinguish doubleentendre from the well-known gu~a (stylistic quality) "sle$a" (usually
defined as the appropriateness of word and sense) which dates at
least from the Nii!yasiistra. The two terms thus contrasted are only
grammatically different, the former being a past participle, 'conjoined', and the latter a derived noun, 'conjunction'. The first
writer to confuse the issue was Vamana, who uses "sle$a" only.
Udbhaia follows Bhamaha's lead, but does not treat the gu~as in the
part of his work we have. The Agni Purii~a describes the ~a
"Sle$a", but ignores the alalflkiira. Rudraia does not consider the
gu~as, but calls the alalflkiira "Sle$a". Mammaia, to complete the
confusion, refutes the gu~a "sle$a" (he accepts only three gu/Jas),
but follows Rudraia in describing Sle$a alalflkiira. On the level of
the idea, we fare little better. It is obvions that all the writers are
talking abont the same thing, bnt their definitions, though having
some elements in common, vary widely. Sle$a is snbdivided in
extremely different ways. Its relation to the other figures is only
partially described.
Sle$a is the associating figure par excellence: it is found in conjunction with a long list of other figures, notably upamii, rilpaka, arthtintaranyiisa, vyatireka, vakriJkti, ak$epa, dipaka, sahiJkti, hetu, etc.
With these figures, the sle$a occupies the subordinate place and serves
as the means whereby the idea of the figure is expressed. For example, in upamiisle$a the pun replaces the common property as that

290

GLOSSARY

element in terms of which the snbject and object are compared

("Why is a woman like a hinge? Because she's a thing to adore";
M. E. W. Sherwood). It would appear that Sle$a is at least compatible
with every figure except svabhiivokti and embodies more fully than
any other figure the universality of the poetic idea. It comes closer
thau any other figure to the essence of poetry, variously expressed
as "vicchitti", "vaicitrya", "vakrokti", etc. ('strikingness', 'charmingness', ~circumlocution'), inasmuch as no expression containing a
sle$a can ever be regarded as a mere statement, an apodiction.
Theoretically, too, the idea of a pun, in which two different meanings
inhere in the same phonemic span, is an employment of langnage
which transcends the character.pf langnage, at once demonstrating
the limitations of non-poetic speech and using those limitations to
another purpose. Punning in SaJ;lskrit is not the weak-kneed and
self-conscious crudity that it is in'):r18st-Western languages. A pun
involving only one word or a single'idea-is an object of indifference
to the Sanskrit writer; it becomes interesting only when whole
ideas and complicated concepts aredouble-entendus. A person who
knows only English or Greek simply pannot appreciate the elegance
and refinement of punned verse as written in India, the reading of
which resembles nothing so much as a continnous re-awakeuing of
one's own apprehensive powers.
Puns are very sharply distingnished from the pointless word play
which deforms so much light verse in English and which, in Sanskrit,
is relegated to the category yamaka, or cadence. Ogden Nash, for
example, abounds in usages which depend upon the associative
power of partial"or incomplete repetition ("In spite of her sniffle /
Isabel's chiffle"), or Thomas Hood's: "But from her grave in Marybone / They've come and boned your Mary". These are not puns,
because the expression of the ideas is not simultaneous. All that
happens is that two ideas totally unrelated are here juxtaposed
through the extraneous (and even forced) similarity of the words
which carry them. They are nascent puns, if you like, or inchoate
puns which the author has left unclothed with their bare unrelatedness
showing. Simultaneity of expression is at once the formal criterion
and the condition of delectation of double-entendre. It is the one
feature which all writers are able to agree upon.
Formally, then, sle$a is most characteristically differentiated
from yamaka; but in terms of its content (the two ideas conjoined),
the figure which is most often taken as crucial is rilpaka (metaphor).

Ii

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GLOSSARY

291

In fact, both Bhiimaha and Vamana define sle$a in relation to rilpaka,

for has this latter not been already defined as the imposition of an
object onto a subject-that is, the identification as though there were
coalescence in reality of a subject of description with a similar object,
as eye-lotus or face-moon? The answer is again obvious and is the
same answer: sle$a may be taken as a rilpaka with simultaneous
expression of subject and object.
The treatment of Sle$a in terms of rilpaka is, however, far too
narrow to do justice to the concept of double-entendre, for since
rilpaka itself is an identification only of similars, this view seems to
imply that Sle$a, too, is at bottom a comparison (upamii) or can, at
any rate, be described in the same context (cf Bhiimaha's definition
"upamiinena yat tattvam upameyasya siidhyate ..."). But it is simply
not true that every sle$a rests on an implicit comparison, for there
are puns, in the extreme case, which involve words of different
form classes or even do not involve the same words (as: "The moonshine's bright on my Old Kentucky Home", or: "Focus, where the
Sons raise Meat" as the name of a ranch). It is, of course, true that
many double-entendres (especially the best) do repose upon such an
implicit comparison; for example: "But then, you know, you stand
upon / Another footing now" (see asal'j'lbhava sle$a); but the concept
is not wide enough. Hence later writers follow Dal).<)in in not
committing themselves on the subject: a pun is simply 'two senses
expressed in the same words' ("anekdrtham ekarilpdnvitol'j'l vacaiz").
The dhvani writers are understandably preoccupied with sle$dlal'j'lkiira; as defined, it borders precariously upon the domain of
suggestion. In fact, one of the most important functions of sle$a is
to suggest (vakra, etc.). We cannot enter here into the niceties of
dhvani theory, but in general it can be remarked that the suggested
sense of that system is not, strictly speaking, expressed (in words) at
all; not only is the most characteristic dhvani [rasadhvani] "inexpressible", but even those evocations of discrete ideas and things
which are considered subordinate are not denotatively comprehended
in the utterance as the two meanings of a pun always are. The
distinction here rests upon a theory of signification which all
iilal'j'lkiirikas are far from sharing and which is not entirely germane
to the subject of poetic fignres. Hence we leave the matter at that,
remarking only that here again sle$a occupies a crucial position in
the history of aesthetic speculation.
Sle$a cannot ultimately be defined in relation to the content of

i
4

292

GLOSSARY

the figure (that is, the idea it expresses), since, as has been noted,
sle$a can be associated with almost any other figure-not merely
in the sense ofadjunction of two figures, but as an essential element
in the expression of that other figure's idea. That is why most later
writers resort to what amounts to a formal, or grammatical, classification of subtypes.
The earliest writer, Bhamaha, who treats s!i${a as a variety of
metaphor (rupaka), gives two independent classifications; the identity
of the subject and the object can be expressed in any of three aspects:
adjectival qualification (gUlJa), mode of activity (kriya), or essence
(nama). (These correspond to the grammatical triad adjective,
verb, and noun, but Bhamaha'sjJ;ltention is not to equate them with
the formal categories, at least in the sense that he treats primarily
the aspects of the thing thereby~xpressed.) Secondly, Bhamaha
notes that s!i${a can be associate<i\With three other almrzkaras:
sahOkti, hetu, and upama. Oddly, he give'" only three examples for
tbese six types, eacb exemplifying one term of eacb triad (altbough
tbe triads bave no relation to one anotber).
DaJ)Qin also gives two classifications, and one of tbem recognizes
tbe formal aspect of sle$a, for tbe pboneme span whicb expresses
tbe double-entendre may consist of tbe same words for botb senses
(abhinnapada), or of different words (bhinnapada). (Compare
"another footing now", using the same words, with "moonshine's

brigbt", using different words.) This distinction is essentially tbe

same as tbe more popular later version artha-sabda, but tbe elaboration wbicb this has received bas somewhat clouded tbe issue (for
example, see vatlJas!e$a, wbere it is not at all clear that vibhau
would be taken as an example of bhinnapada sle$a by Da!].Qin, despite
its being considered sabdas!e$a by Rudraja). We migbt say, in
modern parlance, tbat tbe "morpbo-pbonemics" of the two spans
are eitber tbe same or different. As an aside, it sbould be noted tbat
most writers (beginning with Udbbaja) specifically exempt intonation as a consideration in determining tbis difference. It is inevitable
tbat many compounds will be differently accented as they are taken
in different senses, but unless tbe analysis also reveals a morphemic
difference in tbe line (do$a-kara, vs. dO$fikara), these compounds
are not considered different.
DaJ:jQin's otber classification is also formal, but is extrinsic to
tbe double-entendre strictly speaking: it assumes a standard form
for tbe pun, whicb is .on qualifications of two (given) nouns. These

GLOSSARY

293

two (hence unpunned) nouns may constrnct witb one verb [abhinnakriya], with two verbs wbicb are different in sense [aviruddhakriya],
or witb two verbs wbicb are contrary in sense [viruddhakarman].
Neitber tbe nouns or tbe verbs are punned; tbe puns reside only in
tbe adjectives pertaining to the nouns. Having tbus introduced tbe
verb into tbe system, Da!].Qin proceeds to state tbe possible relations
between the two senses of tbe pun: they. may be entirely different,
but consistent (avirodhin), contradictory (virodhin), tbey may be two
aspects of the same concept (niyamfik$eparupa), or, finally, an aspect
and the concept itself (niyamavat). Da!]'Qin is tbe only writer wbo
sbows metaphysical ability in tbe organization of his classifications;
tbis one is extremely interesting in laying bare the generic kinds of
oppositions wbicb any two meanings may bave: tbey will eitber be
indifferent or generically related; if indifferent, tben eitber compatible
or contradictory, if generic, tben eitber as species or as genus and
species. Needless to say, tbis categorization was not followed by
later writers, wbose interests become more and more formal and
verbal. But it does bave an interesting parallel in the ten types of
artha sle$a whicb Rudraja describes. Tbese, bowever, relate to tbe
kinds of situations in wbicb sle$a can be used and suggest a context
similar to tbat of the dhvani tbeory, ratber tban involving tbe structure of meaning itself.
Vamaua does not subdivide s!e$a. Udbba!a is tbe first to use tbe
terms sabda and artha Sle$a, probably in tbe sense described above,
but since no explanation is contained in the text, we bave only tbe
opinions of commentators to go on, all of wbom were posterior
to tbe writers (notably Rudra!a) wbo developed sabda and artha
Sle$a in great detail. Tbere is always a tendency in sucb cases to read
back into tbe text the later opinions.
Witb Rudra!a, tbe idea of double-entendre reacbes its apogee.
He recognizes tbe distinction of sle$a into sabda and artha, but raises
each to tbe status of an independent subject. Cbapter Four of his
work is devoted to tbe former and Cbapter Ten to tbe latter. Moreover, artha sle$a represents one oftbe four large categories into which
artha alamktiras are divided, tbe others being 'descriptive' (vastava),
'comparative' (aupamya), and 'byperbolic' (atiSaya). Tbe division
implies that artha sle$a is botb comparative and byperbolic (since
"descriptive" is neither comparative nor hyperbolic) and as sucb
represents for Rudra!a the most poetic as well as tbe most interesting
case. Sucb an inference is not entirely witbout plausibility, inasmuch

294

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ii

l!

GLOSSARY

as an artha sle~a does bring together two ideas in such a way that one
heightens the effect of the other (hyperbole). This point is made
clearer in the discussions which accompany the individual figures.
It should be emphasized that mere punning, that is, punning which
is not based on the meanings involved and which does not aim at an
end to which those meanings are relevant, is definitely unacceptable
here. In this sense, too, the concept of artha (sle~a) has acqnired a
positive content; in Dal}<;lin, it was a residual category (a-bhinnapada): that pun which cannot be explained by grammatical exegesis.
The ways in which the two meanings can complement one another
are ten: (a) they can be qualified in the same way (aviSe~a), (b)
or not (virodha); (c) the second may constitnte llattery of the first
(adhika); (d) the pun may siiggest a further contrast of mood
(vakra); (e) one may be llattery" the other reproof-ironic praise
(vyaja); (f) the second meaningq,ay be risque (ukti); (g) the two
meanings may be similar but tiiK~ contradictory qualifications
(asalllbhava); (h) the second meaning may augment the force of an
adjectival description (avayava), or (i) the force of the names
themselves (tattva); (j) and, lastly, if they cannot be qualified in
the same way (case b), the contradiction in qualification may be a
fnnction of the meanings of the terms, rather than a question of
mere negation (virodhiibhiisa).
Rudraja is not less inventive with regard to sabda sle~a. Given
that the two meanings must relate to a different morphemic analysis
of the common span, that difference can be specified in terms of
the kinds of morphemes (form classes) which are thus confused.
Rudraja gives eight examples, starting with the syllable (varva; this
alone is sub-morphemic), stem (pada), gender-indicating suffix
(liiiga), verb root (prakrti), nominal affix (pratyaya; exclnding inllections), inflection (vibhakti; both nominal and verbal), and numberindicating suffix (vacana).
It is clear that the subdivisions of artha are not incompatible with
those of sabda, but it would indeed be rare for an example to be
found showing both grammatical and contextual precocity to such a
degree. Nothing within the realm of human experience is beyond
the power of the Sanskrit language, but we feel that here, at least,
we are straining at the limits.
Mammaja repeats Rndraja's classification of sabda sle~a, but he notices only one "Sle~a" in his chapter on arthiilafllkara. Many ofthe others, however, have been treated as separate figures (e.g., virodhiibhiisa).

GLOSSARY

295

abbionakriyii, 'identical verb': (I) a type of paronomasia in which the

verb does not participate in either sense of the double-entendre,
but satisfies both indiscriminately. (2) D 2.314 (316). (3) vakraf.i
svabhavamadhuraf.i salllsantyo ragam ulvavam / drso dlityas ca kar~anti
kantabhif.i pre~itaf.i priyan (Dal}<;lin: "Sidelong [devious], by nature

affectionate and making declaration of heated passion, both glances

and go-betweens are attractive when sent by the beloved to the
lover"). (4) "Two dozen cows, knee-deep in grass, / I saw, and
twenty-seven goats, / And heard a hnndred sparrows pour / Upon a
bank ten thousand notes. / And, though I've seen the golden notes /
That rich men pour in city banks, / And know the sparrow's note is
'cheep', / I lifted up my heart in thanks" (Samnel Hoffenstein). (5)
Here the verbs kar~anti and "pour" go with either of the snbjects
whose qualifications are punned npon: in the English, the "bankers"
or the "sparrows" pour "notes" into or upon "banks". Cf viru~
ddhakriya and aviruddhakriya, where each of the senses of the pun
demands a different verb. Note that though identical, the verb
itselfis not here punned upon; compare Harry Graham's reproachful
"Baby roused its father's ire / By a cold and formal lisp. / So he
placed it on the fire / And reduced it to a crisp. / Mother said, 'Oh, .
stop a bit! / This is overdoing it!'" where the pun is the verb.
abhionapada, 'same words': (I) a type of paronomasia in which the morphemic analysis implicit in both meanings is the same. (2) D 2.310
(311). (3) asav udayam ariirjhaf.i kantiman raktamav4alaf.i / raja
harati lokasya hrdayalll mrdubhif.i karaif.i (Dal}<;lin: "This moon
[King], mounted on the eastern mountain [having attained prosperity],
lovely, ruddy orbed [whose courtiers are devoted], delights the hearts
of men with his soft rays [low taxes]"). (4) "Did you hear about
the moth who chewed a hole in the rug because he wanted to see the
lloor show? And then he covered it over because he didn't want to
see the whole show?" (Lennart Rydfors). (5) Dal}<;lin does not mention the distinction artha/sabda sle~a, but the present two types could
easily be argued into it. On the other hand, the differentiae are
stated in snch a way as to make possible a division such as we have
discnssed under artha !;/e~a, where two different "etyma", thongh the
"same" word, would not exemplify artha !;/e~a in the strict sense,
being homonyms.
artha, 'meaning': (I) a type of slNa in which the double-entendre reposes
upon a legitimate duplicity of meanings within those meanings
properly ascribed to the word and not upon some accidental gram-

IIi '

I
q

q
I

iI

'I
I

'j

, '

II

!!

296

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

matical or formal feature. (2) U 4.9, 10, R 10.1, M 147. (3) svayafll
ca pallavatamrabhasvatkaravirajini / prabhatasaflldhyeva [bhagavati]
Udbhala; the word kara is taken in two legitimate senses: 'hand'
of Parvati and 'ray' of the dawn: "She is brilliant like the dawn
onrushing, her hands [rays] red gleaming like new buds"). (4) "There
was a young lady from Wantage / Of whom the town clerk took
advantage. / Said the borough surveyor: / 'Indeed you must pay 'er. /
You've totally altered her frontage'" (Anon.; "frontage" in two
senses). (5) We may distinguish three levels of double-entendre or
paronomasia: (a) in which two occurrences of the same etymon
differ as to context, as here ; (b) in which two etyma have the same
phonemic shape; pun, properly speaking; and (c) in which two
words, differing as to phonemiC"shape, are used in such a way as to
suggest cancellation of that difference; plays on words, such as
Ogden Nash has popularized. Th~;~~Jne distinction may be seen in
Sanskrit most clearly where type (alis artha sle~a. It wonld seem
that Sanskrit, so rich in natural puns, does not feel the need to distort
words to obtain unnatural ones (type c); nevertheless, the same kind
of discrimination can be seen firs~, in those puns which require a
different accentuation, as muktasri!; (on the first syllable a bahuvrihi
meaning 'by whom ugliness was dispelled'; on the last, a tatpuru~a
meaning 'beauty of pearls'), and secondly, in those playful puns
where the word divisions of one sense are not the same as those of
the other, as in the pun of Kalidasa 'u meti matra tapaso ni#ddha
pasctld Umakhyafll sumukhijagama" ("from her mother's warning her
"don't, don't (doJapas)", she came to be called Uma'). These types
are generally groUped indiscriminately under sabda sle~a.
aviruddbakriyii, 'unopposed verbs': (1) a type of paronomasia in which
separate verbs accompany each of the senses of the double-entendre.
(2) D 2.314 (317). (3) madhura ragavardhinya!; komala!; kokilagira!; /
akarTJyante madakalti!; sli~yante casitek~aTJa!; (DaJ;l4in: "Lovely,
inspiring passion, soft and low from sipping drink, voices of nightingales are heard and dark-eyed girls are embraced"). (5) The classical form of the pun in Sanskrit is a series of adjectives or qualifications which apply equally to one or another of two given subjects.
Given this form, the present distinction should be understood as an
attempt to include the verb within the frame of reference of doubleentendre, since the two nouns mayor may not be accompanied by
different verbs and, if they are, the verbs mayor may not be opposed
in meaning. It shou!<}'be noted that in these types, the verb is not

itself punned and hence, as far as the pun is concerned, it provides

only an extrinsic, though relevant, classification.
avirodbin, 'non-contradicting': (1) a type of paronomasia in which the
double-entendre is suscitated by the application of a single qualification to two subjects in such a way that the qualification is understood
differently for each, but without implying a contradiction. (2)
D 2.315 (321). (3) mahibhrdbhurikatakas tejasviniyaMdaya!; / dalqa!;
prajapatiS casU svami saktidharas ca sa!; (DaJ;l<;lin: "The King
[mountain], possessing many camps [valleys], glorious, of consistent
prosperity [having regular heights], clever (Dak~a by name], protector
of men [the father of men], Lord, and bearing a spear [powerful]").
(4) "Them young gells are like th' unripe grain; they'll make a good
meal by-and-by, but they're squashy as yet" (George Eliot). (5)
See virodhin.
iik~epa, 'objection': (1) see under sle~a iik~epa.
opamii, 'simile': (1) see under Sle~a upamii.
kriyii, 'verb': (1) a type of paronomasia in which the double-entendre
resides in a verb; it pun on verbs. (2) B 3.14 (19). (3) unnatii lokadayitii mahanta!; priijyavar#TJa!; / samayanti k$ites tiipafll suriijiino
ghanii iva (Bhamaha: "Good kings, like rain clouds, calm the suffering of the earth-lofty, beloved of men, great, and giving copiously
of their rain"). (4) "How beastly the bourgeois is / especially the
male of the species- / Nicely groomed, like a mushroom / Standing
there so sleek and erect and eyeable- / and like a fungus, living on
the remains of bygone life" (D. H. Lawrence). (5) Bhamaha offers
three examples for six types enumerated; this one serves also for
upamii sle~a. As far as the verb is concerned, we must interpret
loosely: the verbal idea here includes the object of the verb as well.
These examples should be compared with those of gUTJa sle$a
('adjective'). Bhiimaha, the first writer to discuss sle~a as a figure,
does not seem too ready to force these equivocations into sharp
categories of mode and means: the simple adjectives in our examples
above are not puns, because they can apply with equal justice to
both subjects in the same sense, though they do not mean exactly
the same thing as qualifications of the two subjects-that difference
is to be sought in the kinds of things the subjects are rather than
in a consideration of the kinds of usage and context the adjectives
themselves are capable ofsustaining. Bhilmaha seems more interested
in defining this difference than in specifying the source and scope
of the equivocation itself.

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gt1I1a, 'property, adjective': (I) a pun on adjectives. (2) B 3.14 (18).

(3) chiiyiivanto gatavyiilii/;l sviiroha/;l phaladiiyina/;l / miirgadrumii
mahantas ca pare~iim eva bhUtaye (Bhiimaha: "Shady [possessing
lustre], free of snakes [suspicious characters], firm rooted [independent], and producing fruits [benefits], both the roadside trees and great
men live for the benefit of others"). (4) "As lines so loves oblique
may well / Themselves at every Angle greet: / But ours so truly
ParaUel, / Though infinite can never meet" (Andrew Marvell).
(5) Bhamaha's example is also used for upamii sle~a. See the discussion under kriyii sle~a. The examples show how subtle can be the
difference between pun and metaphorical usage. "Chiiyii" has two
senses here which are merely the two ends of a continuum: "shade,
complexion, aspect, lustre"; slihilarly, "oblique" with the added
overtones of "contrast". As puns, these meanings would have to
be considered different.,::>"
naman, 'name, noun': (I) a pun in whicli'a noun figures as the locus of
the double-entendre. (2) B 3.14 (20). (3) ratnavattviid agiidhatviit
svamaryiidiivilaiighaniit / bahusattvtisrayatviic ca sadrsas tvam
udanvatii (Bbamaha; the terms "h"ving jewels", etc. are expressed
as abstract nouns in -tva: "You resemble the ocean for possessing
jewels, for depth, for keeping within your own limits, for containing
many substances [much strength of character]"). (4) "You tell
'em, whalebone, you've been around the ladies" (S. J. Perebnan).
(5) Cf kriyii and gUiJa sle~a. This example serves also for hetu
sle~a. Bhamaha, in specifying the grammatical classification of the
pun, lays the groundwork for the elaborate stratifications of Rudra,a
and Mamma,a where every conceivable form class (root, suffix,
gender, number, etc.) is shown to be capable of expressing a doubleentendre. See sle~a.
niyamavat, 'restricted': (I) a type of paronomasia in which a doubleentendre is explicitly limited to its further or irregular sense. (2)
D 2.314 (319). (3) nistritr,satvam asiiv eva dhanu~y evtisya vakratii /
sare~v eva narendrasya miirgOlJatval'(l ca vartate (Dal).<;lin: "Sharpness
is but in his sword, deviousness [being curved] but in Ws bow, supplication [seeking a target] only in his arrows"). (4) "Who could
continue to exist where there are no cows but the cows on the chimney-pots; nothing redolent of Pan but pan-tiles; no crop but a stone
crop?" (Charles Dickens). (5) The figure is the same as parisal'(lkhyii
alal'(lkiira. This is a sort of pun a fortiori, in which the distinction
implicit in the pun is made explicit and the pun is thereby literally

annulled. Since, however, of the two senses, it is the less obvious,

obscure, or figurative which is affirmed, it is readily seen that the
denial of the double-entendre is a mere formal device whereby the
more obvious, clear, and primary sense is ironically intended.
This type is contrasted with niyamtik~eparapa sle~a, wherein the
primary meaning is broadened to include the secondary.
niyamak~epariipa, 'having the form of an objection to limitation': (I)
a type of paronomasia in which the double-entendre is explicitly
extended to another, more current, sense. (2) D 2.315 (320). (3)
padmiiniim eva dav4e$u kavtakas tvayi rak~ati / athavii drsyate
riigimithuntiliiigane$v api (Dal).<;lin: "As long as you are King,

thorniness/rivalry/horripilation exists only in the stalks of lotuses;

but then, it could also be seen in the embraces of love-making
couples"). (4) '''As you are doubtless aware', began Marcel, drawing
on his praline, 'Harper's Bazaar not only prognosticates the mode
but frequently publishes news of consuming interest-you will
pardon the play on words-to gourmets'" (S. J. Perelman). (5) The
name of this figure implies that the pun is an objection to the scope
of meaning of a word, the extended meaning thereby offered being
the rest of the double-entendre. Now, the example from S. J. Perelman does not formulate an objection as such, but since the purpose
of the parenthesis is to mark off clearly the second meaning of "consuming" and to focus the attention of the reader on that extension, I
believe it legitimately mentioned here. The parenthesis can also be
taken as an ironic objection.
pada, 'word': (I) a type of verbal pun (sabda sle~a) in which the constituent
words of a phrase are differently separated to give different senses to
the phrase. (2) R 4.5, M 119C. (3) prthu-kiirttasvara-piitral'(l
(Prthuka-iirtta-svara-piitral'(l) bhU"ita-ni/;lSe~aparijanal'(l (bhU-u$ita)
deva / vilasatkarevu-gahanal'(l (bila-satka-revu-gahanal'(l) samprati
samam iivayo/;l sadanam (Mamma,a: "Our residences are quite
similar, 0 King: furnished with extensive gold [furnished with the

pained howling of children], where the entire court is adorned with

jewels [where all of the residents sleep on the bare ground], where
young elephants bathe and play [where the mice emerge from their
holes and play in the dust]"). (4) "Only Seven: A pastoral Story
after Wordsworth: I marvell'd why a simple child, / That lightly
draws its breath, / Should utter groans so very wild / And look as
pale as Death. / Adopting a parental tone, / I ask'd her why
she cried; / The damsel answered with a groan, / 'I've got a pain

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inside!' / ... / Postscript: / To borrow Wordsworth's name was

wrong, / Or slightly misapplied; / And so I'd better call my song,
/ 'Lines after Ache-Inside'" (H. S. Leigh). (5) Rndrala's example
not only shows compound words which can be analyzed differently,
bnt also sequences of grammatically independent words showing
different junctures (Sariram adaiJ; sarira-madaiJ).
This type of pun, in Rndrala and Mammala, assnmes the word
as one of the possible loci of sabda sle$a and contrasts with other
topics snch as letter (varva), root (prakrti), gender (liiiga), etc.
Hence the word pada is to be understood in its strictly grammatical
sense: that whose final is an infiection; that is, since pada is here
distinguished from inflection (vibhakti), it should be taken as the
grammatical aiiga (Pav. 1.4.13;"14).
praIqti, 'root element': (1) a type of paronomasia in which the locus of
the double-entendre is the primary;r~d uninflected root. (2) R 4.28,
M 119C. (3) ayam sarvavi Stistrav(hrdijfie$u ca vak$yati / samarthyakrd amitravam mitraVam ca nrpatmajaiJ (Mammala: "He holds in
his heart and [speaks] to the wise all the Stistras; he makes [destroys]
the ability of both his friends and his ,nemies"). (4)" 'So they ought
to be yonr best friends', I said. 'With all that money. You stick to
them, old man. Clasp them to yonr soul with bands of steel-say
steal ... '" (Joyce Cary). (5) The double-entendre here consists in a
doubt as to which of two roots a given inflected form should be
assigned: in the Sanskrit, vak$yati can be taken as the third singular
future active of both yah 'to carry' and vae 'to speak'. It should be
noted for purposes of comparison with other types of sle$a (such
as liiiga, vaeanci;:'etc.) that no equivocation attaches to any of the
inflectional elements of the form (future, singular, etc.). As to the
English example, though it is not as convincing, we may reason as
follows: "steel" and "steal" are nominal forms of two roots "to steel"
and "to steal" which are not identical in all forms (as, "steeled"
and "stolen"). The two roots are, however, accidentally identical
in the present case (cf. Skt. krt, nominal of both kr, 'to do' and krt
'to cut'), as well as in their infinitives. We would be hard pressed
to find in English, with its analytical structure, so revealing an
example as vak$yati.
pratyaya, 'affix': (1) a type of paronomasia in which the donble-entendre
depends upon the phonemic identity of two affixes. (2) R 4.26,
M 119C. (3) pramathanivahamadhye jtitu cit tvatprastidtid / aham
ucitaruciiJ syan nandita sa tatha me (Mammala; may be read either

"aham ucitarucib syiim nandi/a.; sa tathti me" or "aham ucitaruci/:J.;

sytit nanditii sa tathd me", in which case nanditti is to be taken as an
-r stem: "Sometimes in the midst of yonr attendant hosts, by your
grace, 0 Siva, I am an enjoyer who has become appropriately
delighted [likewise, I, as it were, occupy the state of your mount
Nandi]"). (4) "A dripping pauper crawls along the way / The only
real willing out-of-doorer / And says, or seems to say / 'Well, I
am poor enough-but here's a pourer!'" (Thomas Hood). (5) As in
the other types of sabda sle$a, the point is here that the locus of the
pun is restricted to the formal element in question: -t or -m alone
being eqnivocal and not the stem sya- 'am/is'. Likewise, the element
-ta is both the nominative singular feminine of the past participle
and the nominative singnlar masculine of an agent noun, but the root
is the same: nand- 'to enjoy'. The English example, as usual, is not
as finely adjusted to the point at issue, for the root "pour" is not the
same as the root "poor"; but the example does involve as well an
equivocation based on the affix, namely the "-er" of the comparative
degree and the "-er" of the agent noun. So we offer it here and hope
that any more crucial example wiJI be brought to our attention by
the kind reader.
bhii~ii, 'language': (I) a kind of paronomasia in which the doubleentendre depends upon the apparent or verbal (I hesitate to say
"phonemic") identity between two languages. (2) R 4.10, 16, M
119C. (3) akalaiikakula kalalaya bahulilalola vimalabtihubala /
khalamaulikila komala maiigalakamalalalama lala (Rudrala; it is
asserted that this can be read in six languages: samskrta, prakrta,
magadhi, paiStici, suraseni, and apabhralflsa; in Sanskrit, it is but a
string of vocatives: "0 thou, be delighted! of spotless family, repository of the arts, stumbling from too much gay sport, strong in
your spotless arms, a thorn in the heads of the corrupt, loveable,
bearing the beauty mark of the lotus of good fortune!"). (4) "I don't
know what I'm doing mucking about with a lot of French authors at
this hour, anyway. First thing you know I'll be reciting Fleurs du
Mal to myself ... and I'll say offVerlaine too; he was always chasing
Rimbauds" (Dorothy Parker). (5) In this category, the meanings
need not be different; and this shows to what extent Sle$a was a
qnestion of technical manipulation of forms rather than (always)
directed at some inteIligent purpose. Rudrala gives examples for
two-, three-, four-, five-, and six-language puns.
Curiously, bhti$a sle$a is included in the eight kinds of sabda

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the respectable [whose faces are beautiful], leader of good government [of beautiful eyes], praiseworthy [are to be seized]"). (4) "Ben
Battle was a soldier bold, I And used to war's alarms; I But a cannonball took off his legs, I So he laid down his arms" (Thomas Hood;
we might claim here an equivocation between dual and plural. At
least it is a numerical idea which is punned npon). (5) Strictly speaking, no illustration is possible from English since any pun involving
plural-singular contrast (e.g., "rose", "rows") would also involve a
different etymon. Here the point is that the same word lends itself
to two numerically different references. Perhaps a pun could be
found involving the word "sheep" (sing.) and "sheep" (pl.).
varl)a, 'syllable, letter': (1) a type of paronomasia in which the locus ofthe
double-entendre is restricted to a single phoneme. (2) R 4.3, M l19C.
(3) alaiikara!; saiikakaranarakapalal'l' parijano viSfnJdiigo bhriigf vasu
ca Vr$a eko bahuvaya!; I avasthiiyal'l' sthavor api bhavati sarviimaraguror vidhau vakre murdhni sthitavati vayal'l' ke punar amf(Mammata;
the pun is restricted to the syllable -au of vidhau, which happens to
be the locative singular of both vidhi ('fate') and vidhu ('moon'): "His
only ornament is a human skull which inspires fright; his attendant
is Bhplgi, the one who has consumed his own limbs; his wealth is '
one old bull. Such is the condition of Siva, Lord of all the Gods!
Since inscrutable fate [the curved moon] sits on his brow, what
indeed do we mere mortals amount to?"). (4) "Oh, the moon
shines bright on myoid Kentucky home" (Anon.; or: moonshine's).
(5) This category shows a delicacy of interpretation which is truly
astounding: at first glance, this seems to be an instance of pratyaya
SZe$a, where the affix is quite accidentally a single letter. But this
analysis does not stand examination, because in the case of vidhau,
the pratyaya is not punned at all, since it is locative singular in both
cases (we say that the locative singular of both -i and -u stems is -au).
Neither can the pun be attributed to the roots, for they are not the
same (one is -i stem, the other -u stem). It might appear then that we
have a case of vibhakti sle$a, where two inflections have the same
form. But this interpretation, too, is invalid, for it cannot be said
that the locative singular of two form classes is two inflections.
We are left then with the recondite category pun on nomiual form
class, which in this unique instance involves only one syllable: hence
the classification. Our English example is of course fictitious, since
it is, strictly speaking, a case of vibhakti Sle$a (the "-s" being both
present singular of verbs and contraction of the nominal verb),

sle$a, all the other of which localize the double-entendre in some

formal element of the same language. Completeuess demauds that
this possibility be accounted for: the language is itself a form. This
wonld then represent the other pole to artha sle$a, where no formal
element can be ascribed as the locus ofthe double-entendre: language
is grasped as meaning alone.
bbinnapada, 'different words': (I) same as pada sle$a. (2) D 2.310 (312).
riipaka, 'metaphor': (1) for rupaka sle$a, see under rupaka. (2) D 2.313.
Iiiiga, 'gender': (I) a type of paronomasia in which the double-entendre
depends upon the phonemic identity of gender-indicating suffixes.
(2) R 4.8, M l19C. (3) devf mahf kumarfpadmanal'l' bhavanf rasaharf I
sukhanf raja tiro'hitam ahima"!al'l' tasya saddharf (Rudrata; as masculines, the first line must bere&d as nominative -n stems, as feminines,
as stems in of; other types of puuning are here evidenced, mostly
pada sle$a: for the king, raja('b:~brilliant'), for the girl, rajati
('illuminates'). Note also that, forthe'king, tasya is also a vocative
from the obscure root tas- ('slay'): "Be brilliant! Slay the enemy,
proud as a snake, 0 playful, festal, destroyer of evil, engenderer of
prosperity, depository of passi~)ll, bringer of pleasure, upholder
of the just!" or: "The earth, the queen, young, happy, source of
lotuses and of spices, illuminates him who has assumed pride and
upholds him!"). (4) " ... I'm a pris'ner, gen'l'm'n. Con-fined, as
the lady said" (Charles Dickens). (5) Of course, our English example
stretches a point, since the grammatical category in question does not
exist. Contextually, however, the sense of the illustration is clear,
since the word:'confined" in feminine syntax means quite a different
thing.
vacana, 'number': (1) a type of paronomasia in which the double-entendre
depends upon the phonemic identity of numerical suffixes. (2)
R 4.28(30), M l19C. (3) aryo'si taromalya!; satyo'natakuk$aya!;
stavavacya!; I sannabhayo yuvataya!; sanmukhya!; sunayana vandya!;
(Rudrata; for singular, aryo'si, etc.; for plural, aryo (from pI. of
ad) 'sita-romalya!; (from pI. of romalf), etc. Note that the example
also involves liiiga sle$a and pada SZNa; I think it is impossible to
find vacana sle$a "pure", as it were: "You are a noble [the wives of
your enemies], the ornament of strength [the hair on whose navels
is black], truthful [faithful], destroyer of the lands of the unbent
[with round bellies], who cannot be praised in words [silent before
compliments], fearless of those he has destroyed [with beautiful
navels], who consorts with women [being young women], first among

I!

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303

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but since it involves but a single letter, I have inclnded it here. No

pnn of this finesse can be conceived in English, since the only basis
for a distinction of form classes in English nonns is the formation
ofthe plural, and we could not fiud two words in different form classes
which had the same plural.
vibhakti, 'inflectiou': (I) a type of parouomasia in which the doubleentendre depends upon the phonemic identity of two inflections.
(2) R 4.28, M 119C. (3) sarvasva'!' hara sarvasya tva,!, bhavacchedatatparal; I nayopakarasammukhyam ayasi tanuvartanam (Mammala; spoken by a thief to his son, hara and naya are imperatives;
spoken by a devotee of Siva, hara is vocative and naya- a nominal
stem: "0 Siva, thou art the whole of everything [steal everything],
you whose intention is to destroy the bonds of being [you must
iutend to break through the walls to everyone's treasure]. You
have attained that state of soul ~~ichconsists of an ensemble of
help and counsel [bring into play eVery device and countermeasure
and you will exhaust the efforts of others"]. (4) "Will there never
come a season I Which shall rid us from the cnrse I Of a prose that
knows no reason I And an unmelodious verse: I ... I When there
stands a muzzled stripling, I Mute, beside a muzzled bore: I When
the Rudyards cease from Kipling I And the Haggards Ride no moreT'
(J. K. Stephen). (5) This type may be understood in two ways:
either as defined, or as a pnn on an inflection common to verbs and
nouns. In the first case, wWch is probably that of Rudrala, vibhakti
is to be nnderstood as a specific type of pratyaya (affix); in the second
(Mammala), pratyaya SlNa will be understood as limited to the
general affixes of:Jhe nominal form class, whether inflections or not,
while vibhakti will involve the contrast between inflections (necessarily) of verb and noun. The names thus do not exactly specify
the scope of the pun intended. Another favorite example stems
from the identity of the genitive plural present participle and the
third singular middle imperative -tam, as, jivatam ('may he live'
and 'of those living').
viruddhakarman, 'opposed verbs': (I) a type of paronomasia in which
a separate verb accompanies each of the senses of the double-entendre, and which verbs are moreover opposite in meaning. (2)
D 2.314 (318). (3) ragam iidarsayann e$a varuJ;iiyogavardhitam I
tirobhavati gharma'!'sur afigajas tu vijrmbhate (Dal)c,lin: "Having
revealed a passion [redness] born of association with intoxicating
liquors [the western sky], the God of Love shows his full power;

GLOSSARY

305

the sun, however, sinks from sight"). (4) "At Thieves I bark'd, at
lovers wagg'd my tail, I And thus I pleas'd both Lord and Lady
Frail" (John Wilkes; "pleas'd" is the double-entendre; "bark'd"
and "wagg'd", which are opposite in sense, accompany each meaning
of "pleas'd"). (5) TWs figure contrasts with aviruddhakriya, which
has two verbs which are not opposite in sense, and abhinnakriya,
which has one verb only.
virodhin, 'contradicting': (I) a type of paronomasia in which a doubleentendre is snscitated through the resolution of an apparent contradiction between a noun and a qnalification appended on it.
(2) D 2.315 (322). (3) acyuto'py avr$acchedi rajapy aviditak$ayal; I
devo'py avibudho jajfie safikaro'py abhujafigavan (Dal)c,lin: "Althongh
he is Vi~l)u [not deviating from the right way], he has not slain the
demon Vr~a; although the moon [King], he does not know diminuation [never suffers decline]; although a God [King], he is not a God
[not surrounded by wise men]; although Siva [appeasing], he is not
possessed of snakes [questionable friends]"). (4) "Now as they bore
him off the field, I Said he, 'Let others shoot, I For here I leave
my second leg, I And the Forty-second Foot!'" (Thomas Hood).
(5) Nobody has forty-two feet on his leg. The point here is that no
pun would be understood were it not for the juxtaposition of
incompatibles which serves then as the efficient cause of the doubleentendre. Usnally, in Sanskrit punning, the duplicity of meaning is
suscitated by the adjunction of two different things which are said
to have the same qnalifications (see avirodhin). There is no contradiction between the thing and the qualification taken singly.
See aviruddhakriya for notes on form.
ryatireka, 'distinction': (I) see sle$a vyatireka. (2) D 2.313.
sabda, 'word': (I) a type of paronomasia in wWch some point of grammatical interpretation is involved in distinguisWng the meanings of
the double-entendre. (2) U 4.10, M 119. (3) prabhiitasa,!,dhyeva ...
muktasris tvam eva parvat! (Udbhala; applying to Parvati,
muktasrii;l, a bahuvrihi with udiitta accent on the first member; applying to the dawn, an appositive tatpuru$a, "beauty of pearl", with accent on the stem of the final member: "Parvati, by whom ugliness
was abandoned [beautiful as a pearl], is like the onrushing dawn").
(4) "This is how it came to pass that their children were white and
puny; they were suffering from home-sickness" (Samuel Butler;
here is a pun on the compound form "sea-sickness": ordinarily the
compound form "home-sick" does not express a cause, but the ab-

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sence of the antidote). (5) If the pun depends on no determinable

formal equivocation, but only on a legitimate duplicity of meaning
assignable to the word (lexical item, etymon) itself, we have artha
sle$a (q.v.). For a full discussion of this difference, see artha Sle$a.
Mammata takes the distinction sabda/artha slNa from Udbhata
and then finds that Rudrata's eight grammatical categories of sle$a
can be taken as subdivisions of sabda SlNa. Thus do systems grow.
He treats sabda sle$a in ulliisa 9 (kiirikii 119) and artha sle$a in
10 (ktirikti 147).
sab6kti, 'expression of concomitance': (I) sahtikti ala/[lktira accompanied
by sle$a. (2) B 3.17 (18). (3) (4) (5) See gw:za sle$a.
hetu, 'cause': (1) a type of paronOluasia in which the double-entendre
accompanies hetu ala1[lktira. (2) B 3.17 (20). (3) (4) (5) See ntima

salJls~ti
salJlSf~ti, 'combination': (I) a multiple or compound figure. (2) B 3.4851, D 2.363 (sa1[lkfrva, 2.359), V 4.3.30-33, U 6.5, M 207. (3) (4)
See following discussion for examples. (5) The three terms sa1[lSr$ti,
samkfrna and samkara used in general to refer to the combination

sle$a.
"::"> '

salJlsay,i'
salJl8aya (I) 'doubt': (1) same as sa1[ldeha. (2) R 8.59, 61. (5) See
sa/[ldeha.

salJl8aya (II): (1) a fignre in which tW? similar but discriminable things
are said to be subject to a doubt concerning their respective nature
or mode of action. (2) R 8.65 (66). (3) gamanam adhita/[l ha1[lsais
tvattal; subhage tvayti nu ha1[lsebhyal; / ki/[l sasinal; pratibimba/[l
vadana/[l te ki/[l mukhasya sasf (Rudrata; in the first half sloka, the

mode of cause and effect is suspended: who taught whom? In the

last half, the question is: the beauty of which term is the model
for that of the other? "Did the swans teach you how to walk, 0
lovely, or did you teach the swans? Is your face modeled on the
moon, or the moon on your face?"). (4) "Such was the mutual
love and reciprocal respect that this worthy man had to his flock,
and his flock to him, that it was hard to judge whether he delighted
more in having such a people, or they in having such a pastor"
(Carl Sandburg). (5) This fignre differs from the ordinary sa1[ldeha
only in that it is not qua comparability that the two similar things
are doubted. Here they are confused through some other aspect of
their relation (which is, of course, many sided), as, for example,
cause-effect (which is cause and which effect?), if they happen to be
related as to cause and effect (either in fact or in the poet's imagination). For other exaggerations of nature and mode of action, cj.
adhika and vi$ama. The present type differs from them inasmuch
as it is expressed by means of a doubt, not declaratively.

or 'co~p~unding'of oilier fignres of speech, have such a variety of

particular acceptations in the various authors that it is impossible
to separate them clearly. In general, the phenomenon of the multiple
figure was considered, from DaJ)<jin onwards, in two aspects: the
two or more constituent figures could be related somehow, or they
could be purely extrinsic to one another. Only Bhiimaha and Vamana
do not make this distinction in some form; their term sa1[lsr$(i is
therefore to be taken as referring to the genus of multiple ala1[lktiras.
That they do use the term sa/[lsr$ti and not one of the other terms,
probably testifies to the originality of this term, the others being
used ad hoc by later writers. DaJ)<jin, however, in making the
distinction between related and independent figures in conjunction,
employs the term sa/[lkfn:za in the generic sense of Bhiimaha's
sa/[lsr$(i. The word sa1[lsr$li does appear in DaJ)<jin's definition of
sa1[lkfrva ("ntintila/[lktirasa1[lsr$til; sa1[lkfrvam") and suggests that the
use of sa/[lkfn:za is idiosyncratic and well within the normal variation
of otherwise univocal technical terminology (DaJ)<jin, for example,
refers to svabhtiv6kti as svabhtivlJkhytina (2.4) for metrical reasons).
Within sa1[lkfl7)a, then, DaJ)<jin enumerates two types: mutually
related (afiglJngi), and independent (samakak$atti), depending on
whether or not one figure implies the other in the sense that the other
cannot be grasped as a figure without the first. Udbhata recognizes
this distinction, but applies to it the two terms which up to now
appear to be but mere stylistic variations of one another: sa1[lSr$ti
(for unrelated figures) and sa1[lkara (from the same root -k; as
sa/[lkfl7)a; for related figures). Within the latter term, Udbhata finds
four subtypes: DaJ)<jin's familiar afiglJfigi (renamed anugrtihylJngugrtihaka) as well as an ekasabdlJbhidhtina (where the two figures
overlap in the total expression), sa1[ldeha (where they coalesce entirely), and a type in which both sabda and artha ala1[lktiras (sabdlJrthavivarti) are mixed. Mammata repeats the entire discussion of Udbhata except for his omission of the subtype ekasabdlJbhidhiina.
Rudrata, however, introduces the ultimate element of confusion
by using the term sa/[lkara in the generic sense, as did DaJ)qin, and
not mentioning sa1[lsr$(i at all. His two types, vyaktlJ1[lsa and avya-

I'

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kta/flsa, seem to refer to the same distinction as Dal).gin intended by

samakak$atii and aiigaiigi, bnt his definitions of them are analogical
and do not permit precise rendering. The former is said to resemble
a mixtnre of rice and sesame, where the components remain discrete,
the latter to resemble a mixture of milk and curds, where the components fuse in an indissoluble agglutinate.
Whatever use is made of this terminology, all the writers agree on
regarding sie$a or pun as the compoundable figure par excellence.
Daw}in's remark to this effect (2.363) is probably to be taken in
context with his previous discussion of sa/flkfn;za. Most of the examples offered by the various writers involve sle$a as one of the
..
figures.
aiigftiigi (-tva; -bhiivavasthiina), 'relal'ed as whole and part': (1) a type of
complex ala/flkiira (sa/flkara) in wh,ich the several constituent figures
are mutually interrelated in the sen$~~hat the figurativeness of some
cannot be understood apart from the others. (2) D 2.360 (361),
U 5.13, M 208. (3) iik$ipanty aravindiini mugdhe tava mukhasriyam f
kosadavl}asamagrii1;lii/fl kim e$iim asti dU$karam (Dal).gin; the sle$a of
the second half verse depends on the upamii of the first: if the lotuses
were not "disputing" the beauty of her face, then their "buds" and
"stalks" would not be taken as weapons: "treasury" and "army":
"The lotuses are attacking the beauty of your face! Is this difficult
for them, whose means are buds [treasury] and stalks [army]?").
(4) "He[the biographer] will row out over that great ocean ofmaterial,
and lower down into it, here and there, a little bucket, which will
bring up to the light of day some characteristic specimen, from those
far depths, to be examined with a careful curiosity" (Lytton Strachey;

anugriibyftnugriibaka, 'related as facilitated and facilitating': (1) same as

aiigaiigi sa/flsr$/i. (2) U 5.13.
avyaktftlllsa, 'whose parts are not manifest': (I) a type of complex
ala/flkiira (sa/flkara) in which the component figures are so expressed
as to make impossible a decision as to the location of each in the
phrase. (2) R 10.25 (28-29). (3) iilokana/fl bhavatyii jananayananandanendukarajiilam (Rudrata; in this case, the commentator
asserts that the compound can be taken in one way as an upamii,
in another as a rupaka: "Your glance is a net of moonbeams, delighting the eyes of men"). (4) "Even when the President, the Rev. Dr.
Willoughby Quarles ... than whom no man had written more about
the necessity of baptism by immersion, in fact in every way a
thoroughly than-whom figure ..." (Sinclair Lewis; the last phrase
can be taken as an arthantaranyiisa or a rupaka). (5) As a karmadhiiraya (''jananayananandana evendukarajiilam"), the figure in the
Sanskrit example is a riipaka; as a locative tatpuYU$a (,'jananayananandana indukarajiilam"), the attributive relation to the subject iilokanam can, it is said, be interpreted as a simile lacking the comparative
particle (iva). It may be said that this latter interpretation seems to
be at variance with Rudrala's own treatment of both simile and
metaphor. "lndukarajiilam" by itself would not be an upamii, since
the upamiina follows the upameya (R 8.21); neither would the predicative assertion "alokanam ... indukarajiilam", since this is the
clearest type of rupaka (metaphor) definable in Rudrata's system
(8.38-39). This difficulty does, however, parallel Bhiimaha's apparently inconsistent definition of the figure upamiirupaka, where the
example of the upamii is just such a rupaka. It may be that the formal
discriminations were not rigorously applied to those cases where,
despite the predicative identification of upameya and upamiina,
the idea of comparison was judged to be uppermost in the mind of
the poet. If this irregularity is allowed, the example then indeed
illustrates the definition of avyaktal'(lia, for both interpretations are
valid (neither can be refuted), and both apply to exactly the same
word sequence. In the English example, if the phrase "than-whom
figure" is taken as a predicate to Dr. Quarles, we have a rupaka;
however, the phrase can also be taken as a general summary of the
preceding descriptive passage (arthantaranyiisa). Compare ekasabdabhidhiina, where the two figures only overlap; here they coalesce
entirely. This type is the same as the salfldeha of Udbhata and the
aniScaya of Mammala. Rudrala gives another example which the

the samiis6kti of "bucket", "specimen", and "depths" cannot be

309

GLOSSARY

understood apart from the rupaka "ocean of material"). (5) A

subordination of implication only is to be understood by this term;
the two figures concerned are formally distinguishable (cf salfldeha)
and occupy different places in the total phrase (cf avyaktillflsa,
ekaiabdabhidhiina). They are not, however, entirely independent-a
mere concomitance of figures-as in samakak$atii: should one of
the figures (the aiigin) be deleted, the other (the aiiga) no longer
makes any sense as a figure. The terms sa/flkara and sa/flsr#i are
used by Udbhata and Mammata in the sense of this distinction, but
Dal).gin, who does not use the term sa/flkara, views both as types of
sa/flsr,,/i. For the use of the terminology, see sa/flsr$/i. The figure
is called anugriihyanugtiihaka by Udbhata.

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commentator interprets as an angangi saI'flSr~ti; that is, a simple

relation of implication exists between the two fignres, not physical
coalescence. Rudrata's definitions of this dichotomy (vyaktamNivyaktal'flsa) are only analogical (see saI'flSr~li), and much leeway
must be allowed in their interpretation.
ekasabdlibhidhana, 'naming by the same words': (1) a type of complex
alal'flkiira (sal'flkara) where the two constituent fignres overlap as
to the words which express them. (2) U 5.12. (3) maivam evlistha

Udbhata apparently considers that the pun extends to the words

which are said to be alike by virtue ofthe pun (here"aba/i!va vairisenii"
and "thine eyes"). If Rudrata is correct, then vyaktlil'flsa may be
equated with samakak~atii; it should, however, be noted that the
distinctions implied by the two terms are not the same: vyaktlil'flsa
may mean 'whose parts are not in doubt' (see avyaktlil'flsa) whereas
samakak~atii means 'whose parts are not subordinate' (see anglingi).
See sal'flsr~li for a discussion of these classifications.
sabdlirtbavarti, 'involving both (fignres of) word and sense': (I) a type of
multiple alal'flkiira (saI'flSr~li) in which are mixed both sabda and
artha a/al'flkiiras. (2) U 5.12, M 210. (3) spa~follasatkira~akesara

sacchiiyavarl)ikiiciirukar~ikii / ambhojiniva citrasthii dnlimiitrasu-

khapradii (Udbhata; Ganri is here compared to a lotus as delighting

the eyes only (upamii); another common property is offered which is,

iI
I'::
I:

l:

in fact, a pun referring to the golden earrings of Gaud and to the seed
pods within the lotus (s/e~a); tii~ two fignres share the word ambhojinf ('lotus'): "Don't remain so, <iazzling and giving pleasure only
to the eyes, like a lotus, earringsts9~dpods] of beautifully shaded
gold"). (4) "But the man who fell iii love with Rozzie was the poor
little Peter Pan who wanted to creep back into his mother's womb
and be safe and warm and comfortable for the rest of his life. Isolationist, with nave/ defence", (Joyce C!'ry; same analysis except that
the figures are rupaka and s/e~a). (5) This type is recognized as
such only by Udbhata, who distingnishes it from sal'fldeha sal'flkara:
here the two fignres are partially different and wholly identifiable;
in sal'fldeha, they are expressed in wholly the same words and are
not identifiable. To the naive observer, this type would appear
to be more akin to sal'flSr~ti than to sal'flkara, but the fact that there
is partial coaiescellce is sufficient to make the two fignres constitutive
and "interdependent".
vyaktliJ!lsa, 'whose parts are evident': (1) a type of complex a/al'flkiira
(sal'flkara) in which the component fignres are separable as to the
words which express them. (2) R 10.25. (3) abhiyujya /o/anayanii
siidhvasajanitoruvepathusvedii / aba/i!va vairisenii nrpa janye bhajyate
bhavatii (Rudrata; an upamii in the last half, a pun in the first: "When

:]
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attached, its leaders unsteady [eyes rolling], sweat and great trembling
[trembling at the thighs] produced suddenly, the enemy army, like a
young girl, 0 King, is enjoyed by you"). (4) "As lightning, or a
taper's light, / Thine eyes, and not thy noise, waked me" (John
Donne; upamii in the first line, vyatireka in the second). (5) The
example here is identical to that offered by Udbhata to illustrate the
exact inverse (see ekasabdlibhidhiina). But Rudrata takes the
sle~a as confined to/the word which is actually punned, while

suryabimbavistfr~akar~ikam atho divasaravindam / sli~fli~ladigda/a

ka/iipamukhtivatiirabaddhtindhakiiramadhupavali sal'flcukoca (Mammata; contains both rupakas (an arthti/al'flkiira) and anupriisa (a
sabda/al'flkiira): "The lotus of the day closes its vast pericarp, the

sun's orb and its filaments the clearly dancing rays, with a swarm of
bees-the great darkness-clinging to the face of the eight directions"). (4) "Glory be to God for dappled things- / For skies of
couple-colonr as a brinded cow; / For rose-moles all in stipple upon
trout that swim; / Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings; /
Landscape plotted and pieced-fold, fallow, and plough; / And all
trades, their gear and tackle and trim. / All things counter, original,
spare and strange; / Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how?) /
With swift, slow; sweet, sour; a dazzle, dim; / He fathers-forth whose
beauty is past change: / Praise him" (Gerard Manly Hopkins;
anupriisa and upamii). (5) This type would exemplify sal'flkara or
complex a/al'flkiira, for the same word span may share two or more
figures. It differs from avyaktal'flsa in that the basis of interpretation
is not such that one fignre, once defined, necessarily excludes the
other: here both are conjointly possible and discrete because the
fignres do not refer to the same definand (one refers to phonemic
patterns, the other to morphemic contrasts and usages).
saJ!lkara, 'intermixtnre': (I) a multiple a/al'flkiira. (2) U 5.11, 13, R
10.24-29, M 208-210. (5) See sal'flsr~fi. The term is often used to
signify complex a/al'flkiira as opposed to compound a/al'flkiira.
saqlkirl}a, 'commingled': (I) a multiple a/al'flkiira. (2) D 2.359-363.
(5) See sal'flsr~fi.
saJ!ldeba, 'doubt': (I) same as avyaktal'flsa sal'flkara. (2) U 5.11. (5) Also
called aniScaya in Mammata.
samakak~ata, 'equality': (1) same as vyaktal'flsa sal'flkara or sal'flsnfi.

312

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GLOSSARY

(2) D 2.360 (362). (5) In Dal).<;lin, the term is opposed to afigafigi,

in the sense that no relation of implication exists between the two
figures; in Rudrata, however, it is opposed to avyaktalflsa, in that
the parts of the phrase expressing the several figures are physically
separable. The two ideas are therefore of differing extent, but in
intent they are the same.
salpkara
salpkara, 'intermixture': (I) another word for
saqikirl}a
salpkirl}a, 'commingled': (I) another word for

salflsr~li.

either resolved or in which a discrimination is offered which would

permit its resolution (niScayanta, niScayagarbha), following Bhamaha.
Udbhata, though following Bhiimaha, distinguishes those doubts
which are feigned and those which are real, perhaps anticipating
bhriintimat alalflkiira; however, a "feigned" doubt for him involves
the suggestion of another figure, usually upamii (simile), and in this
respect he returns to the opinion ofDal).<;lin. I append here Udbhata's
example for "real" doubt, since none of the other writers seems willing to limit the figure in this way: "haste kim asya ni/:lSe~adai-

saIflSr~li.

. tyahrddalanodbhaval; / yasal;samcaya e~a syiit piJpjibhiivo'sya kilfl

krtal; / niibhipadmasprhaymal; kilfl halflso nai~a cailcalal; / iti yasyabhital; safikham asafiki~larjavo janal;" ('Can this be in [Siva's] hand

the accumulation of glory born of his destroying all the demons'

loves? Why has it become spherical? Can it be a swan filled with
desire for his lotus-navel? But it is motionless! So does the stupid
fellow wonder about the conch shell'). Or: "He thought he saw an
Elephant, / That practised on a fife: / He looked again, and found
it was / A letter from his wife. / 'At length I realize', he said, / 'The
bitterness of Life!'" (Lewis Carroll).
aniScaya, 'undecided': (I) a type of salfldeha in which the resolution of
the doubt is neither intimated nor given. (2) R 8.59 (60). (3)

salpk~epa

salpk~epa, 'abbreviation': (I) terseneS~'fondensation of meaning into

few words. (2) AP 345.6. (5) This"is one of the sabdttrthdlalflkiira

of the Agni Puriil)a.

ili[:1

I:

;;"

II:!

313

salpdeha
salpdeha, 'doubt': (I) a figure in which tile speaker hesitates to identify
which of two similar things is which; the expression of a similitude
through the affectation of an inability to decide the relative identity
of two things-the subject and object of comparison. (2) B 3.42 (43),
V 4.3.11, U 6.2-3, R 8.59-64, M 138. (3) kim idam linalikulam

asyiil; sargavidhau prajiipatir abMc candro nu kiintiprackll; srfigiiraikarasal; svayalfl nu madano miiso nu pu~pakaral; / vedabhyiisajatjal;
nu vi~ayavyiivrttakautiihalo nirmiitulfl prabhaven manoharam ickllfl
riipalfl puriil)o munil; (Kalidasa, quoted by Rudrata: "The God

kamalalfl kilfl vii mukhalfl sunilakacam / iti salflset~ lokas tva;i

sutanu sarovati":ziiyiim (Rudrata; cf salflsaya: "As you descend to
the lake, 0 LovelY, onlookers are bound to wonder if that is a face

Prajapati presided at her birth! Or was it the moon, giver of beauty?

Or was it Love, made of pure affection? Or the springtime, the
mine of flowers? How could the ancient sage-his mind dulled by
recitation of the Veda, his curiosity turned away from outward things
-conspire to create this excellently lovely form?"). (4) "God bless
the King, I mean the faith's defender; / God bless-no harm in
blessing-the Pretender:/ But who Pretender is, or who is King,
/ God bless us all-that's quite another thing" (John Byrom). (5)
In niScayagarbha, the doubt is implicitly resolved by proposing a
reason why the two things cannot be the same. In niScayanta, this
is put positively and one learns what, in fact, they are. Note that
neither example can be taken as a simile: in the first case, the intention is not to compare Prajapati with the moon, etc., but, quite the
contrary, to say that only the moon, etc. are qualified to serve as
tutelary deities at UrvaSi's birth (this might be called a salfldeha

set in hair of darkest hue or a bee-girt lotus"). (4) "Mr. Smith,

suddenly meeting the lovely young thing, may not be sure whether
his feet are treading a polished studio floor or whether they have
little Mercury wings on them that waft him through the empyrean
..." (Oliver Onions). (5) Rudrata names this figure salflsaya,
departing from tradition slightly (the word also means 'doubt'),
perhaps because he enlarges the scope of the figure beyond simile
(see saf/lsaya II). Dal).<;lin (2.358) mentions the figure only to assert
its identity with his salflsaya upamii. The figure has two forms in the
early writers, judging by the examples offered; this difference is
recoguized by Rudrata and Mammata, who subdivide into those
doubts about which no attempt is made to decide (aniscaya),
following Dal).<;lin an,d Vamana, and those in which the doubt is

ii,'!

Ii,!

Illiiiiill.l.
wi

.'I,.

----------------------------------

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GLOSSARY

vyatireka). Byrom likewise expresses only the insecurity of man's

state and is unsure which "tutelary deity" guides him.
niscayagarbha, 'preguant with decision': (1) a type of sal'fldeha in which
the doubt is implicitly resolved by advancing a discriminating
qualification which makes it impossible that the two things in question
can be the same. (2) R 8.61 (62-63). (3) etat kil'fl sasibimbal'fl na tad
asti kathal'fl katafikam afike'sya / kil'fl va vadanam idal'fl tat katham
iyam iyati prabhi1sya syat (Rudrata: "Can that be the moon's orb?
Impossible; there are no spots upon it! Can it then be a face?
Ifso, how could it be so brilliant?"). (4) "Women ben full of Ragerie,
/ Yet swinken not sans secresie / Thilke Moral shall ye understand, /
From Schoole-boy's Tale of fayre Irelond: / Which to the Fennes
hath him betake, / To filch the gray Ducke fro the Lake. / Right
then, there passen by the Way (His Aunt, and eke her Daughters
tway. / Ducke in his Trowses h~th he hent, / Not to be spied of
Ladies gent. / 'But hot our Nepb'ew';.(crieth one) / 'Ho', quoth
another, 'Cozen John'; / And stoppen, and laugh, and callen out,- /
This sely Clerk full low doth lout: / They asken that, and talken this,
. / 'Lo here is Coz, and here is Miss.'. / But, as he glozeth with Speeches
soote, / The Ducke sore tickleth his Erse-root: / Force-piece and
buttons all-to-brest, / Forth thrust a white neck, and red crest. /
'Te-he', cry'd Ladies; Clerke nought spake: / Miss star'd; and gray
Ducke crieth Quake. / '0 Moder, Moder' (quoth the daughter) /
'Be thilke same thing Maids longen a'ter? / 'Bette is to pyne on coals
. and chalke, / Then trust on Mon, whose yerde can talke'" (Alexander
Pope; "Imitation of Chaucer"). (5) The discrimination is given,
but the proper identification is not made: cf niScaydnta.
niscayilnta, 'conclusive': (I) a type of sal'fldeha in which the doubt is
resolved by the proper identification of the two similar things.
(2) R 8.61 (64). (3) kim ayal'fl hari/; kathal'fl tad gaura/; kil'fl va
hara/; kva so'sya vr~a/; / iti sal'flsayya bhavantal'fl namna niScinvate
toka/; (Rudrata: "Is he KWJ.a? Why is he not dark? Is he Siva?
Where is his bull? In this way onlookers at first doubting now at
last conclude who you are, 0 King"). (4) "Surely she lean'd o'er
me-her hair / Fell about my face .... / Nothing: the autumn-fall of
leaves" (Dante Gabriel Rossetti). (5) Cf aniscaya and niscayagarbha
sal'fldeha.
bhedilnukti, 'non-expression of the difference': (I) same as aniscaya.
(2) M 138.
bhed6kti, 'expression ofthj;ldifference': (I )sameasniScayagarbha. (2) M 138.

sarna

315

sama, 'together': (I) a figure in which is depicted an appropriate conjunction of events, persons, or qualities. (2) M 193. (3) dhi1tu/; silpdtiSayanika~asthtlnam e~a mrgdk~f / rilpe devo'py ayam anupamo dattapatra/; smarasya / jatal'fl daivat sadrsam anayo/; sal'flgatal'fl yat tad
etat / srfigarasyopanatam adhuna rajyam ekdtapatram (Mammata;
a marriage is described: "This doe-eyed maiden .is the veritable
touchstone of the creator's skill; in beauty, the King is incomparable
and the given vessel of Love itself! That their union should come
about through fate means that the kingdom of Love has been
brought under one umbrella!"). (4) "Happy, happy, happy Pair! /
None but the Brave, / None but the Brave, / None but the Brave
deserves the Fair" (John Dryden). (5) In origin, this figure may simply
be an adverb mistaken for a name in an enumerative verse. The
Agni Purava affirms that the arthdlal'flkara (q. v.) are eight in number
(344.2-3); the chapter is devoted to definitions of them, and from
that text, we learn that the eight are svarilpa (3), stldrsya (5), utprek~a
(25), atisaya (26), vise~okti (27), vibhdvana (28), virodha (29), and
hetu (30). The introductory verse enumerating the eight gives, however, only seven, ignoring viSe~okti. After hetu, the words "samam
a$!adha" ('together, eightfold') close the half verse, presumably to
fill ont the metre. Later commentators and wnters, apparently
iguoring the body of the text, have raised this superfluous adverb
(samam) into the eighth arthdlal'flkara, and it is included in all later
anthologies, starting with Mammata. The Sarasvatikav!hdbharav a,
which follows the Agni Purava closely, does not mention samdlal'flkara. There is a samya, but it refers to intimated similes. If this
interpretation is correct, we have here an excellent instance of the
eclectic resilience of the later encyclopaedists. None of the printed
texts of the Agni Purava, not even the so-called critical edition of
S. M. Bhattacharya, seem to have noticed this anacoluthon.
samiidhi
samiidhi, 'conjunction': (I) a figure in which a desired effect is accomplished
by the coincidental intervention of another and quite irrelevant
cause. (2) M 192. (3) manam asya nirakartul'fl ptldayor me pati~yata/;
/ upakaraya di~!yMam udirQaI'fl ghanagarjitam (Mammata: "As I
fell at her feet to beg respite from her wrath, to my aid came a
great exploding thunderclap"). (4) "I asked professors who teach
the meaning of life to tell me what is happiness. / And I went to

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I'

I
i:

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316

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317

than identity of qualification, such as similitude or causality. We

might say that in aprastutaprasalflsa the remark is always motivated,
while in samtisokti the suggestion of the other situation is subordinated to the reqnirements of clever characterization. The case is
perhaps clearest in Bhamaha, the first writer to define both terms:
"yatrokte gamyate'nyo'rthas" ('where another meaning is understood

famous executives who boss the work of thousauds of men. / They

all shook their heads and gave me a smile as though I was trying
to fool with them. / And then one Sunday afternoon I wandered
out along the Desplaines river / And I saw a crowd of Hungarians
under the trees with their women and children and a keg of beer and
an accordion" (Carl Sandburg). (5) This figure differs from vytightita
in that the intervening cause is unrelated to the original (obstructed)
motive. Samtidhi is the same as samtihita of Bhamaha and Dal)gin.

in a given expression'; samds8kti) and "adhikdrdd apetasya vastuno' ~

nyasya yti stutiiz" ('mention made of a subject irrelevant to the topic';

aprastutaprasalflsti). Evidently exegesis is still required, Udbhala
and Mammala conform in general to this pattern, but the latter
complicates the discussion by defining a type of aprastutaprasalflsti
based on samtisokti, This is perfectly reasonable and justified by
the distinction given above: where the identity of descriptive qualifications serves (in lieu of other possible relations) to suggest the real
subject of the motivated remark, we have conjunction. Rudrala's
definition is straightforward, but since he does not accept the figure
aprastutaprasalflsti, his samtis8kti can be made to cover both cases:
the object of comparison serves to suggest the subject of comparison.
Vamana, in his attempt to reduce all figures to a basic simile, is
forced to modify the present distinction inasmuch as it is indifferent
to the nature of comparison (cf Rudrala's definition). For him,
the subject of comparison is unmentioned in samtis8kti, but is
partially mentioned (that is, through its attributes only) in aprastutaprasalflsti. Thus samtis8kti covers the two terms as used by the other
writers, and aprastutaprasalflsti is unparalleled (cf aprastutaprasalflsa
II), but resembles the more usual samtis8kti. It is Dal)gin's treatment,
however, which diverges farthest from the norm. He defines samtisokti in the way Mammala defines tulya aprastutaprasalflsti, and his
aprastutaprasa/'flsti is etymologically interpreted as a kind of vyajastuti (concealed praise) which could be called "concealed blame"
(cf aprastutaprasalflsti III). Only Dal)gin subdivides samasokti, so
the peculiar character of his general definition must be born in
mind when examining these subtypes. The qualifications will either
apply equally to both subjects (tulyfiktiraviSewva), or some to both
and some to the implicit subject only (bhinnfibhinnaviSe$ava).
Thirdly, the qualifications may cease to apply to either subject in
time (apiirva).
The encyclopaedist Ruyyaka has stated the opposition between
aprastutaprasalflsti and samtis8kti most rigorously. Accepting the
usual version of aprastutaprasalflsti, he understands the other figure

sarnasilkti
sarnasilkti, 'concise speech': (1) a figure in which the descriptive qualifications of an explicit subject s1)~gest an implicitly comparable object
to which they likewise apply.(2) B 2.79 (80), D 2.205-213, V 4.3.3,
U 2.10, AP 345.17, R 8.67 (68), 148. (3) skandhavtin rjur avytilaiz
sthiro'nekamahtiphalaiz / jtitas tar!;irpyam coccaiiz ptititas ca nabhasvatti(Bhamaha; the description ofthe tree suggests the picture of a
noble man fallen on hard times: "A great tree has grown here, with
.many limbs, erect and without flaws, firm and bestowing many
great fruits; now it has fallen from !ts high place, uprooted by the
wind"). (4) "The young man .. , reached down the boughs where
the scarlet beady cherries hung thick underneath, and tore off
handfull after handfull of the sleek cool-fleshed fruit. Cherries
touched his ears and his neck as he stretched forward, their chill
finger-tips sending a flash down his blood. All shades of red, from
. a golden vermillion to a rich crimson glowed a,nd met his eyes under
a darkness of leaves" (D. H. Lawrence; the description of the tree
suggests the young man's incipient passion), (5) This figure is
easily coiliused with aprastutaprasalf/sti, and any attempt to distinguish sharply the two figures is rendered fruitless by an historical
examination of the relation between them. Though each writer
distinguishes them in his way, none follows exactly his predecessor,
and the same concept is likely to end up on both sides of the definition at one time or other. There are two criteria involved in the
distinction, from which only Dal)gin deviates significantly. The first
is that samtisokti tends to repose on the identity of descriptive
qualifications of two terms: one explicit, the upamtina; one implicit,
the upameya. There is no emphasis placed on the implicit term, thus
making it into the explanation of the occasion of the remark itself.
Aprastutaprasalflsti , on the other hand, generally imposes upon the
terms such an empha$is, and it can function through relations. other

318

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as its exact inverse: "prastutad aprastutapratitau samasoktir ukta II

adhuna tadvaiparityenaprastutat prastutapratitav aprastutaprasa'!1socyate" ('samasokti is defined as the understanding of what was not
intended, on the basis of what was; now in opposition to that,
aprastutaprasa'!1sa is defined as the understanding of what was
intended on the basis of what was not'; p. 132). This recapitulates
rather forcefully and with perhaps too much antithesis what was
stated earlier: in aprastutaprasa'!1sa the purpose of the utterance
(its prastuta) is precisely what is not said; in samasokti, for the most
part, that implicit reference should not be understood as the main
topic itself. The implicit aprastuta serves only as a flattering background; for example, when~king is described in terms also appropnate to the Diety: "he is ofclever mien [four faced]". In these terms,
then, samas6kti appears as a sintile in which the upamana is implicit.
apiirva, 'unprecedented': (I) a typepf,samasokti in which the qualifications will cease to apply to either subject at some future time. (2)
D 2.213 (212). (3) nivrttavyalasa'!1sargo nisargamadhuriisaya!; I
ayam ambhonidhi!; ka~ta'!1 kalenc; pariSu~yati (DaJ.lgin; the reference
is to the eventual demise of a liberal benefactor: "This great ocean
where serpents [evil men] perish and whose fund of fresh water
[affection] is elemental will in time, alas, dry up!"). (4) "There was a
lean and haggard woman, too-a prisoner's wife-who was watering,
with great solicitude, the wretched stump of a dried-up, withered
plant, which, it was plain to see, could never send forth a green leaf
again-too true an emblem, perhaps, of the office she had come
there to discharge" (Charles Dickens; in this example, the qualification [sending.!'Drth a green leaf] has already ceased to apply, but the
function of the periphrasis remains the same-to indicate termination
through parallelism of change).
tulyilkaravis~al}a, 'whose qualifications apply in the same respect': (1) a
type of samas6kti in which the qualifications apply in the same respect
to both the expressed and understood subjects. (2) D 2.208 (209).
(3) ruljhamula!; phalabharai!; pu~vann aniSam arthina!; I sandracchayo
mahavrk~a!; so'yam asadito maya (DaJ.lgin: "I have seated myself
under this great tree, deep rooted and thick shading, which ever
provides for the needy with its harvests of fruit"). (4) "And then
he dwelt for a while on the wife of a man called Socrates, who he
didn't bother to place, though I judged he had something to do with
the mule train, as there was a fair number of foreigners amongst
them" (Robert Leyvis Taylor).

319

bhinnl\bhinnavise~al}a,

'whose qualifications apply both differently and

in the same respect': (1) a type of samas6kti in which some of the
qualifications apply only to the understood subject. (2) D 2.208
(210). (3) analpavitapabhoga!; phalapu~pasamrddhiman I s6cchraya!;
sthairyavan daivad e~a labdho maya druma!; (DaJ.lgin; a benefactor
is thus referred to: "My fortune is that I have fonnd this tree of
expansive foliage, rich with fruit and flower, lofty and steadfast").
(4) "'Is the gray mare made over to anybody?' inquired Mr. Weller
anxiously. George nodded in the affirmative. 'Veil, that's all right',
said Mr. Weller. 'Coach taken care of, also?' 'Con-signed in a
safe quarter', replied George, wringing the heads off half a dozen
shrimps, and swallowing them without any more ado. 'Wery good,
wery good', said Mr. Weller. 'Alvays see to the drag ven you go
downhill. Is the vaybill all clear and straight for'erd?' 'The schedule,
sir', said Pell, guessing at Mr. Weller's meaning, 'the schedule is as
plain and satisfactory as pen and ink can make it'" (Charles Dickens;
the references are to the legal liquidation of a bankrupt coachman's
property. The first two remarks apply only to the lawsuit; the last
two ("downhill", "vay-bill") apply to the legal "journey" the coachman is about to make).

samiihita
samahita (1), 'composed': (1) a figure wherein a similitude serves as the
basis for the total identification of two similar things in the mind of a
particular person; a consciously formulated metaphor. (2) V 4.3.29.
(3) tanvi meghajalardrapallavataya dhautfidhari!viisrubhi!; sunyi!vabharavai!; svakalavirahad viSrantapu~p6dgama I cintamaunam ivasthita madhuliha'!1 sabdair vina lak~yate cavlji mam avadhuya padapatita'!1 jatanutapi!va sa (Vamana; Puriiravas addresses the creeper as
though it were Urvasi: "The thin creeper, its leaves wet with the rain,
is like her lip wet with tears; like her dress without jewels, the creeper
sleeps through its flowerless season without the sound of bees like
my love lost in thought; the cruel thing spurns me fallen at its feet
like my love whom I hurt"). (4) "Sleepily she cuddled up in the fold
of his left arm, her cheek against his heart, though a hard hand which
seemed to be pounding against a wall was trying to wake her np
again; she would just let it go on pounding all it pleased. She had to
sleep some more! ... But now mother was here. Hurriedly she was
transferred into her mother's arms and squeezed almost to a pancake. She had to gasp for breath; nevertheless she snuggled into

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GLOSSARY

her arms as closely as she could, for she felt, oh, so sleepy! ... But no
peace here, either! Here, too, a hand pounded against a wall. Were
they tearing down the house?" (0. E. Rolvaag; the parents' chests
are represented as a wall). (5) Though the element of confusion is
present objectively, the figure differs from bhrantimat in that the
confusion is subjectively willed, or is at least not the concomitant
of error. The identification of the two things here differs from
riipaka, since the mode of the identification is volitional, not conventional; a stratum of explicit consciousness is overlaid on the identification.
samiihita (II): (1) same as samiidhi. (2) B 3.10, D 2.298 (299).
samnCllllya
samuccaya, 'accumulation': (I) a figure consisting of the multiplication
of descriptive adjuncts to a thing>~~ rpood. (2) R 7.19 (20-26),
7.27 (28-29), 8.103 (104), M 178-79:(3) sukham idam etavad iha
sphiirasphuradindumalJ4ala rajan; / saudhaidla'll kavyakathii suhrdab
snigdhii vidagdhiis ca (Rudrala: "It is so pleasant here! The night is
brilliant with a glimmering moon; here on the palace roof poetry is
read; friends are kind and clever"). (4) "As [the Public] sat, listening
to his speeches, in which considerations of stolid plainness succeeded
one another with complete flatness, they felt, involved and supported
by the colossal tedium, that their confidence was finally assured"
(Lytton Strachey; Lord Hartington is quite a bore). (5) Rudrala
gives many examples showing not different kinds of accumulation,
but differences in the kinds of things accumulated. In general, his
distinctions follo;y, the canonical fourfold pattern of jati, kriya,
gUlla, and dravya.' The accumulation of states, events, or adjuncts is,
of course, desigued to re-enforce the tone of a description, as in
parikara ala'llkara, where the qualifications or epithets alone of a
thing are multiplied. Formally, samuccaya is the same as dipaka
ala'llkara, but in fact the motives underlying their use are diametrically
opposed: here the emphasis is on the quantity of adjuncts; in dipaka,
it is on the single word which bears the syntactical force of the
whole sentence.
sah6kti
sahOkti 'speech coutaining the word "with"': (I) a figure in which two
separate things or ideas are represented as conjoined or occurring
at once. (2) B 3.38 (3Q), 3.17, D 2.351 (352-56), V 4.3.28,U 5.15,

321

AP 344.23, R 7.13-18, 8.99 (102), M 170. (3) bhavadapariidhaib

sardha'll sa'lltapo vardhatetara'll tasyab /k~ayam eti sa vataki
snehena sama'll tvad;yena (Rudrala: ''Together with your unfaithfulness, her sufferiug grows and grows; the unfortunate girl is ruined
along with your love for her"), (4)"Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's
gate sings, / And Phoebus gius arise, / His steeds to water at those
springs / On chaliced flowers that lies; / And winking Mary-buds
begin / To ope their golden eyes: / With everything that pretty is, /
My lady sweet, arise; / Arise, arise!" (Shakespeare). (5) Accompaniment is, of course, one type of association, and this latter notion
can always suggest a comparison (as in the second example). Some
writers, notably Vamana and the Agni Puralla, have emphasized the
comparative aspect of sah8kti; others have preferred to leave its
definition purely formal (as in the first example). Rudrala allows
both. The many definitions and examples which Rudrala gives are
not distinguished by any special terminology, and in fact the
discriminations are quite extrinsic and depend on the actual relationship ofthe things said to be accompanying one another. One example
refers to two things which, in fact, do physically accompany one
another (breasts and attractiveness), another to two things which are
always complimentary (man's unfaithfulness and woman's sorrow),
the third to two things which are merely contemporary, never contigent. Dal),Qin's three examples show contemporaneous association,
either through qualities (as: "saha dirghii mama Svasair imab sa'llprati ratrayab", 'the nights are long, and my sighs'), or through
actions (as: "yiinti siirdharrz jananandair vrddhirrz surabhiviisartib",
'the spring days are fulfilled, along with the peoples' joys'). Mammala has taken the obvious step of inventing a figure vinokti ('exclusion').
siidl"lya
siidrsya, 'similitude': (1) a generic term for simile (upama) and those
figures based upon it. (2) AP 344.5 (6-24). (5) See aupamya, a term
used by Rudrala with the same intent. The term here refers to
upama, riipaka, sah8kti, and arthiintaranyasa.
siimiinya
siimiinya, 'identity': (I) same as ananyatva atiSayokti. (2) M 202.

322

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323

GLOSSARY

samya
samya (I), 'likeness': (I) a figure in which the subject of comparison is
represented as fulfilling the function of the object of comparison.
(2) R 8.105 (106). (3) abhisara rama(la1fl kim imii1fl diSam aindrim
iikula1fl vllokayasi ! saSinal; karoti kiirya1fl sakala1fl mukham eva te
mughde (Rudrata: "Go to your lover! Why are you gazing distractedly at the eastern sky? 0 foolish girl, your face is accomplishing
the work of the moon!"). (4) "0 saw ye not fair Ines?! She's gone
into the West,! To dazzle when the sun is down, ! And rob the world
of rest" (Thomas Hood). (5) Cf pihita ala1flkiira, where one quality
superimposes itself upon another. Here the two subjects are not
confused, though their functiqns make them interchangeable.
samya (II): (I) a figure in which the subject and object of comparison
differ only modally. (2) R 8.107 (108). (3) mrga1fl mrglifikal; sahaja1fl
kalafika1fl bibharti tasyiis tu mUlj;haip. kadiicit ! iihiiryam eva1fl
mrganiibhipattram iyiin ase$e(la tayor vise$al; (Rudrata: "The rabbitmarked moon is inherently spotted; her face, however, is only oc.casionally marked with lines of musk. This is the only difference
between them"). (4) "Far more welcome than the spring; ! He that
parteth from you never ! Shall enjoy a spring forever" (William
Browne). (5) In these examples, one of the terms compared is
represented as existing continuously, while the other exists only
temporarily. The figure is thus distinguished from catu upamii
in that the difference there is simply overlooked, and from atisaya
upamii in that the difference is there reduced to the bare fact of
separate existe(ice. All three figures agree in ignoring the concrete
difference between the things compared, that is, their sharing the
common property in different degrees.
sara
sara, 'pith': (I) a figure wherein is expressed a concatenated series such
that each succeeding term expresses a characteristic improvement
in relation to the preceding. (2) R 7.96 (97), M 190. (3) riijye siira1fl
vasudhii vasu1fldhariiyii1fl pura1fl pure saudham ! saudhe talpa1fl talpe
varlifiganlinangasarvasvam (Rudrata: "In the kingdom, the earth is
best, on the earth, the capital, in the capital, your palace, in the
palace, a bed, in the bed, the entire wealth of the Love God-that
beautiful woman"). (4) "The mouth seemed formed less to speak then
to quiver, less to quiver than to kiss, (some might have added) less
to kiss than to curl':C(Thomas Hardy). (5) This figure amounts to a

sequence of related comparatives; here the comparative degree of

the adjective connects the series of terms as, in eklivali, they were
connected through the notion of qualification and, in kiira(lamiilii,
through the relation of cause and effect. See also the various similes
and metaphors extended into sequences (miilii).
siik~ma

siik~ma (I), 'subtle': (I) a figure in which an intention or idea is said to be

conveyed through a gesture, glance, or means other than language.

(2) B 2.86, D 2.235, 260 (261-64), M 189. (3) p~dm~sa1flm~an~d
atra siicito niSi sa1flgamal; ! iiViisayitum icchantya przyam angaJapiditam (DalJ4in: "Putting a lotus on, she indicates a rendez-vous
th~t night, desiring to comfort her love-lorn favorite"). (4) "~e
voice was Southern and gentle and drawling; and a second VOice
came in immediate answer, cracked and querulous :-'It ain't again.
Who says it's again? Who told you, anyway?' And the first voice
responded caressingly:-'Why, your Sunday clothes told me, Uncle
Hughey. They are speakin' mighty loud 0' nu.ptials"~ (Owen
Wister). (5) The Sanskrit example is literal, the English attnbutes an
intention to an inanimate object. This figure is one of several
dealing with communication (see paryiiya, vakrokti: lesa). It ~ay
seem curious that a figure of speech could be defined III an area which
is specifically non-verbal or extra-verbal. In the first place, the figure
is a representation of such an occurrence in words and may be compatible with figurative usage. Secondly, taken in the context of the
other figures indicating an intention of the speaker, the present
figure has a certain place in the system and may not be ignored.
siik~ma (II): (1) same as utprek$ii of DalJ4in. (2) R 7.98 (99).
smaraJ}.a

smarana 'recollection': (I) a figure conveying a recollection based on

si~;litude. (2) M 199. (3) nimnaniibhikuhare$u yad ambhal; pliivita1fl
caladrSiim laharibhih ! tadbhavail; kuharutail; suraniiryal; smiiritiil;
surat~ka~tharutiinii;" (Mammata: "The water of the waves laps
in the deep navels of the swift-glancing nymphs, reminding one of
goddesses making love and the throaty murmurings of their passion"). (4) "Her presence brought memories of such things as Bourbon roses, rubies and tropical midnights; her moods recalled lotuseaters and the march in 'Athalie'; her motions, the ebb and flow
ofthe sea; her voice, the viola" (Thomas Hardy). (5) The point of

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this figure is that one of the relations upon which recollection can
be based is similitude, (the ,others are ,contiguity, contemporaneity,
etc.), and such recollection constitutes, an implicit simile. Another
name for this figure is kiivyahetu.
svabhiivilkti
svabhiivilkti, 'telling the nature (of a thing)': (I) a figure in which a natural
or typical individual is characterized. (2) B 1.30, 2.93, D 2.8 (9-13),
U 3.5, R 7.30 (31-33: jati), M 168. (3) dhulidhUsaratanavo riijyasthitiracanakalpitiiikanrpii/:z / krtamukhaviidyavikiirii/:z krit/anti sunirbhararrz t/imbhii/:z (Rudrata: "The children are intent at their play,

bodies gray with dust, one among them chosen to occupy the station
of a king, assuming grave miellsand voices"). (4) "On the day
when I first learned of my father's journey, I had come back with
two companions from 'a satisfactorY,afternoon in the weeds near
Kay's Bell Fonndry,shootinga sIlrtgshQI,at the new bells, which
were lying out in the yard and strung tip on rafters. Struck with
rocks, they made a beautiful. sound, although it seemed to upset
Mr. William Kay, the proprietor. 'His sign, "Maker of Church,
Steamboat, Tavern and Other Bells", hung over the doorway of his
barnlike shop and had a row of little brass bells swinging beneath,
squat and burnished, but these were hard to hit, and if you missed
them, you were apt to hit one of the men working inside, and this
was what seemed to upset Mr. William Kay most of all. So toward
the end of the afternoon he pranced out with a double barreled
shotgun loaded with pepper and blistered Herbert Swann's seat as
he zigzagged to sar~ty through the high grass" (Robert Lewis Taylor).
(5) Both examples describe children at play. The poetic nature of
this figure constitutes one of the longest standing disputes of the
alarrzkiirasiistra. In fact, the oldest writer, Bhamaha, specifically
objects to this figure on the ground that it does not involve vakrokti
or the figurative turn of phrase essential in any poetry. This point
of view is taken up in more detail much later by Kuntaka (Vakroktijivita 1.11). DaJ.l<;lin, however, followed by most of the other
alarrzkiira writers, has included svabhtivokti, although in a much
discussed verse (2.363), he seems to distinguish that figure from the
rest of the alarrzkiiras. The poetic basis of the figure is probably
to be sought in the genre calledjiiti: short verses, extremely condensed
yet full of minute detail, each one attempting to seize the instantaneous totality ofa certain event, or an individual as wholly characteristic
/

GLOSSARY

325

ora genus, such as a hawk diving on a scrap of food or a village

woman drawing water from the well (Subhii#taratnako~a, verses
1148-92). Here the charm lies precisely in the completeness of the
description within the limits imposed by the verse, and not on any
figurative usage. Yet that charm is undeniable. Daw;lin includes
in his definition of the figure not merely that it is descriptive, but that
that description reflects the 'different aspects' (niiniivastha) of the
thing. Rudrata, likewise, is far from thinking svabhiivokti mere
description; his criteria specify that the rendering be appropriate
to the time and characteristic of the thing (avasthOcita). Some con, texts are simply more interesting than others; his description of the
young woman being made love to, though clinically exact, illustrates
this appropriateness of subject, detail, and occasion perfectly.
Da;l<;Iin gives four examples of svabhiivokti, as the description
emphasizes one of the four metaphysical categories jiiti ('type'),
kriyii ('act'), guVa ('attribute'), or dravya, ('individual'). The
distinction is arbitrary in the sense that any good example of
svabhiivokti will express that perfect blending of type, action,
attribute, and individual which we tend to call "characteristic unity".
But the emphasis may vary from one case to another.
A speculative discussion of the rationale for including this figure
within fignrative usage will be found in the Introduction" pp. 42ff.
kriyii, 'verb': (I) a type of svabhtivokti in which the behavior of the
subject is emphasized. (2) D 2.13 (10). (3) kalakvavitagarbheva
kavtheniighurvitek~avai/:z / piiravata/:z paribhramya rirarrzsus cumbati
priyam (DaJ.l<;lin: "A pigeon wanders about with eyes rolling and

soft cooings coming from its throat and, desiring its mate, kisses
her"). (4) "Save yow, I herde nevere man so synge / As dide youre
fader in the morwenynge. / Certes, it was of herte, al that he song. /
And for to make his voys the moore strong, / He wolde so peyne
hym that with bothe his yen / He moste wynke, so loude he wolde
cryen, / And stonden on his tiptoon therwithal, / And streeche forth
his nekke long and smal" (Geoffrey Chaucer). (5) See jiiti, guva,
dravya.

gul}a, 'attribute, adjective': (I) a type of svabhtivokti in which the contextual or descriptive attributes of the subject are emphasized. (2)
D 2.13 (II). (3) badhnann afige~u romiificarrz kurvan manasi nirvrtim /
netre ciimilayann Na priyiisparSa/:z pravartate (Dal}<;Iin: "The touch
of the beloved provokes a tingling in the limbs, happy release in
the mind, a closing of the eyes"). (4) "The open hills were airy and

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GWSSARY

clear, and the remote atmosphere appeared, as it often appears on a

fine winter day, in distinct planes of illumination independently
toned, the rays which lit the nearer tracts of landscape streaming
:visibly across those further off; a stratum of ensaffroned light was
Imposed on a stratum of deep blue, and behind these lay still remoter
scenes wrapped in frigid grey" (Thomas Hardy). (5) GUlJasvabhaviJkti
is to be distinguished from jiiti svabhiiviJkti, where the constitutive
or generic aspects of the subject are emphasized.
jatl, 'genus': (I) a type of svabhaviJkti in which the generic aspects of
the subject are emphasized. (2) D 2.13 (9). (3) tUlJgair iitiimrakutilaih
pak~air haritakomalai1;z / trivan:Ulriijibhi1;z km:zthair ete mailju~irah
sukii1;z (DaJ:l4in: "With beaks bent and reddish, with wings yello~
and soft and throats bearing thrlOe-colored stripes, the parrots call
s~ftly"). (4) "She was an egregious fOwl. She was huge and gaunt,
WIth great yellow beak, and she st90d. straight and alert in the
manner of responsible people. There;'Was.gomething wrong with
the tail. It slanted far to one side, one feather in it twice as long
as the rest. Feathers on her breast there were none. These had been
worn entirely off by her habit of sittillg upon potatoes and other
rough objects.... Her legs were blue, long, and remarkably stout"
(Owen Wister). (5) See kriyii, gulla, dravya.
dravya, 'material': (I) a type of svabhiiviJkti in which a typical individual
is characterized. (2) D 2.13 (12). (3) kallthekiila1;z karasthena
kapiilenendusekhara1;z / jatiibhi1;z snigdhatiimriibhir iivir iisfd vrsadhvaja1;z (DaJ:l4in: "Siva comes into view atop his bull, with d~~k blue
neck, a skull in his. hand, the moon on his brow, and matted locks,
reddish and greasy:"). (4) "And on her legs she painted buskins
wore, / Basted with bands ofgold on every side, / And mails between,
and laced dose afore: / Upon her thigh her scimitar was tied, / With
an em?rOldered belt of mickle pride; / And on her shoulder hung
her shield, bedecked / Upon the boss with stones, that shined wide /
As the fair moon in her most full aspect, / That to the moon it m;te
be like in each respect" (Edmund Spenser; of Radigund). (5) This
type of svabhiiviJkti is doubtless desigued to cover that large category
of exceptional individuals whose attributes in Indian story have
become standardized. The stotra literature abounds in such descriptive verses of gods and godlings. Presumably the description of
ordinary individuals would fall into the category jiiti svabhaviJkti.

svariipa
svariipa, 'nature': (I) probably the same as svabhiiviJkti. (2) AP 344.3-4.
(5) The figure is divided into siiyt!siddhika (nija) and naimittika
(iigantuka). It is the first arthiilayt!kiira of the Agni Puriilla.

327

hetu
hetu, 'cause': (I) a figure in which an effect is described along with its
cause. (2) D 2.235-59, AP 344.29, R 7.82 (83); refuted by B 2.86,
M 186. (3) aviralakamalavikiisa1;z sakaliJlimadas ca kokiliJnanda1;z /
ramyo'yam eti sayt!prati lokiJtkallthiikara1;z kiila1;z (Rudrata; description of the springtime and its several effects: "The delightful season
progresses; men fall in love, nightingales rejoice, drnnken bees
hover about the unbroken spread of lotus blooms"). (4) "Beueath
this slab / John Browu is stowed. / He watched the ads / And not the
road" (Ogdeu Nash). (5) This is the most controversial alayt!kiira.
It would seem to be nothing but literal description, like the figure
svabhiiviJkti, and it has been rejected by Bhamaha and Mammata
for that reason, for they feel that an alayt!kiira must repose upon so~e
figurative usage (Mammala does in effect resuscitate the figure hetu
as kiivya!iiiga, q. v.). But, as usual, such objections miss the point:
those authors who accept hetu are far from thinking it mere literalism,
judging by the examples which they give. All involve some striking,
though not necessarily deformed or unnatural (cf. vyiighiita, asayt!gati,
etc.) instance of the cause-effect relation. Though the cause of John
Brown's death is given literally, it touches upon other issues which
strike a responsive chord in the reader's mind, and he is pleased.
It would be said by Anandavardhana that in this instance, the figure
hetu was nothing but a means to the expression of a dhvani (suggestion) regarding the ubiquity of billboards, etc. In such considerations
may be said to reside the alayt!kiiratii of the figure hetu. DaJ:l4in gives
an extensive inventory of examples based, oddly enough, ou the
philosophical analysis of cause: it is a cause either of knowledge
(jiiiipaka) or of work (kiiraka); it may increase (upabrhalla) or
dimiuish (nivrtti); the cause may be non-existent (abhiiva), simulated
(priipya), immediate (tatsahaja), or mediate (diirakarya). Within the
figure, the cause may be appropriate (yukta) or inappropriate (ayukta)
to its effect. This last amounts to a mixed metaphor.
abhava, 'non-existence': (I) a type of hetu in which a certain cause is
absent, and the effect is the appropriate contrary. (2) D 2.246
(247-52). (3) gata1;z kiimakathiJnmiido galitoyauvanajvara1;z/ k~ato mohaS

GLOSSARY

328

329

GLOSSARY

cyutii tr~Qii krtarrz pUQyiisrame manab (Dal)gin: "Gone is the fascination of the tales of love, slipped away the fever of youth; error is
ended, desire lost; my mind is fixed on the holy retreat"). (4) '''And
yet you incessantly stand on your head- I Do you think, at your
age, it is right?' I 'In my youth', Father William replied to his son, I
'I feared it might injure the brain; I But, now that I'm perfectly
sure I have none, I Why, I do it again and again'" (Lewis Carroll).
(5) Dal)giu, with careful scholarship, illustrates the four kinds of
non-existence which are recognized by the logicians: priigabhiiva
(non-existence preceding becoming),pradhvarrzsiibhiiva (non-existence
following cessation), anyonyiibhiiva (difference), and atyantiibhiiva
(unqualified non-existence). Both.J.he examples given are ofpradha/}'lsiibhiiva.
ayokta, 'inappropriate': (I) a type of het.l(wherein the cause is expressed
figuratively and in such a way that,~~.Yohd the figure, the cause is
improperly related to the effect. (2) D~2.253 (258). (3) riijnii/}'l
hastiiravindiini kumalikurute kutab I deva tvaccaraQadvandvariigabiiliitapab sprsan (Dal)gin; lotuses do not normally close during
the day, but the hand-lotuses of the COl!l't do, in the presence of the
Sun-King; "King, why do the hand-lotuses of your court close when
they have been touched by the red suns of your lac-anointed feet?").
(4) "To Daisies, not to shut so soon: I ... I Stay but till my Julia
close I Her life-begetting eye, I And let the whole world then dispose I
Itself to live or die" (Robert Herrick; the "inappropriateness" is
only in the poet's wish that the "sun" of Julia's eye should cause the
daisies to bloom illto the night). (5) See yukta. In these two cases,
the figurative expression, in the sense of a non-natural representation,
does not attach to the cause itself, but only to the terms which serve
as cause and effect. In this, they are d.ifferent from such figures as
vyiighiita, asarrzgati, etc., where the nature of the relation of cause to
effect is expressed differently. The "inappropriateness" of ayukta
consists in the wrong effect being said of that cause, and it is excused
by both cause and effect serving as objects of comparison to other
terms, onto which the relation of canse-effect is thereby transferred.
These terms, as subjects of comparisou, cau support the nonliteralness or inappropriateness inherent in the basic expression.
upabrhal;ta, 'augmentation': (I) a type of hetu wherein the modality of
the cause is increase or augmentation. (2) D 2.237 (236). (3) ayam
iindolitaprauhacandanadrumapallavab I utpiidayati sarvasya prfti/}'l
malayamiirutab (Dal)ghi; "produces" pleasure: "The southern wind

brings pleasant change to all, swaying the buds of the bursting

sandal trees"). (4) "Here lies the body of Mary Ann Lowder, I She
burst while drinking a seidlitz powder" (Anon.). (5) Cf nivrtti
(diminution); these are the two types of nirvrtya 'transformation'),
which is, in turn, a sub-variety of kiiraka helu (see helu).
karaka, 'productive': (I) a type of helu wherein the effect described has
the form of a work or thing. (2) D 2.235. (3) See under upabrhaQa,
nivrlli, vikiirya, or priipya. (4) "There was a young belle of old
Natchez I Whose garments were always in patchez. I When comment
arose I On the state of her clothes, I She drawled, 'When Ah itchez,
Ah scratchez'" (Ogden Nash). (5) The two principal subspecies
of helu are this and jniipaka, wherein the effect is knowledge; for
example: "The Grizzley Bear is huge and wild I He has devoured
the infant child. I The infant child is not aware I He has been eaten
by the bear" (A. E. Housman). Aristotle's two orders are meant.
kary;lnantaraja, '(cause) produced after the effect': (I) a type of hetu
in which the order of cause and effect is reversed. (2) D 2.253 (257).
(3) pasciil paryasya kiraQiin udiYQa/}'l candramaQalam I priig eva
harlQak~iQiim udirQo riigasiigarab (Dal)gin; first came woman's
passion, then the moon: "Last arose the moon's full orb, sC\lttering
its rays, but first of all, the passion-ocean of young women, doe
eyed"). (4) "For the leaf came I Alone and shining in the empty
room; I After a while the twig shot downward from it; I And from
the twig a bough; and then the trunk, I Massive and coarse; and
last the one black root. I The black root cracked the walls .. ."
(Conrad Aiken). (5) This is the third term in the trilogy durakiirya
(effect produced long after cause), lalsahaja (produced simultaneously), kiiryanantaraja (effect produced before the cause). Compare
purva, which is the same as kiiryananlaraja except that the end of
the inversion need not be exaggeration of a quality. In Aiken's
example, the exaggeration is used simply to assert an introspective
mood.
jiiapaka, 'causing to know': (I) a type of helu in which the effect has the
form of an idea or of information learned. (2) D 2.235 (244-45).
(3) galo'slam arko bhiilindur yiinli viisiiya pak~iQab I itidam api
siidhv eva kiiltivaslhiinivedane (Dal)gin: "The sun has set, the moon
smiles down, the birds have gone to rest; this is enough to tell the
time of day"). (4) "Roy's club was sedate. In the ante-chamber
were only an ancient porter and a page; and I had a sudden and
melancholy feeling that the members were all attending the funeral

330

i
i

I;

I
I

i:

GLOSSARY

_ o~ the ,head waiter" (Somerset Maugham). (5) See kiiraka hetu.

durakarya, whose effect is at a distance': (I) a type of hetu in wWch the
cause (or condition)
is materially separated from its effiect,werem
h .
.
the two terms Imply different levels of reality or differ as to substratum. (2) D 2.253 (255). (3) tvadapafigahvayalp jaitram anaiigastralp yad afigane
/ muktam
.
' tad anyatas tena so'py aham
. manaSI.
k~atal; (Dan4:~; the lady shoots her glances elsewhere, and my heart
IS wounded: 0 woman, the well-aimed arrow of Love-that goes
by the name of yonr sidelong glance-was shot elsewhere bnt I
here, am struck in the heart!"). (4) "I sent thee late a rosy ":reath,;
Not so much honourmg thee / As giving it a hope that there /
It could ~ot wlther'd be; / But thou thereon didst only breathe, /
And sent Stlt back to me; / Since when it grows, and smells,lswear,/
~ot ~f itself .but thee!" (Ben Jonson). (5) See kiiryanantaraja;
durakarya IS eVidently the same asa~alpffati alaf[lkiira and virodha II,
but a nuance deserves to be noted. "'If the ','cause acts at a distance"
then '''I blow my breath', said the old ma~, 'and the stream stand~
stilI .. .'. 'I breathe', said the young man, 'and flowers spring up
over the plain'" would serve as an example. But it lacks the "appearance of contradiction" which Vamana deems essential.
nirvartya, 'to be accomplished': (I) a type of kiiraka hetu in which a
transformation of quantity or intensity is reflected. (2) D 2.240.
(3) (4) See. the two subtypes, upabrhalJa and nivrtti. (5) Nirvartya
IS dlstmgUlshed from viktirya hetu, where a qualitative transformation is intended.
niVj'tti: '~ess~tion': (I) a type of hetu wherein the modality of the cause is
~lIn~nutlOn o~ G~ssation. (2) D 2.237 (238). (3) candanaralJyam
adhuya spr~tva malayanirjhartin / pathiktintim abhtiviiya pavano'yam
upasthital; (DaJ:l4in: "The wind out of the south, touching springs
and sandal forests III the southern mountains, is destined to relieve
the weary wanderer"). (4) "The world is too much with us' late and
soon, / Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers','(WilIiam
_ Wo;dsw~rth)., (5) See upabrhalJa; both are types of nirvartya hetu.
prapya, acquirable: (I) a type of ktiraka hetu in which the cause and
effect are simulated. (2) D 2.240 (243). (3) mtinayogyiif[l karomfti
priyast~tinasthittirr:,~akhim / biilti bhrubhafigajihmak~i pasyati sphuritiJ.dhara (Dan4m: I shall pretend I am angry', she said to her friend
who stood before her in the place of the lover, and her brows arched,
her. eyes narrowed, her lovely lips trembled"). (4) "This was one of
their old games, this ~laborate envisaging of situation and outcome

GLOSSARY

331

'I should say, "Mr. Kitson, I think it better to be direct with

you'." 'Good', said Humphrey, 'And next ... ?' 'Then he will say,
"Excellent. Go ahead, Mrs. Pelham, go ahead." I shall take my
time: I shall give him a long look, then say ... "Why did you do
tWs thing, Mr. Kitson?''''' (pamela Hansford Johnson). (5) This is
a ktiraka hetu in wWch no transformation at all takes place, that is,
in which simulation takes the place of action. Cf. nirvartya and
viktirya.
yukta, 'appropriate': (1) a type of hetu in which a cause is represented in
figurative terms, but in such a way that, within the figure, the cause
is appropriate to its effect. (2) D 2.253 (259). (3) ptilJipadmtini
bhuptintif[l saf[lkocayitum /Sate / tvatptidanakhacandrtilJtif[l arci~al;
kundanirmaltil; (DaJ:l4in; here the [foot]-moon of the king closes the
[hand]-lotuses of the retainers: in fact, the moon does cause tWs
type oflotus to close; it blooms only during the day: "The jasminewhite rays from the ten moons of your toenails, 0 King, make
the hand-lotuses of your courtiers to close'). (4) "Suddenly, as if
the movement of his hand had released it, the load of her cumulated
impressions of him tilted up, and down poured in a ponderous
avalanche all she felt about him" (Virginia Woolf; outside the figure,
the hand does, in fact, actuate the mechanism of dump trucks, etc.).
(5) The contrasting term is ayukta, where the relation of cause and
effect is, in literal terms, impossible. Cf. yukta and ayukta rupaka,
to which the present terms are but the addition of a causal relation.
~ik;;rya, 'to be transformed': (1) a type of ktiraka hetu wherein the modality
ofthe cause is alteration of quality. (2) D 2.240 (242). (3) utpravtiltiny
aralJytini vtipyal; saf[lphullapafikajtil; / candral; purlJas ca ktimena
ptinthadr~ler vi~af[l krtam (Dan4in; the traveller is separated from
his lover: "The forests are sending forth new shoots, the tanks are
full of lotuses, the moon is full; but love turns all this to poison in
the eyes of the traveller"). (4) "All good Englishmen go to Oxford
or Cambridge and they all write and publish books before their
graduation, / And I often wondered how they did it until I realized
that they have to do it because their genteel accents are so developed
that they can no longer understand each other's spoken words so
the written word is their only means of intercommunication" (Ogden
Nash; the written word replaces the spoken word). (5) See hetu;
viktirya is distinguished from nirvartya, where the modality is augmentation or diminution (change of quantity). Here the effect
reflects a change of nature (quality as opposed to quantity).

332

GLOSSARY

sahaja, 'congenital': (1) a type of hetu in which the cause and effect
appear simultaneously. (2) D 2.253 (256). (3) avir bhavati nari!U'if[l
vayal.z paryastasaiSavam I sahaiva vividhail.z pUf[lsam aiigajonmadavibhramail.z (DaJ:l4in: "Maidenhood appears in girls, their childhood
passed, and with it, in yonng men, the several passionate confusions
of love"). (4) "All iu green went my love riding Ion a great horse of
gold I into the silver dawn. I four lean hounds crouched low and
smiling I my heart fell dead before" (e. e. cmnmings). (5) Sahaja
forms the middle term in the triad diirakarya ... karyanantaraja.
In all three, the cause and the effect are vyadhikaraJ;!a, different as to
suhstratum. The cause operates figuratively or through mental
processes; hence DaJ:l4in has iJlcluded the three terms in jiiapaka
hetu. They do not necessarily imply deformations of the relation of
cause-effect, although other writers would say so (cf. notably the
figure asaf[lgati).
'. .

APPENDIX

Figures Defined for the First Time in the Encyclopedic

Writers after M ammata
The number in parentheses refers to the serial order of the figure in the
Kuvalayananda of Appayyadiksita, from which we take the examples.
atyukti (96): the representation of great nobility, compassion, etc.
(variation on udatta); as: "by your gifts, King, beggars become
horns of plenty!"
anugtII}a (78): a second quality augments or sets off the first (a variety
of tadguva, the modality is association rather than imposition); as:
"the blue lotuses appear a deeper blue in the presence of her sidelong

glances".
anujna (71): an affected desire for a defect, setting off a quality (a virodha
in which the contraries are specified as guva and dO$a; the example
is also an iiSi$); as: "may our sufferings be prolonged, that we may
praise Hari the more fervently".
anupalabdhi (115): a poetic application of the mimaf[lsaka pramava
'abhava' (cf. pratyak$a (108)); as: "your delicate waist, clearly
unable to support the weight of your full breasts, is deemed not
to exist by all observers".
arthapatti (59, 114): the mimaf[lsakapramava 'afortiori' (cf. pratyak$a
(l08, the only one generally considered a figure before Appayya,
and undonbtedly the analogical source for the others; as: "the moon
himself has been conquered by your face; what hope is there for the
lotuses?"
alpa (42): the support exceeds the supported in minuteness (inversion of
adhika); as: "the jeweled finger ring on your hand seems more like a
rosary".
avajna (70): the description of an absent quality or defect by means of

334

APPENDIX

one present (a variety of ulliisa (69); apparently a vinokti determined

as gUiJa or dO$a); as: "let tlIe lotuses close; what harm will there be
for the moon?" (ex.: dO$a).
unmilita (81): a mflita followed by the distiuction reborn; as: "tlIe Gods,
seeing the Himalaya hidden behind your accumulation of glory,
o King, gave it new life as ice" (i.e., indistinguishable in whiteness,
the mountain is again made distinct as cold).
upamana (110): the mimii'!'saka pramii1)a 'comparison' (this one accepted
also by other schools): in exemplification indeed difficult to distinguish from the ordinary upamii. Here the encyclopaedic spirit may
be seen to have come full circle, with all sense lost for what in fact
was being catalogued.
,...
ulliisa (69): description of a quality or defect by means of an associated
one (ef avajiiii (70); a sahokti determined as gu1Ja or dO$a); as:
"the Ganges, as it were, desires to bejntt"ified by your batlI".
ullekha (7): the description of one thing as many, in many contexts
(in effect, a miilii riipaka; in intent, perhaps a samueeaya); as:
"he is indeed a Cupid witlI women, a wishing-tree to his suitors,
death to his enemies".
aitihya (117): tlIe quasi-pramii1)a 'tradition' (allowed as authoritative in
mimii'!'sii aud other systems when it does not conllict with Veda);
as: "in the words of this old song, 'Joy accompanies tlIe man living
even for a hundred years'''.
gii~~kti (87): veiled reference in the presence of the person really
referred to (a possible specialization of several figures: paryiiyokta
personalized; or $amiisokti with presence of implicit term specified;
or lesa (1), again liihited to persons. The figure, as defined, resembles
the anyokti of Rudrata); as: "bull, leave this strange field! Here
comes the gamekeeper" (reference is to the lover of an adulteress).
uirukti (97): one word pun on a name; resembles tattva sle$a; as: "by
your actions [infiaming tlIe separated lover] you [Moon] are rightly
called "do$iikara" ['mine of defects, nightmaker']". Following
atyukti, this figure would seem to have some relation to it, such as
"ironic description of great iniquity" or the like; but none is apparent
in the definition.
parikariiiikura (25): accumulation of epithets distinguishing not the
subject (ef parikara) but the object of the reference; as: "giver
of the four goals of men, tlIe God is four armed" (his four arms
relate not to himself, but to what he does).
pariJ1iima (6): a property of the subject of comparison is transferred to

the object of comparison; in effect, a vikriyii upamii; as: "she of the

intoxicated glance was looked at by the calm eyes of lotuses".
piirvariipa (76): a tadgu1)a followed by reappropriation of the lost
quality; as: "though blue iu reflection of Siva's neck, you regain
whiteness from your own glory" (addressed to Parvati).
pratyak~a (l08): the mimii,!,saka pramii1)a 'perception' (Appayya appends
to the Candriiloka of Jayadeva 17 figures, 10 of which are poetic
applications of pramii1)as 'modes of true apprehension' or quasipramii1)as such as aitihya, 'tradition', admitted in the mimii'!'sa. This
innovation probably dates from Bhojaraja; as: "the five senses
attain perfection [in the presence of] tlIis liquor, reflecting the
beauteous faces of young women, smelling of fresh sahakiira blooms,
sweet tasting, surrounded with buzzing bees, and cool".
prastutiiiikura (28): a relevant subject illuminates another relevant subject
(instead of an apparently irrelevant subject; a variety of aprastutaprasamsii); as: "you have the miilatiflower, bee! What do you want
with the ketaki, full of thorns?" This seems but a repeated aprastutaprasamsii, as the aprastuta-tlIe girl he is wooing in the pleasure
garden-is still obliquely referred to.
prahar~al}a (67): the attainment without effort of a desired goal (id.,
samiidhi); as: "eveu as he thought of her, came Ii messenger suggesting rendez-vous".
hhiivodaya, etc. (105-107): the dramatic moments ofaugmenting, diminishing, and muting an emotion. A late reaction showing an attempt to
figurize the rasa theory. Cf Ohv. 2.3.
mithyiidhyavasiti (65): an arthiintaranyiisa in which an impossible
proposition is justified by another impossible proposition (ef
nidarsanii (II)); as: "he who would gain the fidelity of a prostitute
does indeed wear the celestial lotus".
ratniivali (74): the use of several descriptive epithets, each suggesting a
different object of comparison (in effect, a miilii samiisokti); as:
"0 !(jng, you are of clever mien [four-faced], the master of good
fortune [husbaud of Lak~mi], knowledgeable [omniscient]" (references are to Brahma, Vi~J:lu, and Rudra).
lalita (66): the description of a similar situation (id. anyokti); as: "now
that the water has flowed away, she seeks to build a dam" (she
seeks to restrain a lover already bound to another).
vikalpa (54): a virodha determined as a choice; as: "bend, 0 Kings, either
your heads or your bows!"
vikasvara (62): an arthiintaranyiisa in which the justification is stated as a

h
i

335

APPENDIX

.~

,j

336

simile; as: "he is unconquerable, for the great are as difficult to

tame as the sea".
vicitra (40): the cause, though having a contrary attribute, yet produces
the desired effect (cf. vi$ama (III); as: "the pious bow down in
order to obtain exaltation from on high".
vidbi (99): pleonasm; the establishment of what is already established;
as: "on hearing the fifth tone [a particularly sweet one], the kokila
bird becomes truly a kokila bird!" Iroulc contrary of mimtimsti
usage?
vivrtokti (88): a giiifhokti (87) which the poet clarifies in other terms.
vi~lidana (68): the attainment of a goal contradicting that desired (inverse
of prahar$aJ:Ul (67)); as: "as he ",as about to light the flame, the wind
blew it out".
sabdapramlil)a (III): one of three figures representing the mimiilflsaka
pramiilJa 'verbal authority' (cf. Snlrtt (112), sruti (113)). It seems
only a cover term for the latter two figures,' q.v.
sruti (113): the mimiilflSaka pramiilJa 'verbal authority' (viz. sruti as
opposed to smrti); as: "you are truly called 'Varada' ['giver of
boons']".
salllbhava (116): the quasi-pramtilJa 'possibility'; as: "some day I will
find a congenial soul, for the world is wide and time is endless!"
smrti (112): the mimtilflsaka pramiiua 'verbal authority' (viz. smrti as
opposed to sruti); as: "you are forced to do evil. Yet these deeds
are not done, for Manu has said 'all things done from force are
indeed not done'''.

J:i

:1

II
tl

i
iIf,

APPENDIX

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbinavagupta. See Bharata.

Agni PuriiQa, cd. G. B. Kale. (= Anandiisrama Sanskrit Series, 41.) (1957).
Anandavardhana. See Jacobi, H. and Dhvanikara.
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INDEX

INDEX

AVISE$A, 123
avyakt3.Ipsa sarpsf$ti, 309
avyapeta yarnaka, 226
as1iWl rOpaka, 244
ASAMGATI, 123
asat nidarsana, 202
asamasta rfipaka, 245
asamasa riipaka, 245
ASAlyIBHAVA, 123
asarpbhava upama, 149
asarpbhiivita upama, 149

asadharaJ)a upama, 150

AHETU,I24
ahetu vyatireka, 277

Entries in capitals are major figure~; the others are subfigures. Figures
followed by * appear only in the Appendix.
ak$ara yamaka, 225
aiig.ngi SaQlSf$ti, 308
acintyanirnitta vise$6kti, 273
ATADGWA,97
ATISAYA,97
atisaya upama, 147
ATISAYOKTI,97
ATYUKTI',333
adbhuta upama, 148
adhyavasana atisay6kti, 98
adhyaropa aprastutapra.sRIPSa, 112
ADHlKA (I), 102
ADHIKA (TI), 102
ananyatva atisay6kti, 99
ananvaya upama, 148
aniyama upama, 148
aniScaya sarpdeha, 313
anuktanimitta vise$okti, 273
ANUGWA',333
anugrahyanugrahaka sarpsf$ti, 309
ANUJ1'<A',333
ANUPALABDHI', 333
ANUPRASA, 102
ANUMANA, 108
anulomaviloma citra, 178
anla dipaka, 194
anta yamaka, 225
antadika yarnaka, 225
ANY6KTI, 108
ANYONYA,109
anyonya upama, 148
APAHNUTI (I), 109
APAHNUTI (TI), 109
APAHNUTI (TII), 110

apiitva~atpasokti, 318
aprastiivabhaj tulyayogita, 192
APRASTUTAPRASAMSA (I), 111
Al'RASTUTAPRASAlyISA (TI), 116
APRASTUTAPRASAMSA (III), 116
apriikaraJ;lika tulyayogita, 192
abhava hetu, 327
abhinnakriya sl~a, 295
abhinnapada sle$a, 295
ABHIVYAKTI, 117
abhi1ta upama, 149
ambuja citra, 178
aynkla rfipaka, 243
aynkta hetn, 328
ayuktakiiri arthantaranyasa, 118
ARTHA,117
artha citra, 178
artha vyatireka, 277
artha slela, 295
ARTHANTARANYAsA, 118
ARTHAPATTI*, 333
artMvrtti av;tti, 128
ardhaparivrtti yamaka, 226
ardhabhrama citra, 178
ALPA*,333
AVAJ1'<A*, 333
AVAYAVA,122
avayava (l) rnpaka, 244
avayava (II) rOpaka, 244
avayavi riipaka. 244
AVASARA,122
avirnddhakriyii sl"'la, 296
avirodhin sle$a, 297
avivak$ita d!'$tdnta, 200

iiklipla vyatireka, 277

AK~EPA, 124
iiklepa rOpaka, 245
ak$epa vyatireka, 277
aklepa slela, 297
acara upama, 150
acikbyasa upama, 150
iidi dipaka, 195
am yamaka, 226
adimadhya yamaka, 226
iidyanla yamaka, 226
iidhikya atisayukti, 99
adhikya vyatireka, 278
amreQita yamaka, 227
arthi apahnuti, 110
mill upama, 151
avali yamaka. 227
avrti yamaka, 227
AVJl.TT1, 128
ASI~, 129
aharyariipaka,246

ukta ak$epa, 125

uktanimitta vis~6kti, 273
UKTI,129
UTTARA (1), 130
UTTARA (TI), 130
utpadya upama, 151
UTPRE~A (I), 131
UTPREK~A (TI), 133
UTPREK~A (TIl), 134
UTPRE~A (IV), 135
UTPREK~A (V), 136
UTPREK~A (VI), 137
UTPREK~AVAYAVA, 138
utprek$ita upama, 152
UDATTA,139
UNMILITA',334

341

upanagarika anuprasa, 103

upahrhaQa hetu, 328
UPAMA,I40
upama riipaka, 246
upama sl~a, 297
UPAMANA*,334
upamana dharmadyotakalupta upama,
152
upamanalupta upama, 152
UPAMARDpAKA (1), 170
UPAMARDpAKA (TIl, 171
UPAMAsAMUCCAYA,171
upameyadyotakalupta upama, 153
upameyadharmadyotakalupta upama,
153
UPAMEYOPAMA,I71
ubhaya upama, 153
ubhaya rOpaka, 247
ubhaya vyatireka, 278
ubhayacchanna prahelika, 210
UBHAYANYASA,I71
nbhayfivrtti av;tti, 128
ULLAsA', 334
ULLEKHA',334
DRJASVI,171
eka vyatireka, 278
ekacchanna prahelika, 211
ekadeSavivarti riipaka, 248
ekadeSin upama, 153
ekababu upama, 154
ekasabdfibhidhana satllsr~li, 310
ekanga rOpaka, 248
ekantarapada yamaka, 228
ek1irtha dipaka, 195
EKAVALI,I72
AITIHYA',334
AUClTYA,I72
AUPAMYA,173
kalpapprabhrti upama, 154
kalpita upama, 154
kakn vakrukti, 261
kafici yamaka, 228
KANTI,173
k1iraka dipaka, 195
karaka hetu, 329
k1irakagfidha citra, 179
KARA~AMALA, 173
karaJ)antara vibhavana, 264
karya aprastutaprasarpsa, 112

342
karyakaraI;lapaurvaparyaviparyaya
atisay6kti, 100

karyanantaraja hetu, 329

jiiti vyatireka, 279

jiiti svabhav6kti, 326
jfiapaka hetu, 329

KAVYAD~$TANTA, 174

KAVYALIl'lGA,174
KAVYAHETU,175
kirp.citsadrsi upamii, 155
kamala anupnlsa, 103
KRAMA,175
kriyii dipaka, 196
kriya virodha, 266
kriyii vise~okti, 271
kriyii sIeja, 297
kriyii svabhiivokti, 325
kriyiigfio;lha citra, 179
kriqii citra, 179
kba4ga citra, 180

gajapadapa"tha citra, 180

gamana upama, 155

gamyamana vyatireka, 279

garbba yamaka, 228
guJ)a dlpaka, 196
guQa virodha, 266
gu~a vi~t)kti, 271
guJ)a sieja, 298
gUJ;la svabhav6kti, 325
guJ;lakriya virodha, 267
gupta citra, 181
GUMPHANA, 175
GOJ;>HOKTI*,334
gomiitrika citra, 181
gramya anuprasa, 103

cakra citra, 181

cakraka yamaka, 228

cakravala yamaka, 229

cakrilbjaka citra, 182
catu upama, 155
caturvyavasita yamaka, 229
CITRA, 175
cyuta citra, 182
cyutadatta citra, 182

CRAYA,190
cheka anuprasa, 103
CHEKANUPRASA, 190
JATI,190
jiiti dlpaka, 197
jiiti virodha, 267
jati vise;:okti, 271

INDEX

INDEX

J;laInul upama, 155

TATTVA,190
tattv.khyana(I) upama., 156
taltvil.kbyiioa (II) upamii, 156
tattvapahnava riipaka. 249
TADGUl:lA, 191
taddhita upama, 156
tadvacisarpk$epa upama, 156
turagapada citra, 182
tulya aprastutaprasatpsa, 113
ittulyayoga upama. 156
TULYAYOGlTA,191
tu1?,.karavise$al)a samas6kti, 318

da64acitra, 183
datla citt\(; 183
DIPAKA,193
DU$KARA, 199
dUjkara citra, 183
dukara yamaka, 229
diirakarya hetu, 330
D~~TANTA, 199
drlliiota vyatireka, 279
dyotakalupta upama. 157
dravya dipaka, 197
dravya virodha, 267
dravya visej6kti, 272
dravya svabhavokti. 326
dhanu citra, 184
dharma upamii, 157
dhannadyotakalupta upama, 157
dbarmalupta, 158
dhann6pamanalupta, 158
nanatva atisay6kti, 100
naman sIe$a, 298
niimilotarita prabelikii, 212
NIDARSANA (I), 201
NIDARSANA (II), 202
nindii (I) upamii, 158
nindii (II) upamii, 158
ninda tulyayogitii, 192
nibbrta prabelikii, 212
nimitta aprastutaprasarpsa.. 113
nimittadr$ti vise$okti. 273
nimittadr$ti vyatireka, 280
nirnitt&dr$ti vise{lokti, 274

nimittadr~ti

vyatireka, 280

niyama upamii, 159

niyama citra, 184
niyamavat sle$a, 298
niyamilkjepariipa sleja, 299
niravayava riipak~ 249
NIRUKTI*,334
nirQaya atisayokti, 100
nirJ;laya upama, 159
nirvartya hetu, 330
nivrtti hetu, 330
niScaya upama, 159
niscayagarbha saJ:Pdeha, 314
niscayanta saJ:Pdeha, 314
nyfina parivrtti, 204
paiikti yamaka, 229
pada sieja, 299
padilrthavrtti upamii, 159
padilvrtti iivrtti, 129
padma citra, 184
pararp.parita riipaka, 249
paraspara upama, 159
PARIKARA,203
PARIKARAl'lKURA*, 334
P~AMA*,334
PARIV~TTI,

203
parivrtti yamaka, 229
PARISA1',1KHYA,205
parihiirikii prabelikii, 212
paru$a anuprasa, 104
parn", prabelikii, 213
PARYAYA (I), 205
PARYAYA (11), 205
PARYAYOKTA,205
padamadhya yamaka, 230
padayor ... yamaka, 230
padasamudgaka yamaka, 230
piidildi (I) yamaka, 231
piidildi (II) yamaka, 231
padanuprasa anuprasa, 104
piidiiota (I) yamaka, 231
piidilota (II) yamaka, 231
piidilbhyiisa yamaka, 231
piidaikadeaja yamaka, 231
PIHlTA,206
puccba yamaka, 232
PUNARUKTABHAsA, 207
piin;la upamii, 159
PORVA (I), 207
PORVA (I1), 208
PORVAROPA*,335
prakalpita prabelikii, 213

343

prakrti sieja, 300

pratiloma yamaka, 232
pratilomanuloma citra, 185
prativastu upama, 160
PRATIVASTOPAMA, 208
prati$edha upama, 160
PRATIPA, 208
pratiyamana vyatireka, 280
PRATYAK$A*,335
PRATYANlKA,209
pratyaya upama, 160
pratyaya sle$a. 300
pramulita prabelikii, 214
prasaxp.sa upama, 160
PRASASTI, 209
PRASNA,210
praSna citra, 185
prasiddba iikJ;epa, 126
prastiivabbiij tulyayogitii, 192
PRASTUTAl'lKURA*, 335
PRAHAR$A!l!A*, 335
PRAHELIKA, 210
prabelikii yamaka, 232
priikaflu;tika tulyayogitii, 193
prapya hetu, 330
PREYAS (I), 217
PREYAS (11), 218
prauQ.b.a anuprasa, 104

bandha citra, 186

bahu upama. 161
bahveka upama, 161
binducyuta citra, 186
bbaiiga yamaka, 232
bhadra anuprasa, 104
bbavijyat iikjepa, 126
BRAVA (1),218
BHAVA (11), 219
BRAVlKA, 220
BIIAV()DPc,(Pc*,335
bbiil)ii sle"" 301
bhinnapada sieja, 302
bhinnilbhinnaviSej_ samiis6kti, 319
bbedabbiij rilpaka, 251
bbedamiitra vyatireka, 281
bbedilouktisarpdeba,314
bbed6kti sarpdeba, 314
BHRANTIMAT,220
MATA,221
madhura anuprasa, 105
madhya dipaka, 197

IiIlillli

344
madhya yamaka, 233
madhyanta yamaka, 233
mahiiyamaka (I) yamaka, 233
maMyamaka (Il) yamaka, 233
matracyuta citra, 186
millii (I) upamil, 161
millil (II) upamil, 161
malii dipaka, 198
nidarsana, 203

m~ila

millil dipaka, 198

mala nidarsana, 203

millil (I) yamaka, 233
millil (Il) yamaka, 233
millil riipaka, 251
mala vyatireka, 281
MITHYADHYAVASITI*, 335
MlLITA,221
mukha yamaka, 234
MUDRA,222
muraja citra, 187
musala citra, 187
moha upama, 162
YATHAsAl\1KHYA,222
yath8vasabha upama, 162
YAMAKA,223
YAVADARTHATA,238
yukta riipaka, 251
yukta hetu, 331
yuktAtman arthantaranyasa, 119
yuktayukta arthantaranyasa, 119
YUKTI,238

yugrnaka yamaka, 234

RATNAVAU*, 335
rathapada citra, 187
rasana upama, 162
rasana rfipaka, 252
RASAVAT, 239
RDpAKA,239
riipaka riipaka, 252
riipaka ,IO$a, 302
LALITA', 335
Ialita anuprasa, 105
Hifa anuprasa, 105
LATANUPRASA, 259
lliiga ,lela, 302
lupta upamii, 163

LESA (1), 259

LESA (II), 260
LESA (III), 260

INDEX

varpSa yamaka, 234

vaktra yamaka. 234
VAKRA, 260
VAKft()KTI(I),260
VAKROKTI (Il), 262
vaklyamiiua iiklOpa, 126
vacana slel$a, 302
vaficita prahelika, 214
vati upama, 163
VaI1).a sle{la, 303
vaI1).iinuprasa anuprasa. 106
var.Q.avrtti anupnl.sa, 106
vartamana alqlepa. 127
vastu upama, 164
VAKOVAKYA,263
,.>.,vakya upama, 164
vakyarthavrtti upama, 164
vadilopa upama, 165
Vil.STAVA,263
VIKALPA*,335
vikalpa citrii, 188
VIKASVARA*, 335
vikarya hetu, 331
vikranta yamaka, 235
vikriyil upamil, 165
VICITRA*, 336
VIDARSANiI., 263
VIDHI*, 336
VINOKTI, 264
viparita arthantaranyasa. 119
viparlta upama, 165
viparyaya (1) arthiintaranyasa, 119
viparyaya (Il) arthiiutaranyilsa, 120
viparyasa upama, 165
vibhakti ,lela, 304
V1BHAVANA, 264
viruddha ak$epa, 127
viruddha rupaka, 253
viruddhakarman slel$a, 304
viruddhiirtha dipaka, 198
VIRODHA (I), 265
VIRODHA (II), 268
VIRODHA (III), 268
virodha upama, 165
virodhavat arthantaranyasa, 120
VIRODHilBHASA, 268
virodhin ,Iel', 305
vivakl$ita dT$tanta, 200
VIV~TOKTI*, 336
visi$ta parivrtti. 204
VISESA (1), 269
VISESA (II), 269
VISESA (III), 270

INDEX
vi~ aprastutaprasarpsa, 113
vise{ja1).a riipaka, 253
viSe{lastha arthantaranyasa, 121
visvavyiipin arthfintaranyasa, 121
VISESOKTI (1), 270
VISESOKTI (II), 272
VISESOKTI (III), 274
VISAMA (1), 275
VISAMA (II), 275
VISAMA (ill), 275
VISAMA (IV), 275
vi~ama

rupaka, 253

vi!aya apahuuti, 110

VIsil.DANA*, 336
vrtta ilklOpa, 128
vrtti anupriisa, 107
vaidharmya arthantaranyasa. 121
vaidharmya drl$tilnta, 200
vyaktiJJ]l,a saljlSllli, 310
VYATIREKA (1), 276
VYATIREKA (II), 284
vyatireka upama, 166
vyatireka rupaka, 254
vyatireka ,Iel', 305
vyapeta yamaka, 235
vyapetavyapeta yamaka, 235
vyasta yamaka, 235
vyasta riipaka, 254
vyasta vystireka, 282
vyutkranta prahelika, 215
VYAGHATA (1), 285
VYAGHATA (Il), 285
VYil.JA,285
VYAJASTUTI,286
VYAJOKTI, 286
vyilhrtiirtha citra, 188

sakti citra, 188

SABDA,286
sabda vyatireka, 282
sabda sle~a, 305
sabdacitra citra, 188
SABDAPRAMilJ:lA*, 336
SABDARTHA, 287
sabd&rthavarti SarpST$ti, 311
,abdopildiiua vyatireka, 282
SAVYA,288
sara citra, 188
'abdi apahnuti, I II
sikhii yamaka, 235
suddha rupaka, 254
silla citra. 188
SRUTI*, 336

srauti upama. 166

SLIsTA,288
,liW' dipaka, 198
,lilla riipaka, 255
SLESA,288
sle{la aprastutapra.arpsa, 114
sle$a, upama, 166
,lela vakrokti, 262
sIe{la vyatireka, 282
sl~aviddha arthantaranyasa, 121
,Iokdbhyilsa yamaka, 236
Si\l\1Si\"i\(I),306
SAl\1SAYA (Il), 306
sarp.aya atisay6kti, 101
sarpSaya upama, 166
SAl\1S~STI, 307
sakaIa riipaka, 255
SAl\1KARA, 312
sarpkara sarpsT~ti. 311
SAl\1K1RJ:lA, 312
sarp}cin;ta prahelika, 215
saIJl1dn;la riipaka, 255
saIJl1dn;la sarpsr~li, 311
SAl\1KSEPA,312
sarpk$epa upama, 167
sarpkhyilta prahelikil, 215
sat nidarsana, 202
sadrsa vyatireka, 283
sadrsapada uparna, 167
sadrsi upama, 167
sarpdarpa yamaka, 236
sarpdal!' (I) yamaka, 236
sarpda1\a (II) yamaka, 236
sarpda$taka yamaka, 237
SAl\1DEHA,312
sarpdeha SaQ1ST~ti, 311
SAMA,315
sarna parivrtti, 204
samakak$ata sarpsfl$ti, 311
samasta yamaka, 237
samasta riipaka. 256
samasta vyatireka. 283
samastapiida (1) yamaka, 237
samastapilda (II) yamaka, 237
samastapadaja yamaka, 237
samastavastuvi$aya rfipaka, 257
samastavi$aya upama, 167
samastavyasta riipaka, 258
sarnasya citra, 189
samagata prahelika, 216
samadhiina rupaka, 258
SAMilDHI, 315
samana upama, 168

345

346

INDEX

samanarupa prahelikii, 216

samanasabda prahelika, 216
sama-sa (1) upama, 168
samasa (II) upama. 168
sarna-sa riipaka, 259
SAMASOKTI, 316

samasokti aprastutaprasarpsa, 114

SAMAHJ:TA (1), 319
SAMAIDTA (11), 320
SAMUCCAYA,32O

samuccaya upama, 169

samuccaya yarnaka. 237
samudga yamaka. 238
SAlYIBHAVA*, 336
sarpbhavasarpbhava atisay6kti, 101
saljlbhiivyamiioartha alisay6kti, 101';'"
saqunii<jha prahelikii, 217

sarvatobhadra citra, 189

savise.$aiia rtipaka, 259
sahaja hetu, 332
sahelo vyalireka, 283
SAHOKTI, 320
.sah6kti Sle$3., 306
SADJl.SYA, 321

sadrsyamatra aprastutapraSarpsa. 115

sadharmya arthftntaranyasa, 122
siidharmya dr!lllnta, 201
SAMANYA,321
saroanya aprastutapraSaJ11Sd, 115

samanyftbhava upama, 169

SAMYA (1), 322
SAMYA (11), 322

samyatadvacisarpkepa upama, 169

samyavacakasatPksepa upama, 169
samy6pameyatadvacisarpksepa upama,
169
SARA,322

s.vayava rupaka, 259

SlJKSMA (1), 323
SlJKSMA (II), 323
stuti upama, 169
stuti tulyayogita, 193

spastapracchanndrtha citra, 189

SMARAljIA, 323
SMJl.TI*, 336
SVABHAVOKTI,324
SVARDpA,327

svariipa apahnuti, 111

--,;;; svij.1>J:1avika vibhavana. 265
hala citra, 189
HETU, 327
hetu upama. 170
hetu riipaka, 259
helo vis~6kti, 272
hetu vyatireka, 283
helu sle!a, 306