HIGHER

ALGEBRA

SEQUEL

ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA

TO

EOR

SCHOOLS.

s.

ALGEBRA

HIGHER

TO

SEQUEL

FOR

ALGEBRA

ELEMENTARY

SCHOOLS

BY

H.
FORMERLY
MASTER

OF

THE

S.

CHRIST'S

OF

SCHOLAR

AND

MILITARY

M.A.,

HALL,

COLLEGE,
SIDE,

ENGINEERING

CAMBRIDGE,
CLIFTON

AND

FORMERLY

LATE

B.A.,

KNIGHT,

S. K

COLLEGE,

TRINITY

OF

SCHOLAR

AT

ASSISTANT-MASTER

MARLBOROUGH

CAMBRIDGE,
COLLEGE.

EDITION.

FOURTH

Honfcon:
AND

MACMILLAN
AND

NEW

CO.

YOKE.

1891
[The Right of Translation

is reserved.}

COLLEGE

2- TO

"

12/

4 2 2
First
Second

Third

Printed
with

Edition
Edition

revised

Reprinted 1890.

1887.
corrections
and

Fourth

1888.

enlarged 1889.
Edition

1891.

PREFACE.

The

is intended

work

present

of

discussion

fuller

Progressions, which
elementary
and

manner

the

and

which

examples

Elementary

our

chapters

work

former
have

we

devoted

are

introduced
for

the
in

an

theorems

first

to

and

treated

were

here

unsuitable

are

to

Proportion, Variation,

Ratio,

in

sequel

first few

The

Algebra for Schools.

as

of

course

reading.
From

part

this

importance

these

work

student, and

the

to

new

the

point

thoroughly, discussing

witli

that

experience

our

It
as

but

in

all

first

find

such

cases

of

for fuller
In
are

in

of

few

within

the

for

room

and

examples
in

necessary

to

of

single

it has

out

map

student

reading, referring the

parts

to

possible
im-

been

sketch

introductory

an

been

has

essential

limits

chapters

than

more

the

all

the

later

object

our

discuss

to

possible

as

to

course

aim

our

completely

minutely

found

always

special

treat

bookwork

have

we

to

of

most

teachers.

as

been

has

volume,

which

both

the

subjects

upon

endeavoured

and

fulness

enters

have

we

for

ground

covers

suitable

special treatises

information.

the

chapter

much

indebted
to

Choice

and

proofs

in

make

Chance.
our

own

Permutations

on

to
use

the
of

For

Rev.

W.
of

some

many

teaching,

and

and

A.
the

we

Whitworth

are

we

for

proofs given
we

years

Combinations

have
convinced

mission
per-

in

used
that

his

these
this

PREFACE.

vi

to the beginner
intelligible
part of Algebrais made far more
from first principles
sense
reasoning
by a system of common
text-books.
found in algebraical
than by the proofs
usually
The discussion of Convergencyand Divergencyof Series
his first
to the student on
always presentsgreat difficulty
reading. The inherent difficultiesof the subjectare no
increased by the placeit
and these are
doubt considerable,
and by the somewhat
has ordinarily
occupied,
inadequate
have
it has hitherto received. Accordingly
treatment
we
later than is usual; much
placed this section somewhat
thoughthas been bestowed on its generalarrangement,and
the selection of suitable examplesto illustratethe text ;
on
and
have endeavoured to make
it more
and we
interesting
introducinga short chapter on
by previously
intelligible
LimitingValues and VanishingFractions.
of Series we
have laid
In the chapteron Summation

much

stress

the

on

"

Method

of Differences" and its wide and

basis of this method

The
importantapplications.
known

which
formula in the Calculus of Finite Differences,

396, we

in

sidered
purelyalgebraical
proofcan hardlybe conadmissible in a treatise on Algebra.The proofof the
Difference formula which we have givenin Arts. 395,
and original,
and the development
believe to be new

the absence of

Finite

is a well-

of the Difference Method

from this formula

has enabled

to

us

introduce many interesting

types of serieswhich have hitherto
been relegated
later stage in the student's reading.
to a much
We

have

received

able and

from
chapteron Probability
Christ's College,
Brecon, and
to

him, both

text, and for

for his aid in

material

the
our

Rev.
warmest

T.

assistance in the
C. Simmons
thanks

are

of
due

and improving the

criticising
several interesting
and
disposal

placingat our
original
problems.
It is hardly possible
to read any modern
AnalyticalConies or Solid Geometry without

treatise
some

on

know-

PKEFACE.

ledge of

Determinants

and

yii

their

We have
applications.
therefore givena brief elementarydiscussion of Determinants
in Chapterxxxm.,
in the hope that it
may provide
the student with a useful introductory
course, and prepare
him for a more
completestudyof the subject.
The last chapter
contains all the most useful propositions
in the Theoryof Equations
suitable for a firstreading.The
the study of
Theory of Equationsfollows so naturally
on
Algebrathat no apologyis needed for here introducing
position
prowhich usually
find placein a separatetreatise. In
fact,a considerable part of Chapter xxxv.
may be read
with advantage
at a much earlierstage,
and may conveniently
be studied before some
of the harder sections of previous
chapters.
It will be found that each chapteris as nearly
as possible
that the order of their succession can
so
completein itself,

be varied at the discretion of the teacher ; but it is recomwith an asterisk should be

mended
that all sections marked
reserved for

second

reading.

enumeratingthe sources
of
assistance in the preparation
In

to which

it is difficult to

from which

we

have derived

this work, there is

say how

far

we

are

book

one

indebted.

has been the

Algebrafor Schools and Colleges
Englishtext-book for so long that it is hardly
recognised
that any one
writinga text-book on Algebraat the
possible
influenced by it. At the
presentday should not be largely
same
time,though for many years Todhunter's Algebrahas
have rarely
been in constant
use
we
our
pupils,
among
adoptedthe order and arrangement there laid down; in
have found it expedient
to make
we
frequent
chapters
many
of alternative proofs;and we have alwayslargely
use
supplemented
These notes,
the text by manuscriptnotes.
which now
appear scattered throughoutthe present work,
have been collected at different times duringthe last twenty
Todhunter's

H.

H.

A.

Viii

PREFACE.

definite acknowledgeto make

ment
years, so that it is impossible
in every case where assistance has been obtained from
But

other writers.

our
speakinggenerally,

ments
acknowledge-

due to the treatisesof Schlomilch,Serret,

chiefly
besides Todhunter's
and Laurent;and among English
writers,
consulted the works of De
Algebra,we have occasionally
Morgan,Colenso,Gross,and Chrystal.
are

MatheTo the Rev. J. Wolsienholme, D.Sc, Professor of matics

thanks
at the Royal Indian Engineering
our
College,

allowingus to select questions

from his unique collection of problems
; and the consequent
we
gratefully
acknowledge.
gainto our later chapters
It remains for us to express our thanks to our colleagues
assisted us in readingand
and friends who have so largely
the proofsheets ; in particular
indebted to
we
are
correcting
the Rev. H. C Watson of Clifton College
for his kindness in
the whole work, and for many
valuable suggestions;
revising
for his kindness

due

are

in

in every part of it.

**'

PREFACE

same

been

in

as

recast,and
have

We

TO

S. R. KNIGHT.

"

THIRD

THE

this edition the text

In

the

H. S. HALL,

1887"

and

examplesare

previouseditions,but
all the exampleshave

also added

EDITION.

substantially

few articles

been verified

collection of three hundred

havej

again.

laneous
Miscel-

Examples which will be found useful for advanced

students. These exampleshave been selected mainly but
from Scholarship
Senate House
not exclusively
or
papers ;
much

care

and
subject,

has been
to

taken

part

of the

and
fairly
representthe principal
University

Civil Service Examinations.

March, 1889.

to illustrate every

CONTENTS.

I.

CHAPTER

ratio.
PAGE

Ratio

of

incommensurable

and

Commensurable

greater and

less

quantities

inequality

3
i

_c

/pan

_e

qcn

+ren+

qdn

...\n

'

b~d~f~"'~\pbn
a1 + a2 + a3+...

+ an

bl + b2 + b.i+

Cross

rfn+...J

lies between

greatest and

flh

of

bn

...

fractions

multiplication

Eliminant

of three

Examples

linear

equations

Definitions

10

and

and

Inverse

B,

geometrical

definitions

1G

quantities

17

II.

19

CHAPTER

If Ace

proportion.

13

algebraical

of incommensurable

Examples

II.

Propositions

between

Comparison
Case

CHAPTER

then

III.

VARIATION.

21

mB

variation

22

variation

Joint
li

least

Ace

when

23

is

constant,

and

"

when

then

is constant,

A=mBG

23

Illustrations.

Examples

Examples

on

joint

variation

.21
.

20

III

b-1

CONTENTS.

IV.

CHAPTER

PROGRESSION.

ARITHMETICAL

PAGE

of

Sum

of

terms

29

formulae

Fundamental

of arithmetic

Insertion

IV.

Examples
Discussion

31

means

31

of roots

of dn~ +

(2a-d)n-2s

V.

geometricmeans
series
terms of a geometrical

of

Examples V.
of

40

41

a.

of

terms

39

geometricalseries

Proof of rule for the reduction

Sum

38

....

infinite

an

PROGRESSION.

GEOMETRICAL

Insertion of

Sum

33

35

CHAPTER

f'

of

IV. b

Examples

Sum

28

arithmetical series

an

43

recurringdecimal
series
arithmetico-geometric

an

of

44

V. b

Examples

CHAPTER

45

VI.

HARMONICAL

PROGRESSION.

WITH

in
of quantities
Reciprocals
Harmonic

mean

THE

H. P.

THEOREMS

CONNECTED

PROGRESSIONS.

in A. P.

are

......

Formulae

connectingA. M., G.M., H.M.

for solution of questionsin Progressions

Hints
Sum

of squares

Sum

of cubes

of the natural
of the natural

numbers

numbers

notation

Examples VI.
Number

a.

of shot in

Pyramid

on

Pyramid

on

.....

pyramid

on

square

base

base
triangular

rectangularbase
Incompletepyramid
a

5J

.....

Examples VI.

CHAPTER

Explanation of systems

VII.

scales

of

notation.

of notation

Examples VII. a.
Expressionof an integralnumber
Expressionof a radix fraction in

57
59
in

proposed scale
proposed scale
a

59
01

CONTENTS.

XI

PAGE

The

difference between

by
Proof

number

and

tho

of its

sum

is
digits

divisible

62

of rule for

"

the nines

castingout
divisibility
by r + 1
Examples VII. b
"

C3

Test of

CHAPTER

64
65

VIII.

nationalisingthe

AND

SURDS

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

denominator

of

07

jc + s/d

sjb+

factor of fJa"Z/b
Rationalising
Square root of a + Jb + *Jc+ Jd

69

Cube

70

root of

*Jb

68

Examples VIII. a.
Imaginary quantities

-ax

If

+ ib

+ ib

If

Modulus

-b=

Square

root of

of i

of

Q, b

c, b

75

75
moduli

+ ib

77

79

unity; 1 +

-f or

79
80

Examples VIII.

b.

81

CHAPTER

IX.

THE

THEORY

QUADRATIC

OF

than
quadraticequation cannot have more
Conditions for real,equal,imaginaryroots
b

Sum

of roots

of

product of roots

equationswhen

For

Examples IX.
Definitions
Condition

85

the roots

are

given

be

86

.....

(1)equal in magnitude
88
88

expressionax2 +
exceptions

real values of

signas

83

...

84

quadraticshould
oppositein sign,(2)reciprocals

Examples IX.

roots

Conditions that the roots of

and

two

EQUATIONS.

"

Formation

77

roots of

Powers

productis equal to product of

of

Powers
Cube

75

id, then

74

sjab

0, then
c

72

the

bx +

has in

generalthe

same

90

92

of function,variable,rativnnl integralfunction
that ax2 +

2hxy+ by2+ 2gx + 2fy+

may

93

...

be resolved

into two
9i

linear factors

Condition that ax2 + bx +

0 and

a'x- + b'x + c'=

0 may

have

common

96

root

Examples

IX.

c.

96

CONTENTS.

Xll

X.

CHAPTER

EQUATIONS.

MISCELLANEOUS

page

97

quantity

unknown

Equations involvingone

100

equations
Reciprocal

101

Examples X. a
Equations involvingtwo unknown
Homogeneous equations

103

quantities

104

....

106

X. b

Examples

107

quantities
Equations involvingseveral unknown
Examples X. c.
Indeterminate
equations; easy numerical examples

109
111
113

Examples X.

XL

CHAPTER

combinations.

and

permutations

Preliminaryproposition

permutationsof

Number

of

Number

of combinations

of ways

at

things r

at a time

of
of

in which

classes containingm,

Examples XI. a
of the
Signification
Number

thingsr

of combinations

number

Number

of

n,

p,

...

n
n

.115

"

115

time

of combinations

number

The

"

at

thingsr

117
a

time

is

equal to the

time
things ?i-rata
things can be divided
+p +

.119

into

...

things severally

120

....

122
'like' and

terms

'unlike'

124

.....

arrangements of n thingstaken all at a time, when p things

one
kind, q thingsare alike of a second kind, "c.
of permutationsof n thingsr at a time, when
each may
be

of

are

alike of

Number

repeated
The

total number

To find for what

Ab

initio

126
of combinations
value of

proof of the

of

things
expressionnGr is greatest

the

formula

for the number

one

Examples

of

binomial

127

are

alike
129
131

XII.

Illustrations of the method

XII

CHAPTER

of

of combinations

of selections of p + q+r+
things,whereof
of
alike
second
"c
a
kind,q
kind,

Examples XI.

Product

128

number

...

of

127

at a time

thingsr
Total

125

of

mathematical

induction.

proof

factors of the form

133
x

134
135

Xlii

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XIII.

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

INDEX.

PAGE

when
n is a positive
Expansion of (x+ a)11,
integer
General term of the expansion
to depend upon the case
The expansionmay be made
term is unity

Second

proof of the binomial

Examples
The

XLII.

139
in which

the first
140

theorem

141

142

coefficients of terms
are

137

....

equidistant from

the

beginningand

end

equal

143

Determination

of the greatestterm

Sum

of the coefficients

Sum

of coefficientsof odd terms

143
146

is

equal to

sum

of coefficientsof

even

terms

146

Expansion of multinomials
Examples XIII. b.

CHAPTER
Euler's
General

XIV.

proofof
term

the binomial

of the

XIV.

146
147

BINOMIAL

theorem

expansion of

THEOREM.

for any

ANY

INDEX.

index

(1+ x)'1

150
153

.....

Examples
is only arithmetically
when x"l
Expansion of (l-rx)n
intelligible
The
can
expression(.r-f?/)'1
always be expanded by the binomial
a

theorem
General

of the

Particular

157

....

of the

158

159

Examples XIV. b.
Numericallygreatestterm in the expansionof (l+ x)n
Number
formed
of homogeneous productsof r dimensions

161
162

out

of

164

letters
Number

of terms

Number

of

in the

expansionof a
combinations of n thingsr at

Examples XIV.

105

multinomial
a

beingallowed
time,repetitions

in the

XV.

MULTINOMIAL

expansionof (a+

THEOREM.

when
bx + ex2 + dx3 + ...)p,

^ is

170

integer
positive
General

term

in

the

expansion of (a+

is a rational quantity

Examples

XV

166
107

CHAPTER
General term

155

157

expansion of (1 .r)_n
cases
expansions of (1 x)~n
Approximationsobtained by the binomial theorem
term

155

bx +

cx-

when
"lv:i+...)n,

//

171
173

CONTENTS.

XIV

XVI.

CHAPTER

LOGARITHMS.
PAGE

175

N=a)ogaN

Definition.

Elementary propositions

176

Examples XVI.

178

Logarithms

Common

of the characteristic

Determination

"

"

.179
180

by inspection

.....

181
Advantages of logarithmsto base 10
182
Advantagesof always keepingthe mantissa positive
Given the logarithms of all numbers
to base a, to find the logarithms
....

to base b

loga"xlog6a
=

185

Examples XVI. b

CHAPTER

XVII.

Expansion of
e

EXPONENTIAL

Series for

ax.

l\n

is the limit of

(1

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES.

187

when

AND

is infinite

188

Expansion of log,,
(1+ x)
Construction

183
183

of Tables

191

of

Logarithms
Rapidlyconvergingseries for log,,
(n+ 1) logen

194

The

195

192

quantitye
Examples XVII

is incommensurable

195

CHAPTER

XVIII.

Interest and Amount

of

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

given sum at simpleinterest

Present Value and Discount of a given sum
at simpleinterest
Interest and Amount
of a given sum
at compound interest
a

Nominal

and

true

annual

.198

198

199

rates of interest

200

Case of

compound interest payableevery moment

Present Value and Discount of a given sum
at compound interest

200

....

Examples XVIII.
Annuities.

201

202

Definitions

202

Amount

of

203

Amount

of

203

unpaid annuity,simpleinterest
unpaid annuity,compound interest
Present value of an annuity,
compound interest
Number
of years'purchase
Present

value of

deferred

204
204

annuity,compound interest
.

Fine for the renewal

ExamplesXVIII.

of

lease

.205
206
206

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

XV

XIX.

INEQUALITIES.
PAGE

ElementaryPropositions
Arithmetic mean
of two positive
quantitiesis greater than

208
the

geometric

mean

The

209
of two

sum

quantitiesbeing given,their product is greatestwhen

is least when theyare
equal: product beinggiven,the sum

they are
equal
The

210

arithmetic
the

Given

number

of

positivequantitiesis greater than

geometricmean

sum

211

of a, ", c, ...; to find the greatestvalue of ambncp

Easy
Examples XIX.
cases

The

of

mean

of maxima

and

212

minima

212
213

arithmetic

of

mean

?/ithpowers
mth power

the

quantitiesis greater than

except when m lies between

of

number

of

positive

of their arithmetic

mean,

0 and 1

214
b

If

and b

and a"b, ( 1 +
positive
integers,

are

"

(1 + ^ )

216

?1"*"""0'Vrr|"vrrf

217

'a + b\a+b
217

Examples XIX.
CHAPTER

218

XX.

VALUES

LIMITING

AND

VANISHING

FRACTIONS.

Definition of Limit
Limit

By

of a0 + axx +
takingx small

220

a2x"+

a3x3+

is a0 when

...

is

zero

222

....

enough, any term of the series a0 + arr + a^x- +

be made as largeas we pleasecompared with the sum
of all
may
be
that follow it; and by taking x large enough, any term may
of all that
made as large as we
please compared with the sum
precedeit
...

222

Method

of

Discussion

determining the limits of

of

some

vanishing fractions

in
peculiarities

the

solution

of

221

simultaneous

226

equations
Peculiarities in the solution of

quadraticequations

227

....

228

Examples XX
CHAPTER
Case of terms

XXI.

CONVERGENCE

AND

and negative
alternately
positive
u

Series is convergent if Lim

~n

"u

is less than
-i

DIVERGENCY

.....

OF

SERIES.

230
232

CONTENTS.

XVI

PAGE

Comparison of 2rtnwith
The

auxiliaryseries ^p

auxiliaryseries 2vn

an

of

log71

when

and nxn

235

3~p

2P

to Binomial, Exponential,
LogarithmicSeries
Application

Limits

234

is infinite

237
238

Product

of

Examples XXI.

a.

238

of factors

infinite number

an

w-series is convergent when

v-

series is

Series is convergent if Lim

Series is convergent if Lim

]nI
"

"

"

"

ji-i

)"

"

Series 20 (n)compared with series 2a,l0 {n)

auxiliaryseries

247

248

\n (

"

J
-

l|log

248

249

infinite series

of two

Examples XXI. b.

252
.

CHAPTER

XXII.

UNDETERMINED

COEFFICIENTS.

than n roots,it is an identity

equationf(x)-=0has more
coefficientsfor finite series
Proof of principle
of undetermined
Examples XXII. a
of undetermined
Proof of principle
coefficients for infinite series
If the

Examples XX1T.

245

(logn)p

Series is convergent if Lim

Product

244

2
n

243

n-l

\un+i

( n log

convergent,if
u

The

241

CHAPTER

254

254

256
.

257
2C0

XXIII.

PARTIAL

FRACTIONS.

Decompositioninto partialfractions

261

Use

265

of partialfractions in

Examples

expansions

XXIII

CHAPTER

265

XXIV.

recurring

series.

Scale of relation

267

Sum

269

of

series
recurring

Generating function

269

Examples XXIV

272

XXIX.

CHAPTER

previousmethods
productof n factors in A. P
of the productof
reciprocal

series.

.312

of

Summary
un the
un the

of

summation

"

"

314
n

316

factors in A. P

318

of Subtraction

Method

Expressionof un as sum of factorials

Polygonaland FigurateNumbers
Pascal's Triangle

318

Examples XXIX.

321

320

Method

of Differences

Method

succeeds when

If an is

319

322

function of n
un is a rational integral
function of n, the series 2anx'1is
rational integral

recurring

series
Further

327
of

cases

recurringseries

Examples XXIX.
Miscellaneous

329

332

methods

of summation

331

.......

series lr + 2r + Sr+...+nr

Sumof

326

336

Bernoulli's Numbers

337

Examples XXIX.

338

CHAPTER
Statement
Number
No

of
of

rational

A number

Number

XXX.

theory

of

principles

341

primes is infinite
formula
algebraical

342
can

be resolved into

can

of divisors of

represent primes only

prime
given integer

factors in

only one

of ways an integer
be resolved into two
can
of the divisors of a given integer

Highestpower
Product of

of

prime contained in In

consecutive

Fermat's Theorem

Examples XXX.

342

way

factors

343

344
345

is divisibleby
integers
[r

NP-ia

Definition of congruent

342

343

Number

Sum

numbers.

l=M(p)

where p is prime and N

345

prime

to 2?

347
348

....

350

CONTENTS.

XIX

PAGE

If

is

prime

b, then

to

a,

2a, 3a,

when

(6- 1)a

...

divided

by

6 leave

different remainders

350

......

(p(abcd...)="p(a)(p(b)"p(c)
"p(d)

352

"PO-"'(i-i)(i-J)(i-l)

352

Wilson's

354

Theorem

1 +

\p
-

(p)where

to prime numbers
property peculiar
Wilson's Theorem
(secondproof)

Proofs

by induction

p is

prime

354

....

355
35G

.......

357

Examples XXX.

b.

CHAPTER

XXXI.

general

the

of

theory

continued

FRACTIONS.

Law

"

"

of formation

has

"

of successive

a.2+

The

convergents
order of

to

are

where

positiveproper

fractions in ascending

a2~

magnitude, if an"kl + bn

value of convergent when

General

an and

generalvalue of convergent
is incommensurable,

ax+

362

yn+l

al

Cases

359

"""'"n4'1"0

definite value if Lim

...

a,+

convergents

if

a2 +

"

363

bn are
can

'Conversion of

366

"1

367
continued

continued

one

fractions

fraction into another

371
372

CHAPTER
Definitions and

369

Examples XXXI.

illustrations.

(ExamplesXXXII.

XXXII.

probability.

Simple Events

373

376

/Compound Events
IProbabilitythat two independent events will both happen is pp'
[ The formula holds also for dependentevents
Chance
of an event which can haj^penin mutually exclusive ways
.

Examples XXXII.
of

an

of

happening exactlyr

probablevalue

points"

377
.

378
379
381

383

event

Expectationand
"Problem

365

cl

Examples XXXI. a
Series expressedas

Chance

364

constant

be found

.......

times

in

trials

385
386
388

.......

CONTENTS.

XX

PAOE

XXXII.

Examples

391

probability

Inverse

of Bernoulli's Theorem

Statement
Proof

389

c.

of formula

P P

392

Qr= ^rj-jn

testimony
Traditionarytestimony
Concurrent

396
....

....

899

Examples XXXII. d
Geometrical
Local Probability.
Miscellaneous examples
Examples XXXII. e

of two

Eliminant

of

Determinant

Sign of
If two

rows

A factor

Keduction

409

row

or

410

or

412

column

made

are

of determinants

411

vanishes

identical,the determinant

are

constituents

and columns

fcw" adjacentrows
by interchanging

to any

.410

of third order

is altered

columns

common

Cases where

dktkrminants.

by interchangingrows

of determinant

or

405

.....

determinant

columns

402

homogeneous linear equations

three homogeneous linear equations

is not altered

Development

401

XXXIII.

CHAPTER
Eliminant

methods

may

up of

be

placedoutside

number

of
by simplification

rows

of terms

columns

or

112

412
413

.111

Product of two determinants

417

Examples XXXIII.

419

Applicationto solution of simultaneous

Determinant

of fourth order

Determinant

of any

422

equations

423

...

42jl

order
.

Notation

Sia^-^
Examples XXXIII.

CHAPTER
Keview

...

b.

divided

of Detached

Method

Symmetricaland
Examples

of

miscellaneous

laws of
a

List of useful formula?

.

out

examples.

429

/"

432

434

Functions
Alternating

and

\-r,

433

SyntheticDivision

of identitiesworked

theorems

Algebra

leaves remainder

divided by
Coefficients

425

...

of the fundamental

by
Quotient of / (x)when
Horner's

XXXIV.

f(x) when
Method

434

435
437
438

CONTENTS.

XXI

PAGE

Examples

XXXIV.

Identities provedby

438
of cube roots
properties

Linear factors of a3 + 63 + c3
Value

of an + bn + cn when

Examples XXXIV.

b.

of

unity

440

Sabc

+ b+

441
=

442
442

Elimination

444

Elimination

by symmetricalfunctions

Euler's method

Method
Dialytic
Sylvester's
method

Bezout's

Miscellaneous

446

c.

the nth

Kelations between

the roots

These

relations are

Cases

of solution under

not

Descartes'

theory

degreehas

of

roots and

no

An

454

given conditions

454

of the roots

455
456

roots

in

pairs
equationswith

occur

457
surd roots

458

....

459

Signs

of

460
462
463
464
0 has

root

between
464

and 6

equationof
equationof

an

odd degreehas

an

even

degree with

465

real root

one

negativehas

its last term

two

real
465

roots

If

/ (x)
=

0 has

Determination

equal to
equal roots

roots

of

a,

0 has

f (x)
=

1 roots

equal to

an

468

x-b

x-a

Examples XXXV.
Equation
Equation

x-c

assignedpower

Transformation
with

466

467

/'(*)_ I1,1,
J (X)
Sum of

452

452

An

more

sufficientfor the solution

b
Examples XXXV.
Value of /(.r
+ //).Derived Functions
Calculation of f(x+h) by Horner's process
/ (x) changesits value gradually
If f(a) and/ (b)are of contrary signs,f(x)
a

equations.

and the coefficients

and solution of
Kule

449

symmetricalfunctions

Examples XXXV. a.
Imaginary and surd
Formation

447

XXXV.

Every equationof

of

446

of elimination

CHAPTER

cases

445

....

examples

Examples XXXIV.

Easy

444

of elimination

of the roots

468
.

470

471

of

equations
roots of sign opposite
to

with roots

of those
multiples

those of
of

f{x)=0

f(x)

"

"

"

471
472

CONTENTS.

XX11

PAGE

Equation

with

those

of

reciprocals

roots

of

/ (x)

472
.

Discussion

of

reciprocal

equations

473
....

with

Equation

roots

with

Equation

of

squares

of

f(x)

475

exceeding

roots

those

by

those

of

f (x)

475

Bemoval

of

assigned

an

term

476
.

Equation

with

given

roots

functions

of

those

of

477

f{x)-.

XXXV.

Examples

478
.

Cubic

Cardan's

equations.

Solution

480
.

Discussion

of

the

solution

481
.

Solution

by

Trigonometry

in

the

irreducible

482

case
.

Biquadratic

Ferrari's

Equations.

Solution

483
.

Descartes'

Solution

484
.

Undetermined

multipliers

486
.

cubic

Discriminating

roots

all

real

486
.

Solution

of

three

simultaneous

equations
a+\

Examples
Miscellaneous
Answers

XXXV.

e.

Examples

=1,

+
b

487

"c.
.

488

490
525

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

CHAPTER

I.

RATIO.

bears

to

other.

what

the

relation

kind,

same

multiple, part,

B
the

find

the

which

quantity

one

comparison

parts,

or

order

to

of the

terms

same

second

compare
unit.

being
quantity

one

the

the

part
be

may

made
is

by

of

the

The

is

of

quantities they
ratio

quantities

first

B,

adopt

to

we

is

term

of "2

this

be

must

divide

the

by

measured

two

the

The

consequent.

it convenient

Thus

B.

ratio.

term

or

find

fraction
notation.

expressed

in

15s. is measured

to

2x20

"

of

terms

multiple

ratio

written

usually

the

usually

shall

In

the

what

the

we

is

antecedent,

; hence

and

to

called

are

To

2.
B

of A

ratio

and

called

-^

is

"

The

by

of the

another

considering

Ratio

Definition.

1.

....

traction

the

by

and

another,
Since

3.

ratio

Note.

or

"

"

the

expresses
therefore

the

by

every

laws

is

of

that

times

of

number
ratio

abstract

an

one

quantity

tains
con-

quantity.

fractions,
ma

b=mJ'
it follows
that
and

is, the
the
H.

that

the

value

consequent
H.

A.

ratio

of
are

ratio

is

remains

multiplied or

equal

unaltered
divided

ratio

the

to

by

if the
the

same

ma

mb

antecedent

quantity.
1

HIGHER

Two

4.

ratios may

more

or

fractions
equivalent

and

xt

x-

ratios.

two

are

y
J

Thus

denominator.

common

comparedby reducingtheir

be

JNow

aV

and

by

ratio of two

The

5.

b is

fractions

be

can
Ch

integers. Thus

of two

ratio

the

hence

="

by3
the ratio

than

bx.

less than

expressedas

ratio

"

"

x
"

suppose
bx

greaterthan, equalto, or less

accordingas ay is greaterthan,equalto, or

ratio

the

to

ALGEBRA.

by the

is measured

"

fraction

"

or

="

is therefore

and

ratio

the

equivalentto

be

d
ad

be.
If

6.

both, of

either,or

then
quantity,

their ratio.

measure

expressed
by

J'2:

ratio be

which

surd

will

exactly

be

exactly

1 cannot

integers.

two

any

be found

ratio

the

Thus

of

terms

can
integers

two

no

the

If the

ratio of any two quantities

be
can
the quantities
expressedexactlyby the ratio of two integers,
said to be commensurable
are
; otherwise,
they are said to be
Definition.

7.

incommensurable.
find

integerswhich will exactly

incommensurable
the ratio of two
we
can
measure
quantities,
whose
ratio differs from that required
always find two integers
as
we
please.
by as small a quantity
Although

cannot

we

J5
V

Thus

2-236068...
=

so

4
"

"

and

mm("

that the difference between

5 : 4 is less than -000001.

closer

Definition.

Ratios

fractions which
the antecedents for
the

for

new

"

-jooOOOO;

the ratios 559017

By carryingthe

decimals

Find

the ratio
2a

and

a
further,

together
compounded by multiplying
denote them ; or by multiplying
together
and the consequents
new
antecedent,
are

consequent.

Example.

1000000

be arrived at.

approximation
may

8.

559018

559017

J5

"A1I,
-559017...

-.

,
and , therefore

two

compounded
:

Sb, Q"ab

of the three ratios

5c2,c

: a

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

importanttheorem
proofof the following
of procedure.
method

The
the

//

will illustrate

'

where

/pan
(

these
each of
J

ratios

"

qcn

r-

re11 +

are

rtn

ace
7-

",

b
then

~""

"

j
"

"

"

"

"

dk,

')

=fk,...;

pan=pbn^ qc" qd"kn,ren

whence

bk, c

"

)
+

ivhatever.
quantities

any

Ijet

j-

\pbn + qdn +

p, q, r, n

.\n

rf"k",...
;

pa" + gc"+ ren+

_pb"k"+ qd"kn+ rf"kn+
+r/i+...
fbn+ qcln
pbH+ qd"+rf+...
...

'''

'

k";

.\n
'pa"+ qc"+ re" +
+ qd"+ ?'/"
+ .../
2)b"

c
=

-,=

By givingdifferent values to p, q, r, n many

be deduced ;
of this generalproposition
may
method.
by usingthe same
provedindependently
a

cases
particular
or
they may be

For

instance,

_c

b-~d'f-'"
each of these ratios
b+d
a

result of such
should

each
sum

+f+

that
frequentutility

be

noticed

When

(I

1.

If

C
=

series

""
=-

shew

azb + 2c2e

that

Sae2/

ace

~b4 + 2^/-36/3 ~bdf

"-"-"-X;.

Let
Let
then

6_rf_^._A,,

bk, c

valent
followingverbal equiare
equal,
offractions

of all the numerators

of them is equalto the sum

of all the denominators.

Example

the

dk, e =fk

divided

by the

RATIO.

aa6+2c"g-3qgy
k4 + 2tl-f Bbf3

'*

+2d?fk* 3bf3k3
fc4+ 2r/-/ 36/8
-

""

...

ace
=

bdf'
Example

If

2.

*2 + a2

that

prove

"2

y2+

32 + c2

+ y+2)2+ (a+ " + c)2

(.c
_

y + b

#+a
it

Let

+ ?/+

a;

+ "+c

z
=

A;,

so

that

"", ?/= 6/c,2;

ch ;

aW+a*

sa + a3

"

then

a:

x*+a*

ya+y

?/+ "

"

ah +

(k* +
L_

l)a
'
;

"

Jc+1

ga+e"_(ifea+l)o("2+ l)"

"

+ l)c
(fc2

'

ar

/c+ 1

" + 1

Jfc2+ l)(a+

" + 1

c)

6 +

fc+1

Jfc8(a+6+c)8+(a+6+c)a
"(a +

"+

+ kb
(lea

(ka+

kb

c)+

+ 6+

he)%+ (a+
+ kc)+a +

(x+y+z)*+(a+

b+

b+

c)2

b+

cf

x+y+z+a+b+c

equationis homogeneous with respect to certain

substitute in the equation
we
quantities,
may for these quantities
For
the equation
to them.
instance,
any others proportional
If

13.

an

lx3y+ mxifz + ny2z2

"

is

in x, y,

homogeneous

to x, y,
11

Put

"

an

a,

75

"

Let

a,

j3,y

three

be

quantities
portiona
pro-

respectively.
z

so

that

ak, y

z
/3k,

yk ;

y
+ n^y'k4 0,
+ ma(32yk*
Ia3f3k4

then
that

z.

is,

+ nj32y20
+ ma/32y
7a3/?

equationof the same

/?,y in the placesof x,

one,
original
respectively.

form
y,

the

as

but

with

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If y*
1

."

nominators

r-nbe unequalfractions,
of which

,....

of the

all

are

sign,then

same

a,

a8 + a3+

...

bl+b2+b3+

all the denominators

Supposethat

it

denote

and
least fraction,

the fraction
an

+bn

"'"

the greatestand

magnitudebetween

liesin

the de-

important.

y~

is

theorem
following

The

14.

least of them.

positive.Let

are

"=* be

the

k ; then

by

/c i

"

.'.a

ko

"

'

"

"

y-1" k

kb

a"

.-.

'

bl
a

k;

2"

.-.

a2

"

kb2;

and
.*.

on;

so

by addition,
a

,+"2

al + a2 + a3+

b.+b9
we
Similarly

au

al

'

that

a2 + a3

6.+*.+*" +
where

In

is tlie greatestof the

like

denominators
15.

the

manner

The

any
an

the

an

at

+K"

givenfractions.

theorem

proved when

be

may

of
readyapplication

involved
generalprinciple
of
all branches
mathematics,

the

great value in

freedom in
it with some
be able to use
that may arise,
without necessarily
introducing

student should

case
particular

auxiliary
symbol.
Example 1.

c-a

y +

+ b +

prove that

"

b +

V-

X"

If

all the

negative.

are

in Art. 12 is of such

that

ar
b
r

prove

may

+b

b.+

+K)k'"

+an"(bl+b,+ K+

"3 +

a-b

*"+*)+?

b-c

(*+*)+* (*+V)

2(ax + by + cz)

RATIO.

t
Each

"

"f numerators

sum

ie
fi
actions

,i
ofe the
given

"

__

of denominators

sum

+ y +

+ b +

_
'
"

Again,

if

we

multiply both

givenfractions by

y + z,

+ x,

z)
\{lj
+

?("+ *"
(z+ x) (c+ a-b)

three

'(* + *)
-

(y+z) +

(x+ y)(a+b-e)

of denominators

sum

(z+ x)+z {x+ y)

2by+ 2cz

y
2ax +

(2).

(1)and (2),
+ y +

Example

(y+ z)+y (z+ x)+z (x+ y)

2 (ax+ by + cz)

_x

+ b + c~

If

2.

l(mb

m(nc + la-mb)

nc-la)

I
prove that

x(by

cz-ax)
I

have
mb

nc

la

"

nc

mb

'

nc)

(cz+ ax-by)

(la+

We

the

of numerators

sum

from

of

__.

(y z)(b+ c-a)

.'.

denominator

respectively,

each fractions

and

numerator

+ y

''

z(ax+ by -cz)

+ la-mb

la + mb

"

nc

-+n

m
=

ny +

'"2/a"
two

similar

_lz +

mz

expressions
;
ly

mx

nx
_

Multiplythe
y, and

the third

by

below

and

first of these fractions above

by

.r, the second

then

nxy

Jyz+ nxy

mxz

mxz

lyz

by

ax

cz

_2lyz
=

by +
two

I
x

(by+

cz

cz-

ax

similar

expressions
;
n

-ax)

(cz+ ax-by)

(ax+ by-cz)'

by

8
16.

If

equationscontainingthree
such as
first degree,

have

we

in
quantities

we

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the

two

alx

a2x

solve these

cannot

unknown

(1),

bly+ clz=Q
b2y+ c2z 0

(2),

completely
; but by writingthem

in the

form

II

X
we

can,

and

by regarding

and

unknowns,

blc2 b2ci

cxa2

c2al

__
"

"

'

afi2 a2bl
symmetrically,
%

more

"

'

-a2bl
afi2

'

bxc2 b2cx

cla2

It thus appears

representedby
write

down

Write

that when

(1)and

the ratios

equationsby

the

down

those of y; and

in the

obtain

or,

solve

ordinaryway

the

as

we

(2)

we

:z

rule
following

c2a,

afi2 a_px

of
equations
alwaysby the above

have

may
in terms

,(3).

two

the

type

formula

of the coefficients of the

the coefficients of x, y, z in order,beginningwith

repeatthese as in the diagram.

in the way indicated by the

Multiplythe coefficients across
remembering that in forming the products any one
arrows,
obtained
and any one
obtained
by
by descendingis positive,
is
results
The
three
ascending negative.

are

hicz-hfv cxa2-c2an aA-a2b"

to x, y, z respectively.
proportional
This is called the Rule

of Cross Multiplication,

RATIO.

Example

the ratios of

Find

1.

7x=4y
have

By transposition

we

Ay

12x +
the

"Write down

obtain

equations

0,
0.

-3

12

-4

11,

100

x,

y,

a1a;+
+

a^

(-4),

-3

Eliminate

12

y
-*-

x
-

11

is,

^75~"125'

,.

125;

-75,

x
"'*

2.

Uy.

8-2=

-8

100,

Example

12x +

(-8)xl2-(-3)x7,

or

that

products

the

(-4)x(-3)-llx(-8),

x,

the

thus
coeilicients,

11
we

3z

lly-Sz

-4

whence

from

: z

Qzt

7x

the equations

from

^y

(1),

+ c12
^1?/

(2),

c^^O

(3).

Ogaj+fegy+c^^O
From

multiplication,

by cross
(2)and (3),

j*

*__

"

'

k"C3 Vs

C2"i

"

"263 llih

C3"2

denoting each of these ratios by k, by multiplyingup, substitutingin (1),

and dividingout by A-,we obtain
Oj (Va

+ ('i("A
+ "i(^'"3 c3aa)
63ca)

3.

A-)

"-

givenequations.

Solve the equations

by +

ax

x+

cz

y+

hex + cay + abz

From

"

of the

This relation is called the eliminant

Example

(1)and (2),by
x

(1),

(2),

(b c) (c-a)(a-b)

"

z
"

a-b

c-a

(3).

^"

b-c
x

multiplication,

cross

.-.

(b- c),y

(c a),z

"

k, suppose

k(a- b).

"

in (3),
Substituting
k

b)}={b- c)(c a) {a b),

k{-{b-c)(c- a){a ")\ (b-e)[e a){a b);

{bc(b-c)+

ca

a)+

(c

ab

(a

.-.

^ln'nce

-b, y

"

a-r,

fcss-lj
z

a.

10

HIGHER

If in Art. 16

17.

and

ALGEBRA.

put z

we

1, equations
(1)and (2)become

axx

bxy+

ct

h2y+

c2

0,
"
"

(3)becomes
x

y
'

bxc2 b2cl

cxaa

alb2-a0bl
Hence

any
in the

two

simultaneous

first

degreemay

aj"% a2b]

c2ai

afi2-a2bl

equationsinvolvingtwo
be solved by the rule of

knowns
uncross

multiplication.
Example.

Solve

-1

5x-3y

By transposition,

5x

3y

2y

+
1

0;

x
*'"

10 + 3

1 + 60

59

38
x

is'

lS'

EXAMPLES.

1.

Find

the ratio

I.

compounded of

(1)

the ratio 2a

(2)

the

36,and

the

ratio
subduplicate

ratio
duplicate

of 64

2.

If #+7

3.

Find two numbers

the less by 275.

exceeds

4.
to make

What
it

(#+ 14)in

number

equalto 1

5.

If x

6.

If 15

y=3

must

of

-j-

the

M--

and

to each

of 5

12

so

4,find the
=

ab.
:

56.

ratio of

the ratio of

2by.

x.

of the ratio 5

term

7x-4y

8, find

that the greater

3 \

the ratio Sax

in the ratio of 7

find
(2a-2y2) *7xy,
-

9, and the ratio 27

ratio
duplicate

be added

of 9b2

/6a?

2a

ratio
(3) the duplicate

36 + 2

whence

12.

0,

2y -12

0, x

3x+y.
y.

37

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

12
If

18.

bz,y

cy +

j"*

that

Given

19.

a(y

\-bl i

""

\"cL

+ ab + 2abc

ca

l.

followingequations:

the

+ 7z

3x-4y

2x-y-2z

0,

0,

21.

x+y=

3x-2y+17z
x* +

to?-f+"=l8.

7a*

2tys Sac 4ry,

ff+2y+32=19.
=

.--*

If

that

"

Jb+Jo

c)(a

the

ax

26.
x

6.

=-

by+
+

cz

abz

0,

0,

0.

+ "2y+ 6'22==0,
+ C2=a2#
a.-"+"y
0.
+ y + z + (b-c)(c-a) (a-b)
=

that

"

ax

"

7"

{I-be)

ky+gz

s2

?/2
*

X2

prove

a(y+x)=x, b(z+ x)=y, c(x+y)=z,

If

If

0,

(a3x+ b3y+ "z)

xyz + abc

28.

(c a) (b \Jac)

V be)

bcx + cay

prove
1

0,

equations:

25.

27.

?==-

(a-b)(c-\/ab) (b
Solve

l67.

'

"/c+V"

"

Ja+Jb

+ 2zs

2y2+ oz2
3y2-I5z2

0,

*""",

+-^L^
+

3f

z,
=

5.0-4^ + 73

shew

3x2

23.

tyz+ 3sa?=4an/,

22.

24.

"

z)=x, b(z+ x)=y, c(x+y)=z,

bc +

20.

a1

prove that
Solve

+ ay,

z2

II

that

shew

z=bx

az+cx}

b(l-ca)

0, kx

"

c(l-ab)

by+ fz^0, gx+fy

cz

0,

that
x2

bc-f2

y2
ca-g2

(2) (be-f2){ea

z2

ab-h2

g2)(ab h2) (fg eh)(gk af) (A/- bg).

-

CHAPTER

II.

PROPORTION,

When

Definition.

18.

them

quantities composing
ft

if

then

saying

that

is to

b, c,

a,

terms

and

extremes

Let

a,

Then

as

is to

b,

c, d

definition

by

any

be

d ;

d.

This

b and

extremes,

three

the

Thus

proportion

when

b and

third,
d,

as
are

the

the

means.

of

product

the

b,

d
be.

of

any

c, d

are

means

third

in continued
a

bed

vice

to
to

c,

proportion
are

then

the

"

are

the
the

versa.

said

to

second,
fourth

proportion
c

given,

given,

are

quantities, a, b, c, d, such
d being the
proportionals ; a and

or

is

first

the

four

Quantities
the

is written

proportion

extremes,

if a,

are

Definition.

20.

expressed by

"

terms

there
a,

is

"

=.

"

found.

Conversely, if
ad
be, then

c,

if

may

the

the

the

ad

Hence

b,

Thus

proportionals.

the

be

whence

fourth

: :

"

called

are

and

d,

a,

four

proportionals.

in proportion,
If four quantities are
is equal to the product of the means.

19.

to

be

to

proportionals.

are

or

that

said

are

the

equal,

are

c
=

The

ratios

two

when

be
as

and

in
the
so

continued

second
on.

is
Thus

14

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

quantities
a, b,c

If three

.-.

In this
c

\ and

then
proportion,

in continued

are

"

ac

: c

b2.

[Art.18.]

proportionalbetween
b is said to be a mean
is said to be a third proportionalto a and b.

case
c

If

21.

the firstis
are
proportionals
quantities

three

to
of the first

ratio
third in the duplicate

be
quantities

Let the three

and

the

to

tJiesecond.
then

b,c:

a.

-.

be

Now

cue

X6 =F,;

b
that

is,

It will be
of

: c

a2

b2.

is
proposition

that this

seen

a2

a
=

the

ratio givenin Euclid,Book

duplicate
If

22.

d and

"

.bor

c
=

'f=g

and

and

then

23.
other
The
them

If four

known

are

often

Geometry.

ae

bf= eg

dh.

dhy

dh.

d,

: x

v/,

: x

y-

as

ex

in Geometry.
cequali

quantities
a, b, c,
be deduced

form

proportion,
many

of fractions.
by the properties
these operations
and
of
are
some
very useful,
borrowed
from
quoted by the annexed names

proportions
may
results of

will

eg

bf= eg

This is the theorem

h, then

bf

If

definition

v.

ae

"'*

Cor.

the

ae

as

""=!-:

or

same

PROPORTION.

If

(1)
For

d, then b

therefore 1

-f- =-

d'

b
that

: a

If

For acZ

d,

: a

then

be ; therefore

"

: c

: c.

is,
a

or

If

(3)
lor

[Alternando

: c

-,

"

If

For

=-

-,

therefore

"

is,
a

(5)

If

"

-7

df,then

"

"

[Componeudo.'

d.
c-

d.

[Divideudo.]

+6

-="

r
a

d.

bc-d

"

by (3)

For

"7"

or

c +

a-b

"

that

c +

d, then

="

(4)

c +
=

7"

a +

is

or

d.

o
a

that

+ 1

s-

-,

d, tlien

therefore

-, :

7-

"

d.

b
=

.'.

"

a
,

and

"!
that

d'

or

[Invertendo

: c.

-r- -_

is

(2)

15

: a

-j-

"

d.

b=c+d:c"

d.

bc"d

/ * \

by (4)
,

"

by
division,
J

This

"

c +

d
"

c-d'

a-b
a

or

^-j

-j

a-b

c +

c-d.

is usuallyquotedas Componeiuh a) id
proposition

JJivi-

dendo.
Several other proportions
may

be

provedin

similar way.

16

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the algebraical
results of the precedingarticle are
fifth
in
the
book
of Euclid,
of the propositions
of some
equivalents
himself familiar with them
and the student is advised to make
The

24.

follows

For

form.

in their verbal

example,dividendo

may

be

quoted as

the excess
of the firstabove
four proportionals,
the second is to the second, as the excess
of the third above the
fourthis to the fourth.
there

When

definition
algebraical

the
compare
that givenin Euclid.
shall

We

25.

are

with

now

Euclid's definition is

as

follows

of proportion

if any equiwhen
said to be proportionals
multipl
first
and third,and also any
whatever be taken of the
second
and
of
the
wJiatever
fourth,the multipleof
equimultiples
are
quantities

Four

the third is

multipleof the
first is greaterthan,equal

less than

greaterthan,equalto,or

of the
the multiple
as
fourth,according

the

of the second.
to, or less than the multiple
In

quantitiesa, b,

Four

accordingas
I.

definition may

symbolsthe
algebraical

p"a

qb,p
the

deduce

To

and

c, d

in

are

be thus stated

proportionwhen

p"c

qd

tcJudever.
beingany positive
integers

definition
geometrical

proportionfrom

of

definition.
the algebraical
a

Since

-z

both
by multiplying
pa

qb

sides

by

we

obtain

2)C

qd

'

of fractions,
hence, from the properties
pc

which

proves

the

To

deduce

II.
the

qd accordingas

pa

qb,

proposition.
the

definition
algebraical

of

from
proportion

definition.
geometrical
Given

that pc

qd accordingas
a

b=~d'

pa

qb,to

prove

PROPORTION.

If

is not

-j-

Supposeg

"

equalto

them, q

and

(1)
(2)

greater.

fraction 2

some

"

0).

"

(2"

pa"qb;
2)c"qd\

and these contradict the

Therefore
the

find

the

beingpositive
integers.

"p

from

be

must

possibleto

and

Hence

From

them

lies between

which

it will be

; then

-^

of

one

17

and

hypothesis.
unequal;that

not

are

is

which proves

-"

proposition.

It should be noticed that the geometrical

definitionof proportion
deals with concrete magnitudes,such as lines or areas,
but not referred to any common
unit
geometrically
represented

26.

So that Euclid's definition is

of measurement.

well

as

to commensurable

as

commens
to inapplicable

quantities
; whereas

mensurable
definition,
strictly
speaking,
appliesonlyto comalgebraical
it
that
is
the
since
assumes
a
same
tacitly
quantities,
determinate multiple,
part,or parts,of b that c is of d. But the
will
quantities
proofswhich have been givenfor commensurable

the

since
incommensurables,

the ratio of two incomcan

always be made to differfrom the ratio of two
quantity.This lias been
by less than any assignable
integers
in the
it
be
also
as
shewn in Art. 7 ;
provedmore generally
may

stillbe true
mensurables

for

article.

next

27.
into

Suppose that

positive
integer.Also
less than

n+

"

is,

divide
incommensurable;

-="

-j-

differs from

H. H. A.

(n+1)

-^

and

"

m/3,where

in

"

by

more

/^

and

;
m

quantity less than

And

"

since

is a

than

imp

mp

lies between

"

that b

suppose
1 times;

that

are

f3is contained

nB

i,

then

so

equal parts each equalto /?,so

times and

that

and

we

can

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

18
B

choose

(ourunit

of

great

we

small

as
measurement)

as

m
please,

we

can

1
be
as

made

as

and
please,

we

of

please. Hence
and

integersn

two

that

will express

as

and

be found

can

be made

can

"

small

as

ratio

whose

requireddegreeof accuracy.

b to any

proved in Art. 23 are often useful in

propositions
the solution of certain equations
solvingproblems. In particular,
of
skilful
the
comfacilitated
use
is greatly
operations
by a
ponendo and dividendo.
28.

The

Example

1.

If

6mb + Snc +

(2ma +

9wtZ)
(2ma Gmb
(2ma 6mb +
proportionals.

prove

that

a,b, c,

2ma

are

Snc +

9nd)

Snc

(2mm +
9/uZ)

Gmb + Snc + 9nd

2ma

Qmb

Snc

Gmi

9nd

2ma
.*.

componendo

and

bmb

+ Snc

\)nd

ma

6mb

Snc + 9nd

dividendo,
2

(2ma + Snc)

{2ma

(Smb

Sue)

'

2~{Gmb
+ 9nd)
2ma

Alternando,

Gmb + (.)nd

Snc

="

n-

"

"

2ma-Snc

Again,componendo

,.

dividendo,

and

\2mb
;

lQnd

One

whence

-,

c
a

or

2.

"

d.

Solve the equation

Jx+l + Jx^l
Jx + l- Jx-1
We

"

bmb-vna

Ama

Example

9m/)

4a; -1
_

have, componendo and dividendo,

Jx+l

4a;+ 1
_

.r

l_16a;2+

*'"

8a;+l

"

16a;2-24a; + 9

Again, componendo and dividendo,

32a;2- 16a; + 10

2x
_

32a;

16a;2-8a; + 5
"X~

whence

16a;2

'

16a;- 4
-

16a;2 8a;+ 5

4a;=

5
"

"

-.

'

Snc

dnd),

20

21, the

of

sum

Two

in the

the

the

10, find

that

the

the

done

work

the

x.

of

sum

of

sum

is to

days

of 9

ratio

19, and

means

the

ratio

gallons

water,

again filled
the quantity

of

with

be

the

is

extremes

of

squares

filled with

two

kinds

7, and

the

cask

one

the

If the
in

it

all four

B
to

full

of

mixture

in the
form

are

of

ratio
mixture

of the

other

wine; it is then
drawn, and the

of wine

in the

now

much

9, how

to

sherry, mixed

of

gallons

quantity

16

as

each

and
cask

of

gallons

water

from
kind

from

water.

in

taken

of

drawn

nine

of

gallons

are

then

is

were

must

of 2

consist

Nine

21.

and

quantity

shall

filled with

in

What

5.

to

in

men

proportionals such

casks

cask

which

be

"

in the

days

is 442.

20.

cask

by

done

four

Find

numbers

in

men

19.

work

If the

18.

by

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

does

cask

the

cask

hold?
If

22.
that

great

In

and

In

more

of

compare

25.

Brass

containing
of

per

times

three

as

two.

the

cent., compare

between

cent,

per

and

cent,

per

and

town

of

zinc,

80

brass
and

10

if b
the

If

consumption

per

cent,

the

aggregate

per

cent,

and

is

an

the

tions
popula-

country

tea

and

consumed
and

per
would

consumed

is five times
b per
would
cent,

be

cent,
be
more

3c

per

the
more

1c

per
coffee
cent,

b.
of

alloy

copper,
is found

bronze
:

find

the

and

copper

of

cent,

of tin

more

tea

more

of
tea

amount

amount

aggregate

per
and

the

country

coffee.

but

consumed,

mass

if the

consumed,

were

other

the

shew

proportion,
least

is at

15*9
population increased
increased
town
18
population

certain

consumption

more

between

continued

last

1871.

24.

were

in

are

first and

the

the

population

in

cent,

between

England
1881;

country

coffee

positive quantities

difference

the

as

23.
1871

four

difference

the

4
to

ratio

of

zinc

; bronze

is

of

tin.

zinc, and

contain

74

of copper

to

16

an

alloy
fused

of copper,
16
per cent,
zinc in the composition

of brass.

26.

they
they

could

with

the

can

crew
row
row

stream

can

the
it in

row
same

certain
down

course

still water

how

course

up

stream

long

would

in

stream

in

84

minutes

they

take

minutes;
less

to

row

than
down

III.

CHAPTER

VARIATION.

as

another

such

One

Definition.

29.

B,

two

if B

that

manner

the

when

quantity A is said to vary

each
quantities depend upon
is changed, A
is changed
in

directly
other
the

in

same

ratio.

as

instance

For
miles

in

60

80

miles

in

120

often

omitted,

the

distance

the

time.
The

30.

constant

values

symbol
"A

and

that

suppose
of A and

Inen,

by

and

is said

to

vary

that

/"

denote

to

minutes,
each
the

as

velocity
the

or

is

distance

variation

is

tlien A

equal

to

b
=

"

"=*

y^=

=-

so

"

"

"

"3

-r

and

so

on,

being equal

each

to

"
"

="

corresponding
7u,

as

that

value

where

ot

.'. A=mB.

is

always

is constant.

the

some

corresponding

r.

time.

varies

of A

value

any

,.j-

63

62

case

uniform

multiplied by

","

-=

is,

the

time,

30
in

ratio

alt a", a3..., b, bx,b2,b3...are

a,

deimition,

6,

the

the

in

distance

same

when

travels

rate

B.

/. s-i

Hence

that

miles

the

the

uniform

B."

",

TT

20

on;

used

a
mi

so

in

as

B,

as

at

travel

will

is

oc

varies

If A. varies
quantity.

31.

For

it

diminished

or

is read

on

moving

expressed by saying
is ptroportional to

is

This

train

minutes,
minutes,

increased

being

if

40

directlyis

word

The

Note.
B.

same

22

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of A

values
pairof corresponding

If any
the constant

can

known,

are

if A
instance,

For

determined.

be

and

3 when

^=12,
have

we

and

do
4

varies

if A

Thus
The

hours, 2

-^

where

is constant.

hours,12

would

men

do the

If 6
work

same

men

in

Thus it appears that

hours ; and so on.
the time is proportionately
of men
is increased,

vice-versa.

Example 1. The
3, find

in 24

the number

when

is said to vary inversely

the reciprocal
of B.

illustration of inverse variation

in 8

men

and
decreased;

x=8

as
B,
inversely

is an
following

certain work

when

quantityA
varies directly
as

Z?,when

another

as

\B.

One

Definition.

32.

12;

=m

cube root of x varies

when y = l^.

inverselyas the

square

of y ; if

By supposition
"/x=

"

where

is constant.

if
Tit

Puttingx

8, y

have

3, we

2=n"
.*.

18,

?;t =

18
v
*jx

and

"

hence, by puttingy

^,

obtain

we

512.

a; =

The square of the time of a planet'srevolution varies as

of its distance from the Sun; find the time of Venus' revolution,
assuming the distances of the Earth and Venus from the Sun to be 91-Jand
66 millions of miles respectively.

Example 2.

the cube

Let P be the periodictime

of miles ; we have

measured

P2

in

days,D the distance

D3,

P*=kD3,

or

where

k is

some

constant.

For the Earth,

365

365

91" x 91| x 91",

4x4x4
k

whence

365
4
.
"

rp2

4
"

_
~

365

'

in millions

VARIATION.

For

23

pa^i^ili
66
3

Venus,

66

b.)

whence

Hence

number

of

varies

the
principal,

on

a/*7233,
approximately,

264

-85

224-4.
is

7/*A

35.

is said to vary

varies

varies

-^

their
A

jointly as

product.
mBC.

varies

For

stance,
in-

jointlyas

as
directly

the

and

in-

when

as

as

is constant,and

is constant,then tvill A

to vary

C, when

of

sum

and

money
the rate per cent.

time,and

as
C, when
versely

nearly224" days.

quantityis said
as
directly

3 -i. Definition.

when

as
jointly

interest

the

365

it varies

others,when

Thus

264

One

Definition.

:":

the time of revolution

33.

/264

4x66

6G ;

BC

as

vary

varies

ivhen both B

as

and

C
C

vary.

variation

The

of A

dependspartlyon

that of B and partlyon

latter variations to take place
rately,
sepaeffect on A ; also let
producingits own

Suppose these

that of C.

in its turn
be certain simultaneous
each

a,

b,c

while

C be constant

Let

values of
B

changesto

change and
undergoa partial
a\

will

A, B, C.

assume

some

A must
intermediate value

where

(1)

"=-

2.

Let B

changesto
intermediate

From

be constant,that is,let it retain its value b,while C

completeits change and pass from its
; then A must
value a' to its final value a, where

(1) and (2)

x

"

'

that

is,

"

=-

BC,

be
or

b ; then

A varies

as

BC.

24

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

illustrations of the theorem

are
following

The

36.

provedin

the last article.

varies
by a givennumber of men
of
of days they work, and the amount
the number
as
directly
of men
the number
as
work done in a giventime varies directly
;
of men
of days and the number
are
the number
therefore when
will vary as the productof
of work
the amount
both variable,
of days.
and the number
of men
the number
varies directly
as
Again,in Geometry the area of a triangle
the
and
a
s
is
the height
directly
its base when
height
constant,
and
base
both
the
when
and
is
constant
base
the
when
height
;
the productof the numbers
varies as
are
variable, the area
the heightand the base.
representing
The

amount

done

of work

Example. The volume of a rightcircular cone varies as the square of the

the
the height is constant, and as the height when
radius of the base when
and
the
15
is
feet
base
feet,
radius
of
the
7
If
the
height
constant.
is
base
is 132
whose volume
the volume is 770 cubic feet ; find the height of a cone
is
3
feet.
radius
whose
base
which
stands
on
a
cubic feet and
Let h and r denote
respectivelythe height ani radius
in cubic feet.
measured
in feet ; also let V be the volume
Then

V=mr2h,

where

of

the base

is constant.
770

By supposition,

"

72 x 15

22

whence

.*.

V=
by substituting

132, r

S, we

"

get
22

132=-

xOxft;
"

7i= 14 ;

whence
and

therefore the

37.
case

two

The

heightis

14 feet.

of
proposition

be extended
easily
dependsupon that of more

Art. 35

can

the variation of A
variables.
Further, the variations
in which

inverse.

to the

than

be either direct or
may
because of its frequent
is interesting
currence
ocThe principle
For example, in the theory of
in PhysicalScience.

of a gas
gases it is found by experimentthat the pressure (p)
varies as the "absolute
temperature"(t)when its volume (v)is
the volume
as
constant, and that the pressure varies inversely
when

the

temperature is
2?

oc

; that is

constant

t, when

is constant

25

VARIATION.

and

cc

t is constant.

when

results

these

From

p
and

by

actual

square

number
with 18
consumed

or

pv

of

duration

k is constant

kt,where

t and

are

railway journey

to be the- case.

is found

experimentthis

The

Example.
distance

cc

both

the formula

have

should

variable,we

expect that,when

should

we

varies

directlyas

the

the velocity;the velocityvaries directlyas the

as
inversely
root of the quantityof coal used per mile, and
inverselyas the
In a journey of 25 miles in half an hour
in the train.
of carriages
and

much
coal will be
of coal is required; how
16
with
in
28
21
miles
minutes
of
carriages?
journey

carriages 10
in

cwt.

Let t be the time expressedin hours,

d the distance in miles,
in miles per hour,
v the velocity
of coal in cwt.,
the
quantity
q
of carriages.
c the number
We

have

oc

and

*!l

oc

whence

or

the
Substituting

"

values

"

7-

oc

"

k is constant.

where

have

given,we
1

18

25

2~

that

is,

jm
=

25x36"

v/lO cd
.

Hence

t=

now
Substituting

question, we

the values

"

0^
2o

36

of t, c, d

/
s/q="

whence

15x28
q

the

quantityof

coal is

'

25x36^2

n/10x16x21

Hence

given in the

710x16x21.

60"
is,

Jq

have
28

a
that""

^"

"

-=-

6|cwt.

,-

=5^10,
6|.

second

part of

the

26

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.
varies

1.

If

2.

If P

3.

If the square

y, and

as

III.
when

#=8

as
Q, and
inversely

varies

of

varies

find the value of y when

#=-y-

15,find

when

P=7

the cube

as

when

10.

3, find P when

of y, and

when

x"3

varies

4.

find 0 when

and

as

54 and

If .4 varies
each vary as C.

5.

as

i?

4,

if
jointly;

2 when

and

10

C="

3.

C, and

i? varies

as

C, then J. "Z? and \/AB

will

C
6.

If J. varies

7.

BC,

as

as
inversely

then Z" varies

-7

varies

Q and

directlyas

also P

as
R\
inversely

when

=
~

and

If

8.

a'

="

find

varies

If y varies as the
directly x and the other
3 ; find the
31 when x
y
as

If 3/ is equal to the
and the other
as x directly,
3 ; find y in terms of x.

10.

11.
the cube
and

jR=\/"5.
x2-y\

as

of which
of two quantities,
sum
if y
6 when
as x ; and
inversely
between
and
x
equation
y.
=

of two

sum
as

x2

if y

x=4, and

of which

quantitiesone

and
inversely;

varies

one

19 when

varies

x=2,

Given

that

+ y

varies

as

and

that

"

varies

as

"

find the relation between

y

or

the square root of B and inversely

If A varies directly
as
as
and C=2, find B when A
24
3 when
."=256
of C, and if 4

C=g
12.

and

x2+y2 varies

that

y, prove

as

9.

P=a/48

(^when

and

z,

providedthat

=2

when

=3

and

\.

If J. varies

13.
varies

as

inversely A,
as

while
B and C jointly,
shew that A varies as D.

varies

as

Z"2,and

of which the first is

of three quantities
If y varies as the sum
and
third
the
second
the
varies
as
as
x2; and if y 0 when
constant,
.r,
find
and
when
l
when
4
x
3;
x=l, y
x=2,
y when x=7.
y
14.

When
a
body falls from rest its distance from the starting
: if a body falls
pointvaries as the square of the time it has been falling
through 402^ feet in 5 seconds, how far does it fall in 10 seconds ?
Also how far does it fall in the 10th second?

15.

IV.

CHAPTER

PROGRESSION.

ARITHMETICAL

Progression

when

Progression

15,

8, 2, -4,

-10,

the

d,

If

notice

common

examine

we

in

that
number

Thus

ference.
dif-

common

Arithmetical

an

by subtracting
In

is 4 ; in

the

first
second

the

of

term

any

of

the

it is

above
"

6 ; in

term

the

the

and, generally,
n

?ith term,

40.

the

we

have

To

find

3d,

the

coefficient
of

hi

the seiies.

3rd term

is

2d;

6th term

is

5d

term

is

I9d',

term

is

(p

of

number

the

2d,

term

pth

the

be

d,

any

of

series

the

20th

If

it is d.

third

the

forms

it.

follows

difference

a,

than

by

Arithmetical

3d,

is found

which

that

from

39.

we

2d,

difference

the

examples

series

following

3, 7, 11,

common

series

or

in

be

to

decrease

a,

The

the

said

are

increase

they

of

each

Thus

the

Quantities

Definition.

38.

terms,
a

of

sum

(n

"

is

always

less

by

one

\)d.

"

and

if

I denote

the

last,

or

1) d.

number

of

terms

in

Arithmetical

Progression.
Let
the

number

denote
of

the
terms.

first

term,

Also

let

the

difference, and

common

I denote

the

last

term,

and

n
s

PROGRESSION.

ARITHMETICAL

the

; then

sum
required
8

a+(a

d)+ (a+ 2d) +

I+

2s

"'"

order,

(a + 2d)+ (a + d) +

these
Adding together

reverse

(I d)+ (I 2d)+
-

(I 2d)+ (l-d)+ l;

...

series in the

and, by writingthe
s

29

...

a.

series,

two

(a+ l)+ (a+ l)+ (a+ l)+

to
...

terms

(a+ I),

^(a+ l)

(1);

(n-l)d

(2),

-^{2a(n-l)d\

(3).

l~a

and

.-.

41.

tlie last article

In

(2),(3);

in each

unknown

the

of these

three

useful

of the

one

any

quantitywhen

instance,in (1)if we

have

we

the three

formula;

(1),

letters may
denote
known.
For
are

others

givenvalues for s, n, I,we obtain

in the other formulae.
an
equationfor findinga ; and similarly
of these
But it is necessary to guard against
a too mechanical
use
will
found
a
nd
it
often
solve
be
better
to
generalformulae,
simple
than
reference
mental
rather
actual
to the
a
an
questionsby
by
formula.
requisite
Example
Here

the

the

1.

common

substitute

Find the sura

of the series 5^, GJ, 8,
difference is 1^; hence from (3),

sum

\2

"

16

to 17 terms.

*li|

y (11+20)
17x31

~2
=

2. The
find the number

Example
400

If

be the number

263".

first term

of

series is 5, the last 45, and

difference.
the common

of terms, and
of

terms, then

from

(1)

"

400
whence

(5+ 4r");

10.

the

sum

30

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If d be the

difference

common

the 16th term

45=

whence

If

42.

given,the

series

two

givethe

first term

and

the

Progressionbe

Arithmetical

an

data
will

difference.

common

of

4th terms

54th and

The

completelydetermined; for the

the solution of which
equations,

be

can

simultaneous

furnish

Example.

of

terms

two

any

2f

5 + 15d;

A. P.

an

are

64 ; find the

61 and

23rd term.
If

d the

be the first term, and

61

64

and

difference,

common

the 54th term

4th term

the

53d ;

+ 3d ;

whence

d=

obtain

we

and the 23rd term

22d

-jr,

Hh.

16".

three

When
Definition.
middle
one
Progression the
43.

are
quantities

in Arithmetical

is said to be the arithmetic

mean

of

the other two.

Thus

is the arithmetic

To

44.
Let

findthe

and

since a,

Then

arithmetic

beingequalto

each

the

d.

givenquantities.

the arithmetic

mean.

have

a,

"

difference ;
a

common

whence

must

we

d and

"

betiveen two

mean

in A. P.

are

quantities
; A

b be the two

A, b

between

mean

"

2
Between

45.

it
given quantities

two

that

of terms
such
any number
formed shall be in A. P. ; and by an
Art. 43, the terms thus inserted are

insert

Example.

Insert 20 arithmetic

to
always possible

is

whole

the

of the definition in

extension

called the arithmetic

between

means

4 and

series of 22 terms

Let d be the

common

whence

and the

difference ;

67

then
d

the 22nd term

S, and the series is 4, 7, 10,

requiredmeans

means.

67.

number
of terms will be 22 ; so that we have
in A.P., of which 4 is the first and 67 the last.

Includingthe extremes, the

to find

series thus

are

7, 10, 13,

4 + 21d ;

61, 64, 67
58, 71, 64.

ARITHMETICAL

givennumber
givenquantities.

two

insert

To

46.

Let

Includingthe
so
a

of

b be the

and

number

the

extremes

to find a series of
that we
and b is the last.
is the first,

whence

the

means
required

are

=-'

d, a,

9, and the three numbers

"

'

"

_-

n+l
in A.P. is 27, and

the

difference ; then

common

+ d

are

+ 81
(9-rf)2

whence

sum

of

the three

27 ;

d, 9, $

d.

(9+ d)2 293;

=

d="5;

the numbers

Example
w"' term

a)

"

+ d.

.-.

and

d the

number,
a-d

nib

"

"

The sum
of three numbers
is 293 ; find them.

Hence
whence

a)
(b
*
n+l

be the middle

1.

Example
their squares
Let
numbers

'

2
a

n+l

of terms
will be u + 2 ;
in A. P.,of which

are

"

means.

(n + 2)thterm

71+

the

of

number

2 terms

betiveen

means

difference ;

common

then

and

arithmetic

the
n
givenquantities,

have

Let d be the

31

PROGRESSION.

is 3n

are

Find

2.
-

4, 9, 14.
the

of the first p

sum

terms

of the

1.

By puttingn=l, and n=p

obtain
we
respectively,

first term

.-.

2, last

term

Sum

to 20 terms.
2, 3|,4J,...

2.

Sum

to 17
49,44,39,...

3.

Sum-,
4

terms.

7
"

-,

,...
"

1.

"

1;

l).
3i"-l)=|(3p
sum=|(2

EXAMPLES.

=3p

to 19 terms.

IV.

a.

series whose

32

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

7
Sum

4.

to
If,...

3, -,

terms.

16 terms.

5.

Sum

to
3'75,35, 3-25,...

6.

Sum

to
-Tl, -7, -6J,...

7.

Sum

1-3,-3-1, -7-5,...to

8.

Sum

9.

Sum

10.

Sum

11.

Sum

2a

12.

-.-

to 50 terms.

3x/3,-75 "...

-j=

tt

10 terms.

12

Sum

24 terms.

-tt

36, 2a

6,4a

56, 3a

36,6a

76,

to 40 terms.
.

56,.

to

,,

a,

"

to 21 terms.

"

,...

13.

Insert 19 arithmetic

means

between

14.

Insert 17 arithmetic

means

between

15.

Insert 18 arithmetic

means

between

16.

Insert

17.

Find

as

the

arithmetic
sum

between

means

of

of 15 terms
The sum
is 5 ; find the first term.

19.

20.

The
sum

of
third term
of 17 terms.

9|.

"

3^ and

41".

"

36.17and

x2 and

1.

is 2, the last term

A. P. is 600, and

an

S.v.

A. P. is

29, the
the

18, and the seventh

in A. P. is

27,and

of three numbers
find
them.
is 408 ;

in A. P. is

12, and the

22.

The

sum

of the series whose

23.

Find

the

sum

of 15 terms

24.

Find

the

sum

of 35 terms

25.

Find

the

sum

of p terms

of the series whose

26.

Find

the

sum

of

of the series

2a2

n
-

terms
1

6a2 -5

3
,

of the series whose

4a

155;

sum

ence
differ-

common

of three numbers

21. The sum

504 ; find them.
cubes

an

and

numbers.

of the first n odd

18. In an A. P. the first term

find the difference.

find the

terms.

3a-6

+ 6

-"-

25 terms.

V5;-..to

is 30 ;

term

their

product is

sum

of their

nth term

is 4?i4- 1.

pihterm
nth term

is

is

^+
+

2.

b.

ARITHMETICAL

In
47.
to determine

values

the

of

"2a

have

we

(n-

the

s, a, d

are

given,

quadraticequation

l)d\
;

and integral
there is no difficult
positive
the result corresponding
to each.
In some
interpreting
cases
suitable interpretation
be
for
can
a
given
negativevalue of n.
both

when

33

Arithmetical Progression
when

an

in

PROGRESSION.

roots

Example.
taken that the

are

How

series -9,

-6, -3,...

be

must

be G6 ?

may

Here

{-18 + ("-l)3}=66;

that is,

n--ln-U

Q,

(n-ll)(n+4)=0;

or

?i=ll

.'.

If

we

sum

of the

take 11 terms
9,

the

of the

terms

many

sum

of which

6,

or

4.

have
we
series,

3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21

is 66.

If we beginat the last of these terms and count backwards four terms, the
is also 66; and thus, although the negativesolution does not directly
the question
answer
proposed,we are enabled to giveit an intelligible
meaning,
and we see that it answers
a questionclosely
connected with that to which
the positive
solution applies.
sum

48.
the

We

this interpretation
in the general
case
justify

can

following
way.
The

equationto

determine
dn2

Since in the

is

(2a-d)n-2s

beirin

we

difference must

this term
be denoted

at

("
|{2

and

we

shall shew

H. H.

A.

(1).

discussion the roots of this

denote them
by n and

under

case

oppositesigns,let us
to
term of the series corresponding

if

in

1 )d ;

and

count

by

The

last

nl is

(nl
-

equationhave

backwards,

d, and

the

sum

of

the

common

yi.,terms

is

-!)(-"/)}

+ (",
",-!"/)

that this is equalto

6-.

34

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

For

expression -? \ 2a

the

(2n{

n2

"

l)dl

"

d
+
^ 2an2 2nxn2d n2 (n2+ 1)

1
=

productof

the roots

When

49.

of terms

How

Example.

(2a d) n"

of this

.n2)\

0, and

"

n}n2

is

the

equation.
is fractional there

such

to
corresponds

is

exact

no

ber
num-

solution.

of the series 26, 21, 16,...must

terms

many

2s

"

the value of
which

s,

n2 satisfies dn2

"

2a

l(4s-2s)

since

I 2nxn2d (da*

be taken

to

to 71 ?

amount

Here

{52+ (n-l)(-5)} 74;

=

that is,

5)i2

57u + 148

(n-4)(5n-37)

or

.*.

Thus

the number

is greater,while the

?i

is 4.
of terms
of 8 terms

sum

0,

0;

1%.

or

It will be found that the

is less than 74.

of 7 terms

sum

We

50.

Example

add
1.

ratio of 7?t+ l

"

Examples.

of two arithmetic series

The
of n terms
sums
4" + 27; rind the ratio of their 11th terms.

Let the first term

a",

Miscellaneous

some

and

common

difference of the two

are

series be av

in the

dx and

d2 respectively.
We

"+127
|M^*
2a2 {n-l)d2

have

4?i +

Now

we

have

to find the value of

"

"

a2 +

tttt',

l0d2'

hence, by putting
n"21,
x

we

obtain

2^ + 20^
2a2+ 20d2
thus the

requiredratio is

Example
series whose

2.

If

148
"~

111

are

'

3.

the
1, 2, 3, 4,...and

are
Su S2,S"...S,,

first terms

sums

whose

1, 3, 5, 7,...; find the value of

#L+ "Sf2+"3+.+ "".

..

of

common

terms

of arithmetic

differences are

36

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Sum

9.

series

the

If the

10.
find the

sum

-_

to

."

is

49, and

of

an

the

sum

are

a,

terms

A. P.

(q-i')a + (r-p)b+(p-q)c

that
The

12.

find the
p ;

of p

sum

ofp

sum

Divide

product

of

terms

is 289,

of 17 terms

integers in

is

of q terms

sum

of the first and

fourth

product of

is

product

such

P., and

in A.

are

is to the

their

24, and

A. P. is

parts which

into four

20

the

A. P. is q, and

an

shew
b,c respectively,
0.

q terms.

of four

The
13.
sum
945 ; find them.

14.

terms.

...

terms.

pth,qth,rih

If the

11.

of 7 terms

sum

of

the second

that
and

the

third

in the ratio of 2 to 3.

The

15.
mtb

How

16.
make

If the

of

sum

Prove

19.

20.

If

21.

The
is

terms
:

the

is p ; find

qthterm

be

series 9, 12, 15,...must

the

the

taken

to

3) for

number

24, of the

terms

even

22.
the

There
sum

of the

2m

in

as

as

1.

"

equal

even

pth term.
;

the last term

30, and

terms

of terms.

P. is

A.

an

1 is to 2n

"

in A. P. is

of terms

of nt find the

sets of numbers

two

1 than

nth term

of

the

sum

exceeds

of the odd
the

first

by

of terms.

of each

greater by

product

are

the

all values

of terms

find the number

sum

number

the ?tthterm.

3n2,find

A. P. is to the

number

odd

an

multipliedby

(pn

an

is to the

of

sum

A. P. is 2n +

an

of

terms

the mth term

term
=

of

terms

of

that

middle

to the

is

of the

terms

many

If the sum
18.
shew
that
'in2to ?i2,

and

A. P. is q, and

an

306?

17.

10 1

of

term

pth

term.

set is 15.

the

each

The

common

difference

common

first set is to the

product

of
consisting
difference
of the

3 terms

in A. P.

of the

first set

second

of the second

set

as

set, and

the

7 to 8

find

the numbers.

23.
between
n

means

Find
x

and

the

relation

2y may

being inserted

between

be the
in each

same

x
as

and
the

y in order that the ?,thmean

?-thmean
between
2x and y,

case.

24.
If the sum
of an A. P. is the
that its sum
for p + q terms
is zero.

same

for p

as

for

terms, shew

CHAPTER

V.

GEOMETRICAL

Definition.

51.

Progression
Thus

when

each

they
of

PROGRESSION.

are

increase

decrease

or

be

to

by

forms

series

following

the

said

Quantities

in

Geometrical

factor.

constant

Geometrical

gression
Pro-

3, G, 12, 24,

The

factor

constant

found

by dividing

second

the

it is

"

ar2, ar3,
called

is also

above

; in

the

by that
examples

term

any

first of the

the

In

it.

ar,

27'

9'

3'
a,

-I

-1

the

third

the

series

it is

ratio, and

common

it is

immediately iwecedes

which
the

ratio

common

is 2 ; in

r.

If

52.

we

examine
a,

notice

we

tlian

that

the number

in

of

any

term,

we

53.

be

3rd term

is ar2 ;

the

6th term

is

the

20th term

the

pih

other

number

of
l

Definition.
the

two.

middle

When
one

is

always

less

by

one

term

ars;
ar19;

is

is a?^-1.

terms,
=

the series.

the

have

Progression
the

the

of

index

in

and, generally,
n

the

term

the term

Thus

If

ar2, ar3, aiA,

ar,

and

if I denote

the

last, or

ar"~\

three
is called

quantities are
the

geometric

in
mean

Geometrical
between

n,h

38

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

To

Let

and

G, b

since a,

Then

the

b be

quantities
; G

two

in G.

are

the

a'
ratio ;

common

.-.

G2
G

whence

ab;

Jab.

givennumber
givenquantities.
To

54.
two

Let
In

insert

and

the
n
givenquantities,

all there will be

series of
Let

be the

P.,of

in G.

2 terms

which

that

so
a

number
we

have

is the firstand

of

means.

to

find

b the last.

ratio ;

common

then

2 terms

between

of geometricmeans

b be the

geometricmean.

_G

G~

being equalto

the

P.,
b

each

givenquantities.

between two

mean
find the geometric

term
(n + 2)th

the

"r"+1;

"

~a'
i

"""""""
the
found
value
Hence

Example.
We
sixth.
Let

have

requiredmeans
in (1).
Insert 4

geometric means

common

the sixth term

160?'5;
1

and the

'

~32'

r=o'
means

are

between

ratio ;
tben 5

whence

arn,
a?-2,...

in G. P. of which

to find 6 terms

be tbe

of,

are

80, 40, 20, 10.

""

100

160

where

has

the

and 5.
and
is the first,

5 the

find
Progression.
To

55.

Let

the
=

multiplying
every
rs

ar2

+ car +

in

terms

n
ratio,

common

the

by

term

ar2

ar

.-.

arn~2

ar"~l ;

ar"~2

ar""1

ar*,

"

(r-l)s

arn

"

a(r"-l);

,..-5fe^a
r

Changing the signsin

denominator,

and

numerator

(2).

-r

both forms given above

It will be found
convenient
to remember
and
in
all
when?1
cases
isj^ositive greater than 1.
using(2)
except

Note.

Since ar'^1^

1,the formula

be written

(1)may

rl-a

S=7--T:
form

which

is sometimes

useful.
2

Example.

Sum

the series

-1,

to 7 terms.

-,

The

common

ratio

hence

by formula

(2)

(-23
the

(i).

.-?S=*3

of

have

we

r,

rs

s.

number

by subtraction,

Hence

for

Geometrical

required. Then

sum

the

of

number

of a

sum

the first term,

be

terms, and

the

o!)

PROGRESSION.

GEOMETRICAL

sum

"

II

128

2315

2
3

403

2
*

2187]

128

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

40

111
Consider

56.

the

1,

series

r,

~3,

^-2,

2
The

to

sum

terms

"-

-H1

27
2

.2"

2"-i
From
taken
see

result it appears that however

terms
many
of the above series is always less than 2. Also

this

the

sum

that,by making

njr-^i

as

smaU

of terms
from 2.

the

sum

In the next

57.

sufficiently
large,

please. Thus

we

as

be made

can

article
Art.

From

we

55

we

to differ

by

have

is discussed.

-r

ar"

the smaller

therefore
n

we

proper

is the value

by making

"

then
fraction;

the

'

"

greater the value of

ar'1

of

and
?"",

of
consequently

we
sufficiently
large,

of the series differ from

terms

by

make

can

small

as

; and

the

of

sum

quantityas

please.
This

number

or

is

please

we

Suppose r

little as

as

we

the fraction

sufficient number

by takinga

generalcase

more

make

can

be

more

is

result

usuallystated

thus

the

sum

of

infinite

an

Geometrical Progression
is
of terms of a decreasing
the
briefly,

Example 1.
product is 216.
Denote

the numbers

Find

the numbers

are

"

a
sum

to

is
infinity

three numbers

by

6, 6r.

-,
r

a, ar;

1-r'

in G. P. whose

then

ar

sum

is

19, and

216 ; hence

whose

6, and

GEOMETRICAL

41

PROGRESSION.
6
+ 6 +

6r=19;

6-13r

.-.

6r2 =
2

3
whence

the cumbers

Thus

the

Let

of

sum

of their squares

sum

infinite number

an

the

'

is

and

the

of their squares

sum

is

Hence

-z

1 -r*

in G. P. is

ratio ; then
ci^

common

(l

terms

of terms

15, and

is 45 ; find the series.

denote the first term,

or

4, 6, 9.

are

The

Example 2.

0;

,"=15
1
-

"

the

sum

of the

(1),

a2
=

45

(2)-

(3),

5;

1_72
Dividing (2)by (1)

l +

and

from

(1)and (3)

whence

r=x

therefore

and

20

10
an,

Thus

+1

the

5.

...

is

series

o,

"

"

EXAMPLES.

V.

112

1.

Sum

to 7 terms.

-,-,-,...
O

-2, 2^, -3i,...to

6 terms.

2.

Sum

3.

Sum

l", 3,...to
^t,

4.

Sum

2, -4, 8,...to 10 terms.

5.

Sum

to 7
16'2,5-4,1-8,...

6.

Sum

to p
1, 5, 25,...

7.

Sum

3, -4,

"

,...

8 terms.

terms.

terms.

to 2n terms.

8.

Sum

9.

Sum

to
1, N/3,3,...
8

1
-j-

v/2

12 terms.

'
,

-2,

-jr

s'2

,...

to 7 terms.

a.

42

HIGHER

11

ALGEBRA.

10.

Sum

11.

Insert 3

geometricmeans

between

12.

Insert 5

geometricmeans

between

3f and 40|.

13.

Insert 6

means
geometric

between

14 and

-~,

to ^ terms.

-j,.-

3,

series
following

Sum

the

14.

|,-1,

16.
18.

:
infinity

to

?,...

3"1, 3~2, 3-',...

3, v/3,1,...

19.

7, N/42,6,...

of
of the first 6 terms
find
ratio.
the
common
;

fifth term

of

26.
sp the

sum

is

of three numbers

the

the second

is 24; find

term

ratio is 3 is

7,the

last term

in G. P. is

If

Sp denote

the
of the series 1

448, and

of

sum

728,and
the

the

sum

38, and their product is

of the series l+rp + r2p+... ad

ad inf.,
rp + r2p
prove that

sum
"

and
inf.,

...

If the

Sp== ^*ij'2p'

rth terms
pth,qth,

of a G. P. be a,
a"-r6r-*c*-"=l.

The sum
of an infinite number
of terms
of their cubes is 192 ; find the series.

28.
sum

G. P. is 9 times

The continued
in G. P. is 216, and
product of three numbers
of the productof them in pairsis 156 ; find the numbers.

/Op +

27.
that

G. P. is 81, and

G. P. the first term

ratio.
common

The sum
find them.

sum

17.

In

25.

"

1-665,-1-11, -74,...

889 ; find the

the

I
-

64

The sum
of a G. P. whose common
22.
last term is 486 ; find the first term.

1728;

-45, -015, -0005,...

21. The
the series.

24.

15.

20. The sum

the first 3 terms

23.

2^ and

58.

Recurringdecimals furnish
Geometrical
Progressions.
Example.

Find

the value of "423.

"423 =-4232323
4
~

io

23

23
+

iooo

iooooo

~io+ IP+105+

b,c respectively,
prove
of

G. P. is

good illustration

4, and the

of infinite

44

find the

To

60.

each

in which

Denote

of the

terms

series

product of correspondingterms

in

an

series.
geometric

the

S=a+(a

is the

term

and

arithmetic

ofn

sum

(a+ d) r, (a+ 2d)r2,(a+ 3d)r3,

a,

.-.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

by

sum

S ; then

d)r+(a

rS=

(a+ d)r2+

ar

2d)r2+

(a+

...

n~^ld)r"-'
;

+(a+ n-2d)rn~l+(a+

-ld)rn.

By subtraction,
S(l

r)

dr2

(dr+

dr(\-rn~l)
=

"

-N
+

Cor.

dr(l-r"-1)
l-r+
(1-r)2

dr

if

make

r"l, we can
sufficiently
great.
obtain

rn

(a + n~^\d)r"

"

-z

7^

1-r

to this

(a + n~ld)r\
T^r
(l-r)*

r"

small

as

as

so

for the

r"

sum

to

In

series of this
summing to infinity
proceed as in the following
example.
1.

If

"1,

sum

Let

S
.-.

"

pleaseby taking n

we

l+

~l-x]
"

a-

to

l + 2a;+ 3a:s + 4as +

xS=

S(l-x)

We
infinity.
J

class it is

the series

l + 2ar + 3x2 + 4x3+

"

assuming that all the terms which

be neglected,
small that they may
we

(1 -r)
pointagain in Chap. XXI.

Example

'

T^r

In this case,

be made

can

'

dr"

l-r+ (l-ry~

involve

"

S in the form

Write
a

then

Id) r

'

"'"

"

,
(a

dr""1)(a+ n-lct)rn

2x* + 3x*+

x2 + x*+

infinity.
;

shall refer

usuallybest

to

GE0METK1CAL

Example

the series 1 +

Sum

2.

-,
o-

^
T

S==i+i+_+
"""

5*-

4
+

/3

to

terms.

Sn-2
+

_..

3n
+

53+

52

"

0"*

10
_+

"

Let

45

PROGRESSION.

3n-2

-57^-+
\

5,"

3n-2

3 A

1
f

3n- _2

57-"1" +5"-"j"~5"~
"

"

3
,

1 +

'""-i

'

1 +

1\

(1 5" J
"

3"-2
-

-5.-

12w + 7

~
~

35
"'*

5*

12/t+7
'

16

16

5"-1

EXAMPLES.

1.

Sum

1 4- 2a 4- 3a2 + 4a3 4-

2.

Sum

1+

3
-

4-

15

77.

to

c^rr.
zoo

64

3.

Sum

1 + 3.r + 5d'2+ 7o? + 9.z4+

4.

Sum

-,

5.

Sum

1+

4-

3
0

6.

Sum

terms.

4
+
-2
-3 +

"

...

to

infinity.

to

infinity.

2
1+

31
+

^,

lb

V. b.

-7

to

terms.

5
+

+
Q

...

to

infinity.

to
l + 3^ + 6lf24-10ji"34-...

infinity.

term of a G. P.,of which the first term

7. Prove that the (n+ l)th
and
the
third
is
term
a
b, equal to the (2"+l)thterm of a G. P. of
which the first term is a and the fifth term 6.

is

The sum
of 2n terms of a G. P. whose firstterm is a and common
ratio r is equalto the sum
of n of a G. P. whose first term is b and
of the first two
ratio r1. Prove that b is equal to the sum
common
of the firstseries.
terms

8.

46

HIGHER

9.

Find the

and

of the infinite series

sum

b+

(l+ b)r+ (l+

l+

ALGEBRA.

b + b2 +

+ {l+
b2)r2

b3)r3+...,

fractions.

beingproper

of three numbers in G. P. is 70 ; if the two

10. The sum
be multiplied
each by 4, and the mean
by 5, the productsare
find the numbers.

11. The first two terms of an

and every term is 3 times the sum
the series.
Sum

the

12.

.r+a, ,v2+ 2"x,.r3+ 3a.

13.

14.

"

series
following

infinite G. P. are
of all the terms

15.

3"

3
+

ha +

^2

33

3
+

34

to

..

35

to

+...

"

2
+

72

17.

If a,

73

74

76

to

terms.

mfinity-

"

.,

llifinity-

b,c, d be in G. P.,prove that

(b cf + (c a)2+ (d b)2 {a- d)2.
-

If the arithmetic mean

shew that a

Find

to

75

geometricmean,
19.

p+-- to

18.

it; find

terms.

2p

that follow

terms.

454545

16.

togetherequalto 5,

+ a? (a*3
(x + if)
+ x2 (x2+ y2)
+ if)+
+

extremes

in A. P. ;

the

sum

of

between a and b is twice

6
2 + ^/3 : 2-^3.

as

great as the

of the series the rth term

terms

of which

is

(2r-f-l)2'\
20. Find the sum
of 2n terms of a series of which every
the term
before it,and every odd term
a times
c times
before it,the first term beingunity.

is

21.
a, and

22.
whose

If

Sn denote the

of n terms
of a G. P. whose first term
sum
ratio r, find the sum
of SlfS3,/8'5,.../8r2B_1.

common

is

If Sv JS2,
of infinite geometricseries,
the sums
are
S3,...SP
first terms are 1,2, 3,..,j2,
ratios are
and whose common
2' 3' 4

prove that
23.

term
the term

even

If

Hence shew

'

'

'

^Ti

"\+ S2+ S3+

r

"

1 and

that nrn

respectively,
Sp=f(p+ 3).

shew that
and m is a positive
integer,
positive,
+
(2"i+ l)rwl(l-r)"l-r2wi1.
small when n is indefinitely
is indefinitely
great.

VI.

CHAPTER

ICAL

HARMON

THEOREMS

PROGRESSION.

DEFINITION.

Harmonical

quantitiesa, b, c

Three

Progression when

"

of quantitiesin
reciprocals
rithmetical Progression.

if ", b, c
By definition,

"

to

be
terms

Harmonical

in Harmonical

are

to

be

in

The

in A

said

said
of quantitiesare
Any number
consecutive
three
Progression when
every
Progression.

are

are

"

62.

WITH

PROGRESSIONS.

THE

61.

CONNECTED

in

Harmonical
are

in

monical
Har-

Progression

Progression,

~c^~b^~c'}
.'.

dividingevery

term

a(b

"

c)

(a b),
"

by abc,
1111
c

which

proves

the

a'

proposition.

chieflyinterestingbecause
:
of their importance in Geometry and
in the Theory of Sound
of
in Algebra the proposition
any
just proved is the only one
of
any
importance. There is no general formula for the sum
number
of quantities
in Harmonical
Progression. Questions in
H. P. are generally
solved by invertingthe terms, and making use
of the propertiesof the correspondingA. P.
63.

Harmonical

properties are

48

HIGHER

64.

To

Let

a,

then

-~

11

harmonic

find the
b

be

the

between two

7tiean

H
quantities,

two

givenquantities.

their

harmonic

mean;

in A. P. ;

are

ALGEBRA.

''11

a~b

IV

11

H~

a+

"'

2ab
,,

Example.

Insert

42na term

6 is the

Here

between

means

of

A. P. whose

an

the

first term

41d ; whence

Thus

7 and

is

; let d

be the

; then

difference

common

40 harmonic

arithmetic

means

are

41

---

-.

; and

therefore the har-

monic

means

are

3", 2\,...~.
*

If

65.

between

means

be

II

A, G"

and

the

b,

arithmetic,geometric,and
have

we

proved
b

~Y~

(!)"

Jab

(2).

H=^
a+b
_,

"

Therefore

Tr

All

"

2ab

"

a+b

that

is,G

From

is the
these

geometricmean
results

(3).
v
'
7

see

we

ab

~2

between

and

//.

that

G=-~-Jab

harmonic

,-z=

b-

2 Jab

g-^_

is

which

if a
positive

of any

mean

and

49

PROGRESSION.

HARMONICA!
b

positive;therefore

the arithmetic
is greater than their geometric
positive
quantities

two

are

mean.

from

Also
A

harmonic

we

that G

see

in
between any tioopositive
are
quantities

means

is intermediate

between A and 11; and it lias been proved that

G " II ; that is,the arithmetic,
and
geometric,

in value
therefore

G,

"

equation G*--A1I,

the

descending

ofmagnitude.

order

in the Progressions
afford scope
Miscellaneous
questions
the
often
solution
for skill and ingenuity,
being
neatlyeffected
specialartifice. The student will find the following
by some

66.

hints useful.
If the
of an
the terms
1.

the

3.
same
same

of

terms

[Art.38.]

before.

as

A.P.

an

be

or
multiplied

will form

terms
the resulting
quantity,

same

with

difference

If all the

2.
the

common

same

quantitybe added to, or subtracted from, all

terms will form an A. P. with
P., the resulting

same

new

by

P., but

divided by the
or
If all the terms of a G.P. be multiplied
will form
G.P. with the
terms
a
the resulting
quantity,
ratio as before. [Art.
common
51.]

b, c, d... are in G.P.,they are

since,by definition,

also in continued

If a,

4.

'

in
series of quantities
a
Conversely,
by x, aw, xr'2,
represented

Example

1.

If

a2, b2, c2 are

continued

in A. P., shew

that

proportionmay

b + c,

+ a,

+ b

in H. P.

By addingab
a* + ab +
that is

+ ac + bc to each

ac

bc, b2 +

term,

we

ba + bc + ac,

that

see

c'2+ ca + cb

ab

{a+ b)(a+ c),{b+ c)(b+ a),(c+ a) (c+ b)are

each term
.-.,dividing

b+

that is,
H. H. A.

are

in A.P.

in A. P.

by (a+ b)(b+ c)(c+ a),

-.

portion^
pro-

bed

be

A.

an

[Art.38.]

difference.

common

divided

b + c,

are

+ a,

A. P.

+ b
+ b are

in H. P

are

of

terms

and s the sum

difference,
If I the last term, d tlie common
A. P. be connected by the equation Sds={d + 2l)2,
prove that

2.

Example
of

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

50

an

given relation is

the

Since

8ad

by substitution,

n=

1 ; then

s.

{d + 2a)2,

(d-2ay- 0;
=

or

.-.

Example 3.
p

l=

of terms, put

number

for any

true

Hence

2a.

q, q

r,

2a.

"

of

sth terms
If the pth,qth,
rth,
in G. P.
are

"With the usual notation

a

are

in G.

(g-l)d_a+(r-l)d

^V(q^lJd-^T"^l)~d-aT(^l)d
.*.

each

P., shew that

have

we

(p-l)d_a

A. P.

an

LAlt-bb-

of these ratios

{a+ (q- 1)d]

{a + (p-l)d}-{a+(q-l)d\
_

{a + (q 1)d\
-

=p-q^q-r
r

q-r
Hence

q, q

r,

{a+ (r- 1)d)

\a + (r- 1)d}

{a+(r 1)d] {a+ {s 1)d\

"

the first n

terms

To

68.

is

'

are

in G.P.

find the

of the

sum

be denoted

sum

"=l2
We

n3

have

the firstn

of

squares

by
22

S ; then
3'

(n l)a
=

+n2.

3n2

3n+

1 ;

by changingn into n"l,

(n \y (n 2)3 3(" l)2 3(w 1)+
similarly (w 2)3 (71 3)3 3(w 2)2 3(n 2)+

and

as
sum

the

of

(n+1).

numbers.
the

"

often referred to
are
1, 2, 3,
67. The numbers
of
nth
the
series
is n, and the
term
natural numbers ; the

Let

(4)J'

33-23=3.32-3.3+l;
23-l3=3.22-3.2

l;

13-03=3.12-3.1

1.

1 ;
1 ;

natural

52

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

In

70.

be convenient
meet

results

the

to
referring

have

we

to introduce a notation which

with in Higher Mathematics.

just proved
student

the

it will

will frequently

shall denote

We

the

series
1

1* + 2* + 3* +
l3
where
which

Example

1.

is the

wth

...

+"8by 2n3;

2 + 2

3 + 3

4 +

the

sum

2m2

of all terms

sum

.to

of

terms.

by writing down
consistingof

and

shall have two columns,

we
the other of their squares.

.".

generaltype.

term=ra(n+l)=n2+";

similar form
numbers, and

by %n*

+na

the
signifies

term

2,n ;

by

+ n

the series

Sum

1
The

23 + 33+...

placedbefore

that term

one

each
in a
term
the first n natural

+ 2?i

_w(m+1) (2m+ 1)

n(n
T'

n(n+l) j2n+l

l)

2
)

n(n + l)(n+2)
3

Example
Let the

2.
sum

Sum

to

be denoted
S

S ; then

by

2"

8m2(m+ 1)2
+

"

2
=

2"

2'l-l

(m+1)(2m + 1)

4~

1 +"
+

6m

~~

(m+ 1){2m (m + 1) (2m + 1)}

-

n(n + l)(2n2-l).

EXAMPLES.
Find

is 2'1_1+ 8m3

2 2"-1 + 82"i3-62n2

1.

Mth term

the series whose

terms

the fourth term

VI.

in each of the

a.

series :
following

(1) 2, 2J, 3i,...

(2) 2, 21, 3,...
(3) 2, 2f, 3i,...
2.

Insert two

3.

Insert four harmonic

harmonic

means

between

5 and

11.

2
means

between

and

"

1"3

6m2.

EXAMPLES

OX

THE

If 12 and 9:l are the geometric and

between two numbers, find them.

4.

If the harmonic

5.

as

means

53

riiOGltESSlOXS.

harmonic

between
two
that
12 to 13, prove
the

quantitiesis

mean

ively,
respect-

means,

to their geometric

are
quantities

in the

ratio

of 4 to 9.
If a,

6.

b,c be in H. P.,shew
: a

If the iiilh
term

7.

equal to

of

a +

: a

H. P. be

that the

m, prove

"

that
c.

"

equal to

(m + n)thterm

n, and

the ulh term

m

is equalto

If the

8.

rth terms of a H. P. be a, b,c respectively,

pth,"7th,
prove
("j r)be + (r p) ca + (p-q) ub 0.
=

"

If b is the harmonic

9.

+ n

that

be

between

mean

1
o

of

"

c, prove

that

111
+

j-

and

"

Find

the

10.

3n*-n.

11.

ns+^n.

12.

"("+2).

13.

"2(2"+3).

14.

3" -2".

15.

sum

of the series whose

terms

nth term

is

+ 2;i2)-4/i:J.
(4'l

in

If the (m+iy\ (?^+l)th,

of an A. P. are
terms
and (r+ l)th
and
in
the
ratio
of the common
H.
shew
that
P.,
P.,
on, ny r are
16.

( i.

difference to the first term

in the A. P. is

"

in G.
If I,m, n are three numbers
of an A. P. whose "th,
mth,and ?ithterms are
difference as m-\-\ to 1.

17.

18.
and

term

19.

If the sum
the nature
Find

the

of n terms of
of the series.
of

sum

P.,prove that the

series be

+ bu +

common

find the
cri2,

nth term

of the series whose

terms

first term

in H. P. is to the

nth

is

4?i(?i2+l)-(6"i2-fl).
If between

20.

two

means
Au A0;
H1, 7/2;shew that

there be inserted two arithmetic

quantities
geometricmeans
Gly G2; and two harmonic means
: II1H.2 Al + A2 : I^ + IL,.
6^0',,

any

two

If p be the firstof n arithmetic means

between
the
first of n harmonic
means
q

21.
and

prove

that the value of q cannot

lie between

between
the same

p and

Find the sum

22.
of the cubes of the terms of
that it is exactlydivisible by the sum
of the term-.

numbers,

two

numbers,

J p.

"

an

two

A.

P.,and

shew

54)

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Piles

pyramid

on

square

Shells.

and

of

number

the

find

To

71.

Shot

of

shot

arranged in

complete

base.

that each side of the base contains n shot ; then the

of shot in the lowest layeris n2 \ in the next it is (n"l)2;
next
(n-2)2; and so on, up to a singleshot at the

Suppose
number
the

in

top.
.-.

S^n2

(n-l)2+ (n-2)2+...+

n(n+l)(2n

l)

To

72.

the

pyramid

of shot arranged in a
find the number
base of which is an equilateral
triangle.

each side of the base contains

of shot in the lowest layeris

Suppose that
number

xi

that

(n 1)+ (n 2)+
n(n

"

is,

"

V"

complete

shot ; then

the

1 j

1)

or

[n

n)

"

"

In this result write n

of shot in the
the number

"

1,"
2,
2nd, 3rd,
"

for n, and

thus obtain

we

layers.

S=i($n* + 2,n)
M"(n+l)("+ 2)

.-.

To

73.

pyramid
Let

find

the base

the number

of which

is

of shot arranged in
rectangle.

and

be the number
n
of
the
base.
respectively
m

The
m

"

and

top layer consists of

n+1

so

[Art7a]

of shot in the

longand

singlerow

of

complete

"

short side

(n l), or

shot ;

on

in the next

layerthe

number

is 2

(in

2);

in the next

layerthe

number

is 3

(in

3);

layerthe

number

is

(m

n).

"

"

in the lowest

"

"

PILES

S=

.-.

(m -01

OF

1)+ *2(m-n

n)(1+ 2 + 3 +
(wi n)n (n+ 1 ) w
+
(m

SHOT

...

AND

2)+ 3(w-w + 3)+

+ n)+ (l2+ 22 + 3s +
(n+ 1)(2n+1)
+

n(n

55

SHELLS.

+n(rn-n

...

...

n)

n2)

1){3(m-n)
2n+l}

_n(n + l)(3m-

1)

n+

=
'

74.

find the number

2"yramidthe base of which is
Let

To

and

b denote

of

arrangedin

of shot in the two

of shot is ab ;

in the next

layerthe

number

is

(a+ 1)(6+ 1);

in the

layerthe

number

is

(a+ 2)(b+ 2)\

and

so

on

in the lowest

layerthe
ab

or

.-.

abn

abn

is

("+

--

1)(b+

In

1)

"

(a + b)(n-l)+ ()i-l)2.

number

(a+ 6)% (n- 1)+ % (n- Vf

("-l)w(a

(n-l)n(2 .n-l

6)
+

|{6ab

(a+ b)(n 1)+ (w 1)(2m 1)}.

-

examplesit

numerical

1)

75.

sides of the

layers.

top layerthe number

next

incomplete

an

rectangle.

the number

the number
n
top layer,
In the

shot

of

is

easier
generally

to

use

the

method.
following

Example. Find
courses, having 12

of shot in
side of the

incomplete square
top.
an

and

we

number

of shot in the

complete pile
=

^
11

also number
.*.

number

of shot

in the added

of shot in the

pile=

pile=6424.
incomplete

12
"

pile of 16

shot in each side of

placeon the given pilea square pilehaving 11

base,we obtain a complete square pileof 27 courses;

If
the

the number
shot in each

")'.)30
;

506;

23

[Art.7 1 .]

56

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

VI. b.

EXAMPLES.
the number

Find

1.

square

2.

having 18 shot in each side of the base.

triangular
pile,
taining
rectangularpile,the lengthand the breadth of the base conand 28 shot respectively.
a side of the base having 25 shot,
pile,
incompletetriangular

3.

50

An

4.
and

of shot in

pile,having

side of the

pileof

there

number

of shot in
34 shot in the breadth

The

are

in each

side of the base.

top 14.

5. An incompletesquare
side of the base.
6.

15 shot

27 courses,

having 40

shot in each

complete rectangularpileis
of the

base, how

are

many

24395

; if

there in its

length?
and

number

The

7.

of shot in the
layeris 1089 ; how

in the lowest
Find

8.

15 courses,

of shot

shot in the

having 20

Find

9.

number

the

number

the

top layer of

a
pileis 169,
square
shot does the pilecontain ?

many
in

complete rectangularpileof

longerside

of shot

in

of its base.

incomplete rectangularpile,
course
being 11 and 18,
course
being 30.

an

of shot in the sides of its upper

the number
and the number
in the shorter side of its lowest
is the number

What

10.

and

pilehaving 15
its upper

in the

requiredto complete a rectangular

of
longerand shorter side,respectively,

course?
The

11.

number

being the same;

pile.
Find

12.

when

in the lowest

the

number

the

number

of shot

in

incomplete square

an

of shot in the upper

is 1005

course

pileof

16

less than

course.

Shew

13.
number

of shot in

a triangular
pileis greater by 150 than
of shot in a square pile,
the number
of layersin each
find the number
of shot in the lowest layerof the triangular

half the number

courses

6 shot

of shot

that the number

of shot in

of shot in a square pileis one-fourth

of courses.
triangular
pileof double the number

the

If the number

14.

of shot in a triangularpileis to the number

of
double
of
find
the
number
of
175
13
to
a square
courses
as
pile
;
the number
of shot in each pile.
shot in

The

15.

value

value

of

lowest

layer.

iron

be

16.

If from

the same
will be

number

number

of
10s.

triangularpileof

6d. per

cwt., find the

complete square pileof

of

courses

be formed

sufficient to form
of shot in its side.

just

16

another-

lb. shot
number

is ,"51 ; if the
of shot in the

triangular
pileof
shew that the remaining shot
triangularpile,and find the
n

courses

CHAPTER

SCALES

The

76.

VII.

OF

NOTATION.

ordinarynumbers with which we are acquaintedin

of multiples
of powers of 10;
are
expressedby means

Arithmetic
for instance

25-2
4705
This method

of

10

103

digithigherthan

no.

in

scale whose

2453

number

in the

radix

is

5.

is called the

common

system of notation

or

of the
are

the

occur.

can

we

is denoted

4?,2+ hr

rn

+ a
,rn~1

+ a

the coefficients a

which

any

one

or

0 to

"

a2,...aj then

,,...",. are

digitsare

by r the above
if in
generally,

digits,beginning with

the

a/2

the

number

be
in

so

a,r + a,

integers,all less than

after the first may

more

in this scale the

rangingfrom

y~~

More

3.

denote

place,by att, a,,

represented
by

where

77. The

units'

will be

Hence

this

radix

for 2r3

stands

the scale whose

formed

other than ten may be taken as

any number
scale of notation ; thus if 7 is the radix,a number
2453
represents 2x73 + 4x7" + 5x7 + 3; and in

expressedby
Again

10

manner

the radix of
this scale

is said to be the radix

ten

The

In like

102

symbolsemployed in
and zero.
digits

scale.

that

numbers
representing

denary scale of notation, and

nine

5;

r,

of

zero.

number, their values

1
.

Binary,Ternary,Quaternary,Quinary,Senary,
Septenary,
Octenary,Nonary, Denary, Undenarv, and Duodenary
used
to
denote the scales corresponding
to the values fae",
are
names

twelve
three,...

of the radix.

58

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

undenary,duodenary, scales we shall requiresymbols

which are greaterthan nine. It is unusual
to representthe digits
to consider any scale higherthan that with radix twelve ; when
to denote
necessary we shall employ the symbols t, e, T as digits
In

'

ten

the

'

', eleven
'

and

'

twelve '.

notice that in every scale 10 is the

ten ',but for the radix itself.

especially
worthy of

It is

symbol not

for

'

of Arithmetic
ordinaryoperations
may be performed
that the successive powers of
in any scale ; but, bearingin mind
the carrying
the radix are no longerpowers of ten, in determining
not divide by ten, but by the radix of the scale
must
we
figures
in question.
78.

The

Example
multiply the

eightsubtract

1. In the scale of
difference by 27.

371532

from

530225, and

136473

530225
371532

27
1226235

136473

275166
4200115

Explanation. After the first figureof the subtraction,since we cannot

take 3 from 2 we add 8 ; thus we have to take 3 from ten, which leaves 7 ; then
6 from ten, which leaves 4 ; then 2 from eightwhich leaves 6 ; and so on.
have

by 7, we
Again,in multiplying
3x7
we

therefore put down

5 and

Next

7x7

put down
In the

+ 2

therefore put

down

1 and

on,

2x8

5;

6x8

3;

is completed.
multiplication

until the

nine

lx8

l;

carry 1.

2 + 6 + l

and

6+ l + l
so

addition,

Similarly
and

fiftyone

so

3 + 6
we

one

carry 2.

carry 6 ; and

3 and

twenty

nine=l

eight
=

8 +

1;

0;

lx8

on.

Example

Divide

2.

15et20

by

9 in the scale of twelve.

9)15"?"20
lee96...G.
Since 15

Explanation.
we

put down
Also 8

we

1 and
T +

T + 5

seventeen

1 x9 + 8,

carry 8.
one

therefore put down

hundred
e

and

seven

and carry 8; and

so

e x
on.

9+ 8 ;

60
N

Divide

by

r"

if the next
so

on,

rn 2+

until there is

successive

Example

requireddigits
a0,
divisions by the radix of
Express

1.

the

denary

is ai ;

quotient.

all the

Thus

al.

a2 ;

further

no

quotientis

the

remainder

r, the

quotientis divided by
quotient

+a0r

...

71"1

If this

is a0, and

the remainder

r, then
a

and

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

determined
ax, ag1...anare
the proposedscale.

number

5213

in the scale of

by

seven.

7)5213

7)7447

7)106.

7)15.

5213

Thus
and

+ 2x7

5;

requiredis 21125.

the number

Example

+ lx7-

2x74+lx73

Transform

2.

21125

from

scale

seven

to scale eleven.

e)21125

e)1244T
~e)Gl3.
.-.

the

requirednumber

Next

dividingby
+ 1

4x7

therefore

we

Example

put
3.

Reduce

we

put down
=

1 and

lx"? + 4;
carry 4.

+ 7 ;

carry 7 ; and

so

on.

7215 from scale twelve to scale ten

result by working in the scale twelve.

7215

2x7+l=fifteen

2 and

verifythe

In scale
of ten

twenty nine

down

scale ten, and

is 3t0t.

21
on

In the first line of work

Explanation.
therefore

JL2

")874.

80

t)t^.

12

t)10.

.4

1.

in

f)7215

1033

by working

.2

In scale
of twelve

12

1 12401
Thus

the result is 12401

in each

case.

7 x 123+ 2 x 122+ 1 x 12 + 5 in
Explanation. 7215 in scale twelve means
The calculation is most readilyeffected by writingthis expression
scale ten.
in the form
[{(7x 12 + 2)} x 12 + 1] x 12 + 5 ; thus we multiply7 by 12, and
add 2 to the product; then we multiply 86 by 12 and add 1 to the product;
then 1033 by 12 and add 5 to the product.

SCALES

Hitherto

80.

have

we

also be

fractions may

OF

f"l

NOTATION.

discussed

only

whole numbers; but

scale of notation ; thus

expressedin any

2
"25 in scale ten

denotes

5
+

"

"

2
"25 in scale six denotes

5
+

-=

G
5

denotes

"

expressedin

thus

fractions

ordinarydecimal
scale

The

that

analogous to
of such

generaltype

the

of

point

fractions in

or

form

is

where

called radix-fractions,and

are

is called the radix-point.

"

Fractions

"25 in scale

10*'

10

b2,6a,
...

more

be

may

are

Let F

all
integers,

r, of which

less than

any

one

zero.

To express

81.

"

be the

given radix fractionin

and
given fraction,

proposedscale.

any

the radix of the

proposed

scale.
Let

be the requireddigits
b0, b3,...
beginningfrom

b
,

the

left ; then

FJ-X+bA+b^3+
r

We

have

now

Multiplyboth

to find the values of

sides of the
rF=b+-2

Hence

blis equalto

the fractional

the

part by Fx, we

6p b2,63,

equationby
+

h-l+

integral
part of

; then

;
rF

and, if

we

denote

have

H-i.+J+
Multiplyagain by r\ then,as before,b is the integralpart
of rFx; and similarly
by r, each of
by successive multiplications
the digits
be found,and the fraction expressedin the pro
may
posed scale.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

62

products is

by
multiplications

successive

the

in

If

terminates

integerthe process

an

of the
any one
at this stage,and

expressedby a finite number of digits.

But"if
of the productsis an integerthe process will never
none
radixterminate, and in this case the digitsrecur, forming a
decimal.
fraction analogousto a recurring
the

given fraction

be

can

13

Example

Express -^

1.

as

radix fraction in scale six.

7.

13x3

13
ft

4 +

16x6=-8-

7x3

Kj.1

lx3

I..1

8'

^x6

3.

the

requiredfraction

2.

We

treat the

must

Qi

"4513.

16064-24 from

Transform

Example

13

4
.-.

and
integral

scale eightto scale five.

the fractional parts separately,

'24

5)16064

0
5)2644...

1*44

4
5)440...
..3
5)71.
2
5)13...

J"_
2-64

"_

2...1

4-04

5_
0-24
After

digitsin

this the

the

required

is 212340-1240.

number

In

82.

remainder
Let

with

scale

any

of
of the digits
same

hence

fractional part recur;

the

denote

divided

number

whole

any
as

of notation of which
divided

the whole number

the

number, a0,

that in the units'

the radix is r, the sum

1 will leave the
by r
-

by

alt a2,

S the

place,and

1.

"

an the

digits
beginning
digits;

of the

sum

then
N

aQ

S=a0

r.tf-S=a1(r-l)

+
a2r2

axr +

ax+a2+
+

+
+

a2(r"--l)+

+ arn
a"_/,~1

an_l + an
+

""_, (i*-

1)+

",

(f

1).

SCALES

Now

every

term

OF

the

on

NOTATION.

righthand

03

side is divisibleby

"

"

iV-S
*

=-

that

-=/

is,
r

/ is

when;

Hence

83.
a

sum

of its

on

is divisible
digits

By taking ?-=10

that

number
"

nines

the

this

divided

by

Let

two

be thus

numbers

be

productby P;

then

Hence

of

has the

"

the

remainder

?"

1 when

"

the

from
the

above

the

proposition

remainder

same

rule known

the

as

"

castingout
is founded
multiplication

of

as

explained:
representedby

as

from

%c

9ad

remainder

same

not

da

b and

9c

-f

the

of the

sums

d, and

bd.

and
-^ ;

as

be the case, the

performed.
incorrectly

found

by

1.

"

must
multiplication

practiceb and
digitsof the two

In

the

therefore

divided
by 9, gives the
digitsof /*,when
divided by
of
the
when
the sum
of
digits bd,

trial this should

been

will be divisible

9 will leave

by

tlie proposition.

proves

learn

we

P^Slac

on

'

y;

property.
rule may

s?nn

digitsdivided by 9. The
for testingthe accuracy

The

their

in scale

number

which

integer
j

some

of its

sum

integer
6

an

"

r-

are

numbers

same

9.

If

have

readily
to

be

together.
multiplied
Can

Example.
The

sums

of the

the product of 31256

digitsof

the

have

two

of the

sums
=

If N denote any number in

between
the difference,
supposedpositive,
D
odd and the even
places;then N
"

1.

digitsof

24, which

84.

r+

these three numbers

of the
has 6 for the sum
differentremainders,6 and 7, and the multiplication
=

we

8127 be 263395312

and productare 17,

multiplier,
multiplicand,

again, the
21, and 31 respectively;
M
8x3
whence
and
are
3,
7,
8,
digits;thus
is incorrect.

and

the scale
the
or

sums

of'r,and D denote
of the digit*in the
D
is a multiple,
of

64

an
a0, "!, a ,
in the units' place;then
JV=

Ar-a0 +

and

aA-a2
last term

the

accordingas
divisible by r

a,r

r2

is odd

I ; hence

the

by

is

="

rightis

"

"^D)

integer;

an

in the
digits
D
odd places,

of the

sum

the

in
digits

1. Prove that 4 "41 is

radix is greater than 4.

Let

the

mteo-er.

an

a} +fl2~ CC3+

Example
whose

'-

on

placesis equalto

even
=

0, and

is divisible

1.

r".

proposition.

If the
of the

sum

term

.'.

Cor.

that

aw(r"+l)or an(rn" 1)

every

a0~

the

,r"-1+

be

Thus

even.

or

proves

right will

the

on

which

ar*

digitsbeginningwith

...="*,(r+1) + "2 (r2-1)+ a3 (r3+1)+ ...;

a3-

NOW

the

denote

Let

.-.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

number

square

in any

scale of notation

be the radix ; then

4-41

4 +

given number

Example

2.

is the square

In what

i=(2 -Y;

thus the

rz

rj

of 2*1.

scale is the

denary number

2-4375 representedby

213?
Let

be the scale ; then

13

2+

whence

that

(7r+12)(/--4)
=

0 ;
0.

the radix is 4.

Sometimes

Example

by

r-

7r2- 16r-48

"

is,

Hence

2=2-4375=2-^;
16

101215

3.

it is best to
In

what

use

the

scale will the

method.
following
nonary

number

25607 be expressed

The required scale must

be less than 9, since the new
number
appears
the greater ; also it must
be greater than 5 ; therefore the requiredscale
be 6, 7, or 8; and by trial we find that it is 7.
must

SCALES

OF

65

NOTATION.

By working in the duodenary scale,find the

solid
whose volume
is 364 cub. ft. 1048 cub. in.,
and
rectangular
8
whose base is 46 sq. ft. sq. in.
Example 4.

volume

The

is

364-^i?cub. ft.,which

in
expressed

height of
the

area

of

the scale of twelve is

264-734 cub. ft.

The

area

is

46^

sq.

which expressedin the scale of twelve is 3"-08.

ft.,

have therefore to divide 264*734

We

by St-OS in
3*08)26473-4(7-e

the scale of twelve.

22*48
36274
36274
Thus

the

heightis 7ft. lliu.

EXAMPLES.

Express4954
2. Express624
3. Express206

VII. b.

in the scale of

1.

seven.

in the scale of five.

in the

binaryscale.

in the scale of three.

4.

Express1458

5.

Express5381 in

6.

Transform

7.

Expressthe duodenarynumber

8.

Transform

in powers of 10.
6"12 from scale twelve to scale eleven.

9.

Transform

213014

10.

Transform

23861

11.

Transform

400803

12.

Express the septenarynumber

13.

Transform

14.

Express

15.

Transform

17 "15625

16.

Transform

200 "211 from

17.

Transform

71*03 from

18.

Expressthe septenaryfraction

of nine.

powers

212231

from

soale four to scale five.

from
from

398e

the senary to the nonary

scale nine to scale

from the nonary

ttteee from

to the

scale.

eight.

quinaryscale.
in powers

20665152

scale twelve to the

of 12.
scale.

common

3
"

as

radix fraction in the

from

septenaryscale.

scale ten to scale twelve.

the

the

ternaryto the nonary

duodenaryto

the

scale.

octenaryscale.

1552
"

"

as

denaryvulgarfraction

in its lowest terms.

19.

Find

20.

In what

scale is the

denarynumber

21.

In what

scale is the

denary fraction

the value of *4 and of '42 in the scale of

seven.

182 denoted

by 222?

25

H. H. A.

-"

denoted

by

-0302?

66

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the radix

Find

22.

of the scale in which

554

representsthe square

of 24.
In what

23.

denoted

scale is 511197

by

1746335

the radix of the scale in which the numbers

479, 698, 907 are in arithmetical progression.
Find

24.

In what
?
progression
25.

scale

are

the radix-fractions

that 148'84 is a
radix is greaterthan eight.
Shew

27.

perfectsquare

by

*16,"20,'28 in geometric

is in the scale of

212542
The number
26.
17486?
denoted
be
by

denoted

six; in what

scale will it

in every scale in which

the

is a perfect
Shew that 1234321
square in any scale whose radix
is always expressedby the
the
and
that
root
4
than
is greater
square
;
four digits.
same

28.

Prove that 1-331 is

three.
than
greater

29.

weigh

which

Find

30.

of the

perfectcube

in any

scale whose

lbs. must
weights1, 2, 4, 8, 16,...

radix

is

be used to

ton.

one

be used
of the weights1, 3, 9, 27, 81,...lbs. must
which
of each kind beingused
than one
not more
to weigh ten thousand
lbs.,
but in either scale that is necessary.
Find

31.

that 1367631
radix is greaterthan seven.
Shew

32.

is

perfectcube

in every scale in which

the

will be divisible by
Prove that in the ordinaryscale a number
formed by its last three digits
is divisible by eight.
8 if the number

33.

Prove

34.
s are

that the square of rrrr in the scale of

three consecutive integers.

is rm^OOOl,where

any
q, r,
number
N'
N be taken in the scale ?*,and a new
If any number
35.
t
he
order
in
shew
that
the
of its digits
be formed by altering
any way,
N and N' is divisible by r
1.
difference between
"

If

36.
divisible

of digits,
shew that it is
number
has an even
number
if the digits
from each end are the same.
r+1
equidistant

by

of the
37. If in the ordinaryscale St be the sum
the
number
the
of
and
be
the
of
sum
digits
JV,
3#2
is a multipleof 3.
difference between
aS^and "S'2

of
digits

3iV,prove

number
that the

Shew
down
writing

that in the ordinary scale any

number
formed
by
three digitsand then repeating
them in the same
order
multipleof 7,11,and 13.

38.

is

In a scale whose
radix is odd, shew
that
of
number
will
be
odd
if
the
number
be
digits any
be even.
the number
39.

the

odd, and

be odd, and a number

in the denary scale be
n
down
and
then repeatingthem
n
in the same
by writing
digits
shew that it will be divisible by the number
formed
by the
and also by 9090... 9091 containing
\ digits.
n40.

of the
if
even

sum

If

formed
n

order,
digits,

68

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

will rationalise any

find the factorwhich

To

86.

mial
givenbino-

surd.

Supposethe givensurd

Case

I.

Let

ZJa

xn and

x,

Now

xn

y"

Let x, y,
If

(1)

xn

is even,

yn

productis x"

the rational

If

(2)

xn

Thus

is

yn

odd, x"

productis x"

xyn~2+ yn~').

-xyn-2+ y"-1;
yn.
will rationalise ^/S+

^/5.

Let

is

the factor which

Find

1.

Example

y""1).

y, and

the rational

ay"-'-3r1;

y" is divisible by

xn~1-xn~2y+
and

xf~*

yn.

factor
rationalising

the

y, and

is
+

"

(x+ y) (xn~x xnSj +

fjb.

url-ary +
and

is pJa

(x+ y) (xn~l xn~2y+

y"~l;

meanings as before;then

factor
rationalising

the

Thus

y" is divisible by

"

y""1).

y'\

"

same

xn

is

xn~2y+ xn~y

the

have

32,y

55 ;

xe

then xb and
-

and

3223

32

32-9.

53+ 32

53

13

14
-

32

32.

6
-

5s"
33
=

53,

14

55+ 32~.53-15
32

53+ 32 53

productis

is

requiredfactor

y, the

541

"

32

and the rational

and
y6 are both rational,

y6 (x+ y) (x5 x*y+ xhj2 xhj3+ xyi y5);

for
thus,substituting

or

q ; then

y for all values of n, and

Supposethe givensurd

II.

Case

productis xn

the rational

of p and

l.c.m.

(x-y) {xn~'+xn~2y+ xnSf

.X'""1
+
and

be the

factor
rationalising

the

"]a $b.

rational.

yn is divisible by

"

arThus

both

yn are

let

y, and

?Jb

is

52 =

2.

53-55;

AND

SURDS

as

69

equivalentfraction with

an

QUANTITIES.

("+") \55-9s)

Express

2.

Example

IMAGINARY

rational denominator.

To
34

rationalise the denominator, which

y ; then

since

x4

-yA

requiredfactor is

5- + 52

the rational denominator

+Vl
the

.".

i\

V 55+

expression

12

x,

\"
i

'-

"

3
.

3-*= 52

3V

+ 52

12

3^+

'

22.

5-

3\

3~4
+ 3 V'

"

"

52.3j

52 + 2

-3*, put 52

3-*
+ 5] 3*+ 3~4
;

is 52

/
"

to 5"

and

equal

[x y) (x*+ xhj+ xy2+ if')

the

is

13

5,J.34"+2.55.3j
+ 3t

+ 2.

22
3

_ll + o2.

113

3j+ 5.32+52.3j
11

in the ElementaryAlgebra,Art. 277,

have
shewn
We
to find the square root of a binomial
quadraticsurd. We
sometimes
extract the square root of an expressioncontaining

87.
how

may

than

more

Ja + Jb + Jc + Jd

Assume
.'. a

Jb

If then

a,

.'.

And
root is

the square

4^5

it follows that

Jz j

Jxz +

Jxy +

V3

xyz

2-^/5.

8JS,

y +

2jxl

,Jx 2j3, Jy
=

Jd.

Jyz.

found

thus

x, y,

satisfy

requiredroot.

4^/5+ 8^/3 4^/15.

slx+ Jy
+ 2

slz\

Jxy- 2 Jxz

4J15,

240 ; that is

the

V15
+

4-

of 21

root

since these values

+

obtained

8^/3 4J15
=

2^3

Jy

shall have

we

time, the values of

same

by multiplication,
whence

2jxy

Put

Jc

Jxy Jb,2 Jxz Jc, 2 Jyz Jd,

21

Jb

V21 V5

Assume

Jc + Jd

Find

Example.

Jx

as

if,at the

and

surds,such
quadratic

two

2jyz
=

Jyz.

"Jo\

Jxyz=4s/lo
;
2, "Jz s/5.
=

satisfythe equation x

y +

21, the required

70

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If J a,

88.

Jh

Jb=x3

Equatingrational
a

that

3xy, Jb

Jb

.'. a-

x3

is,

Ja

Jb

where

89.

is any

of the form

"

Jb

Ja- Jb

in the last

Jy

Jy.
Theorem, Chap. XIII.

Jb

x-

Jy,

that

root of

the cube

an

expression

be found.

x-

Jy

Jy.
(1).

(2).

3xy

to be determined

y have

and

(1)suppose

x3

J a2

(1)and (2).

for
by substituting

then

b=c;

"

from

y in

obtain
a

that

have

article,

(2)we

Jy.

Jtf^b=x2-y

.-.

In

the Binomial

Ja + Jb

values of

Jy,

"

3xy -y Jy;

x"

sometimes

may

then

The

Jy

Jy

method
following

Suppose

Again,as

integer.
positive

the

By

3x2

parts,we

Jy, then J a

^/y+ 3xy +

3x2

by the helpof
Similarly,
it may be provedthat if

Ja + Jb

3x2

irrational

and

x3

Jh

"

obtain

For, by cubing,we
ci +

ivillJ a,

Jy, then

x3

kx3

is,
If from

"

3x

(x2 c);

3cx

"

"

equationthe

value

the value of y is obtained

trial,

from

Note.
extraction
have

this

a.

of
y

x2

be determined

can
"

by

c.

We
do not here assume
sjx+ sly for the cube root, as in the
of the square root; for with this assumption,on cubing we should
a

Jb

xjx + Sxjy + Syjx + yjyy

righthand side is irrationalwe

and since every term on the

rational and irrational parts.

cannot

equate

Example.

Find the cube root of 72

^72 + 32s/5

^5184
"

is,
72

Again

32^/5
=

(1)and (2)

90.

3.t//

x3 +

72

x:i+ Sx (x-

Example.

S; hence

Find

o,

whose

the cube root of

the

requiredcube

We

add

few

cube

root

root is

we

are

find that

/- J

v/3+v/2.

91.

the cube

9N/3+ llv/2.

=*J3 ( 1

root

and

proceedas follows.

By proceedingas in the last article,we

.-.

4);

18.

y^'y;

(2).
-

surds,we
quadratic

consists of two

(1).

+ Sxy
fkcPJy

binomial

the

When

.c3

ar}-3x
=

a;2 y ;

is,
x

x'--y

By trial,we find that

s/y.

72

whence
From

1024

^/y;

By multiplication

that

32x/5.

then

71

QUANTITIES.

sf72 -'62^5

Assume

that

IMAGINARY

AND

SUKDS

examplesin

harder

surds.
4

'Example1.

Express with rational denominator

4

The

expression

"

3fj
-

33 + 1

(J l)
+

l33 +

l)
l)(33-3ri
+

iM"i]-33
~d

3 + 1

+1"l
+

NV9-^3

3-^/5.
seekhi"

72

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example

Find the square root of

2.

l(x-l)
fj2x"i-7x-i.
+

The

expression
=

\{3x

J(2x+

l)(x-4)}

{x-") +

2jc2x+ l){x-")};

3 + 2

"{(2x
l)
+

the
hence,by inspection,

Example

Given

3.

root is

square

^5

2-23607, find the value

of

(5

J2
and

numerator
Multiplying

J7- 3J5'

denominator

by "J2,

^6-2^/5
2 + ^14-6^/5

the expression

n/5-1
+ 3-^/5

EXAMPLES.

Villa.

fractions
Express as equivalent

with rational denominator

1
i
L-

1+

2
A

V2-V3'

1-=.

3.

sfa+ s/b+ s/a+ b'

^10

Find

^5-^/3

fi

J2+J3-J5'

^^
*Ja-l-\/2a+ *Ja+
(j3 + x/5)(j5+ ^/2)

factor which will rationalise:

i

7.
10.

#3 -a/2.
N3/3-l.

8.
11.

^/5+ ^/2.
2 +

4/7.

9.
12.

06+6*.

4/5-^3.

AND

SUKDS

Express with

IMAGINARY

rational denominator:

*/3

16

v8

17

^4

the square

19.

16-2N/20-2v/28

21.

G +

23.

a+36+4+4^/a-4^6-2V3oS

24.

21+3

Find

the eube

25.

10+6

28.

38^14-100^2.

31.

N/3

2N/l3.-". 20.

22.

(5 Jl

JZ.

24+4^15-4^21-2^35.

v'24

5-x/10-N/15

N/56 +

N/21.

\J%ax+

17^5.

26.

38 +

29.

54^3

41^5.

27.

99-70^/2.

30.

135^3-87^6.

of

root

x2.

32.

2a

\/3a2

l + "2 +

35.

If

36.

If

Find

the value of

(l+a2
"

"j-

l+(l-"2)"2.

34.

-i"

"

find the value of 7"2 + 1 1 ab

find
jl'jly S/|z7^
=

the value of 3"t"2

"

/6 +

V26-15J3

41.

Given

10

N/3)2 (7+
-

(26+

the value

sfzf

15

of

'

N/8+ V3

x*+ 1 + 3# #2 by

43.

Find

44.

Evaluate

the cube

3^-

"_"

N/10+ N/18

N/18 a/3+V5
Divide

"2. 40.
v/.3)

s/b 2-23607,find
lOx/2

42.

5jy

lb'2.

2V3

(28

V33-19N/3-

5V2-V38T573'
39.

b'2.

a4)2.

2ab

33.

N/G.

of

root

the square
a

of

root

,/12-^24-,/8.

N/8

i"

Find

Find

73

QUANTITIES.

root

of 9a62

V^'2-1

x-s/x*-\

when
,

V5

1 + */2.

(b2+ 24a2)^6* -3a8.

2.r;=

Ja+

-i\'"

(26+ 15

N/3)

74

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Quantities.

Imaginary

Although from the rule of signsit is evident that a

negativequantitycannot have a real square rootletimaginary
represented
by symbolsof the form J- a, J- 1 are of
quantities
and
their
in mathematical
investigations,
frequentoccurrence
therefore proceedto explain
leads to valuable results. We
use
such roots are to be regarded.
in what sense
92.

we
can
no
quantityunder the radical signis negative,
arithmetical
a possible
longerconsider the symbol J as indicating
defined
be
as a symbol which
obeys
operation
; but justas J a may
shall define J" a to be such that
the relation J a x Ja
a, so we
shall accept the meaning to which this
J" a x J" a
a, and we
assumptionleads us.

When

the

It will be found

that

this definition will enable

bring
ordinaryalgebraical
us

to

of
under the dominion
imaginaryquantities
results
their
use
may be obtained which
rules,and that through
others which
as
be relied on with as much
certainty
depend
can
real
of
the use
quantities.
on
solely

93.

.-.

that

J -I

1.

Ja.J-l Ja. J-l^a^l);

x

(J a

is,

J- 1)2
=

productJ a J" 1
imaginaryquantityJ" a.

Thus
the

J-

By definition,

the

may

a.

to
regardedas equivalent

be

generallybe found convenient

imaginary character of an expressionby the
symbol J- 1 ; thus
94.

It will

JZjtf Jja2 ( 1)
=

95.

We

shall

to

indicate

the

of

the

presence

J7 J-T.

always consider that,in the absence of any

statement
to the contrary, of the signswhich
be prefixed
may
before a radical the positive
signis to be taken. But in the use
of imaginaryquantities
there is one
pointof importancewhich
deserves notice.

76

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

be equal it
imaginaryexpressions
may
and
that the real parts should be equal,
is necessary and sufficient
the imaginaryparts should be equal.

that

in order

Thus

sign of

the

differ
imaginaryexpressions
be
said
to
imaginary part they are

When

Definition.

100.

only in

two

the

two

conjugate.
Thus

"

1 is

"

Similarly^2
The

101.

to
conjugate

3^-1

the

and

sum

is

to J
conjugate

product of

expressions
For

J -\

a
(

(a+

Again

J-\

+a-b

J- 1)(a
The

Definition.

is

The

Let the two

J- 1)

1 and

"

product

ac

it may

denominator

a2 + b2.
of the square

"

the

of

conjugate
expressions
1.

imaginary expressions

by a+bj" 1

(ad + bc)J

and

c+dJ"\.

1, which

"

is

an

J(ac bd)2 (ad be)2

+

+ b*"f +
Jasc*

a*d* + bs(?

J (a2+ b2)(c2+ dr)

J a2 +

b2

Jc2+

d2 ;

proposition.

rationalised

by

bd

"

root

modulus

If the denominator
be

"

denoted

be
expressions

104.

(- b2)

of the product of two

the productof their moduli.

their

proves

a2-

of the

of each

imaginaryexpressionwhose

which

2a.

modulus

equalto

Then

1.

imayinary
conjugate

value
positive

b2 is called the modulus

103.

two

a2

J-

'2

both real.

are

102.

1.

"

the

by

of

fraction is of the form

multiplyingthe

conjugateexpressiona

"

numerator

"

1.

bj" 1,

and

the

SURDS

For

IMAGINARY

AND

77

QUANTITIES.

instance

dj- 1 (c dJ-\)(a-bJ-\ )
b J=l ~(a+ b J~i)(a-bJ-T)
+

c +
a

bd

ac

(ad be)J

"

bd

ac

"

72

ad

be

"

-i
"

b~

a'

b _"

by reference to Art. 97, we see that the sum, difference,

and quotient
is in each case
of two imaginaryexpressions
product,
the
an
same
imaginary expression
of
form.
Thus

To

105.

find the

Assume
where

and

real

are

By squaring, a

of a

root

square

V"

=x

"

1.

s/ 1,

"

quantities.

bj"\=x2-y2

2xy J

"

1;

therefore,
by equatingreal and imaginaryparts,

x2-y2

^!/

(1),
(2);

(x2+ y2)2 (x2 ff

.-.

."

xs

Ja2+

-*

b2 +

"

Thus
Since
the

the
x

and

root
required
y

are

sign must
positive

Also from (2)we

hence x and y must

negative.

real
be
see

have

if

(2xyY

2.2

b ;

J a2 +

6"

(3).

obtain

we
(1)and (3),

From

Ja2+ b2-a
.""=*" i
.

is obtained.

and therefore in (3)

x2 + y- is positive,
quantities,

before
prefixed

the

+ b-.
quantity*Ja2

have the same

that the productxy must
and unlike
like signsif b is positive,

sign as

signsif

b ;

is

78

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example

Find

1.

root of

the square

J-

Assume

21*/-l

7-

-7-24N/Tl

then

24

J-

1.

1 ;

+ 2^N/Tl;
-^2-2/2

*2-?/2=-7

"""

(1),

2a;?/ -24.

and

From

(1)and (2),x-

9 and

that

the roots

It remains

are

2.

To

"/

4 j

?/== "4.

-3

"

^/

3,

*J

+ 4

(3

?/=

4.

1 ;

J ~i).

64a4.

\/"*J

.".v/
+ v/-l
Similarly

or

247"TT=

find the value of

take

must

1 and

to find the value of

(2).

"3,

x=

3, y =

is,

Example

625;

we
product xy is negative,
x

Thus

?y2=16

.-.

Since the

49 + 576

2/2 25

.\ar

1.

V-l).
"-^(l
+

J J^l=

(1

"

^ ZI)

.".^"^^[="^(1=1=^31);
and

finally

^-64a4=

"

2a

(1"

^/^T).

SURDS

IMAGINARY

symbolJ

The

106.

AND

until the student

1 is often represented
by the letter i; but

"

had

has

littlepracticein the

will find it easier to retain the

he
quantities

useful to notice the successive powers

of

(7-1)^1,
and

by

since each

we
1, or ?',

"

We

107.

that

^1

is,
.

"

0, or x2

x3

1, or

1 ) (x2+

imaginary
"

1.

It is

i ; thus

or

the
by multiplying

x3

; then

(x

either

now

before it

certain

nary
imagi-

0 ;

1)^0.

x+
+

"

one

recur.

of
the properties
investigate
of
are
very frequentoccurrence.

now

which
quantities

Suppose

symbol J

"

that the results must

see

shall

of

use

i*=ij

is obtained

power

70

QUANTITIES.

0 ;

-W-3
whence

35=1,

It may
values when

be

or

=
.

by actual involution that each of

is equalto unity. Thus
unityhas three

shewn

cubed

these
cube

roots,

-1-733

-l+JZTs
"'

2
of which

two

Let
of the

us

are

denote

imaginary expressions.
these

by

and

since

then

they are

the roots

l =0.

productis equalto unity;

aft= 1 ;
aft a2 ;
ft a2,

that is,
.

that

ft;

equation
x2

their

~'

is,

it
other,

we
Similarly

108.

Since

may

shew

each

of

that

the

is usual to denote

since

a8

1.

ft2.
is thr, square
roots of unityby

imaginary roots

the three

cube

of thr
1, "d, ""~.

80
Also

equationx2 +

satisfies the

a)

is,the

that

Again,

109.

is useful

It

of

be not

1;

notice

1, to,

that

is

w3m

to"

unity;

successive

the

w2; for,if

and

; and

3m

It

KO

dm

he

positive

multipleof 3,

1.

"

be of the form

We

now

of which

of a7"x
are

are

3m

^9,

o"

root of

1.

^9,

are

aw2.

a, ao",

or

.w=to.

In

rule.

the cube
Similarly

^79is the

a"2^9, where

cube root found

future,unless

taken

otherwise

to denote

the

Reduce

4.

1 \2
_

to the form
,

A +

Bj

1.

N/-l

^4-9

expression

2 +

(-5

12^-1

v/:=~l

12N/Jl)(2-V^l)

(2+
-10

J-l)(2-J-T)

+ 12 + 29

J~l

4 + 1
2

is of the

Example 2.

29

/"

5+W-1;

requiredform.
Resolve

Since
.'.

x3 +

y3 into

three

factorsof the firstdegree.

x3 +

if (x+ y) (x2-xy

x*

y9 (x+ y) (x+ toy)(x+ ury);

w2=

-1, and w3

l.

y2)

roots,
those
roots

by the
stated,

arithmetical

a.

2 +

The

=w

every quantityhas three cube

imaginary. For the cube roots of a3 are

(9

Example

for

to.

that

see

symbol %jawill always be

cube

.to
3m

+2

w=w

therefore

1, and

=to
3m

"

+-,

ordinary arithmetical

which

3m

+ 1

o"

"

om

3m

+
.

110.

the

ofunityis zero.

multipleof 3, it must

-rt"

of 9

0;

2.

two

"

to

are

a"

be of the form
n

o"2

to

integral
powers
If

w2

to

0 ;

(1)the productof the two imaginary roots

of w3 is unity.
power
(2)every integral

therefore

it must

three cube roots

of the

sum

".

3m

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

SURDS

Example

Shew

3.

(a+ wb
In the

AND

IMAGINARY

productof

w26 +

the coefficientof be

(a+

.*.

and

ca

cob+

Shew

Example 4.

toe) a2 + b2 + c2
-

and

+ wb + arc

the coefficientsof Zr and c2 are

the coefficientsof

81

that

arc)(a+

QUANTITIES.

a"

or,

ca

ab.

+ orb + wc,

1 ;

or

w2 + o"4

o"2+ o"

or

arc){a+

60

1 ;

1 ;

urb +

o"

wc)
=

a2 + b2 + c2

be

ea

ab.

that

(l+ "-"")'-(l-M+U?)*=0.
Since

1 +

(1+

u-

+ o"2=

w2)3 (1
-

0, we

have

wa)3=( 2m2)3 ( 2o"):J

-

-8o"6 + 8a/{

-8 + 8

0.

VIII. b.

EXAMPLES.

1.

2 \/~~3
+ 3 V3^
Multiply

by

*J^3- 5 a/^2.

2.

3 V ^7
Multiply

by

V^+

3.

Multiplye^-1 +e'^~1by e^_1 -e -V-*.

A
4.

AT

IX'

Multiplya;

Expresswith

V^

l+V3^
5

rational denominator

0.

"

o.

"

3-V-2

V~l

3-2

2-5\/rl

2 +

+ V-l)a
(.f

.v-V-1

V^l

a/~2~
+ 2 *J~-h
3V-2-2V-5

(W-l)^
.r

12.

Find the square of

the value of

a-x"f-i

a-WisT-i a+a?V^-l"
ia

(a+

V-lja-Cft-V-l)^

+
3,when
( \/ l)4n

Find

V-l)a#
(a \/-l)2-("-

V-1

a+rV^l

5V:rl'

11.

H. H. A.

3
,

3+ 2

V^.

l-V^

by

Jd +

40

V"-T+ V9

is a
40

positive
integer.

V -?.
(j

82

HIGHER

Find

the

of

root

square

ISV^L

14.

-ll-COV17!".

17.

a2-l+2a^^l.

13.

-S

16.

-SV^l.

18.

"ab-2(a2-b2)*/^T.

in

Express

the

ALGEBRA.

form

ZU"

(^ + ^)2

O8

("-^)2

9"*

09

If

1,

"

g"2

co,

the

are

24.

(l+co2)4

26.

(1

27.

(2 +

28.

(l-co

29.

Prove
A3

three

cube

) (1

2co2)6 (2 +

5co +

co2)(l-co2

of

roots

CO4)(1

2co +

io

unity,

(l-co

co5)

prove

co2)(l+co-or)

4.

9.

25.

co-

ib

"

co.

co)(1

+yZ

729.

5a"2)6
=

co4)(l-co4 + co8)...to

2"i factors

22".

that
""

2#gZ

If

30.

(x+y+z)

x=a+bt

(# +
aw

"

Za"2)(x +y"o2

i/a" +

Z"co2,s="co2

az

Za).

if,

6co,

that

shew

31.
shew

1-T

2V3-i\/2'

8V-3.

zu

2-3r

-47

iB

iy*

15.

that

(1)

xyz=a3+b3.

(2)

^-2 +

(3)

a3+y3+s3=3(a3+"3)k

If

ax

(a2

?/2+ 52

bz

cy +
62

c2

6a6.

X,

be

ex

ca

by

I", Zu- +

ab) (x2 +y2

=

X2+Y2

ay

z2-yz+

Z2-

zx

gs

xy)
YZ-

XZ-

XY.

84

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

-b

Jb2

by

and

(1)
and

If

'

2a

If

"

reducing in this

to

case

"

77-

(3)
(4)

'

results :
following
is positive,
b2 Aac (thequantityunder the radical)
real and unequal.
Aac is zero, a and
b2
ft are real and equal,each

(3are

(2)

Aac

"

the

have

we

'
,

2a
then

Jb2

"b-

Aac

2a

If b2

Aac is negative,
a and

If b2

Aac is

"

any real values of

the

and

rational and

/3are

of

nature

without

the

of

roots

any

solvingthe equation.

equation2x2-6a;

the

that

Shew

Example 1.

ftare imaginaryand unequal.

perfectsquare,

unequal.
By applying these tests
quadratic
may be determined
by

denoted

(2)be

that

/3,so

roots in

Ill let the two

In Art.

113.

0 cannot

be

satisfied

x.

Here

2, b

6, c

7;

"

so

that

"2_4ac=(_6)2-4.2.7=-20.
the roots

Therefore

The

equation a?2+

If the

2.

Example

imaginary.

are

condition

for

(k+ 2)x

91c= 0 has

equal roots,find

l\

equal roots gives

+ 2)2 9",
(fc
fc2_5ft+ 4=0,
=

(fc-4)(fc-l)=0j
.-.

x2
are

A, or 1.

that the roots of the

Shew

3.

Example

2p3 +p2-q2

equation

2qr-

r2 =

rational.

will be rational provided (--2p)2 4 (p2 q2+ 2qr-r2) is a

reduces to 4 (q2-2qr+ r2),
or
But this expression
4:(q-r)2.
perfectsquare.
rational.
the roots are
Hence
The

roots

,
114.

we

have

D.
Since

by

Jb2
-

a=

Jb2

-b-

Aac
'

?=

2a

Aac
'

addition
-

Jb2
-

Aac -b-

Jb2
-

Aac

2a

__M_b
2a

0);
a

THEORY

THE

and

QUADRATIC

OF

85

EQUATIONS.

have
we
by multiplication

(- b

5
J"~r^) (_.
j,/r^-c)
_

4ac

(2).

~4a2

"

the equationin
By writing
2

the form

"

'

these results may

*

also be

expressedas follows.

of the firstterm
coefficient

**

"**"
qUadratiCe(luation

is

unity,
is

the roots

its

4**5d?

(ii)the product of

the roots is

*"%* """"
115.

the

equal t0

a; +

0 may

also be

the 8nta0"

(1).

0
the form

expressedin

quadraticmay

x2

x + product of
(sum of roots)

Again, from (1)we

contain

any
-

roots

(2).

have

(3).

(x-a)(x-p) Q
=

We

may

form
easily

now

Example 1. Form

an

equationwith given roots.

the equation whose

The equation is

the

roots

are

3 and

2.

""-*-

When

roots

(* 3)(*+ 2)=0,

or

metnou.

with

be written

x2-(a+ f])x+ ap
Hence

"

the third term.

not

"

and

__=a+"

equalto

""""**""

Since

equationar+

the coefficient of

are

6=0.

irrational it is easier

to

use

the

following
~"

86

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example 2.
We

equation whose roots

the

Form

have

of roots

sum

product of roots
"
.

the

equationis

By

the

(2)of

by using formula
116.

x-

the last article

can

we

^3.

1;

0,

presentarticle.

analogousto that used in Example 1 of

form an equationwith three or more
given

method

and

4,

Ax + 1

^3

2 +

are

roots.
7

Example 1.

Form

the

equationwhose

roots

2,

are

3, and

be satisfied

requiredequationmust

The

each

by

of the

followingsuppositions

#-2=0,
therefore the

+ 3

0,

"--

();

be

equationmust

(*-2)(*+3)(*-|)=0j
[x 2) (x+3) (5a;7)=0,

that is,

5a;3-2a;2 -37a;

or

Example 2.
The

Form

equation has

equationwhose

the

to be satisfied

42

0.

roots

0, "",

are

by
c

0,

a.

x=}

x=-a,

therefore it is
x

that

is,

(x-J-a)(x a) ( x
-

bx4

The

117.

ex3

generallysufficient
roots of quadratics.In
by

in terms

a~bx- +

results of Art.

singly,but

to

114

solve

the

should

If

and

/3are

a-cx

are

0.

most

problems
be

made

have

the roots of x--px

(2=p,
a

a(3 q.
=

.-.

a2 +

connected
roots

should

of the

with
never

the
be

relations tained
obtheir product,

equation.

(l)a2+ /32,
(2)as+ /33.
We

and they
important,

of the roots,and

sum

of the coefficients of the

Example 1.

0 ;

questionsthe

such

use

writingdown

are

considered

(x2 a2)(bx c) 0,

or

/32=(a+ /3)2-2a/3
=p*-2q.

+ q

0, find the value of

THE

THEORY

OF

QUADRATIC

a;{+ ft =

Again,

87

EQUATIONS.

(a2+ p"2 a/3)

(a+ /3)

"

=i"{(a+ /3)a-3a/3]
=*(?"- 89).
Example 2.

If

equation whose

the roots of the

p"are

a,

roots

are

"

"We have

0, find the

of roots

sum

product of

roots

a.

ap

-=1

by Art. 115 the requiredequationis

" + 0/3
apx2 (a2+ p~2)

or

As

in the last

example o2+j8B=

0.

="

and

a/3
=

.,

,.

.*. the

equation

?ji2-2wZ

is

x-

-=

or

Example

When

3.

.r

0,

0,

it

2nZ)x

that it will be unaltered

shew

?i

"

/x-2 (m2

and

.-.

7i

mx
equation/.r'-'-|
+

+ nl

of 2x3 + 2x2-7x+l'2

find the value

"-

if

be substituted

for

x.

Form

the

quadraticequation whose

of the roots

the

sum

the

productof

roots

are

3 ;

17

hence
.*.

the roots

the equationis

2x2-6x

17

is

2.r2
-

"

6.r+ 17

0 ;

quadratic expressionwhich

for either of the

vanishes

3*5^/-"!

,
values

"

Now

2a* + 2.t2

Ix + 72

(2.r2C".c+ 17)+
-

(2.r2Cx
-

17) + 4

=xx0+4x0+4
=

which

is the numerical

value

4;
of the

expressionin each of the supposedcases.

88
118.
ax2
in

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

bx

To

find Vie

the roots of the

be (1) equal in magnitude and
that

condition

should

equation

opposite

sign,(2)reciprocals.

their

equal in magnitudeand oppositein signif

condition is
hence the required

roots will be

The

is

sum

zero

0,

or

0.

Again, the
unity; hence we

their

when
reciprocals

will he

roots

product is

have

must

i
1.

"

or

a.

in Analytical
frequentoccurrence
of
the
more
case
a
a
particular
of
to
applicable equations any degree.

firstof these results is of

The

Geometry,

and

generalcondition

second

is

Example. Find the condition that the roots of ax2 + bx + c 0 may

both positive,
(2)oppositein sign,but the greaterof them negative.

be

We

have

+ B=

a8=-

"

If the roots

(1)

are

both

(1)

and
positive,
a/Jis positive,

therefore

and

have like signs.

Also, since

fiis positive, is negative;therefore b and

"

have

unlike

signs.
Hence
and

is that the

signsof

ft

and

should

be like,

oppositeto the
(2)

requiredcondition
sign of b.

the

have

If the roots are

unlike signs.

Also since
-

is

of

oppositesigns,a/3is negative,and therefore

and

fore
+/3 has the sign of the greater root it is negative,and there-

therefore
positive;

b and

have

like

signs.

(X

Hence
and

the

requiredcondition is that the signsof

the sign of c.

and

b should

be like,

oppositeto

EXAMPLES.
Form

a.

the

equationswhose

p-q

p + q

p+q

p"y

4.

IX.

7"2N/5.

5.

roots

are

"2"/3~5.

6.

-p"2s/Tq.

THE

7.

|,i.

-3,

13.

Prove

x2

(2) (a

14. If the
values of m.

2ax

+aa

b+

c)

values of
x2

equalroots

9.

value of

will the

Prove

bx

"

equalroots,find

the

+ 1

following
equationsare rational:

(b+ c-a)

2cx +

(2) abc2x2 + 3a2cx +

b2ex

0,

6a2 -ab

+ 2b'1 0.
=

/3are the roots of the equationax2 + bx +

",+".

Find

(3+ 2m)

that the roots of the

(1) (a+ c-b)x2 +

18.

0 lias

equalin magnitude but oppositein sign?

roots

a,

0.

equation

ax-c

If

c)

For what

17.

2""/3, 4.

equation

(1+ 3//0+

x*

have

-m(2x-8)

will the

12.

0,

15

2x

c2

"i(a -b).

following
equationsare real :

(a 6).v + (a

+4

r-

equationx2-

For what

16.

6a

89

EQUATIONS.

|,0, -|.

11.

that tlio roots of the

(1 )

15.

QUADRATIC

-a"ib.

8.

-3"5l

10.

have

OF

THEORY

aW

19.

aV.

20.

0, find the values of

(|-f)2.

the value of

21.

a3 + s2

22.

x3

23.

.t-3 ".r2+ 2a2.r+ 4"3 when

Zx2

+ 22 when
8x +15

.r

1 + 2/.

when

3+

-=

3.

24.
whose

If

roots

and
are

/3 are

the

that the roots of

25.

Prove

26.

I f .'-, x%
,

of

roots

x*+px+q=Ot

form

the

equation

and (a+ /3)2.

(a- ft)2

are

-b)
(x a)(.";

the roots of

"

ctx*+bx +

(1) (axl+ b)-2+ ("xi+ b)-2,

(2) (ax^byt+iaxt+b)-*.

h2

are

always red.

0, find tho value i "f

90

times

If

28.
roots

that

the condition
the other.

Find

27.
n

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

are

the roots of ax2

and
a2 + /32
o~2+/3-2,

(3are

a,

the equationwhose
Form
of the difference of the roots of

roots

29.

30.

the

Discuss

2x* + 2

(m + n)x

signsof

the roots

px2+

qx

bx-\-c

shall be

0, form the equationwhose

the squares

of the

m2 + n2=0.

of the
+ r

equation

0.

illustrates

useful

application

x-

Example.
have

can

If

is

all numerical

Let the

real

and

sum

113.

provedin Art.

of the results

are

followingexample

The

119.

bx +

of ax2

root

one

that the

quantity,prove

values except such

as

lie between

be represented
given expression
by

y,

+ 2x

11

"

expression
""

2 and

-.

6.

that

so

a2 +

2:r-ll_
~y;
2(s-3)

then

multiplying
up

and

have

we
transposing,

+ 6f/-ll
rr2+2.r(l-?/)

0.

quadraticequation,and in order that x may have real values

be positive;or dividingby 4 and simplifying,
4(1 -i/)2-4(Gy 11) must
Hence
be positive.
?/2 8*/+ 12 must be positive
; that is,(y 6)(y 2) must
This

is

"

be both positive,
the factors of this product must
or both negative. In the
Therefore
former case
y is greater than 6; in the latter y is less than 2.
have any other value.
2 and 6, but may
y cannot lie between

example it will be noticed that the quadraticexpression

so
long as y does not lie between the roots
y2 8y + 12 is positive
of the corresponding
quadraticequationy2 Sy + 12 0.
In this

"

"

This is a
in the next

120.

the
are

of the

case
particular

all real values

For

of x

tlie expression

ax2 + bx+c
when
the
the
roots
same
sign a, except
of
equationax2+bx
real and unequal,and x has a value lyingbetween them.
as

Case

I.

Suppose that

the roots of the

ax2
are

generalproposition
investigated

article.

real ; denote

them

by

and

bx

ft,and

has
+ c

equation

0
let

be the

greater.

=0

92

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER
Find

Example.

the limits between

ax2

be

capableof

all

Ix +

values,x beingany real quantity.

ax1 -lx

Put
o

i-

then

lie in order that

must

Ix + 5

5x2may

which

=v;

rr

+ (5-a?/):=0.
(a-5?/)a:2-7.r(l-?/)

that the values

In order

of

found

from

this

quadraticmay

be

real,the

expression

(1 y)'24 (a

49

that

(49 20a)y2+

is,

hence

5y)(5 ay) must

positive,

(2a2+ l)y+ (49 20a) must

be

(2a2+ 1)2 (49 20a)2must

positive.
-

be

be

negativeor

zero,

positive
;

and

49

(2a2+ 1)2 (49 20a)2is negativeor zero, accordingas

2 (a2 10a + 25)x 2 (a2
+ 10a
24) is negativeor zero

Now

be

20a must

that is,accordingas

(a o)2(a+ 12)(a 2) is negativeor

-

zero.

This expressionis negativeas long as a lies between 2 and

12, and for
when
is zero
the expression
20a is positive;
such values 49
a =
5, 12,or 2,
the limitingvalues are 2 and
is negative when
5. Hence
but 49 -20a
a =
12, and a may have any intermediate value.
-

EXAMPLES.
1.
the

IX. b.
which

the limits between

Determine

lie in order that

must

equation
2ax

(ax+ nc)+ (n2 2)c2

have real roots.

may

If

2.

be real,xprove

^"2

3.

Shew

that

If

be

-5

xl

r^

1
3 and

for allreal values of

x.

that

sb3
+ 34a?" 71
"

"

"

5 and

1 and

11

bx + 9

"

lies between

real,prove

liebetween

must

"

+ x+\

x-

4.

.774'-

"

-=

'-

that

"=

x1 + 2#

="

can

have

no

value between

9.

5.

Find

the

equationwhose

roots

are

s]a" sja b
-

6.

If

a,

/3are

roots of the

equationx2

"

px+q=0,

(1) atitfp-i-fl+ ptfPa-i-a),

(2) (a-p)-* + (P-p)-\

find the value of

THEORY

THE

OF

QUADRATIC

7.

If the roots of ht?+ nx+n=0

8.

If

be

except such

be in the ratio of p

real,the expression

lie between

as

!":{

EQUATIONS.

2)i and

qt prove that

admits

of all values

(x n)
-

2m.

9. Tf the roots of the equationax2 + 2hx + c=() be a and (3,and

those of the equationAx'y-+ 2Ux+C=0
be a-ffiand fi+ d,prove that

b*-ae_B*-AC
~

~~a2
Shew

10.

that

the

'

A2

will be capable of all

"5
L
4x*
p + 3x
is real,
providedthat p has any value between 1 and 7.

expression

"

"

values when

.#4-2
Find

11.

Shew

12.

the "greatest value of

that if x is

for real values of

2x2 + 3x
n

x.

real,the expression

(x2-bc)(2x-b-c)~i
has

real values

no

b and

between

If the roots of ax2 + 2bx

the roots of

13.

(a+ c)(ax2+
will be

that the

Shew

values when
*122.

with

c)

We

is

real,if a2

b2 and

shall conclude

and

in his mathematical

is

Functions

c2

this

+ 1)
(ac b2)(.r2
-

"

{-)- ,!will
"

"

d2 have

the

chapterwith

which

be capable of all

a) (ex a)
same

some

will be convenient
the

sign.
miscellaneous

here to introduce

student

will

frequently

reading.

Definition.
value

then
possibleand different,

0 be

expression-fl(ox

examples. It
phraseologyand notation

theorems
meet

+ c

and vice versa.

impossible,

14.

2bx

c.

Any expressionwhich involves

dependent on that of x, is called a
of x are
usuallydenoted by symbolsof

x, and

function
the form

whose
of X.

f(x),

F(x),"f"(x).
Thus
to

the

statement

equationy =f(x)
that

any

be considered
as
may
made
in the value of
change

equivalent
as

will produce

The quantities
x
consequent change in ;//,and vice versd.
the
and y are
called variables,and are
further distinguished
as
independent variable and the dependent variable.
a

94

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

An
value

we

variable is a quantitywhich
independent
may have any
choose to assignto it,and the corresponding
dependent

variable has its value determined

variable is known.

of
expression

An

123.

pjs"+ pxxn
where

is

In

x.

pjf

pn_ tx + pn

the coefficients plt,plt pa,...pndo

integralalgebraicalfunction

rational and

shall confine

present chapterwe

the

the value of the independent

as

soon

the form

and
integer,
positive

not involve x, is called

of

as

attention

our

to

of this kind.

functions

function is said to be linear when

of the variable than the first; thus

*124.

higherpower
of

function

function

x.

is said

to

be

it contains
+

ax

b is

quadratic

no

linear

it

when

higherpower of the variable than the second ; thus

function of x.
of the third,
Functions
ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic
degreesare those in which the highestpower of the
fourth,...
in the last
Thus
the third,
variable is respectively
fourth,
is a function of x of the nth degree.
article the expression
contains

no

*125.
variables

symbolfix, y) is used

and

y ; thus

*126.
where

bx

We

resolved

admits

and

j3are

of two
+

ey

+f

"

proved in
of being put

the roots

in

To

120
the

find the

be resolved into two

the function

has

form

expression
(x a)(x fi),

bx

"

"

"

0.

bx-\-c is

rational

capableof being
first degree,
whenever
roots ; that

that

hy f(x,y) where

+ by2+ 2gx+ 2fy+

f{x, y) axz+'2hxy
=

the

is,when

functionofx,y
quadratic
factors.

condition
linear

that

ax2
equation

rational factors of the

equationax2 + bx + c
iac is a perfect
square.

Denote

of the

Art.

ax2
quadraticexpression

into two

*127.
may

have

Thus
the

function

by + c, and ax2+ bxy + cy2+dx

functions of x, y.
quadratic

...

quadratic,
equations
fix) 0,fix, y) 0 are said to be linear,
the
are
linear,quadfunctions
ratic,..
f(x),f(x,y)
accordingas

The

ax2

to denote

ax

linear and
respectively

are

b2

The

c.

THEORY

THE

this in

Write

OF

QUADRATIC

descending
powers

95

EQUATIONS.

of x, and

equate it

to zero;

thus
ax*

2x

(hy+ y) + by2+ 2fy+

in
Solvingthis quadratic
-

(h

J{hy+ y)*

"
(j)

have

we

(by2+ 2fy+ c)

"

"

ax

"v

hy +

in order

Jy2(h* ab)+

"

2y (hy a/)+ (g2 ac).

"

J\.r,
y)

that

be the productof two linear

may
factors of the
the radical
px + qy + r, the quantityunder
hence
be a perfect
must
square ;
Now

form

(kg a/)2 (h- ab){"f ac).

=

Transposingand dividing
by
abc

To

*128.

"

"

have

bx

0,

"

cross

that the
ax2

both

aa.2+ ba

a'a2+b'a

c'

equations

b'x +

satisfied

0,

0;

by

be

; then

"

b'c

ca

c'a

"

ab'

ab

"

'

square the second of these

it to the productof the other two ; thus
eliminate

a,

equal ratios

(ca c'a)2 (be b'c) (ab' ab)

(ca ca)2 (be b'c)
(ab' ab),
"

.'.

"

is the condition

"

'

"

"

and

a
'

which

multiplication
a"

equate

0 ;

root.

common

Supposethese equationsare

To

ch2

"

required.

find the condition

ax2

by

obtain

we

is of great importance
in Analytical
proposition
Geometry.

This

.*.

a,

2fyh af2 by2

is the condition

which

may

"

required.

It is easy to prove that this is the condition

quadraticfunctions ax2 + bxy + cy2and a'x2 + b'xy+
linear factor.
a common

that

the

c'y'may

two

have

06

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

IX.

^EXAMPLES.
values of

For what

1.

will the

y2+ 2xy +
be

capableof resolution
2.

Shew

rational factors ?

If the

3y2 5y
-

expression

real linear factors.

of two

equations
x2

have

2x + my

which will make

2.v2+ mxy +
m
of
two
linear
factors.
product

that the

alwaysadmits
4.

expression

Find the values of

to the
equivalent

3.

into two

c.

px

+ q

x2 +

0,

root,shew that it must

common

p'x+ q'
=

be either

p'l'-p'q

9-q

nr

q-q

5.

Find

the condition

that the

Lv2 + mxy
have

may

6.

can

2Pxy + 2y2+

2ax

4y +

be

must

one

of the

Find the condition that the

ax2 +

be

8.

Shew

that in the
-

factors of the form

If

and y

Zxy + 2y2
-

9x2
then will

10.
be

two

are

lie between

2x

3y

35

x.

0,

real value

of y, and

connected
real quantities

2xy +y2
3 and

92.r

20y +

244

6, and y between

If (ax2+ bx + c)y-\-a'x2
+ b'x + e'
rational function of y.

my +

y -mx,

equation

for every real value of x there is a

value of y there is a real value of x.

9.

expressions

+ b'y2
2hxy+ by2, a'x2 + 2k'xy

divisibleby
respectively

x2

may

m'xy-f-n'y'1

be resolved into linear factors,prove that P

of the equationP'2+ 4aP + 2d1 + 6
0.

7.

may

l'x2+

ny2,

expression
%a? +

roots

expressions

linear factor.

common

If the

p-p

by

for every

the

real

equation

0,

1 and

10.

0, find the condition that

X.

CHAPTER

EQUATIONS.

MISCELLANEOUS

In

129.

this

chapter

equations
solved
require

by

the

some

to
consider
propose
it will be seen
of
that many
we

Example

I.

Multiplyby

8x2n-8x~^=63.

Solve

.r2n and

transpose; thus
i.
-

63x2'*-8

8xn-

0;

(a?"-8)(8x^+l)

0;

L
"

"2n

8,

or--;

8'
2n

"=(*)*"(-p)*;
.-.*=""",

Example

2.

Solve

/-+

or

/-

"

A.

6
6a

"

"

.".%+!

""""
+

2"%2-6a2?/-"2"/+

3a"

(2ay~")(ty-3a)=0;
3a

H.

A.

9a2

"2

4a

H.

cellaneous
mis-

equJtions,
others

for quadratic
for
their solution
special artifice

ordinary rules

3_
_

some

the^l Z

'

"l

"a

0;

but

98

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

(x2

have

We

which, being arranged as

20)(x2

quadraticin

62

.-.

Let

and

as

bx

bx

a2

or

-7.

J ax2 +

bx

into the form

shall obtain

"

J ax2 +

bx

obtain

we

ft;

values of

four

c,

that

equation,so

J ax2 +bx

a,

be thrown

can

-56

-a;

Putting y

we
equations

these

336

the roots of this

J ax2 +
from

c +

follows.

ftbe

gives

x,

(x2 x)+

S, -2, 8,

Any equationwhich

be solved

may

0f

whence

ax2

x2

504 ;

42)

(x2-a:-6)(x2-x-56) 0

X*-X-Q

.-.

(a2 x)2

130.

504.

7)(" + 6)(*+ 4)
(*-5)(a:-

Solve

Examples.

x.

understood
to a radical it is usually
signis prefixed
as
hence, if a and ftare both
that it is to be taken
positive;
the originalequation.
all the four values of x satisfy
positive,
the roots found from the resulting
If however
or
a
ftis negative,
the equation
quadraticwill satisfy
"When

no

ax2

Add

"

Solve x2

ox

+ 2

Jx2

Putting

Jx2-5x+3

*Jx2 5x
-

Squaring, and
ic=6

or

J ax2 +

bx

q,

5z + 3

12.

3 to each side ; then

rc2-5a; + 3 +

Thus

equation.
original

but not the

Example.

bx

+ 3

+ 3
2N/^-5a;

y,

we

obtain

3,

or

Jx2-6x +

y2+ 2y
S

15.

15

0 ; whence

x^: =

"

or

The

obtain

Jx2-5x +

5.

first

from

the first

pair of

values

but the second pair satisfiesthe equation

satisfiesthe given equation,

x2- 5x -2

-5.

we
ing quadratics,
solving the resulting

-1; and from the second

12.

100

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

solution of

The

133.

ax4

bx3

"

equationof

an

ex2 "

"

bx

the coefficients of terms

in which

the form

0,

from
equidistant

equal,can be made to depend on

quadratic.Equationsof this type are known
because they are
and are so named
not
and

end

For

its

Example.

reciprocal
tions,
equa-

as

altered when

is

is referred to Arts. 568

student

completediscussion

more

reciprocal

beginning

the solution of

are

changed into

the

12a;4

Solve

of

570.

"

56.x + 12

56x3 + 89a;2
-

reciprocal
equationsthe
0.

Dividingby x2 and rearranging,

12/W-2)
-56^+^+89
0.

Put

.-.

whence

we

then a;2+

-=z:
x

(z2- 2) -56^

12

obtain

"

z2-2;

0;

x-

or

-=-

89

13

a;

6
2

13

find that

By solvingthese equationswe

134.

solved in

The

Example.
We

have

6a;4
-

.-.

obtain

When

25

"

135.

25a;3+ 12a;2+ 25a; + 6

fx
(^2+^i)
6(a;

we

2,

be

manner.

Solve

whence

whence

equationthough not reciprocal

following
may

similar

(a;

j -25

a; =

2,

of

3,

0.

0;

0;

fx- -]-8-0;

or

12

1+24

"

0,
(^--^-3
=

-\+

quadraticequationis obvious by
often be readilyobtained
the other root may
by
inspection,
of
the
of
of
the
roots
use
properties
quadratic
equations
making
provedin Art. 114.
one

root

MISCELLANEOUS

This

is

(1

Solve

Example.

a-){x+ a)

of whose

quadratic,one

the

the roots is

productof

2a

(1

is

clearlya.

roots

(1 a2)x

1.

therefore the other root is

and

(1+ a2) 0,

EXAMPLES.

Solve the

ar) 0.

be written

Also, since the equation may

2ax- +

X.

a-2 -2x~1

2jx

"

"

a.

following
equations:
8.

2.

9 + a-4

3.

101

EQUATIONS.

_J

*.

4.

6a?*~7**-8a7

6.

3.f2n-.rri-2=0.

JL

2x "=5-

10a--'.

5.

3"+6=5#".

7-

""/;+Vj-"* \/S+\/?'

9.

6x/a=5a

"2*.

2-13.

10.

1+8.^

11.

32*+ 9" 10. 3*.

12.

13.

22* +

14.

22* + 3-57

15.

,/*"+"-*

16.

^.-#=5A-

17.

+ 1)
(x 7)(a- 3){x+ 5)(.v

1 680.

18.

(x+ 9)(x 3)(x

385.

19.

20.

(2a-7)(a2-9)(2a

21.

A'2+ 2

22.

3a2

23.

3a2 -7 + 3

24.

8 + 9

25.

^-2+s/,,,_-5,+3=^:.

+ 1

32.2'.

(2x+

1 )(.v
-

"/a2
+ 6a
4a +

7){x+ 5)

2)(2a 3)

24

5)

63.

6x.

s/'3xi-4x-6l8.
=

(N/3sa-16a?
+ 21

J("v-1) (x-2)

3.c2
-

9^

(5*+ 5-*)

91.

16a;.
7a.

0.

26.

65(2*-l).

102

HIGHER

26.

ALGEBRA.

W.Y.
7.-^hs"i_c"
\*j x

"Jx2-3x=Jx2

27.

J4x2-7x-lb

28.

+ 4 +
"/2^2-9^

29.

V2^2+

V3(a;2-7a;
+ 6) J7x2-6x-l

30.

+ 2ax-3x2
s/a2

31.

J2x2+

32.

x/3^2 2x

33.

-9a;
V2^2-7a;+l ./2a;2

34.

"/3^2 7^

35.

o^ + a?-4o;2

36.

x*

38.

+ 52a;2
10(o7t+l)-63a?(a;2-l)

5^-7

bx

J%v-l

Ja2+

ax-6x2

V2#2 +

5a;

2o; -4
x/3.r2
-

30

*/2o;27x

a;+l

2\x-l\.

+ 9 +

J2x2+

9.

1.

13.

9a;2.

1.

+ 3ao;
^/Sa2

0.

a?

0.

8
+

+
^x2
9

3x3+3x.

3*+l-3("s+#)=2tf*.

37.

0.

x+J\2a-x _*Ja+\
x
"Jl2a-x sJct-V
a;

sjx2 1

a;

sjx2
-

8x

jx2

43.

44.

2*2: 22*

45.

46

^/a?-5 V3a?-7

+ I) (a?*
+ a*)a.
a2*(a2
=

(7a; 3)
_

x-b
2

+ 4 (a *)"
(a+ a;)3"

49.

"/a;2
+ aa;-l

50.

^B+-"-^El.8a
V^'2
\/a'2

.v4- 2.v3+

a;

Jx2+

"

2a;+l

380.

V^+T
3n/7^3

250

'

48.

51.

"".+
./".
a;2-l
V
18

'

(a2 a;2)"3.

bx-l

3x + 2.

3a;-7

4a;2

1.

"/^+#I
|.
Jtf-x

42.

bx

"

,"

4x2

'

^/.r21
a/^2

J a2

a+2x-

J 'a2

_
~

.1
41.

+ 2a; +

Ja

K/b.

52.

27^

+ 2U- + 8

MISCELLANEOUS

136.

shall

We

unknown

two

discuss

now

108

EQUATIONS.
simultaneous

some

equationsof

quantities.

Example 1.

Solve

J(x+

x+2+y+S+

2)(y+ 3)

39.

+ 3)=741.
+ 2)(2/
(z + 2)2+ (y+ 3)2+ (:r

Put

+ 2

m,

and

y + 3

then

u+v

Juv

w2 + v2 +
we
hence, from (1)and (2),

obtain

From

Sd

(1),

741

(2),

by division,

+ v

wv

Juv

19

Juv

and

wv

or

10,

100;
4, or

whence

25, or 4;

thus

23, or 2; y=l,

2.

u+t?=29;

(1)and (3),

Example

(3)

.r4+

Solve

25 ;

22.

or

(1),

82

y*=

(2).

ar-y=2
Put
then from

(2)we

+ t", and

obtain

v;

u-

l.

(w+ l)4+ (u- 1)4 82;

in (1),
Substituting

.-.

2(m4+ 6m2 + 1) 82;

=

u4 + 6u2-40
w2

whence
and

4, or

"/~10*

"

or

V^iO;

-l, i"

x=s,

Thus

10 ;

"

"2,

u=

0;

ysal,-3, -li^-10.
JEa;ampZe3.
e

f^

Solve

^
=

"

Sx-yx

7x +
From

+ Sxy + y*
(1),15 (2a;2
-

.-.
.-.

Hence
or

3z2 +

(1),

2A

y10

5y

Axy

(2).

29
38

y-)
=

+ 2xy
(3.x2

y*);

129o;2-29xy-38?/20;
=

{Sx-2y)(iBx+ 19y)=0.
Sx
43#

2y

(3),

-19y

(1).

104

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

From

(3),

__7x+ 5y

y
=

29

1, by equation (2).

.-.

from

(4),

^43

19

3.

7x +

Again,

2, y

5y

82

29
=

551
"*'

by equation (2),

-gg,

_1247
,V~

X~

82

"

82

551
Hence

3;

or

4#3 +

Solve

4.

Example

2, y

x-

1247
,

and

mx,

in both

substitute

"

l.

-^-

3a;2f/
+ ?/3=8,

+ "?/2
2z3-2a;2?/

Put

11=

"

z3(4+

equations.

3m +

z3(2-2m

Thus

m3)

(1).

m2)

(2).

4 + 3m + mz
"*'

2-2m

m2~
-12

m3-8"i9+19m

(/;i-l)(?/i-3)
(m-4)

that is,

m=l,

.*.

(i)
From

'

Take

l, and

#3

1;

.*.

0;

0;

3, or 4.

or

substitute in either

(2),

(1)or (2).

l;

y=mx=x=l.

and

(ii) Take

3, and

substitute in

(2);
3

thus

5:r3 l;

and

.*.

x=

/l

\/

k'-"

3/1

(iii)Take7?"

4;

we

vix

3x

3 */

-.

obtain

3/
10.r3=l;

.-.

x=^-;
3

and

mx

4x=4.

/I

/r^.

MISCELLANEOUS

the

Hence

complete solution is
*=1,

The

of the

equations are

Example 5.

method

ahove

V5'

always be
homogeneous.

of solution

degree and

same

Solve

(2)we

have

-8

x2-

4y2+

(1),

('2).

7 j/4
+

.-.

that

(x2 Ixy
-

Ay2)(Uxy

x2

j/")-0 ;
=

Ixy + Ay2)
=

0 ;

Slx2y2-7y*+ (x2+ 4y2)2-(7xy)20;

=

s*-10sy+9y4=0

is,
.'.

hence
cases

ov

"3y.

x=

obtain

in (2),
we
substituting

and

in succession
x

(3).

0;
(x2-y2)(x2-9y2)

x="y,

Taking these

the

in (1),
Ixy + 4//'; and, substituting

31x-y2

when

3\x2y2 7#4+ Uxy {x2 Ixy + Ay2)+ {x2 Ixy +

.-.

used

may

3 lx2y2-7y4- 112^ + 64

x2-7xy
From

To*

s\/l"
4\/^*

1'

""=

Note.

L05

EQUATIONS.

y="2;

^J

x=-y="

y="l\

x="3,

3"/-17'^=T\/
-

yj

Note.
It should be observed that equation (3) is homogeneous. The
method
here employed by which
one
equation is made homogeneous by a
suitable combination
with the other is a valuable artifice. It is especially
useful in AnalyticalGeometry.

Example 6.

(x+yft+2
{x

Solve

?/)*
=

y*fi

{x2
-

(1).
(2).

3x-2y=13
i

Divide

each term

of

(1)by (x2 y2)

-

or

(x+y\s+2(-~yY=3
\x-yj

\.v+

{x +y)* (x y)r;

gj

106

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

[x

This

v\a

equationis a quadraticin (

which

from

find,
easily

we

(x"y-Y2oTl;

^=8

whence

\x-yj

1 ;

or

x-y
7x

.'.

9y,

or

0.

obtain

Combining these equationswith (2),we

13

x=9,

7;

or

-^,y=0.

EXAMPLES.

:
following
equations

Solve the

1.

3x-2y

a,4+

6.

#y

3x2

2.

-bf

.r4+y4=706,
x+y

7.

+y2=2275.

4y2

Zlxy

9.

5y2-7^
bxy

,r+i l,
=

17.

+y

x2

+y2

6.

\A?y,

l33-xy.
3.r2+ 165

y2-3
6 +

y2

15.

"+"-",

18.

^-y5

19.

+y

1072,

11

^3+y3=ie.

2.

1.

5.

5
+

5
=

7;

11

11

20.

992,

"e

|+t

?/+-=25.

1 32.

0.

x-y

16.ry,

3.zy,

2.

13y2

7^y+ 3y2

xA+y* 272,
=

25.

+3/2 84,

10.

#2 +
2x2

x-y

l7,

45.

14.

ocy

1,

*Jxy+y=6.

12.

l5,

8.

6x2

12^

x2 +

5.

65,

3x2+xy+y2

11.

16.

25.

19.

4^-3^

3.

3,

931,

3#2-5y2 7,
Zxy

13.

+y2

Jxy +y

#2

8.

xy

bx -y

y2- 6#2

%).

#y+2/4

x2"

2.

7,

xy

4.

X. b.

xy^+yx^=20,
33

^-2+y2=65.

#2+y2 5,

21.

11

6(.i?2+y

2)
=

5.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

108
from

Also
whence

obtain

we

Thus

(1),
u

6;

or

have

we

+ y

#?/

the solutions

Hence

7.

or

7,1

6,

+ ?/=

"

and

10 \

10

acy

3db\/-l.,
2,'|
5,1 y^W^T,

or

2,

65

.r

or

or

Solve

2.

are

x=5,

Example

=13;

+z

z=l.

y){x+ z) 30,

+
(a;

{y+ z)(y+ x) 15,

=

=18.
[z+x)(z+y)
Write

for ?/+ 2,

m, 1;,w

viv

30,

"

respectively
; thus

+ as, a; + y

tvu

15,

mv

have

we
these equationstogether,
Multiplying

wVu"2

30

3,

.-.

ce=4, y

whence

Example

3.

Solve

6,

y +

5\

or

+ y

l,

y2+ ys
22 +

z:r

-3,

5))
2;

equationsin (1),we
v

have

-6, w=-5;

-d",\

-5,i

z+x

or

62 ;

y+z=-S,\

z=3,\
x
$, "

15*

"90.

of the

each

with

18

uvw

.*.

Combining this result

15

(1).

18

+ y

x=-i,

or

+ 22

+ a;2=

x* + xy +

y=-l,

"=-2.

49

(1),

19

(2),

y2=39

(3).

Subtracting(2)from (1)

y2-x2 + z{y -")=30;

that

(y-x){x +

is,

y +

z)

30

(4).

Similarlyfrom (1)and (3)

[z-x){x+y+z)*=10
Hence

from

(4)and (5),by division

y-*-3.
"

"-"

whence

3z-2x.

(5).

MISCELLANEOUS
we
Substitutingin equation (3),

10f)

EQUATIONS.
obtain

z*-8xa+8zs=13.
From

x2 +

(2),

xz

z~

19.

Solvingtbese homogeneous equationsas in Example 4, Art. 130, we

a;="2,
or

Example

jc=

"-ts,

4.

Solve

"

3 ; and therefore y

and

"-t^ ;

2=

.t2-yz

a2, y^ -zx

Multiplythe equationsby y,
c2.r+

Multiplythe equationsby

therefore

2,

a;

(1)and (2),by

a4_^2c2

c2.

add ; then

(1).
; then

(2).

(a6+

suPP"se'

given equations; then

of the
k2

multiplication,

cross

one

xy

and add
respectively

~^"c2V^W ^W2
Substitute in any

-,

"

b2x + c-y + a*z =

From

"

and
respectively

+ "2z
"2//

z, x, y

y=T

62, z2

5;

"

obtain

b6 + c6

1 ;
3a2Z"2c2)
=

11

^4_c2ft2

C4_ai7/j

EXAMPLES.

*Ja*+b*+c*-3a?tP"?

X.

c.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

110
9.

x*y*zhi=\%#VW=8,

10.

aPy*z=12t^-3=54,

11.

ay+#+y=23,
xz+x

yz

ij

x*yz2u2l, 3xy2z2u24.
=

.*%322 72.
=

12.

4l,

2^-4?+2/
3yz+y-6z

27.

"xz + 3s + 2#=

13.

xz+y^lz,

14.

.r3+y3+ ^3=a3, ^2+y2 +

15.

^2+y2+22=3/^+

16.

#2+y2-M2 21a2,ys

yz +

x=8z,

22
=

a2,#

^-.ry

Indeterminate

+ # +
2

52,
29.

a.

a*/3.

6a2,3x+y-2z

3a.

Equations.

Suppose the followingproblem were

138.

l2.

"2,3.r-# +

+ ."y

2^

y +

17,

proposedfor

tion
solu-

person
horse costs "23

spends ."461
and each

in

buying

"16,

cow

how

horses

23a; +

16^

if each

cows;

of each does he

many

of horses and

Let x, y be the number

and

cows

buy1?

respectively
; then

461.

two unknown
equationinvolving
quantities,
and it is clear that by ascribing
value
to
we
please x, we can
any
obtain a corresponding
value for y ; thus it would appear at first
admits
of an infinite number
the
of solutions.
problem
sightthat
of the question
But it is clear from the nature
that x and y must
be positive
shall see
as
we
integers
; and with this restriction,

Here

have

we

later,the number
If the

number

one

of solutions is limited.
of unknown

is greater than the

quantities
of independentequations,
number
unlimited
there will be an
of solutions,and the equationsare
minate.
number
said to be indeterIn the presentsection we
shall only discuss the simplest
kinds of indeterminate
attention to posiour
confining
equations,
tive
values of the unknown
will
it
be
seen
integral
quantities
;
that

this restriction enables

us

to express

the solutions in

very

simpleform.
The

in

generaltheory of
Chap. xxvi.

indeterminate

equationswill

be found

INDETERMINATE

Example
Divide

1.

Solve 7#

12j/ 220 in positiveintegers.

=

throughout by 7, the smaller coefficient; thus

y+^

anil y

are

to be

we
integers,

5y-S

=31

(1)

...

have

must

l%-9

therefore

+ -;

integer;

and

=31

y+^-~

.-.

Since

Ill

EQUATIONS.

integer;

w-2

that is,

and

*-=-= integer;

%-l+

1/-2

therefore

y-2

.-.
or

y
this
Substituting

that

value of y in

is,

.r

integer
=p

7p,

lp +

suppose.

(2).

(1),

7p +

2 +

5" +

31;

2"-l2p

.(3).

If in these results we giveto p any integral

value,we obtain corresponding
integralvalues of x and y; but if p " 2, we see from (3)that x is negative;
and if p is a negativeinteger,
y is negative. Thus the only positiveintegral
values of x and y are obtained by puttingp
0, 1, 2.
=

The complete solution may

be exhibited

0,

1,

2,

a: =

28,

16,

4,

y=

2,

9,

16.

p=

Note.

When

we

obtained

follows

as

5y-S

we
integer,

multipliedby

in order

the coefficient
to make
of y differby unityfrom a multipleof 7. A similar
artifice should always be employed before introducing
a symbol to denote
the integer.

Example
Divide

2.

Solve in

14x
positiveintegers,

thus
by 11, the smaller coefficient;
Sx
x

i/-2

11

ir;

3x-7
=

11

integer;

11// 29.
=

(1).

112

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

12"
hence

28

mteger *"

integer;

^
^

g*

that

"

is,

""

Qfc
'"

.-.

2 +

integer
=_p suppose;

"

.*. X

and, from (1),

\\p+

"

14p +

"

is called the

any

general solution of the equation, and by giving to

integralvalue or zero, we obtain positiveintegralvalues of
positive

and

y ; thus

This

we

0,

.t

6, 17, 28, 39,

5, 19, 33, 47,

of solutions

be the number

2,

3,

"5

can

ways

be

paidin

half-crowns

of half-crowns,y the number

florins?

of florins ; then

x+y+\=
x
.'

and

4y 200;

5^ +
"""

1,

beinginfinite.

Example 3. In how many

Let

have
p

the number

.*.

and

5";

"

integer

2^ suppose

x=4p,
y

50-5p.

Solutions are obtained by ascribing

the values 1, 2, 3, ...9; and
to p
therefore the number
is
of ways
be paid either
9. If,however, the sum
may
also have the values 0 and 10. If ^ = 0,
in half-crowns
or florins,
p may
is paid entirely
then x = 0, and the sum
in florins ; if p = 10, then y = 0, and
is paid entirely
in half-crowns.
the sum
Thus
if zero
values of x and y are
of ways is 11.
admissible the number

Example 4. The expenses of

man
paid 5s.,each woman

each

"5. 14s. Qd. ; if

were
each child Is.,how many
were

party numbering 43
6d.,and

2s.

there of each?
Let x, y, z denote the number
then we have

of men,
x

10.r +

Eliminating z,
The

we

obtain

generalsolution

of this

y +

women,
z=

5?/+

2z

8x +

By

equationis
x=Sp
y

l,

45-8p;

43
229.
143.

and

children,respectively;

(1),

in (1),
we
by substituting

Hence

Here
from

cannot

p
1 to 5.

be
Thus

5p-3.

x=

4, 7, 10, 13, 16;

37, 29, 21, 13, 5;

2=2,

integralvalues
positive

7, 12, 17, 22.

X. d.

EXAMPLES.
Solve in

have

may

1, 2, 3, 4, 5;

p=

obtain

zero, but

negativeor

113

EQUATIONS.

INDETERMINATE

:
positive
integers

103.

1.

3.i +

4.

l"P+lly=414

8y

2.

5#+2y=53.

3.

7.";+12y=152.

5.

23a?+25y=915.

6.

4L"; +

and
Find the generalsolution in positive
integers,
the equations
of x and y which satisfy
:

7.

5.v-7y

8.

3.

10.

I7y-13#=0.

13.

A farmer

In how

including

zero

What

16.

ways
many
solutions ?

is the

by

56

number

remainder

can

be

"5

77y-3Qa?=295.

12.

who

has

for

one

may

person

be

has

who

only half-crowns

multipleof

only guineas

which beingdivided by 39 givesa remainder

such numbers are there ?
27. How
many

is the smallest number

What
debt
of "1. (5s.6d.,if the
a
discharge

18.

and sixpences,
paid in shillings

parts so that

simplestway

105. 6d. to another

17. Find
and

8#-2ty=33.

spends"752 in buyinghorses and cows ; if each horse

cow
"23, how many of each does he buy ?

15. Divide 81 into two

and the other of 5.

to pay

19y-23a?=7.

2191.

and each

costs "37

14.

11.

the least values

9.

6a?-13y=l.

47y

16,

of florins that must

be given to
be paid in half-crowns

change is to

only?
divided by 5
of which when
19. Divide 136 into two parts one
leaves remainder 2, and the other divided by 8 leaves remainder 3.

20.
at "17

of rams
at "4, pigsat
I buy 40 animals consisting
of each do I buy ?
if I spend "301, how many

"2, and

oxen

half-crowns
which are sovereigns,
In my pocketI have 27 coins,
how
I
coins of
have
6d.
is
amount
05.
and
"5.
the
or shillings,
;
many
?
each sort have I
21.

H.

H. A.

XL

CHAPTER

Permutations

or

some

all of

or

letters a,

a,

b, c,

d two

at

of

at

two

of these

can

thingsis called
which

time

are

be made

in

by taking the
number, namely,

ad,

be, bd,

cd,

ba,

ca,

da, cb, db,

dc ;

time

different arrangement

which
are

ac,

presentinga

can

be

made

six in number

ad,

by taking

combination.

made

be

can

twelve

by taking

permutation.

ac,

ab,
each

thingsis called
selections which

or

be made

can

ab,

combinations

b, c, d

of

number

presentinga

of these
The

arrangements which

"permutations

the

Thus

each

of the groups
all of a number

Each
some

of the

Each

139.

Combinations.

and

of two

letters.

by taking the
namely,

letters

be, bd, cd;

different selection of two

letters.

this it appears that in

of
with the number
concerned
From

whereas

of the

order

letters a, b, c, d
abc, this singlecombination

if from
as

in

formingcombinations we are only

things each selection contains ;
forming permutations we have also to consider the
thingswhich make up each arrangement; for instance,

four

followingways

we

make
admits

of

selection of

being arranged in

abc, acb, bca, bac, cab, cba,

and

so

givesrise

to six different

three,such

permutations.

the

116

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

1 ways ;
then be filledup in n
these ways, the second placecan
be associated
and since each way of filling
up the first placecan
of ways in
the
number
of filling
with each way
up the second,
be filledup is given by the product
which the firsttwo placescan
-

(n

1).

any

And

third

the

way,

the first two

when

be filled up is

be filled up in h
of ways in which

placecan
number

reasoningas before,the

in

And
2 ways.
three placescan

"

of factors is the

in which

of ways

factor is introduced

new

at

any

stage the number

placesfilled up,

of

the number

as

same

number

the

filled up

(n 1)(n 2).

that a
Proceedingthus, and noticing
with each new
placefilled up, and that
have

been

placeshave

be

placescan

shall

we

filled up

equalto

(n- l)(n" 2)

to

factors ;

the rth factor is

and

(r" 1), or

"

"

r+1.

permutationsof

of

the number

Therefore

thingstaken

at

time is

n{n- 1)(n- 2)
The

Cor.

of

number

(n-r

permutationsof

1).
thingstaken

all at

time is

(n 1)(?i 2)

"factorial

read

142.
of

n."

at

time

productby

n\ is sometimes

shall in future

We

thingstaken

Also

denote

by

the

the

symbol \n,which

used

for

so

\n.

working numerical examplesit is useful to

suffix in the symbol nPr always denotes the number
the formula we
are
using.
The

time
Let

taken

number

of

also be found

may

"Pr represent the

r

at

time.

permutations
that

(n-r + 1);

In

143.

is

\n.

of

symbol nPr

"P

factors,

the number

"Pr w(w-l)(w-2)
also

3.2.1.

Y)(n"2)

"

to denote this

It is usual

to

n(n

or

notice that

of factors in

permutations of n thingstaken
in the following
manner.
number

of

the

permutations of

at

things

PERMUTATIONS

form

Supposewe
at

AND

all the

time ; the number

of
permutations

of these will be "P

'

each
With
Each time we
r

of

at

time;

things

do this

at

one

we

time is

for

By writing r"l

of the

shall

therefore
a

thingst;iken

"

r"l

of these put

and

117

COMBINATIONS.

get

nPr_] (n

in this

number

of the

1); that

r +

"

permutation of

one

the whole
x

remainingn

formula,we

tilings.

things

permutations

is,

obtain

"P_1 '^r_2x(n-r-f2),
=

'P

similarly,

'Pr_a (n
x

3),

r +

(71-I),

"P^P.x
"Px=7l.

Multiplytogetherthe
from

each

side,and

(n-r+l).

Four

1.

Example

many

enter

persons
ways

cancel like factors

obtain

we

nPr n(n-l)(n-2)
seats ; in how

and

vertical columns

railwaycarriagein

their

they take

can

which

there

are

six

places?

The first person may seat himself in 6 ways ; and then the second person
in 5 ; the third in 4 ; and the fourth in 3 ; and since each of these ways may
is 6x5x4x3,
be associated with each of the others,the required answer
or

360.

Example
of the nine
Here

we

How

2.

different numbers

many

be formed

can

by using six

out

digits1, 2, 3,...9?
have 9 different
of them taken 6 at

we

have

to find the number

of permutations

time ;

the requiredresult

*
.

thingsand
=

9P6

=9x8x7x6x5x4
=

taken
tilings
Let

find

To

144.

at

"Crdenote

Then

each

60480.

of

the number

combinations

of

dissimilar

time.
the

requirednumber

of these

dissimilar

things which

|rways.

[Art.142.]

combinations
can

be

of combinations.
consists of

arranged among

of r
group
in
themselves
a

118

HIGHER

Hence

"Crx

thingstaken

ALGEBRA.

\r is equal to the number

time ; that

rata

*C x\r
|

of arrangements

is,

(n 1)(n
"

2)

"

(n

1);

r +

_tt(w-l)(w-2)...(w-r+l)
|r
Cor.

\n

"

This formula

; for if we
obtain
r we

for

\r

The

numerator

numbers

from

1)

\n

"

'"

different

by

"

consists of the

now

to

{n

...

the denominator

and

numerator

2)

in

also be written

nCr may

multiplythe

(n 1)(n

"P

form

of

productof

all the natural

\n
.'.

It will be convenient

"Cr=.
to

(2).

nCr,using (1)in all cases where a

it is sufficient to leave
and (2)when
If in formula

Note.

both

remember

(2)we put

n,

these

numerical
it in

we

\n

an

for
expressions

result is

required,
algebraical
shaj)e.

have
i

|0'
n~jn|_0"
but

nCn=l,

so

be considered

that if the formula

as

is to be true for

n,

the

symbol 10

must

equivalentto 1.

12 books in how
selection of 5 be
can
a
Example. From
many
ways
book is always included, (2) when
one
made, (1)when one specified
specified
book is always excluded ?

(1)
have

only

Since the

to choose

Hence

book is to be included
specified
of the remaining 11.

4 out

the number

of ways

n
=

C4

11x10x9x8
~

1x2x3x4
=

330.

in every

selection,we

PERMUTATIONS

Since

the

select the 5 books

out

(2)

Hence

AND

book
specified

to be

is always
remaining 11.

of the

the number

of ways

119

COMBINATIONS.

excluded,

have

we

to

nC6

11x10x9x8x7
_

1x2x3x4x5
462.

number

The

145.

equalto the number

In
group
n
r
n

at
"

of n thingsr at a time
of\\ thingsn
r at a time.

of combinations

is

"

combinations
of n things,
to each
making all the possible
of r thingswe
there
is
left
a corresponding
select,
group of
of combinations
of n things
things; that is,the number
time is the

of combinations

at

same

the number

as

of combinations

things

time ;

"C =nC

.-.

The

of

also be

proposition
may

"

provedas

follows

\n
"0

[Art.144.1

="

_r

"

(n r)

"

Such
Note.

The

combinations
Put r=w,

result

abridgearithmetical
Example.

useful

just proved is

in

enablingus

to

work.

Out of 14
The

complementary.

ttC0 nCn=l.

have

we

called

are

then

"

men

in how

requirednumber

many
=

can

ways

an

eleven be chosen?

14CU

14

13

12

1x2x3
=

If

we

had

made

expressionwhose

use

of the formula

numerator

and

364.

uCn,

denominator

we

should have had to reduce

each contained 11 factors.

au

120

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Tojind the number of ways in which m + n thingscan be

divided into two groups containing
in and
n
thingsrespectively.
of combinations
This is clearlyequivalentto findingthe number
select
of ra + n thingsra at a time, for every time we
of
leave
a group
n thingsbehind.
one
group of ra thingswe
146.

Thus

required number

the

Ira+
h=

ra

\7b

Note.

If

the

m,

in this

equal, and

are

groups

the number

case

of

\2m
of subdivision is

different
ways
to

interchangethe

two

~
-

[9

without

groups

for in any

"

"

obtaininga

one

it is

way

possible

distribution.

new

To jind the number

147.
of ways in which m + n + p thingscan
be divided into three groups containingm, n, p things
severally.
First
and

divide

thingsinto two
: the number
thingsrespectively
ra

\m
be done

can

is

of ways

the number

be divided

can

in which

this

n+p

-r=

\m

Then

containingm

groups
of ways

into two

n+p

in which

of n+p
things
group
containingn and p thingsrespec-

groups

the

\n+p
tivelyis
n

Hence

the number

n, p

in which

of ways

containingm,

groups

n+p

\m

n+p
x
,

in

be made

thingscan

m.

\n

into three

the subdivision

is
n

]"

or

-,5

Ira \n

\p

\p

J3wi
Note.

If

we

put

?i=p

we

obtain

r=-|

"

"

hut this formula

different all the possibleorders in which ~th.ethree

mode
of subdivision.
And
since there are
one
any

as

to

which

each

mode

of

the
subdivision,

subdivision into three equal groups

can

number
be made

groups
13 such

The

number

of ways

in which

in

occur

can

orders

responding
cor-

of

different
ways

is

|3ot
r^f r^
771 m
|3

15 recruits

in

"

"

"

771

Example.

regards

can

be divided into

115
three

can

equal groups

is

---

,-

and

the number

of ways

in which

be drafted into three different regiments,five into each, is

-_"

I15
Hr

they

"

[6 J5 [6

PERMUTATIONS

148.

In the

AND

follow

exampleswhich

it is

for 'permutations should

that the formula

suitable selections required

by the

Example 1. From 7
be formed; in how many

121

COMBINATIONS.

important to
be

not

questionhave

Englishmen and 4 Americans

been
a

this be done, (1)when

ways
2 Americans
?
at
least
2
exactly Americans, (2)

(1)

can

2 Americans

"We have to choose

and

used

notice

until the

made.

committee
of 0 is to
the committee
tains
con-

Englishmen.

be chosen is 4C, ; and

of ways in which the Americans
can
The number
of ways in which the Englishmen can be chosen is 7C4. Each of
the number
be associated with each of the second ; hence
the first groups can
of ways = 4C2x 7C4
the requirednumber

\1

li
=

|~2"[2X
TTJ3
17

'J^

210.

|2|2|3
(2)

The

committee

contain

may

4 Americans.

2, 3, or

all the suitable combinations

by forming all the groups
4 Englishmen ; then 3 Americans
and 3 Englishmen;
and 2 Englishmen.

"We shall exhaust

and
containing2 Americans
and lastly4 Americans
The
number

sum

of ways

results will

give the answer.

+ 4C4 x 7C,
*C2x 7C4+ 4C3x 7(73

of the three
=

[212
=

17

|4

17
X

TTT^

TK

required

[2)5

371.
of the

have only to make

use
we
with
the
concerned
not
for
are
we
combinations,
themselves.
of the committee
members
among
In this

the

17

rl-^+

[4j_3 j_3 |3|4

210 + 140 + 21

Hence

Example

suitable formulae

possiblearrangements

and 4 vowels, how many

Example 2. Out of 7 consonants
and 2 vowels?
each containing3 consonants

words

for

of the

can

be

made

is 7C3,and the
of choosingthe three consonants
of ways
number
is
since
each
of the first
2
the
vowels
and
of ways of choosing
number
*Ca;
of
number
combined
the
the
be associated with each of
second,
groups can
and 2 vowels, is 7C3x 4C2.
3 consonants
groups, each containing
The

Further,each of these
among

the

themselves

requirednumber

in

groups

[5ways.
of words

contains

which
letters,

Hence
=

7C3x 4C2x Jo
"

~|3|4X[2]2X
=

5x|7
r

25200.

may

be

arranged

122

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

3.

Example

How

many
that the vowels occupy the

words

be formed

can

of the letters article,

so

out

places?

even

nants
Here we have to put the 3 vowels in 3 specified
places,and the 4 conso3
done
in
the
be
4
first
in the
can
remaining places;
operation
1 ways,

and

the second in

14

the requirednumber

Hence

of words

=|3x[4
=

144.

immediately applicable,
one
way of choosing the

In this Example the formula for permutationsis

because by the statement
of the questionthere is but
vowels, and one way of choosingthe consonants.

EXAMPLES

XI.

In how many ways can a consonant

the letters of the word courage?
1.

a.

and

vowel be chosen out of

and
8 candidates for a Classical,
7 for a Mathematical,
are
the
In
how
Natural
Science
4
can
a
Scholarship.
ways
many
be awarded?
Scholarships

2.

There

for

3.

Find

the value of

8P7, 25P5,24"74,
19CU.

different arrangements
4. How
many
of the letters of the word equation ?
of
If four times the number
number
five
times
to
the
equal
find n.
3 together,

5.

is

6.

many

"

be made
these will

of the letters of
beginwith t and end
out

be made
different selections can
7. How
by
many
different
How
numbers
?
the digits
1
3, 4, 7, 5,8,
many
?
with four of these digits
8.

If

9.

How

10.

2nC3 : nOj

How

many

many
alwaysbeinglast ?

of

of
be formed

taking four
can

3, find n.

changescan

be rung

changescan

how many
nightsmay
crew
24, so that no two watches
be taken?
would any one man

11.

On

44

by taking 5

permutationsof n things3 together

1 things
of permutationsof n

permutationscan
of
triangle?How
many

How

the word
with e ?

be made

can

with

be rung with

pealof

5 bells ?

the
pealof 7 bells,

tenor

watch of 4 men
be drafted from a
of these
identical
how
? On
are
many
a

12. How
arrangements can be made out of the letters of the
many
wrord draught,
the vowels never
beingseparated?

124

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

boat is to be manned
An eight-oared
by a crew chosen from 11
but canand
the rest can row
cannot
but
not
steer
of
whom
3 can
row,
men,
of
the
be
if
the crew
arranged, two
steer. In how many
ways can
men
can
only row on bow side?

30.

that the number

negativesignsmay be placedin a
be together
is p + 1Cn.
31.

Prove

32.

If

56Pr+

54Pr+

of ways
in which
two
so that no
row

30800

1, find

positiveand n
negativesignsshall
p

r.

ently
6 differbe made by hoisting
different signalscan
How
many
them
of
number
above the other,when
coloured flagsone
any
be hoisted at once ?

33.
may

U^C2r

34.

been

regardedas
or

one

some

24C2r_4225

11, find r.

Hitherto, in the formulae

149.
have

unlike.

sets of

more

have

proved,the things
in which
cases
considering

we

Before

be

thingsmay

like,it

is necessary
like and unlike

to

the words
are
point out exactlyin what sense
used.
When
like,
unwe
different,
speak of thingsbeing dissimilar,
be
to
that
the
unlike,so as
we
thingsare visibly
imply
On
the other hand
from each other.
we
distinguishable
easily
like thingsto denote such as are
alike
shall always use the term
from each other.
For
be distinguished
to the eye and cannot
in
instance,

the
2, Art. 1-48,

Ex.

be said each

to consist of

and thus in
characteristic,

consonants

of

group
certain

and

the vowels

thingsunited

by

to be of the

sense

same

may

common

kind;

because there is an
regardedas like things,
which
the things of each group
individuality
existingamong
from
each
other.
makes
them
Hence, in
easilydistinguishable
considered
each
to
the final stage of the example we
group
therefore capable of [5
consist of five dissimilar things and
but

be

they cannot

themselves.

arrangements among
150.
12

books

the remainder
The

books

on

shelf,5

in different
in each

class,united by

one

from
distinguishable
would

be

of them

languages.

languagemay
common

each

be

regardedas belongingto

characteristic ; but
of
other, the number

)12,since for the purpose

they are

possible
ways of arranging
and
being Latin, 4 English,

to find all the

have

Supposewe

[Art.141 Cor.]

different.
essentially

of

arrangement

if

they were

permutations
among

selves
them-

AND

PERMUTATIONS

125

COMBINATIONS.

tinguisha
If, however, the books in the same
language are not disshould have to find the number
from each other,we
be
of ways in which 12 thingscan
alike of
when 5 of them are exactly
of

second

of the

kind
we

cases

problem which

have

arrangedamong
kind, and

one

is not

themselves,

exactlyalike,

included
directly

in any

considered.
previously

of ways in which n thingsmay be

themselves,
takingthem all at a time, when p
arranged among
of the thingsare exactlyalike of one kind, q of them exactly
alike of a third kind,and
alike of another kind,r of them exactly
the rest all different.
To

151.

Let there be

b, r of them

to be

number

find the

letters ; suppose p of them to be a, q of them

to be c, and the rest to be unlike.

of permutations; then if in
requirednumber
the_pletters a were
replacedby p
any one of these permutations
of
from
the
this single
unlike letters different from any
rest,
of any of the remaining
the position
without altering
permutation,
could form Ip new
we
permutations.Hence if this change
letters,
should obtain x x \p
we
made in each of the x permutations
were
permutations.
Let

the

be

the

if the q letters b were

Similarly,
would
of permutations
number
x

we

\p x

replacedby

q unlike

be

|"7.

the r letters c by r unlike

In like manner,
by replacing
obtain x x \px \q x \rpermutations.
should finally
But

the

thingsare

permutationsamong

treated

admit

of \n

Hence

\px \qx

\n;

r-

"

~.
"

"

\p\gp

is the

Any

letters,

r
'

is,

which

and therefore
different,

themselves.
x

that

all

now

letters,

case

requirednumber
in which

similarly.

the

of

permutations.

thingsare

not

all different may

be

126

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

have here
the number

We
Hence

be made

permutationscan
?
all together

different
1. How
many
assassination taken
letters of the word

Example

4
13 letters of which
of permutations

s, 3

are

are

a, 2

are

of the

out

i, and

are

n.

~|^[3|2j"
=

13.11.10.9.8.7.3.5

1001

many
Example 2. How
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, so that the

digits1, 3, 3, 1

odd

The

10800

the digits
with
formed
digitsalways occupy the odd places?

numbers
odd

be

can

10810800.

can

arrangedin

be

their four

placesin

l^2ways
The

digits2, 4, 2

even

arranged in their three placesin

be

can

(1)-

13

(2).

y^ ways
Each

in

of the ways

(1)can
14

Hence

the

requirednumber

To

152.

time, when

find
each

times in any
Here

we

of the ways

in

(2).

y^=x--j^

the number

thing may

of permutationsof n thingsr
be repeated
up
once, twice,

at
to

a
r

arrangement.
have

placescan be
each
disposal,
any

be associated with each

13
6 x 3 = 18.
=
x

to

consider

the

number

filled up when
have n
we
of the n things beingused

of ways in which
different thingsat our

as

often

as

we

pleasein

arrangement.

it has
first placemay be filled up in n ways, and, when
been filled up in any one
way, the second placemay also be filled
not
are
precludedfrom using the same
up in n ways, since we
The

of ways in which
the number
n2. The third
be filled up iswxn
or
also be filled up in n ways, and therefore the first three
n3 ways.

thing again.
two
placescan

Therefore

Proceedingin this manner,

of n is always the same

index
we

shall have

filled up

the number

equalto

nr.

and
as

of ways

that
noticing

the number

of

in which

the

at any

the first

placecan
placesin
stage the

placesfilled up,
r
placescan be

PERMUTATIONS

Example. In
each

is

boy

Any

how

AND

many

of the

one

prizescan

also be
remaining prizes
received
has
who
already
boy
can

away

be given in 4
given in 4 ways,
a prize. Thus
and

make

be taken

or

2x2x2x2

of \\ things.
ways, for it may either
of dealingwith any one
of

with
dealing

eacli

one

factors.

all the

in which

case

"the

as

thingsare

of ways

case, the total number

spoken of

This is often

total number

left,

is 2"-l.

of combinations"

things.

has
to dinner?
A

Example.
of them

more

He
ways

to

the

this includes

this
therefore,
rejecting

of

all

it is possible

of selections is

others,the number

But

in which

ways

since either way

be associated with either way

thing may
of the

of

dealt with in two

tiling
may be
or
left;and

Each

boys,when

ways.

find the total number

selection by takingsome

to 4

and then any one

of the;
ways;
since it may
be obtained by the
two prizescan
be given away in
Hence the 5 prizescan be given

on.

so

To

153.
to

prizesbe given away

prizes?

4a ways, three prizesin 4:! ways,

in 45, or 1024

can

ways

for all the

eligible

127

COMBINATIONS.

man

has to select some

is 2s
1, or 63.

6 friends ; in how

or

many

ways

all of his 6 friends ; and

may

he invite

one

or

therefore the number

of

This
The
number

result

be verifiedin the

can

singly,in twos, threes,

6C1+ 6C2+ 6C3+ 6C4+ 6C5+ ""C6

be invited

guests may
of selections

6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1

154.

To

of n thingsr
Since

findfor what
at

manner.
following

value

of

63.

the number

1.2.3

=nC
.

"

l)

(w-r

2)

(r-1)

1. 2.3

"C

2)(n-r

(r-l)r

_n(n-l)(n-2)

of combinations

time is greatest.

=^(?l-1)(n-2) (w-r +

"C

; therefore the

x
r

The
which

factor
multiplying
shews

that it decreases

may
as

increases.

be

written
Hence

as

"

1,

receives

128

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

increased
succession,nGris continually

in

1, 2, 3

values

the

71 4-

equal to 1

1 becomes

until

or

less than

1.

1^1,

Now
r

71+1
^

long

so

as

"

"

r.

is,

We
this

"

have

"

choose

to

that

consistent

with

inequality.
Let

(1)

be even,

by puttingr

Hence

is "C

combinations

"

2"

?"

to

up

"

+1

2m

-2
for all values of

then

equalto 2m;

and

and

of

greatestvalue

the

inclusive this is

?n

greater than

greatestnumber

find that the

we

"

+s;
r.

of

Let

(2)

odd, and equalto 2m

be

n
"

but when

of

1 ; then

=-5"

li

"

inclusive this is

greater than r ;
factor becomes
1 the multiplying
equalto 1, and

for all values

and

2m

to

up

*C.=nC

that

:
'

mi+I

is,"C n+

'

-nC

therefore the number

taken

thingsare

155.

time

numbes

of

at

Let
r

a,

at

b,c,

or

"

^"

at

is

time;

greatest when

the result

the

being the

cases.

The formula

"

in the two

same

"

of combinations

and

"

7i"l

may

for the number

of combinations
of
be found without
assumingthe formula

things
for the

permutations.

"Crdenote
time;
d,

and

of combinations

the number
let the

thingsbe

of

denoted

thingstaken

by

the

letters

Take
away a; then
of
combinations
"~XC

r
tilings

at

and

Tlierefore

so

But

1 at

form

cm

time.

With

number
for each of the n letters.

is equalto the number

of combinations
"~*Cr_l
with those that contain b,
contain a, together

time

we

that of the combinations

of those which
contain
of those which
contain

thus we
see
time, the number

which
those that contain c, and
at

1 letters taken

w~lC x\ similarlythe

is

b is n~xC

remainingletters

these write a;

eaeli of
of

with tin1
n"

120

COMBINATIONS.

AND

PERMUTATIONS

so

on.

in this manner,

by formingthe combinations
will be repeated
r times.
one

For

if
instance,

each ticular
parr=3, the

abc will be found anions; those containinga,

those containing
Hence
c.
b,and among those containing
combination

*c=n-xcr
r"

By writingu

1 and

"

1x-.
i

.,

1 instead of

"

amonir

and

respectively,

ni

r-l"
"-2

-V^

Similarly,

n"

+ 2/~1

^Gr_z

_n-r

and

finally,

n-r+1C1 "-r
=

the
Multiplytogether
from

+ \ri

^i

"

".
;

1.

vertical columns

and

cancel like factors

each side ; thus

"C

.n(rc-l)(n-2)

(n-r+l)
1

r(r-l)(r-2)
156.
to make

To
a

find the

selection

total number

by takingsome

in which

of ways

all out
kind,q alike
or

alike of one
are
tilings,
ivJierenf-p
third
kind; and so on.
ofa
The p thingsmay be disposed
of

it is -possible

qfip+ cx+r +
of a second kind, r

alike

take

0, 1,2, 3,

disposedof
so

in

p "f thorn.
\ ways;
the

in p

1 ways

; for

may

wo

be
the q things may
Similarly
and
r
things in r+1
ways;

on.

H. II. A.

130

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

is

disposedof

of Avays in which

number

the

Hence

taken

ways

is

the

in which

case

therefore, rejectingthis

case,

Find

Example.

be solved in the

four

of

of

number

combinations,of n thingstaken r
may be somewhat
thingsare not all different,
may

thingsare
of

number

-1.

at

or

case
particular

total

the

the
expressing

generalformula

of the

none

(jp+ l)fe+l)(r+ .l)

157.

be

tilings
may

(^ + 1)(q+ 1)(r+ 1)

this includes

But

all the

tions,
permuta-

time,when

the

complicated
; but

manner.
following

of ways in which
the number
from
be made
letters can

(1)a selection,(2)an
the

letters of

the

rangement,
ar-

word

proportion.
There
In

are

10 letters of six different sorts,namely o, o,o;

Three

(4)

All four different.

Two

alike,two others alike.

Two

alike,the other

The

selection

p, r, t, is

n, can

(2) The
of the three
(3)
3

This

pairs,and

(1) This

selection

pairso,

then two

from

be made

in

3C2ways
in 3

in

be made

the six

o, p, r,

(2) givesrise

to 3

(3) givesrise

to 30

(4) givesrise

to 15

the total number

; for

we

have to choose two out

6C4ways,

t, i,n.

findingthe different arrangements of 4

all possible
groups.
ways each of the foregoing
In

Thus

of the five letters,

of the three like letters o.

as

This

we

have

to take 4 different

gives15 selections.

of selections is 5 + 3 + 30 + 15 ; that

the total number

(1) givesrise to

; for each

10 ways ; for we select one of the

5
the remaining letters. This gives30 selections.
be made

can

can

This"gives3 selections.

r, r.

p, p;

from

selection

i; n.

different.

two

in 5 ways
be made
with the single
group

can

o;

selection

letters to choose
Thus

can

be taken

r, r; t;

different.

alike,one

(1)
(2)
(3)

(1)

be classifiedas follows

of four these may

findinggroups

p,p;

or

=
,

20

-^=^ or
,

-=-

j4
,

or

or

letters

we

is,53.

have to permute in

arrangements.

18 arrangements.

360 arrangements.

3G0 arrangements.

of arrangements is 20 + 18 + 360 + 360; that is,758.

132

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

and
has 5 arms
telegraph
includingthe positionof
positions,
t
hat
be made ?
can
signals
A

17.

each

is capableof 4 distinct
is the total number
rest ; what
of
arm

7 persons form a
many
ways can
Americans
sit down
and
7
7
Englishmen
ways
two Americans
beingtogether?
In how

18.

can

many

is it

ways

From

20.

of fruit

cocoa

can

be

and
nuts, 4 apples,

made,

the number

Find

21.
n

at

of money
from
to draw a sum
possible
a
a
a
a sovereign,half-sovereign,
florin,shilling,
crown,
bag containing
and
a
farthing?
penny,
In how

19.

In how many
round table,
no

ring?

takingat least one

of different ways

tions
selec-

oranges, how many

of each kind ?

of

dividingmn

thingsinto

equalgroups.
22.

colours
at

once

4 flagsof different
signalscan be made by hoisting
of them may be hoisted
above the other,when any number
one
with
5
?
? How
flags
many

How

many

of permutationswhich can
23. Find the number
?
the letters of the word series taken three together

be formed

out of

in a plane,
There are p points
three of which are in the same
no
line with the exception
of q, which are all in the same
straight
straight
of
of
which
result
the
number
find
(1) straightlines,
(2) triangles
line;
them.
from joining

24.

pointsin space, no four of which are in the same

exceptionof q, which are all in the same
plane; find
the
there
each
three
of
are
planes
containing
points.

25. There
plane with the
how

many

26.
number

are

There
of ways

are

different books,and p copiesof each; find the

be made from them.
a selection can

in which

of selections and of arrangementsthat

27. Find the number
made by taking4 letters from the word expression.

28. How many

permutationsof 4 letters
letters of the word examination ?

can

be made

can

be

out of the

of all numbers
29. Find the sum
greaterthan 10000 formed
usingthe digits1,3,5, 7,9, no digitbeingrepeatedin any number.

by

Find the sum

of all numbers
greater than 10000 formed
using the digits
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, no digitbeingrepeatedin any number.

by

30.

If of p + q + r thingsp be
shew that the total number
different,

31.

alike,and

and
q be alike,
of combinations is

the rest

(p + l)(q+l)2r-l.
32. Shew that the number
of permutationswhich
be formed
can
from 2n letters which are either a's or 6's is greatestwhen the number
of a's is equalto the number
of Z"'s.
33.
them

If the

-f 1 numbers

a,

b,c, d,

prime number, prove that the number

ambcd
is (m + 1)2W" 1.
expression
a

be all different,
and each of
of differentfactors of the

CHAPTER

XIT.

Mathematical

158.

Many

demonstrated
find
mathematical

Example

formula? are
not
important mathematical
easily
quently
frewe
by a direct mode of proof; in such cases
it convenient
of proofknown
to employ a method
as

induction, which
1.

Suppose

of the first n natural

We
as

it is

required
is

numbers

equal

to
"

"

the

that

prove
^"

to

illustrate.

now

was

in all

true

Assume

cases.

of the cubes

sum

'J-

"

is true
easilysee by trial that the statement
3
and
from
this
we
or
or
2,
re=l,
might be
;

the formula

in

simple cases,

led to

such

conjecturethat

that it is true when

terms

are

that is,suppose
13 + 23 + 33+

Add

shall

we

can

when

taken

Induction.

the

term,
("+ l)th

13 + 23 + 33+

to

that

+ 1 terms

itteims=|H(;t+1)j3.

to

is,(n+ 1)3to

each

side ; then

=jn^2+1^|
+(n+iy

\-

l\
iy-('j+n

{n+

(n+l)8(na+4n+4)
4

\(n
-\

which

is

of

the

same

form

as

the

l)(K + 2))\

result

2
we

'

assumed

to

be

true

for

terms,

take
we
words, if the result is true when
n
when
it
is
true
number
we
that
be,
a
may
when
3
terms
it
is
true
are
that
but
increase that number
see
we
by one;
taken ; it is therefore true when
4 terms
taken ; therefore it is true when
are
is true universally.
the
result
Thus
5 terms
are
taken; and so on.
+ 1 taking the
certain
number

place of n ; in other
of terms, whatever

134

To

2.

Example
x

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

productof

determine the

binomial

factors of the form

a.

By

have

we
multiplication

actual

x3 +

(x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c)

(a+

c)x2 + (ab+

b+

(x+a) (x+ b) (x+ c)(x+ d) x*+(a +

b+

In these results
1. The number
binomial factors on

we

(ab+

(abc+

cd)x~

ad + bc+ bd +

ac+

abd + acd +

+ abed.

bed)x

observe that the followinglaws hold

of terms
the left.

rightis

the

on

+ abc ;

d)x3

ca)x

bc +

than

more

one

the number

of

of
the number
is the same
of x in the first term
as
the index is one
less than
binomial factors ; and in each of the other terms
that of the preceding
term.
The

2.

index

The coefficientof the firstterm is unity; the coefficient of the second

is the sum
of the letters a, b, c,
; the coefficient of the third
two
these
letters
taken
is
the
of
the
of
at a time;
term
sum
products
taken
three at
of
their
the
fourth
is
the
the coefficientof
term
sum
products
the
of
all
letters.
is the product
a time ; and so on ; the last term
3.

term

Assume

that these laws hold in the

(x+ a) (x+b)...
(x+ h)
p1

sides

+ b + c+

ab +

p3

abc + abd+

by

ac

Now

xn +

(px+ k)xn~l
^i +

another

factor

"+

(ab+

letters a,

+l^n-xk.

+...

b,c,...k;

h)

...

productstaken

ac

two

ah + bc +

productstaken

all the

at

time of all the

k;

...

letters a, b, c,

2?n_1A*productof
=

(p3+ pJc)xn~3

+ "
..+/*)

b+

of the

sum

the

(x + h)(x+ k)

...

letters a, b, c,

p.A+p.2k=p3 + k
=

of the

sum
n

k ; thus

of all the

sum

p.2+p1k=p.2+k (a+
=

+p"n^

...

(p.2
+pxk)xn~*

is,suppose

abc...h.

+
A;:=(a
=

1 factors ; that

+ ah + bc + bd+

...

(x + a) (x + b)
=

...h;

p.2=

pn_x

Multiplyboth

x71'1+p1xn~2
+
+p.2xn~3
+p.ixn-i

where

of

case

...

.)

three at

k;

letters a,

b,

c,

k.
...

time

of all

MATHEMATICAL

If therefore the

laws

hold

they

hold

in the

case

of

factors; therefore

factors ; and

so

of

case

[x+ a) (x+ b) {x+c)

where

S^the
the

"So=

by
of

products taken

at

8n

time

of these

letters.

often

be

blished
esta-

for all positive

integral

1 is divisible

From

only

theorems

which

admit

natural

by

by

by^r 1,and

so

of the

the
to

1.

1+3

2.

l2 + 22 + 32+

3.

2 + 22 + 23 +

5+

+ o~q
1.22.33.4

T~o

Prove

by

1.

it will be

chapter

seen

the

on

that

the

cases

be

can

n.

XII.

(2n-l)
+

q-~T

n2.

2(2'l-l).
ton

Induction

n2=i?i(n+l)(2tt+l).

+ 2"

in the

applied are those

correspondingto the order of

1, 2, 3,

Induction

by

1 ; therefore

by x
propositionis established.

will be found

induction

of successive
numbers

by

the

foregoingexamples

which

1 is also divisible

1 is divisible

; hence

on

kind

same

x*

x3

EXAMPLES.
Prove

1, then

1 ; therefore

"

x-1

1 is divisible

x4,

1G0.

even.

z'l-1-l
xn~l ^

x-1

1 is divisible

5.

letters.

x'1

4.

Js;

...

that .-cu-l is divisible by x-1

Shew

Other
examples
Theory of Numbers.

the

in the
for 6

also

n.

if therefore xn~l

+
Stfp-*+ S.Axn~*

two

xn-l

that they hold

relatingto divisibility
may

ByJ division

But

multiplied together

are
seen

induction.

Example.
values

havo

letters a, b, c

of all the

Theorems

factors
we

,VU_1

x11 +

of the

sum

Sn=the product
159.

(x+ k)

...

of all the

sum

?t-l
But

they hold for 5 factors; therefore

they hold universally. Therefore

; thus

on

when

factors.

135

INDUCTION.

that

.rn

terms

"

"

n+1-^

yn is divisible by x+y

when

is

XIII.

CHAPTER

Positive

Theorem.

Binomial

Integral

Index.

be shewn

that
by actual multiplication
(x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c){x+ d)
x4 + (a+ b + c + d) x3 + (ab+ ac + ad + bc + bd + cd)x*
+ (abc
+ abd + acd + bed)x + abed
(1).
It may

161.

We

down

however, write

may,

examine

being
the

formed, we

is formed

of which

one
letters,

see

(1) the

from

taken

in
way
that

which

each
the

x4 is formed

term

by inspection
; for the
"of partial
of a number
sum
products
four
by multiplyingtogether

of the

completeproductconsists
each

this result

of the
various

four

factors.

If

we

partialproducts are

by taking the

letter

out

of each

of the factors.

(2) the

involvingx3

terms

are

formed

by taking the
and one
possible,

letter

by taking the
and two
possible,

letter

three

of any
factors,in every way
letters a, 6, c, d out of the remainingfactor.
out

(3)the

involvingx2

terms

of any two factors,in

letters a, b, c, d out of the
out

(4)the
the

",

one

every

factor,and

three of the

remainingfactors.
(5) the term independentof

b,c,

way

remainingfactors.
involvingx are formed by taking the

terms

of any

out

formed

are

is the

letters a,

productof

b, c, d

1.
=

x4 +

(-

2 + 3
+

2)(x+ 3) (x 5) (x+ 9)
5 + 9)z3 + (- 6 + 10 -18 -15
(30 54 + 90 135)x + 270
(x

x4 + 5a;3

47."c2 69z
-

+ 270.

+ 27

of the

of the

letter

out

of

all the letters

d.

Example

-45) a2

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

Find

2.

Example

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

137

INDEX.

the coefficient of x* in the

product
(x 3)
5)[x 1)(x 2)(x 8).
The terms
involvingx* are formed by multiplying
togetherthe x in any
three of the factors,and two of the numerical
quantitiesout of the two remaining
factors ; hence the coefficient is equal to the sum
of the products
8 taken two at a time.
of the quantities 3, 5, -1,2,
(*+

-15

-39.

b=c=d=a,

G + 2-1- 5 + 10-40-

+ 3-

equation(1)of

If in

1G2.

requiredcoefficient

the

Thus

the

2 + 8-

10

precedingarticle

we

suppose

obtain

we

x4

(x+ a)4
=

iax*

6a V

4a3as+ a4.

of deducinga particular
case
exemplified
result
is
of
in
one
more
a
general
frequentoccurrence
often
Mathematics
for
it
that
it
is
to
more
happens
;
easy
prove
than
it
is
of
to
it.
a
a
case
generalproposition
particular
prove
shall in the next article employ the same
We
method
to prove
Binomial
known
as the
a formula
Theorem, by which any binomial
of the form x + a can
be raised to any assigned
integral
positive
method

The

here

from

power.
163.

find the expansion of (x+ a)nivhen

To

is

positive

integer.
Consider

the

expression
(x + a)(x+ b)(x+ c)

of factors

the number

beingn.

expansionof

The

(x+ k),

this

is
expression

the continued

productof

x + k, and
b,x + c,
every term in the
plying
expansionis,of n dimensions,being a productformed by multiof
factors.
taken
from
each
these
n
n
one
letters,
together

the

x +
factors,

The
letter

highestpower
terms

any
the

of

each of the

from

The
from

a,

n"\

are

formed

and
factors,

one

by takingthe

letter

k
of the letters a, b, c,
coefficient of xn~1 in the
...

remainingfactor ; thus the

of the letters a,
final product*is the sum

from

by taking the

factors.

xn~l
involving
of the

is formed

is xn, and

b, c,

k;

denote

it

by^.
The

terms

from

xn~2
involving
2 of. the

are

formed

and
factors,

two

any n
from the two remaining factors ; thus
of the
the final product is the sum
a,

b, c,

"

...

k taken

two

at

time; denote

by takingthe

letter

of the letters a, b, c,
the coefficient of xn~

productsof
it by S2.

the

k
...

in

letters

138

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

xn~r are formed by taking

involving
and r of the letters
the
r
x
factors,
any
k from the r remainingfactors ; thus the coefficient of
a, b,c,
of the productsof the letters
x"~r in the final productis the sum
denote
it by Sr.
a, b, c, ...k taken r at a time;
the
And, generally,

terms

from

letter

of the

"

...

xn

Sxn~l

SjxT* +

12

the

of terms

that is,nC2; in S3 the number

suppose
S, becomes

(x+ a)n

series

the

"-i

"

x"+naxn

n(n

"

"_"

"

v1

J+

"

a,

b, x

then

can

Binomial

induction

By

so

we

c,

deduce

the

Theorem

may

time ;

on.

Sl becomes
thus

"Ca" ;

\)(n"2)
/v
l
"

"

"

a3xn 3+...
n

an,

the

on
expression

also be

right

follows

proved as

product of the n factors

+ k as
explainedin Art. 158, Ex. 2; we
expansionof (x+ a)nas in Art. 163.
find

can

...x

at

1 terms.

This is the Binomial Theorem, and the

is said to be the expansion of (x+ a)*.
The

is

of terms

things2

obtain

n(n"l)
\ r-^oV

l+

n+
containing

164.

nC3; and

is

of terms

we

...

x"

of

number

+ "C^aV"3 +
+ nC2a2xn~2
nClaxn-1

for *CltnC2,
substituting

(x+a)n

S2 the

; in

S
n

...

xn

by Sn.

,x
1

b, c,
k, each equal to a; then
"C\a2: S0 becomes "Cjf: and so on:

Now
"Ca:

is

n"

of combinations

the number

as

same

...+S

number

$j the

In

it

(x+ k)

" x"~r

"""

denote

k;

...

(x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c)

Hence
=

productis abc

in the

last term

The

the

expansionof (x+ a)" are very

convenientlyexpressedby the symbols "C,,"C2,nC3, nCn.
We
however, sometimes further abbreviate them by omitting
shall,
C2,C3, Cn. With this notation we have
n, and writing(7,,
+ C3a3xn~3
+
+ Ca\
(x+ a)n x" + Cxaxn~l+ C2a2xn~2
coefficients in the

The

165.

...

...

...

If

write

we

(x-a)n
=

x"

xn-

"

placeof

a,

we

obtain

+ Cn(-a)n
C\(-a)xn-l + C2(-a)2xn-2+C3(-a)3xn-3+...
+
C,axn~l+ C"a2xn-2 C,a3xn~3
-

Thus

in the

the

terms

in the

...

is

even

or

odd.

a\
n

"

(- IYG

expansionof (x+ a)nand (x a)nare

alternately
positive
negativeaccording

the same, but in (x a)'1

numerically
they are
is positive
and the last term
and negative,
or
as

140

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

1.

Example
The

Find

the fifth term

of

(a+ 2a;3)17.

=17C4a13 (2a;3)4

requiredterm

17.16.15.14
xl6ft13.T12
1.2.3.4
=

2.

Example
The

Find

the fourteenth term

requiredterm

167.
of Art.
of

This

(l+x)n.

of (3

a)15.

(3)2( a)13
15C13
15C2x(-9a13)
-

[Art.145.]

945a13.

of the binomial

simplestform

The
of

38080a13 x12.

is obtained

theorem

from

the

Thus

a.

+
(1+ x)n l+HCix+ "C2x2

n(n-\)

nx

"

zr"i

"

+
"Crxr

ar +

r"

4+

"Cxn

..+

'

1.2
the

pansion
ex-

generalformula
in the place
x

placeof x, and

163, by writing1 in the

is the

generalterm being

(n-r+ 1)

n(n"l)(n"2)

tb

The

expansion of

the

upon

in which

case

binomial

always be made
is unity; thus

may

the first term

to

depend

yyJ(X(i+l)J

{x+

xn(l+ z)n,where

Example

1.

Find

expansionof (as22a;)10.

the coefficientof a;16in the

We

have

a;20(1
(a;2 2a;)10
=

2\10

and,
this

since a;20multiplies
every term

expansion to

Hence

the

expansionof ( 1

in the

seek the coefficientof the term

10

7
xl6

1.2.3.4
=

In

some

cases

the

3360.

method
following

is

which contains

requiredcoefficient 10C4( 2)4

=

simpler.

we

"

have

in

BINOMIAL

Find

2.

Example

that xr

Suppose
The

THEOEEM.

POSITIVE

the coefficientof xr in the

in tlio (p +

occurs

(p + 1)"'term

But this term

Thus

the

INTEGRAL

contains

141

INDEX.

expansion of

./"-

l),hterm.

(iY
*CP (x-)n-i"
nCp x"'1-*".
2*1

xr, and therefore 2n-5p

r,

or

"

requiredeoellicient nCiJ nCo,l_,.

=

5
n

g(2n-r)(3n +
=

Unless

"

i'

"

?")

is a positive
integerthere will be

"

term

no

containingxr

in

the expansion.

1G8.
of

In Art.

productof

the

proofthere

163

deduced

we

factors

Theorem

It will be
to obtain

the

(x+ a)(x+ b)

(x+ k),and the method

in consequence
of the wide generality
But the following
shorter proofof
be noticed.

should
in

seen

of the

To prove

equal to x + a, and every term

being a productformed
taken

one

x"~rar

from

Theorem.
the

product of n factors,each
in the expansionis of n dimensions,
by multiplying
togethern letters,

factors.

Thus

each term

involving

of any r of the factors,

and x
by takinga
of
remaining n r factors. Therefore the number

is obtained

of the

out

each of the

is used

)".

c+

the Binomial

similar method

expansionof

is
expansionof (x+ a)'1

The

...

that

Chap. xv.

generalterm

(a+
161).

expansion of (x+ ")"from

givenis valuable

of the results obtained.

the Binomial

the

out

"

of ways
in which r thingscan
be selected out of n ; that is,the coellicient
in
and by givingto r the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
of xn~rcC is "6'r,
n
of
Hence
coefficients
all
the
terms.
succession we
obtain the
terms

which

involve x"~rar must

be

equalto

the number

...

(x+ a)n
=

since

*C0and

xl

4-

"C

+ nC,,xn-"-a2
+
mCJX*-1a
.

are
n

each

equalto unity.

nCrx"-ar+

...+

a",

142

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

XIII.

EXAMPLES.

Expand

the

followingbinomials

a.

1.

(#-3)5.

2.

(3^+ 2y)4.

3.

{Zx-yf.

4.

(l-3a2)6.

5.

{a?+x)\

6.

(1-^j/)7.

"""
Write

g*-js)'- (H'clown and

NT

12-

n-

simplify:
of

14.

The

10th term

of

(1 2x)12.

(2# 1)13.16.

The

28th term

of

(5x+ 8y)30.

(a? 5)13.

13.

The

4th term

15.

The

12th term

17.

The

4th term

of U

18.

The

5th term

of (2a

19.

The

Vth term

of

of

\10

(a

96

b\8

/
-

-J

(^'^-Y
-

5. 8

20.

The

5th term

of

(
"

V-%

Find the value of

21.

(x+ s/2y+ (x-j2)\

22.

(V^^+^-CV^3^-^)5-

23.

(v/2+ l)6-(N/2-l)6.

24.

(2-Vr^)6 + (2+ v/I^^)6.

25.

Find

cV\10

the middle

term

of

\x

^"
""

26.

Find the middle

27.

Find

the coefficient of a.18in L'V2+

28.

Find

the coefficient of x18 in

29.

Find the coefficientsof x32 and #~17 in ( xA

30.

Find the two

term

of ( 1

"

(axA bx)9.
-

middle terms

/
of ( 3a

a3\9
-

"

1\15
-

-g

THEOREM.

BINOMIAL

31.

Find

the term

32.

Find

33.

If x*

34.

Find

35.

If xp

POSITIVE

independent of

the 13th term

in the

occurs

of

Ux

INTEGRAL

(-x2"

in

....

eihcient

of lx+-\
expansion

;/;

in f x"

expansionof

( xr+-

find its coefficient.

\ 3"i

-.,

1\'-'1
I

that its

prove

co-

\2n

in the

occurs

independentuf

term

"

1 b3

\-\

the

INDEX.

is

\@n+p)
j3(4"-^
170.

In

from
The

distant
of terms equiexpansionof(14- x)uthe coefficients
end
and
are
equal.
beginning

the
the

from

(r+ l)thterm

coefficient of the

beginningis

the

"C..
Tlie
terms
the (n
shewn

to be

it;

equalto

has

countingfrom

therefore

term,
l)th

r +

"

end

(r+1),or n-r
beginningit is
which has been
and its coefficient is "Cn_r,
"Cr. [Art.145.] Hence the proposition
the

from

(r+l)thterm

before

1"

the

follows.
171.

To

the greatest

find

in
coefficient

the

expansion of

(l x)"
+

The

coefficient of the

have

onlyto find for what

By Art. 154, when n

of

generalterm
value of
is even,

(1+x)"

this is

the

is

mCrjand

we

greatest.

greatestcoefficient is "Cn;
i

and

when

is

odd, it is "C

,,

or

"C

; these two

coefficients

beingequal.
172.
We

To

findthe greatestterm

have

since
therefore,

(x+ a)"
=

xn

x"

in the

(l+ -Y ;

multiplies
every

sufficient to find the

greatestterm

expansionof(x + a)".

term

in ( 1

-j

it will be

in this latter expansion.

144

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Let
The

rth and

the

(r+l)thterm
:

"

(r+l)thbe

is obtained

Vh +

terms.

rth term

by

[Art. 166.1J

factor

The

by multiplyingthe

is,by (

that

consecutive

two

any

decreases

"

increases ; hence

as

the

(r+l)thterm
until

(
\

is not

always greaterthan

/n

Now

\
1
1

"

so

only

equal to 1, or less than 1.

becomes

rth term, but

the

Jx

1"j

"

x
.,

long as

"

..

that

is,

x
"

or

"

"

1,

"

(1 ).

If

"

be

"

it

by

j" j then

if

"

]) the

denote
integer,

an

factor becomes
term
1,and the (p + l)th
multiplying
/"th
; and these are greaterthan any other term.

is

equalto

the

71+1
If

"

be

"

not

an

denote
integer,

its

integralpart by

q ;

then

greatest value of r consistent with

(q+ 1 )thterm is the greatest.
the

Since

only concerned with

will be the same
investigation
we

are

term, the
in any numerical

the

(1)is

q\ hence

the

numerically
greatest

for

(x-a)";therefore

to consider the sign

it is unnecessary
Also it will be found best
of the binomial.
of the second term
of the generalformula.
each exampleindependently
to work

example

BINOMIAL

Example
Denote

1.

THEOREM.

If

the ?""'and

POSITIVE

find the greatestterm

-,

terms
+ l)tu
(/-

INDEX.

in the

expansionof (1+

then
by Tr and Tr"1respectively;

9-r

"
T7^.l
Tr

hence

1 to

INTEGRAL

9-r
.

so

long
"

-"1;

as

36

that is

4r

3r,

"

3G"7r.

or

The greatestvalue of
is the sixth,and its value

consistent with this is 5 ; hence the greatestterm

3i4

243~
Example

2.

Find

the greatest term

(3- 2^

in the

when
expansion of (3- 2a:)9

3^1
-2|J;
J
(2rV

"

"

Here

9-r+l

10

2*
...

X3^r,.;
X

"

Tr+1" Tr
10~r

so

"

-~o~xTr, numerically,

-*r+i=

iience

long as

2
x

"

i
1

20"5r.

that is,

have Tr+l"Tr; but if r=4, then

for all values of r up to 3, we
Thus the 4"' and 5th terms
are
Tr+x= Tr" and these are the greatestterms.
value
their
other
and
term,
numericallyequal and greaterthan any
Hence

=3"x"C,x
H.

H. A.

f|
J =36x

84x8

=489888.

10

146

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

173.

To

the

find

the

of

sum

in the expansion
coefficients

of(I+x)".
In the

put

identity(1+ a?)n 1

Cxx+ G2x2+ C3x3+

Ctaf,

1 ; thus

2*=l

Cx+ C2 + C3+...+ Cn

of the coefficients.

sum

C\ + Cg + Cq +

Cor.

12

that is "the

...

=T-l;

of combinations

total number

'

of

things"is 2"

"

1.

[Art.153.]
174.

the coefficients
of the odd

of the

put

is

terms

terms.

even

In the

of
expansion of (1+ x)n,the sum
the
sum
equal to
of the coefficients

that in the

To prove

identity(1

x)n
=

Cxx + C2x2+ C3x3+

...

C x\

1 ; thus
0

...

+ (74-C6+
l-C1 + a8-(7a
01+c4+ ;.....-01+'Ca + C.+

1
=

(sum of

all the

coefficients)

"

175.

The

Binomial

which
expressions

Theorem

contain

more

2 n-l
may also be
than two terms.

appliedto expand

Find the

Example.

Regarding2x
=

9a;2+ 6x

reduction.

l, on

"

example is instructive.
following

If

(1+ x)n c0 + cxx + c#? +

c0 + 2c2+ 3c2+ 4c3+
+
+ 3c32
c12+ 2c22

+cnxn,

and
series

x6 + 6a;3+ 9a;4 4c3

find the value of

The

l)3.

singleterm, the expansion

+ 3 (a2)2
(x-)3
(2x 1)+ 3a;2(2x l)2+ (2x l)3
-

The

Example.

2x-

176.

1 as

expansionof (xz+

(l) {c0+ c1 +
=

=2w

+ ?i

2n +

c2+

Jl +

-2n+w.2"-1.

(n+l)cn

J_L

(1),
(?).

+ncn2

+ 2c2+ 3c3+
cn)+ (cx

(/t-l)+v

n(l + l)n~1

+ncn)
+il

HIGHER

148

equal

the

to

coefficient of the middle

of
term
middle
of the coefficients of the two

the

that

Shew

7.

ALGEBRA.

sum

(l+ x)2n is
terms

of

(1+tf)2"-1.
terms

even

terms
of the odd
in the expansionof (x + a)n,prove
sum

respectively
; find x, y,

1080

in the

2nd,3rd,4th terms

The

9.

the

be

If A

8.

and
that

the

A2-B2

expansion of (x+y)n

Find

the

expansionof (1+

11.

Find

the

expansionof (Zx2-2ax + 3a2)3.

12.

Find

the rth term

2x

(x2-a2)n.
240, 720,

are

end

the

from

x2)\

in

(x + a)n.
2n

(]\
x--j
expansionof (1+ #)43the
are
equal; find r.

In the

of the

n.

10.

14.

sum

coefficients of the

(2r+ l)thand

(r+ 2)thterms

the

the relation between

Find

15.

(r+ 2)thterms

3rth and

of the

the middle

that

Shew

16.

of

and

in order that

be

(l+x)2n may
in the

term

the coefficients

equal.

expansion

of

(1 +x)2n is

1.3.5...(2n-l)sn^
hi

If c0, Cj, c2,

prove

^ +

18.

c0+i

2^

c,
-

n+\

~
"

O
A

cn_x
N

2n
+

"

cn(n+l)H'-

c,c,
-1-2

(cn.1+ cn)

22c, 23c2 24c,

?
i+
+
02 +

"

n{n+\)

ncn
+

(co+ej (Cl+ c2)

2c0+

C2

cx

1-l

"

n+l

20.

21.

H
+

3c8

c.2c2
c0

"

2n

cn

4o24-

4+

+ncn=n.2n-1.

303+

c,

iy.

expansion

that

17.

io

the coefficients in the

"?n denote

...

"

1cn

-p^
+ l

3'1 + 1-1
-=-..

+ l

|2w
22.

c(f+c1+c2+

c"

i7i]^
"

\2n
23.

c0cr + CjCr +

+ c2cr + 2+

+cn_

rcn

--

=~~
.

of

(1+x)n,

CHAPTER

Binomial

In

177.

the

Theorem

when

consider

whether

of

Theorem.

last

chapter

the index

Any

investigatedthe
positiveinteger;we

was

fractional

Index.

Binomial

we

any
formula?
there

the

negativeand

XIV.

values

obtained

hold

shall

in the

of the form

actual

By

and

actual

by

(1

V 1 +

one

to

(1+x)n.
have

evolution,we

(1 + xf

case

of the index.

be reduced to
Since, by Art. 167, every binomial
may
it
will
sufficient
be
to
confine
attention
common
our
type,
binomials

now

1+

X2

x3

yr.

division,
x)~2

-x-a=

7^

2x

3x*

ix3

[CompareEx. 1, Art. CO.]

and

in each
In these

of these series the number

cases

have

we

of terms

is unlimited.

by independent processes

obtained

an

(1+ x)2and (1+ x)~~.

expansionfor each of the expressions
shall presently
that they are
of
only particularcases
prove
of
(1 + x)n,where it is
generalformula for the expansion
rational quantity.
formula

This
178.

mx+

l+n.v

the
any

Newton.

by

expressions
arrangedin ascending

two

as

(m

1)

'x-+

and

have

Suppose we
of x, such

powers

discovered

was

We

"

(m

1 ) (m
/x

"x-+-"] J

K-

2)

,
'a?+

a?

(I ).

(2).

150

productof

The

these

of x\

powers

it is clear that

then

will
expressions
it by

+Bx2

Cx3

will

case

are

;
functions

of

and

of

in any
in that

A, B, C,

the values

depend upon

series in

preserve the
the form of

If therefore

invariable form.

same

But

(2)
n

determine

can

for any value of m and n, we

conclude
form for all values of m
the same

A, B, C,

A, B, C,

we

n,

particular
case.

the coefficients of the powers of a; in (1)and

is quiteindependentof m and
to giveA, B, C,
words, whatever values in and n may have,A, B, C,

in other

cending
as-

and

in which

the way
combine

that

Dx4

A, B, C,

therefore the actual values of

and

be

two

denote

1+ Ax

and

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

will have

n.

here explained
is often referred to as an example
principle
of equivalent
forms ; in the present case
of "the permanence
we
the fact that in any algebraical
have onlyto recognise
product the
whether
the quantities
volved
inform of the result will be the same
whole
fractions
are
or
numbers, or
negative.
; positive,
of this principle
We
shall make
in the generalproofof
use
for any
Theorem
index.
The
the Binomial
proof which Ave
giveis due to Euler.
The

"

179.

To

Theorem

the Binomial

prove

ivhen the index

is

fraction.
positive
Wliatever be the value
let the
fractional,
m

+ mx

will
then.y(n)

or
of m, positiveor negative,
integral
stand
for
series
the
symbolf(m)

(m

stand
n(n

nx

"

-x-

"

y" ^

1)

"

(m-Y) ' (m
v
v

"

2)
'

"

s
x3+

...

for the series

"

l)"
'

x2

n(n
v

"

l)(n
' v

"

2)
'-

"

x3

....

multiplythese two series togetherthe productwill be

of x, whose
loillbe
another series in ascendingpowers
coefficients
unaltered inform whatever m and n may be.
If

we

To determine

this invariable

to m and n any values that

suppose that m and n are

expanded form of
(1+x)n; and therefore

is the

are

form of the productwe

most

convenient

may

give

; for this purpose

integers.In this casey(m)

positive
is the expanded form of
(1+ x)m,andy*(?i)

THEOREM.

BINOMIAL

ANY

1.51

INDEX.

f(m) xf(n) (1+ x)mx (1+ a?)"(1+ x)m+\

-

but when

and

the expansionof (1+ x)",

integers
positive

are

(m

-,

n) (m

This

is the

then

for

and

ofm

all values

1)

"

product of f(m) x/("")in

and

it may

previousnotation

our

of the

tlie values of

cases, whatever

with

form

"

and

n
may be;
be denoted hyf(m

o#
in agreement
+

n) ;

fore
there-

/(m) xf(n)=f(m+ n).

/(w) x/(n) x/(^) =/(w

Also

=f(m
Proceedingin

tliisway

we

may

shew

") x/( p)

that

k factors =/(""+
f(m) xf(n)x/(j;)...to

Let

quantities
m,

of these

each

+p), similarly.

+p

be

?i, j),

+...to

terms).

equal to

"="

rC

where

h and

but since h is

but

integers
positive
;

are

f (h) (1+ x)h;

integer,
positive
=

y*(y ) stands

for the series

k\k

(1

vi

,,

.*.

a;)
=

index.

proves

the

Binomial

k \k
x

x-

1.2

"

which

Theorem

for any

fractional
positive

152

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

To

180.

the Binomial

prove

Theorem

when

the index

is any

quantity.
negative
provedthat

It has been

f(m) x/(w)=/(w*+ n)
of

for all values

and

n.

Replacingin by

"

n
(wliere

is

have

we
positive),

f(-n) "xf(n)=f(-n+ 7i)

=/(0)
=%
of the series

since all terms

"'"

but/(w) (l + x)'\for

/hr/(-n)'

any

except the first vanish ;

of n;

value
positive

(1+ *)""=/(-*)"

or

f("n)

But

stands

for the series

(-n) x

'-f",
L
1
=

ar

...

which

(1+ ".)=

the
proves
the theorem

Hence

not

appear
to

shall

now

(_W) a. +

Binomial
is

(rg)"" "

Theorem

"

*"g"

for any

negative index.

established.
completely

proofcontained in the two precedingarticles

and will probablypresent some
whollysatisfactory,
There
is only one
the student.
point to which

The

181.

may
ficultie
difwe

refer.

of terms
is finite when
iov f(in)the number
expression
See
is a positiveinteger,
and unlimited
in all other cases.
vi
Art. 182.
It is therefore necessary to enquirein what
sense
we
In the

BINOMIAL

T11EOUEM.

ANY

153

INDEX.

regardthe statement thaty(m)x/(n)=f(m + n). It a\ ill

be seen
in Chapter xxi., that when
x"
1, each of the series/^/),
/(n)i/(m + n) *s convergent,and/(m + ") is the true arithmetical
of f(m) *f(n). But
when
equivalent
sol, all these series are
and
divergent, we can only assert that if we multiplythe series
denoted by/(m) by the series denoted
by f(u),the first r terms
of the product will agree with the first r terms
of f(m + n),
to

are

whatever

finite value

have.

may

[8eeArt. 308.]

Example

Expand (1

1.

2.

four terms.

Id-1),,.J(H(S-)

Example

xf2to

Expand (2+ 3a;)-4to

^)~4
2-"(l

(2+ 3z)-4

182.

In

findingthe

four terms.

general term

we

must

now.

the

use

formula

m(w-1)(w-2)

(n-r

l)

written
when

Also
one

in full ; for the symbol "Cr can

is fractional or negative.
the coefficient of the

generalterm

no

can

longerbe employed
vanish

never

unless

of the factors of its numerator

stop

at

the

fore
is zero; the series will thereis
that
1
zero
is,when
n
r +
;
never
can
positive
integerthis equality

rth term, when

l ; but since r is a
hold except when
the index

r=oi+

expansionby the Binomial

and
is a positive
n
integer,
other

cases.

is

"

positiveand integral.Thus

Theorem
to

an

extends

to

infinite number

w+1

terms

of terms

the

when
in all

154

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Find

Example 1.

the

term(r+l)th

The

"

in the

generalterm

expansion of

(1+x)'\

L"

-5)

(-2r + 3)

af.

2rlr
The
;

1 of these are tive

is r, and r
of factors in the numerator
nega1 out of each of these negativefactors,
we
may

number

therefore,by taking

write the above

--

expression

(-i)~1-8-6-""-V
i

Example

2.

the

Find

term
(r+ 1)'-

A"

V"

"

The

in the

generalterm

expansion of

(l-nx)n.

" ( "")r
-

(1-F^Un)

!(!-") (l-ar.)
=

wr Ir

l(l-n)(l-2n)

(1-r-l.n)

(n-l)(2n-l)

( i)r( i)r-i

(n 1)(2" 1)
-

since

(r-l.n-1)^

....(^l.n-l)

(_1)"(_ l)r-i (_ i)2r-i=_1#

=

Example

The(r

3.

Find

the

generalterm

in the

expansionof (1 x)~3.
-

irterm="-3'(-4"'-_5)^-(-3-'-+1)(-,)
r

(1)r3.4.5(r+2)(1)ffa,

~[

1.2.3

_(r+l)(r+2)
~

1.2

by removing

like factors from

*"

the numerator

and denominator.

156

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

and, if not, under

be used

Suppose,for instance,that
=

equationput

2 ;

(1-x)~r
in this

"
"

+ x

22

l;

then

we

x2

x3

x*

have

(1);

obtain

then

we

(-l)~1=l+2
This

expansion of (1 + x)nmay

the

equivalent.

its true

as

conditions

what

23

24

is sufficient to shew

contradictoryresult

that

we

cannot

take

n(n-l) '

l+nx+"

as

\
"

from

know

we

for the

formula

the

the

that

(1)

series

of

sum

geometricalprogression,

first

terms

of the

"x

1
1
is

the

cases.

xr

of

sum

all

-z

'

and, when

of (1+ x)nin
equivalent

the true arithmetical

Now

x2

~"

xr

numericallyless

1, by takingr sufficiently

than

xr

largewe
a

make

can

sufficient number

little

as

of terms

pleasefrom

we

small

as

as

the

please; that is,by taking

we

sum

But

be

can

made

when

to

is

differ

as

numerically

xr

greater than

1, the value of

no

such

approximationto

increases with

the value

of terms

number

in the
It will be seen
of Series that the

(1+x)" in
if

by taking

vC

Xs

X3

4-

gency
Convergency and Diverexpansionby the Binomial Theorem
telligi
inascendingpowers of a? is alwaysarithmetically

when
But

therefore

of the series
1

of

and

is obtained

of
JL

any

r.

is

chapter on

is less than

greater than

1.

1, then

since the

the series

n(n-\)

1 +

nx

.j
I
.

"

x" +
-

generalterm

of

BINOMIAL

xr, it

contains

THEOREM.

be made

can

large; in
taking sufficiently
value of the above series;and

which

Unite

there is

quantityby

limit to the
therefore the expansionof (1 +
x)n
infinite series in ascendingpowers
of x has no
meaning

an

when
intelligible
arithmetically

case

is

We

x"

we

obtain

accordingas

the
is

always expand (x + y)"

write

the

expressionin

('*!)'"
'(""ff.
expansionfrom

the

greater or less than

first

or

second

of these

y.

form
find in its simplest
expansionof (1 x)-u.
185.

no

greaterthan 1.

remark
that we
can
may
by the Binomial Theorem ; for we may
forms :
either of the two following
184.

and

157

INDEX.

greater than any

as

ANY

To

the

general term

in

the

"

The

term
(r+ l)th

(-n)(-n- I)(-71- 2)...

(-n-r+1)

(-iy

"(*+1Hw+2) -(**

+ ""-

1)

+ r-l)
ttv*+l)(tt+2)...ytt

(_ I)*
n

(n+ 1)(n + 2)

From

this it appears
(1-x)~*is positive.

(n +

...

that

1)

term

every

(-*y

xr

in the

expansionof

Although the generalterm in the expansionof any binomial

always be found as explainedin Art. 182, it will be found
may
the above form of the general
in practice
to use
more
expeditious
term
in all cases
where
the index is negative,
retainingthe
form

n(n-

l)(n-2)

...

t
only in

the

case

of

indices.
positive

(n

1)
x

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

158

the

Find

Example.

generalterm in the expansionof

(l-3x)

"

.
_

-13.

1
"

term
(r+ l)th

The

(3r-2)3rrr

1.4.7

(Sr-2)^

1.4.7
^H

"

_i

had been (1+ Sx) 3

given expression
for the generalterm, replacingSx by

If the
formula

The

186.

x2

2x

3x + 6x*

=1
(I x)~3
-

+
+

3x2

x3
+

"x3

10x3

same

3x.

be remembered

(r+ 1)xr +

+(r+lJ%"Kr+

is unrestricted

189 ; but the

any numerical

used the

student

in Art.

applyingto

xr

expansionof (1+ x)n,when

found

following
expansionsshould

(1 x)'1
(1 x)~2

should have

we

example

the

value, will be

in

will have
method

no

in
difficulty

explainedin

172.

Art.

Example.

Find

in the

the greatestterm

expansionof (l+a;)~nwhen

2
x

and

"

20.
fi

We

have

j_

"t'

^V+i"

,xxTr, numerically,
19+r

"""

2
so

long as

that

is,

"

"'r+l"-'r"

(19+ r)
"

"

"

38

1 ;

"r.

for all values of r up to 37, we have jrr+1"Tr;but if r=38, then

the greatest terms.
Thus
the 38th and 39th terms
are
I^k
,
and greaterthan any other term.
are equalnumerically
Hence
=

T,. and these

BINOMIAL

ANY

useful

of
applications
following
examples.

Some

188.

THEOREM.

in the
explained

Find the firstthree terms

Example 1.

two

binomials

/3

2\

55

13
1

1 +

far

as

are

expansion of

_i

as

0/8

Theorem

3.
3*)r-(l-2x)

(l+
Expanding the

the Binomial

in the

159

INDEX.

the term

containingx'\ we

have

-QX + 72X"'

Example ^='002, so that ar = -000004,we see that the third

decimal
fraction beginning with 5 ciphers.If therefore we were
term
a
numerical value of the givenexpression
to
find
the
correct to 5 places
required
If in this
is

of decimals it would

be sufficientto substitute *002 for

in 1 +

x,

neglect-

ing the

term

x2.
involving

Example 2. When x is so small that its square

find the value of
be neglected,

and

higherpowers

may

J("+ xJ*
Since
retain

x-

the

and the higher powers

first two

terms

be neglected,
it will be sufficient to
Therefore
expansion of each binomial.

may

in the

the

expression

_tl"""l
b(i+|.)

-K-S-).
the term

involvingx- being neglected.

160

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example

3.

Find

the value of

placesof

to four

-rj=

decimals.

x/47
_i

-^

--

1 /

2 \

*=(7*-2)*=-(l-n)
--

(47)

1/

-7^
+

-7

73

72

-74

75

*77+""

of the several terms

To obtain the values

:L_

-7G+--

proceed as

we

1)1

follows

) -020408

) -002915

=t,

-142857

'

7-3,

7 ) -000416
"000059

5
and
5

we

can

see

that

the

term

^;

is

fraction beginning with

decimal

ciphers.

-i-

.-.

-142857

-002915

+ -000088

\/47
=

and

this result is correct

Example

4.

"14586,
placesof decimals.

to at least four

placesof

the cube root of 126 to 5

Find

decimals.

(126)3 (53+ l)a

=

5
1

/t

~5V

3"5:J

1
~

1_
'

52~ 9

1^1^

5-1
^

-04

-00032

W_

81 *107

"""

"

81
-

...

"""

-0000128
h

=5-f -013333
=

1
+

'")

81 *57

55

81*59

J.+ _1

'

+3*"l029'105

9'5"

-000035

...+...

5 '01329,to five placesof decimals.

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

EXAMPLES.
Find the

(r+1)"1term

XIV.

in each of the

INDEX.

101

b.

following
:
expansions

-I

!"

(l+#)2.

2.

(l-.t-)-5.

3.

4.

(l+#)

J
3.

5.

(l+.r2)-3.

6.

(i-2.v)~*.

7.

(a+fo?)"1.

8.

(2-.r)~2.

9.

tt{rf-x*)\

10-

(l+3.e):].
3

7=A=.
"/T+2*

11.

12.

3/

Nf/(l-3.^

Find the greatestterm

in each of the

V"Z^

following
:
expansions

13.

(1 + .v) 7 when
~

x="

lo
2

"

14.

2 when
(1 + a?)

15.

(1 74?)4wheu#

a?=

-1-1

1
=

"

-.

16.

when
+ 5J/)12
(2a?

17.

(5 4.v)7

when

a?

8 and

tv=-

3.

25

when

18.

+ 4/)
(3-r2

Find

of
to five places

19.

v98.

20.

^=.

9, y

2, "

24.

1 5.

decimals the value of

4/998.

21.

\3/1003.

25.

(630)*.

23.

(1^)3.

If x be so small that its square

find the value of

22.

\4/2400.

26.

tfilla

and

higherpowers

may

be

neglected,

162

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

V^+C+jj

31.

'

^T^-^1^
32.

(1+5*)*+
Prove

that

the coefficient of sf in the

31

Prove

that

(1+*)*=2-

35.

Find the firstthree terms

33.
is
v2

(4+|Y

expansionof (l-4r)

'

|l
-"

"

-^

(f^)

expansionof

in the
1

'

(1 + x)2Vl

in the

Find the firstthree terms

36.

+ 4x

expansionof

(!+ #)*+ *Jl+

37. Shew
double of the

bx

the nth coefficientin the

that

expansion of (1 x)~n is
-

(n-l)th.

greatest term
find the numerically
of (1+ x)n,
for any rational value of\\.
189.

Since

To

greatestterm, we
Case
The

by
terms

Let

I.

shall consider
n

be

(r+l)thterm
.

continue

with

only concerned

are

we

; that

the numerical

is obtained

by multiplyingthe
1

is, by f

to increase

; and

longas

so

(n+ l)x
is.

,
"

"

or

value of the

integer.
positive

'n+

.,

expansion

throughoutas positive.

Or1-1)-1'
that

in the

+ 1 )x
(n
*"
"

1+02

"r.

x,

rth term

therefore the

164
If

(1)

If

(2)

greaterthan unitywe
greatestterm.

be

that there is

no

1, so long

shew,

may

as

in Case

unity,the multiplyingfactor

be less than

greater than

II.,

will be

as

(m
that

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

1 )x

is,

"

"

x,

(m"\)x
or

"

lyn.
^"

If

"

-x

1 ) CC
be

"

"

denote
positiveinteger,

(fjr
*

is

1)
"C
'

the

equalto

be

"

gralpart ;
If

pthterm,

p \ tlien the

and

these

are

greater than

positivebut

not

the

then

'-

be

"

(q+ l)thterm

is the

negative,tlien

190.
that

q be

its inte-

it is

To
can

greatest.

is less than

in the

always less than 1 :

the
and consequently
preceding,
that

integer,let

an

-x

writing the multiplyingfactor

the

by

other term.

If

see

it

term
(p + l)th

any

r.

"

"

-.

form

(1

each

hence

first term

unity;
"

by

J x,

we

is less than

term

is the

and

greatest.

sions
find the number of homogeneous productsof v dimenbe formed out of the n letters a, b, c,
and their

powers.

By division,or by
=

"=

the Binomial

+ ax

a2x2

Theorem,
+

a3x3

have

we

ax

"

1
=

bx

b2x2 + b3x3 +

ex

c2x2 + c3x3 +

bx

"

1
=

"

ex

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

KJ5

INDEX.

Hence, by multiplication,
1
1

(1 +

(a+

aV
b

...)
(1+

+
+

ax

bx

"

bx

+x2 (a2+
...)

c +

Slt"S'.,,
SaJ

ex

"

b*x* +

+ Saxa
+
Stx+ Sjfx?

where

ax

ab

...)
(1+

suppose
the

are

ac

obtain

the number

4-

...

)+

...

of the

sums

homogeneous pro-

that

formed

be

can

of

of these

1 ; each term in
of Sl9 S2, S:i,

equalto
values

b'2+ bc"c2

...)

duets of one, two, three,

dimensions
and
their
a, b, c,
powers.
To

c"x2 +

ex

homogeneousproductsof

each
products,put a, b, c,
becomes
and
the
now
JSl9
1,
S2,S:i,
obtained

so

give the

two, three,

one,

number

of the

dimensions.

Also
1

ax

"

becomes

Hence

Sr

(1

or

"

(1

bx

"

"

x)

"

a;)".

coefficient of xr in the

n(n+ l)(n+ 2)
~

ex

expansionof (1 x)~
"

(n+r- 1)

jr
n

r"1

\r \n" 1
191.

To

multinomial
In the

find
when

of

the number

the index is

terms

in the

expansionof any

integer.
positive

expansionof
+ar)",

(at+ aB + aB+

every term is of n dimensions; therefore the number

of homogeneousproductsof n
the same
the number
as
that

can

powers

be formed
; and

out

therefore

of the

by

the

quantities
a,, a
article
preceding
r

I?'
+

"

"

1
1

is

...

of terms

is

dimensions

ar, and

equalto

their

166

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Consider

letters a,

all the

of the

represent
letters,when
any

one

up to

...

are
repetitions
productsof

when

the

letters

allowed

is

which
+

product

time, of

be

can

such

occur

the

twice,

once,

+ r"

things r

the

at

number

of homogeneous

be formed

of

out

of

it

time

thingsr

the

equal to

at

*C

or

is

time

thingsr

n+r

to

allowed

can

of combinations

number

are
repetitions

of

which

"

\r n"\

when

of

equal to

dimensions

and therefore equal

letters,

is,the

at

to write

were

every

might

of combinations

\n

That

we

times.

the number

Therefore

powers,

combinations,

of

one

if

dimensions

theorem

things.

; then

their

deduce

may

of

b, c, d,

letters and

would

thrice,

we

homogeneous productsof

of these

formed

190

of combinations

the number

to
relating

down

result of Art.

the

From

192.

at

number

when

time

of

binations
com-

are
repetitions

excluded.

193.

We

conclude

shall

this

chapter

with

few

laneous
miscel-

examples.

Example
The
The

1.

Find

expression (1
=

(1

the coefficient of xr in the

Ax +

4.x2)
(1+PyC +p^xr

expansionof
+

...

2a;)2
~

+prxr + ...)
suppose.

coefficient of xr will be obtained

by multiplyingpr,
the results ; hence

pr-x, pr-"

by 1,

and adding
-4,4 respectively,
the

requiredcoefficient=pr

But

pr=(- iy

Hence

the

4pr_x+ 4pr_2.

fe"afc"9

[Ex. 3,

182.]

requiredcoefficient

(.1)r(r+lHr
2)_4(_1)r.1rJ^
4(_ira(I^r
+

Art.

^-[(rl)(r
+

f-l)r

2)+ 4r(r+ l)+4r(r-l)]

BINOMIAL

Find

2.

Example

ANY

TIIEOltEM.

the value of the scries

5

5.7

5.7.!)

"

,
2 4-

The

expression
v

0
2
+

3
|3.32^
14
|_2.

"

1
.

"

13

2
z

2
z

34

5
'

2'
2

'

1)
'

24

*35+

""'

2*2*2
2
2

/2\a
/2\-

2Ll?2~ 2 2 2 2J 2 2 2
~|3~ '3:i+ ]i~
|2 '3?*"1
3

1
-

"

14

3;!

'

'

3.5.7.9:

3.5.7

3-

"""

3:J

"

"

[2

-4+

3
.

mU

Hi?

INDEX.

/2V

*3+ "~J2~

"o-.r-ffl"1
35=V3-

If ?t is any
3.
is an odd number.

Example

(3+ Jl)n

shew
positiveinteger,

that the

integral
part of

integraland/ the fractional part

I+f=3n+C1S"-is/7+ a2Sn~2 7+(783*-"^7)8+

Suppose I
Then

to denote

the

of

is positive
and
it
fraction;denote
by/';

3-N/7

Now

less than

1, therefore

(S-^)'1

is

together(1)and (2);
I+f+f

the irrational terms

=

since/and/'

are

proper
:\

an

But

2 (3"
+ C2 3'1"2 7 +
even

and
disappear,
)
.

integer.

fractions their sum

XIV.

EXAMPLES.
Find the coeflicientof
1.

xm

in the

expansionof

2.

an

in the

expansionof

3.

"* in the

must

odd integer.

I=an

expansionof
X

"T" X

c.

be 1 ;

proper

(2).

."./' 3n-C,13'l-V7+ C'23'l-2.7+C33'l-3(v/7)3+

Add

(3+ a/7)'1.
(1).

we

have

168

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

4.

4- x

+ X2

expansionof

the coefficientof xn in the

Find

(1 + ^J
5.

Prove

that

1
2

6.

1.3.5

2*

2.4.6'23

1.3
+

271

'

3
1 +

Prove

2n

Prove
7'

3.5.7

\ \n

~3

2n(2n + 2)(2n+ 4)

2)

3.6.9

3.6

+
3

_3T6~+

h
J

Ji

?i+ ^(^-1)

7+

7.14

that

that

7.14.21

n(" + l)(n+ 2)

"(*+!)

%
.

n{n-\)(n-2)

j.

+"

2.4

2.4.6

when
approximately,

is very

\2

2(1+r6'V
Shew

3.6.9

that

"7!

10.

4.8.12

"+

(2
Prove

3^5
t^~;+H~
4. 8

2n(2n

9.

H'
+

+~

~2

"n

3'

that

8.

1^

2.4.6.8'2*

that

Prove

N/8
7.

1-3.5.7

2_+

integralpart of (5+

the

integralpart

small,

'

256'

the

"

"JQ)nis odd, if

be

V/7)His odd, if

be

positive
integer.
11.

Shew

that

of

(8+

integer.
positive
12.

Find

the coefficient of

xn

in the

expansionof

(l-2.v+ 3.v2-4.v3+
13.

Shew

of xn in the

14.

that the middle term

expansionof (1-Ax)

Prove

that the

(1 xfn +
-

3nx

)-*.

/
of ( x
^"

1\4'1
1 is equalto the coefficient

2
.

be

expansionof (1 x^)nmay
"

(1 xfn
-

put into

3n@n-3) xi (i xyn
_

the form

BINOMIAL

Prove

15.

THEOREM.

coefficient of

the

that

ANY

at*

L69

INDEX.

ill the

expansion

is

"

1,0,

accordingas

(2)the

be

that if n

Prove

an

1,or

expansion of (a +

the

sum

17.

3m, 3m

3//".+1.

(1) the number

b + c)s find
of the coefficients of the terms.

In

16.

is of the form

integer,

even

111

2""1

\n
\'S

l\n-l

'

\b\n-5

|rc

\u-\ ,1

If c0, (',, C2,

the coefficients in
fn are
is
a positive
n
integer,prove that

18.

of terms,

the

expansion of

(1+.f)u,when

I//-1

a)

+(-mv-(-i)'-1/,|;^

c0-cl+c2-c3+

(2) ^-2^

3^-4^+

(3) c*-c*+c"-c*+
accordingas

is odd

(-1)^,

(-l)"cn2=0, or

even.

or

the

If *" denote

19.

(_i)n(/i4.1)t.M0"

of the first

sum

(1) (l-;r)-3
=

^ + %^

natural

^.^+

numbers, prove

+V"~1+...
j2^+

(2)

If

fr-

?2n

(2)

+ "Mj"

{?2n
-

the

sum

Man
+

proper

l)

8n8n +

g^a. _2+

of the

products,two
n

is

at

(7+4 v/3)n=p+ /3,where n and p

shew that (1 -f3)(p+ p)
fraction,
=

1)"

(-I)n_1fn

+ ?"?"
1

+1

5-

time, of the coefficients

are

tjn #"
_

and |9
integers,
positive

l.

If c0, "?!,c^,
the coefficients in
rn are
where
shew that
?i is a positive
(1+#)*,
integer,
c\

23.

integer.
positive

If

c2

"

+ 2n- \"ln+

-"

that

P*""

?1y,(l

expansion of (1+x)n, when

22.

2n

2.4.6,8

(!)

Find

(2)i-l)

T.

21.

1.3.5.7

"

20.

in the

(*!*,B + 82*2,_j

that

the

expansionof
1

,11
2

XV.

CHAPTER

Theorem.

Multinomial

already

have

We

194.

In

expression.
much

so

obtain

to

to obtain

Theorem

apply the Binomial

the

in

seen

the

Art.
the

175,

how

expansionof

present chapter our

completeexpansionof
assignedterm.

we
a

may
multinomial

objectis

not

multinomial

as

to find the coefficient of any

Find

Example.

the coefficientof a4b"c3d5 in the

(a+
The

b+

d)u.

expansionof

expansionis the productof 14 factors each equal to a+b + c + d, and

in the expansionis of 14 dimensions, being a product formed
by

term

every

letter out of each of these factors. Thus to form the term a4b2c*d5,
maining
of any four of the fourteen factors,b out of any hco of the rethe
But
number
the
of
of
three
out
eight.
of
remaining
c
ten,
any
of ways of arbe done is clearlyequal to the number
ranging
in which this can
be a, two 6, three c, and five d ;
must
four of them
14 letters when

taking one
take

we

ways
that

out

is,equal to
114

151.]
[Art.
J
L

TTralg.

A
412

This

of times in which
the term a4b2c*d5 appears
coefficient
the
and
requiredis 2522520.
consequently
product,

is therefore the number

in the final

To

195.
of
The
a

ft+

find
(a+ b +

the
c

of any assignedterm in the

coefficient
where p is a positive
cl +
integer.
..)p,
.

expansion is
c +

taking one

cZ +

and

the

every
of each

...,

factors each

of p

product

in the

term

letter out

equal to

expansionis formed

of these p

by

factors ; and therefore

will appear
aab^cyd8

in which

of ways

pansion
ex-

any term
of ways of arranging
in the final productis equalto the number
be a, (3 must
be c;
be b, y must
must
of them
a
p letters when
and so on.
That is,
the

number

the coefficient of

aabPcyds

...

\p

is

~f~^

"

...

where

j3+

...

\y

=p.

"

...

172

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

And, by

Art.

of the

195,the generalterm
+ ex'
(6a;

dx3

expansionof

...)''

\P

\pjy_\o_"
where

ft,y,

Hence

the

whose
positive
integers

are

expansionof

in the

general term

is p.

sum

the

pression
given ex-

is

/?+

where
bx

(a+

Since

197.

y +

ex2

dx3

/?.

=
...

be

..)"
may

written

in the

form
6

"A

ail

Thus

the

the

in which

case

the

hrst term

unity.
of

generalterm

bx

(1 +
is

...

is

-x+-ar+

it will be sufficient to consider

of the multinomial

a*

+-x

ex2

dx3

.)"

(n-p+l)bpcyd8
^+9f+u+

(n-l)(n-2).

\p\v\8
fi+

where

Example.

Find

"-\-...=p.

the coefficientof x3 in the

expansion of

(l-3z-2.r2+ 6x'3)3.
The generalterm

is

S(S-0(t-")...(|-*+o
V
,.,

,,

iO-sA-^e)8/-^^

(i).

values of /3,
have to obtain by trial all the positive
integral
7, 5 which
from
the
found
is
then
the equation j3+ Zy + 35 = 3 ; and
equation
p
satisfy
of the corresponding
2"=/3+ 7 + 5. The requiredcoefficientwill be the sum
values of the expression
(1).
We

MULTINOMIAL

173

THEOREM.

it will be best to commence

finding/3,7, 5,
by givingto 5 successive
with
the
values
admissible.
In the present case
beginning
integral
greatest
In

...

the values

are

found

to be

8=1,

5=

0, 7=1,

5=

0,

18 0, p=l;

0,

0=1,

p=2;

0, 0=3,

3.

these values in (1)the requiredcoefficient

Substituting

^)"^)(-")"-3"-2"+
(-3)s

4_4_4
3~3

Sometimes

198.

it is

expeditiousto

more

the Binomial

use

Theorem.
Example.
The

Find

the coefficientof x4 in the

1 + 3

stop

at

the

{2x Sx2)+
-

this term

by pickingout the coefficient of xx from

expansion of (1 2x Sx2)-*by the Binomial
-

+
(2.r 3x2)2
-

for all the

10

other

+ 15 (2.r 3.r2)4
{2x 3.r-):J
;
-

involve

terms

powers

than x*.
The

requiredcoefficient
=

9 + 10

(2)2( 3)+
-

15

(2)4

-66.

EXAMPLES.
Find

3.r2)-3.

requiredcoefficient is found

of
the first few terms
Theorem
; that is,from

we

expansion of (1 2x

XV.

the coefficient of
in the

expansionof (a-b

1.

a2Pc4d

2.

a2bryd in the

expansionof (a+

3.

a?bsc in the

expansionof (2a+ 6-f 3c)r.

4.

x~yhA in

the

5.

x3 in the

expansionof (l+3#

6.

xA in the

expansionof (l+

7.

.'""in tlie expansionof

8.

A"8 in the

"

c+d)w.

"

"

d)s.

expansionof {cub by + cz)9.

-

(1+

expansion(if (1

2a2)3.

"

2.r +

3.r2)10.

2.v

x2)'\

2.r + 3#2-

4.r'!)4.

of

higher

174

HIGHER

Find

coefficient

the

9.

.r23 in the

ALGEBRA.

of

expansion

of

(1

10.

x5 in the

expansion

of

(1 -2x

11.

x3 in the

expansion

of

(1

12.

x8

expansion

of

(
(1

2x

3x2

3x2)

x4

.i/')5.

2.
i

in the

13.

x*

in the

expansion

of

(2

14.

Xs in the

expansion

of

(1

2x

3x2

X2

X*\

4x

'-")

"

4a3)2.

3x2) 2.

3
"

15.

x12 in the

16.

Expand

expansion

of

(3

1 Ox4 +

Ax2 +
15x*

20^G)

*
.

18^') l.
-

(1

2x

2x2)* as far

x2.

as

(1 + 3x2

17.

Expand

18.

Expand (8

19.

If

6x*)

far

as

as

x5.

4
-

9^

+ x2 +

(l+x

+xP)n

far

x8.

as

a0 + alx +

a.^v2+

allf"xnr",

that

prove

+a^=(p+l)n.

(1)

a0+a1+aa+

(2)

a1+2a2+3a8+

+"p.a"p=5"i"(p+l)*.

If a0, a15 a2" ft3

of (1 +x+x2)n,
that
prove

20.

are

"""

a2-a2

21.

If the

be
shew

8a4)3"
as

a2-a2+

expansion
a0 +

the

of

of the

expansion

(-l)n-1aU1=^an{l-(-l)^an}.

(1 +x

alx+a2x2+

coefficients in order

...

x2)n
+arafr

+
...

+a2nx2n,

that
"o + a3 + a6 +

...

=al

+ a4 +

a-+

...

="2

a6+a8+

=
...

3n_1.

CHAPTER

XVI.

Logarithms.

199.
base

Definition.

in order
the

of the

index

is the

equal the

to

logarithmof

power

34

base

numbers

natural

to base

1000,

The

200.
so

that

the

same

an

these

Let

JV,x

given

is called

a.

102

100, 103

of 81 to base 3 is 4.
=

1000,

the logarithms of 10, 100,

respectively

1, 2, 3,...are

N;

useful.

is sometimes
the

\ogaN.

deduce

equationswe

Find

be the

be raised

logarithmof iV to base a is usuallywritten logajy,

meaning is expressedby the two equations

identitywhich
Example.

if ax

to

must

10.

ax
From

number

the base

Thus

81, the logarithm

(2) Since lO^lO,

the

to which

given number.

to the

(1) Since

Examples.

logarithm of any

The

logarithmof

32

to
"/"!

base

required logarithm; then,

by definition,

(2x/2)"
=

32

4/4;

1
.-.

(2.2*)*
=

2s. 2* ;
2

3
.-.

2^

25^;

hence, by equating

the

indices,

.'.

27
x

-r

"

3-6.

2N/2.

176

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

it is understood

When

201.

in use,
in arithmetical

that

suffix

logarithmsis

the

Thus

calculations

particular
system

denotingthe
in which

base

10

of

is omitted.

is the

base, we

instead of

usuallywrite log2, log3,

Any number might be
to any such
corresponding

2, logl0
3,
log10
taken as the base of logarithms,
and
base a system of logarithms
of all
before
found.
But
could
be
the
numbers
discussing logarithmic
shall
we
generalpropositions
prove some
systems commonly used,
of any particular
which are true for all logarithms
independently
base.
TJie

202.

a"

For

1 for all values

The

a1

For

To

201.

is 0.
of

; therefore

log1-0,

Let MN

logarithmof the
; therefore

is 1.
itself

base

logaa
=

of a product.
find the logarithm
be the

product;let a

be the base of the

suppose
a:

so

that

a*

Thus

the

log.J/,

M,
MN==ax

product

MN
whence, by definition,
loga

\ogaJ\T;

a*

N.

ay

ax+y;

100^1/"+low N.

\oga3INP \ogaM+ logaiV+logaP;

Similarly,
=

and

so

for any

on

number

of factors.

log42

Example.

To

205.

log (2x

log2 + log3 + log7.

7)

of a fraction.
find the logarithm

M
Let

-zz

be the

fraction,and suppose
x

so

that

whatever

be.

the base may

203.

of 1
logarithm

ax

\ogaMi

Mt

2/
ay

logaiT;
N.

system, and

177

the fraction

Thus

loga*"-=x
whence',by definition,

"

log J/

Xos^N.

30

log(if) log

Example.

"

log30 -log 7

=log(2x3xo)-log7
=

log2 + log3 + log5

Let

and
be required,
loga(J/'')
x

then

21

"

(aj

rained to any power,

suppose
that a"

\ogaM,so

log7.

number

of a
logarithm
or fractional.
integral
:Z'ofindthe

206.

aT;

whence,by definition,\oga(JP)px\
"

that

\oga(M")=p\o%aM.

is,

Similarly,
207.

It follows from

(1) the logarithmof

the results
a

of its factors ;
logarithms
(2)the logarithmof a
the

(J/r)
loga

J/.
logtt

we

productis

provedthat
equalto the sum
have

of the

equalto the logarithmof

of the denominator
diminished by the logarithm
;
numerator
times the
of the p***
power of a number is^"
(3)the logarithm

of
logarithm

the number

of
(4)the logarithm
of the

of
logarithm

fraction is

the rth root of

number

is equalto -th

the number.

of
the operations
that by the use of logarithms
and division may be replaced
by those of addition
multiplication
of involution and evolution
and subtraction ; and the operations
and division.
by those of multiplication
Also

we

H. II. A.

see

12

178

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

ra3

Example

Express the logarithmof

1.

terms

"^

of

loga, log b

and

log c.
a2

Ja*

log a2- log (c^2)

3
=

-log"-(logc5 + logfc2)

Example

Find

2.

loga

.-.

logc

2x

(loga

logc

loga

log ".

(Sx+ 1)log6

lo2 6
log c

logb) logb
=

'

logb

XVI.

a.

logarithmsof
1728 to base 2

J2, and

1.

16 to base

2.

125

to base

stt.

to base 2

3.

have

EXAMPLES.
Find the

logc

Taking logarithmsof both sides,we

x

equation ax c~2*="3a!+1.

the

from

a;

log a

5v/5,and
x/2,and

v'3.

*25 to base 4.

'3 to base 9.

256

4.

'0625 to base

2, and 1000

to base -01.

5.

-0001

to base

'001,and i

to base

6.

kI gp

4/~*r i

"

9^/3.

r~-^

*/

to base

a.

a?

7.

Find

the value of

l0g8128,l0g6^,log-frgj,
log34349'
seven
Expressthe following
logo.

8.

log(N^)fi.

9.

in
logarithms

terms

log{Va2xybs).

of

10.

loga, logb,and

logflcFW).

180

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

-06

Again,
.*.

log *06

characteristic of the

The
10

base

To

210.

fraction.

logarithmis called
number

logarithmof any
as
we
by inspection,

shall

to

now

the

shew.

logarithmof any

the characteristic of the

determine

greaterthan

number

down

be written

can

10_l ;

part is called the mantissa.

and the decimal

characteristic,

the

"

part of
integral

The

Definition.

209.

10~2 and

"

unity.
101

Since

10,

102=100,
103-1000,

it follows

that

10' and

between

102; a

digitsin

two

with

number

three

its

integral
part lies
in
digits its integral

103; and so on.

in its integral
part lies between
digits
102

part lies between

with

with

number

Let

be

and

10"_I and

integralpart

whose

number

Hence

contains

number

10".

digits;

then
fraction

J\T" in(tt-l)+a

.*.

Hence
the
the

logiV= (n

"

1)+

fraction.

1 \ that is,the characteristicof

greater than unity is less by one than

the characteristic is n

"

logarithmof a number
in its integral
number ofdigits
part, and
To

211.
decimal

determine

the characteristic

is positive.

of

the

logarithmof

fraction.

Since

10"= 1,

1(rs=iJcr01'
=i='001"
10-8

181

LOGARITHMS.

it follows that
decimal

decimal

point,such

with

after the
cipherimmediately

one

-0324, being greater than

-01 and

less
than -1,lies between
10~2 and 10-1;a number
with two ciphers
after the decimal pointlies between
10_:i and 10""; and so on.
decimal fraction with n ciphersimmediatelyafter the
Hence
a
decimal

as

Let D

be

decimal

logJ)

.-.

Hence
number

1)

and

beginningwith

/)

of the

10~(" +

pointlies between

+ l) +
1 f)~(w

"

the characteristic is

ciphers
; thou

fraction.

"

(n+ l)+

10~".

fraction.

(n+ 1); that is,the characteristic

of a decimal fractionis greater by unitytitan the
logarithm
of ciphersimmediatelyafterthe decimal point,and is
-

negative.
The

212.

logarithmsto

have been found

200000

placesof

10 of all

base

and

tabulated

decimals.

This is the

givento

seven

use, and

it has two

great advantages:

From

results

(1)

the

characteristics

can

the mantissse have

The

j in

integersfrom 1 to
Tables they are
most
system in practical

alreadyproved it is evident
be written down
so
by inspection,
in the Tables.
to be registered

that

only

logarithmsof all
which
numbers
have the same
significant
digits;so that it is
of
sufficient to tabulate the mantissse
the logarithms
of integers.
This proposition
we
proceedto prove.

(2)

mantissse

that the

Let

213.

are

the

same

for the

number, then since

any
of 10 merely alters the

be

dividingby a power
decimal pointwithout changingthe
that

numbers

sequence
10''.and N
107,where p and q
whose significant
the same
are
digits

Now

-~

log(N

In

(1) an

as

those of N.

logJ\r+p

logN

logiV-7

1 09)

integeris

subtracted from

are

10p) logN+p log10

=

Again, log(AT

of

multiplyingor
positionof the
it follows
figures,
are
any integers,

logN

added

; that

remains
of the logarithm

to

(1).
log10

and
logiV^,

is,the mantissa

unaltered.

(2).
in
or

(2)

an

integeris

decimal

portion

182

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

this and

In

precedingarticles

three

the

mantissse

the

have

the advantagesof
In order to secure
supposed positive.
Briggs'system, we arrange our work so as always to keep the
of any logarithm
the mantissa
that when
mantissa
so
positive,
is prefixed
characteristic
the
the Tables
has been taken from
with its appropriate
given.
signaccordingto the rules already
been

In

214.
written

the
the

over

of

case

and
characteristic,

before

not

and
the characteristic alone is negative,

it,to

both

from
distinguished

be

must

logarithms

negative

expression.

to make

necessary in order
result such as
a

negative,may
characteristic
-

Other

cases

Example

1.

and

adding

3-69897

be

positive.For instance,
which
the whole
expressionis
by subtracting1 from the

transformed

be

artifice will sometimes

the mantissa

3*69897, in

negative. In working with

are

arithmetical

an

that

-30103,
in which
4*30103,an expression

"

the decimal

integerand

the

signis

indicate

not the whole

of -0002,is equivalent
to -4
4-30103,the logarithm

Thus
and

minus

negativelogarithmthe

mantissa.

1 to the

(1

Thus

-69897) 4-30103.
=

will be noticed in the

Examples.

Requiredthe logarithmof -0002432.

In the Tables we
find that 3859636 is the mantissa
of log2432
decimal point as well as the characteristic being omitted)
; and, by Art.
the characteristic of the logarithm of the givennumber
is
4;

(the
211,

.-.

Example

2.

Find

the value of

log 165
Let

denote

log -0002432

given
^-00000165,

2-2174839,log 697424=5-8434968.

the value

then

required;

loga-

4-3859636.

l"g(-00000165)5
=

log (-00000165)

i
=

the mantissa
characteristic

Now

of

log -00000165 being the

being prefixedby the rule.

;
(6-2174839)

same

as

that

(6-2174839) (10 + 4-2174839)

=

2-8434968

of

log 165,

and

the

183

LOGARITHMS.
and -8434908 is the mantissa
of these same
digitsbut with

of

Thus

x is a number
after
the
decimal
cipher
point.

a:

The

215.

of

method

to another

it will there

be

that

seen

then transformed into

base,and

consisting
[Art.211. J

-0097424.

will
calculating
logarithms

and
chapter,

in the next
found

log007424; hence

one

be

explained
they are first
common
rithms
loga-

to base 10.

It will therefore

be

to investigate
for
method
a
necessary
transforminga system of logarithmshavinga given base to a
new
system with a different base.

Suppose that the logarithmsof all numbers to base a

and tabulated,it is requiredto find the logarithms

216.
known

are

to base

b.

Let

Let

be

number

any

that by

so
log6iV,

logarithm to

base

N ;

ylog"
1/
J

"

log,JV;

N.
log
0u

loga6

'

C1)-

k"^wK*10^
1UOa"
since N

Now
the

from

constant

given, los:N

are

Tables,and thus log^Vmay

it appears

Hence
to base

and

we

have

that

only
J

quantityand

quired.
re-

is,

or

is

log.("") logJT;

"""

that

whose

to

is

known

are

logarithmsfrom
all

them
multiply
r
J
the

log b

be found.

to transform

given by

and

by
J

log b

';

base

this is

Tables; it is known

as

the

for

N\

modulus.
217.

Tn

equation(1) of

precedingarticle put

the

thus

Oa

On

log/t log8/j1
x

184

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Let
then

that a*

so
log/?,

follows

as
proveddirectly

also be

This result may

base

to
by taking logarithms

b;

have

b,we

\ogba \ogbb

loga6xlog4a l.

.-.

followingexamples will illustrate

arithmetical calculation
logarithmsin facilitating
of LogarithmicTables
to the use
as
referred to works on Trigonometry.
218.

The

the

of
utility

; but

the

reader

Example

Given

1.

log 3

requiredvalue

formatio
inis

find log {(2-7)3

x (-81)"-H90)*}.
-4771213,
4

27

The

for

logj=

81

log

log 90

-=

1Q

3(l"^3"-l)+|oog3*-2)-|(

KM)"*a-K+t)
=

The
powers

4-6280766-5-85

2-7780766.

notice that

log

log10

"

Find the number

2.

log2

of

log2 ; thus
log2

-3010300,log 7

(log7+

log5)

16(log7 + 3-31og2)

16x2-9420080

=47-072128;
hence the number

of

is 48.
digits

-8450980.

16

log2.

digitsin 8751C,given

log (87516)16 log (7x125)

=

logarithmof

the

from

always be obtained

log5
Example

should

student
can

^log3-5H

[Art.210.]

and

its

185

LOGARITHMS.

from

log 3, find

Given log 2 and

the equation

3.

Example
value of

have

Taking logarithmsof both sides,we

(3 4a)logG

(x+ 5)log4

log 8

log3)+ (x+ 5)2 log2

(log2
(3 4.r)

.-.

.-.

.r

log2

log3

places of decimals the

to two

log2)

+ 2

10
.r

log2

log 2

log 2

log 3

10

log 2

log2 + 3 log 3
log 2 + 4 log 3

4-4416639
_

~2-al054a2
=

1-77...

XVI.

EXAMPLES.

b.

the characteristics of
Find, by inspection,

1.

the

logarithmsof

21735,23-8,350, '035,% -87,-875.

log7623 is '8821259
7-623,762-3,-U07623,762300,'000007623.
The mantissa

2.

of

3.
whose

of

; write down

the

part of
digitsare there in the integral
logarithmsare respectively
How

many

logarithms

the numbers

4-30103, 1-4771213,3-69897, -56515 1

(Jive the

4.
whose

of
position

the firstsignificant
figurein the numbers

logarithmsare
2-7781513, -6910815, 5-4871384.

Given
value of

log2

-3010300, log3 ='4771213, log7

5.

log64.

6.

log84.

8.

log-0125.

9.

log14-4.

11.

log^l2.

12.

logW

"

14.

Find

the seventh

root of

log44092388
15.

Given

log194*8445

-8450980,find the

7.

log-128.

10.

log4^.

13.

logN4/:0l05.

-i

-00324,havinggiventhat
=

7-6443036.

2'2896883,find the eleventh

root

of

(39-2)2.

186

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Find

16.

given

product

the

of

37-203, 3-7203, -0037203, 372030, having

that

log 37-203

1-5705780, and

log!915631

Given

18.

Given

19.

Calculate

log 2

/(

log 3, find log

and

20.

//325**\

17.

6:28231

"y

log 2 and

log 3,

also

given log 2, log 3, log 7;

Calculate

20.

/294

125\2

32

42

log 9076-226

places of

to six

places the value of

to six decimal

log(#48 1081-f ^6).

find

'

3-9570053.

decimals

the

value

of

(330^-49)4^\/22x70;
; also

given log 2, log 3, log 7

log 11

1-0413927, and

21.

Find

22.

Shew

23.

Determine

number

the

of

logl7814-1516

digitsin

312

4-2507651.

28.

/21\100

that

is

"

how

greater than

many

100.

there

ciphers

between

are

the

decimal

/1\1000

point

the

and

Solve

first

3*~2

27.

2F

29.

2x

22*

3*

25.

5.

followingequations,having given log 2, log 3, and

the

24.

significantdigitin

=3

5*

1.53-.

"I

6" '
22,

10l
28.

2*. 6*-2=52*.

30.

3l~x-y=4-y
22x~l

ij-

26.

find

55~3*=2*

log 7.
+

2.

71"*.

=33j/_a;J

log25200.

31.

Given

log102 -30103,

32.

Given

log102 -.30103,log107 -84509, find log7N/2and logV27.

188

HIGHER

1 +

of the series

xih power

(1)is the

the seizes

hence

ALGEBRA.

(2);that is,

rz

,"

and

this

however

is true

increased
indefinitely
x3

x2
1+*

great

/-'ill

xA

by

series

usuallydenoted

"

x,

cV

",

then

6**

let ee

"

"5

for

; hence
x-

ex

be

1
+

"

,=l+"+

Write

have

we

Now

If therefore

be.

may

|2+]3+|_4+ =(1 1+^+^+U

The

is

CX

that

so

tjj-

cV
+

-ry

for
log/*; by substituting

we

obtain
a'

l+x\ogea +

"

Vo

+
,"

If

This

is the

Cor.

When

lr

ExponentialTheorem.
n

is

the limit of ( 1
infinite,

e.

[SeeArt. 266.]
Also
when

it may
precedinginvestigation,
is indefinitely
increased,
as

in the

x\n

X2

x3

x4

(,
1+n)=1+X+Y2
]3+\i
-

be shewn

that

EXPONENTIAL

tli.ttis,when

is

AND

LOGARITHM!*!

limit of

the
infinite,

(1

180

SERIES.

cT.

"

nj

l"yputting

"

have

we

H)--K)~={K)7
Now

is infinite when

the limit of

In

221.

have used
But

restriction is

no

is less than

is another

notice.

point in

have

We

1\7
nj

limit

*.

e~\

also since

/
the

"

unity,the expansionswe

2\

nj

foregoingproof which

the

assumed

that

when

xr
-r-

\r

\r
Let

of r.

denote

us

is infinite

is

or

all values

r-V

:)"""("
J

for

placedupon

giveresults arithmetically
intelligible.
[Art.183.]

there

deserves

"

precedingarticle

the

the value of x;

infinite;

J
(x\n
(1
)
("-.')'
1

Hence

is

the value

of

iB(a!"3(a,~3
"{x-r-^r)
by
u

",

Then

1 /

H(*^)
z-

"

-lx

Since

is

U
u

as

1
+

"

nr

have
X

"

1\

we
infinite,

"

r"

ur.

; that

is,

ur

"

It is clear that the limit of

ft"

,-x-;that of uA is ."

the

is r^-; hence

r-

; and

that
generally

of ut is

."

limit of u3 is

190

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

series

The

222.

ii111

~@

'

importantas it is the base

to which
logarithmsare first calculated. Logarithms to this
after Napier
the Napieriansystem, so named
base are
known
as
from the
their inventor.
They are also called natural logarithms
into
which
fact that they are the first logarithms
come
naturally
consideration in algebraical
investigations.
which

denoted

have

we

When

logarithms

remembered

that

the

base

the series the

From

work

it is to

is

always understood, just

invariably
employed.

10 is

of

approximatevalue

requireddegreeof

to any

in theoretical

used

are

the base

work

arithmetical

e, is very

by

accuracy

; to 1 0

can

placesof

as

Find

1.

the

sum

decimals

of the infinite series

1

-,

We

and

have

by puttingx

"

-rg

+
"1=1-1+i2-i3
n-

of the series is

sum

--

1 in the series for ex,

hence the

l + l+

(e+ e~x).

Example

Find

2.

the coefficient of xr in the

expansion of
ex

o
-

ax

"

x
=

(1
-

x2)e~x
""

fi

"*

(l-a,-^)|l-,
-^-n

ax

in

be determined

found to be 2-7182818284.

Example

be

(-l)rxr
...+L_L_
+

j.

it is

(-!)"" (-l)'-ia (-1)'--

coefficient required

The

101

SERIES.

LOGARITHMIC

AND

EXPONENTIAL

"

r-2

r-1

-l)r

{l+ar-r(r-l)},

tt)iraascending
powers

7V" expand log,

(1 +

223.

Art.

From

a"

=-"

of \.

220,
1

y 1""ger6

lii this series write

/r

"

4'
a)8 y3(log.
(loge
v
'
^
+

|c

L2

thus

for a;

(1 +x)'J
1

+ y

Also

by

" {loge
+
+
(1 + a;)}3
(1).
*)}"

f2{log,(1

log,(1 + *)+

...

Theorem, when

the Binomial

"

have

we

(2).
(i+"y-i+"+g^*+yfr-1"fr-8)rf+
in

Now

,+

(2)the

coefficient of y is

"

is,

"

rp"

""""*

\K/

--

"C"
"

"

2i

"

l0gt,(l
+Ct')t7J--+
=

This is known

Example.

If

to the coefficient of y in

Equate this

the

as

(1);

thus

we

?/(!/-!)
r2

LogarithmicSeries.

that is,double

of

1, expand {log,,
(1+ x)}9in ascending powers

x "

have

-+

--

By equating the coefficients of y2 in the series (1)and (2),we

in
requiredexpansion is double the coefficient of y'2
____.x

'

1.2.3.4
r**^
%K/

that

1.3*+1.2J

(y 1)(y 2)
-

,y(y-i)(y-2)(y-3)
^+

1.2.8

see

1.2.3.4

.t.

that the

'

the coefficientof y in

y-1

1.2*

(y-l)(y-2)
+

1.2.3

(y 1) (y 2)(y 3)
"1.2.3.4
-

l)"*-}.
Thn8{log.(l+*)P=2{^-i(l+l)^
+

192

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

is very small the series for

calculations.
We
for numerical
is of little use
can,
aid
of
which
Tables
deduce from it other series by the
224.

Except

when

+ x)
loge(l

however,
of

ithms
Logar-

be constructed.

may

By writing

for

"

log.

obtain

we

"

hence

(1)-

loS.(n+1)-lo"w S"2?+3^"
=

for

By writing
both

signson

obtain

we

sides of the

1)

s"

#7"

(2).

(1)and (2)by addition,

From

+ l)-log,(n-l)
log.("
=

2(-

...J (3).

+_+__+

this formula

From

by puttingn
the
by effecting

obtain

we

calculation
loge2 ; and
of log62- -69314718...;whence
logeSis

is

value

hence,by changing

equation,

log8n loge(n

that

loge

Again by puttingn

we

obtain

we

4
loge

"

2,
loge

find that

the

known.

loge10 loge8;whence
"

we

findloge102-30258509....
=

To
we

Napierianlogarithmsinto logarithmsto

convert

multiplyby

=-j=,

which

modulus

is the

base

10

[Art.216]of

the

system,and

common

its value

is

"

^' oOJjOoDk)
we

shall denote

this modulus

by

or

'43429448...;

/x.

In the

Proceedings
of the Royal Society
of London, Vol. xxvn.
has given the values of e, /x,
page 88, Professor J. 0. Adams
5
than
260
to
more
loge2, loge3, loge
placesof decimals.
225.
obtain

Thus

If

we

formulae

from

multiplythe above series throughoutby /x, we

logarithms.
adapted to the calculation of common

+ 1)
(1),
/x loge(ra
-

"

/* loge?i
=

JL

-.

"
...

that

LOGARITHMIC

AND

EXPONENTIAL

193

SERIES.

is,
n
+ 1) log,
logI0(M
-

"

-t- + Jt.

from (2),
Similarly

l^-log]"-l)^+^+^+
From either of the above results
of two
one
the other may

we

be

consecutive numbers
be found,and thus

ot

that if the

see

known,

table of

(2).
logarithm

logarithmof

the

can
logarithms
"

be

constructed.
that the above formula
"*""*"*
onlyneeded
Sl;0"ld+^e
J2
of prime numbers, for the logarithm
calculate the logarithms
are

to
to

ot

number
compose
of its

be obtained

may

by addingtogether the

component factors.

logarithms

In order to calculate the logarithm

of any one of the smaller
in either
substitute the number
prime numbers,we do not usually
of the

formula

but
(1)or (2),

endeavour

to find

value
some
which
be
division
that
and
such
by
easily
performed,
may
either 7^+ 1 or n-l
factor. We
contains the givennumber
a
as
then find log(n+l)or log(w-l)and deduce the logarithm
of
"
ot

we

the given number.

Example. Calculate log2

By puttingn
1

10 in

log3

log3, given ^=-43429448.

and

have
we
(2),

the value of

log10- log9;

thus

-043429448 + -002171472 + -000144765 + -000010857

+ -000000868 + -000000072 + -000000006 ;

1-2

log3 =-045757488,
log3

PuttingM
4

log3

80 in

log2

(1),we
=

obtain

-005428681

-477121256.

log81 -log 80; thus

-000033929 + -000000283

log2

-908485024

log2

-301029997.

-000000003

-005395032,

series for
shall give another
is often useful in the construction of
+ l)-\0gen which
iog9{7i
For
further information on the subjectthe
LogarithmicTables.
In

reader

the

is

next

article

referred to Mr

we

Glaisher's article

on

Logarithmsin the

Britannica.
hncyclopcvdia
H. H. A.

I ""

194

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

223

In Art.

226.

proved that

have

we

loge(l x)
+

into

changingx

3"-~-"'

have

cc, we

x~2+

log.(l
-")=-"*" 2

J"

"

By subtraction,
{

Put

oeV

so

that

so

l-x

los* (n

n
log.
"e

"

Zn

2"

(2w +

va

j-t=

^-r.

3(2?i+ l)3 5(2w + l)5

rapidly,but in practiceis

followingexamples

The

thus obtain

; we

777^

This series converges

Note.
very
convenient
the series in Art. 224.
as

227.

-x

"

\)
;

x5

"-

"

x3

not

...}-.
J

always

subjectof

illustrate the

the

chapter.
Example
that

If a, 8

1.

\og(a-bx

the

are

equation ax2

of the
a2

roots

,02

-J"x2

cx'1)loga+(a.+ p)x

a3

+ 8

a/3
=

"

bx + cx2=a

bx +

log (a
-

log (1 +

loga +

\oga + {a +

x2) is

0, shew

x3-...

ax-

or

(1+ px).
(1+ cur)

log (1+ ax) + log (1+ Bx)

B2x2

a3x3

_-...

x2 +

the

coefficient

according

as

is

B3x3.

Bx-'^-+^--...

B)x-a^^a*+^

Prove
that
1
2
"

{l+ {a + B)x + aBx2)

ex2) log a

a-x'2
=

2.

have

we

Example

.-.

+ bx +

ffi

"^-

Since

x3-

of

...

is not

xn

or

in

the

expansion

multipleof

3.

1-x3

log (1 +

x2) log-=

"

X6
Q

"

=log (1 x'3) log (1 x)

-

X9

X3r

X2

X3

xr

of

19G

HIGHER

3.

ALGEBRA.

that

Shew

a?

.+_+
hge(n+a)-logt(n-a)=2l+
^
*\*"

/""o
%A/

""/

4.

if

y=*'-2 +-3

that

5.

that

Shew

+
a

6.

+""""

+^-+ ^

=y

O"**
*t/
-

shew

a?

(-

:)+^P
+

V~^"/

'

) +...

Napierianlogarithmof

Find the

logea-logeZ".

to sixteen

correct

"

"

places

of decimals.
/ 1

7.

Prove

that

8.

Prove

that

e"1

.-

.-="

nr

+....)
.

("

iog,d+xr"(i -"")'-'="
9.

''-2 f
-

10.

11.

j2 (-'4#4)

given ^
Shew

-43429448,log2

that if ax2 and

"

Prove

find the

13.

Prove

and find the

+
-//,m

"

"

"

"

logarithmsof 7, 1 1

common

'30103000.

each less

are

unity

3.r-

"

"

"

...

of the series.

generalterm
that

generalterm

Expand

5x2

1 + 3.?

14.

"

that

+ 3a-+2^2)
logc(l

and

^
|i

of the

values

the numerical

Find

12.

+"""")

o+o

Find the value of

H
and 13;

"

^"

in

S5X3

65.iT4

"

of the series.

series of

ascendingpowers

of

x.

Express

15.

LOGARITHMIC

AND

EXPONENTIAL

of .r, -where i'= "/

in ascendingpowers
+ e~ix)
(eix

197

SERIES.

"

1.

25

16.

Shew

17.

If

that

/3 be the

and

of x2 -jtxr +

roots

tf

0, shew

n3

a2 4- ft2

If

18.

.r"l, find the

i\n
A
log,(1 + -) =1
nj
i

2(" + l)

2.3("4-l)2

-,

log,.,

If

that

Shew

20.

"

19.

ft3

4-

of the series

Bum

that

expanded

De

,3
^,^^,2^
x
l+.r
+ .^ + .t-3

3.4("t+ l)3

in

series

""

of

ascending

be

odd, or

powers

coefficient of o:n is

the

that

of #, shew

if

"

the form

21.

4m

+ 2. and

Shew

that

if n

be of the form

23

22.

23.

log,n

Shew

]2 J3 (4+-=5e-

that

Prove
2

log,("+ 1) log,(" 1)=-

that

"

"

"

+ 1

log,2
and

7a

calculate

",

loge

log,2, log,3, k"ge5

2?i2

3n3
81

"

1_

1()S"
?;'

go

25

26 + 3c, log,3

"

3(7i+I)3

24

")

log,Yq

+'

2(?i+l)2
1

If

ft

24.

43

33
+,

1+

4m.

1 1a

to 8

36

C' sheW

5c, log,5

placesof

that
1 6a

decimals.

Ah + Vc ;

of

XVIII.

CHAPTER

AND

INTEREST

In this
connected
questions
229.

by

the

shall

the

use

convenient
To

230.

given time

at

on

,"100 for

the interest

on

instead
one

"1

amount

be

simplified

of

year,
for one

we

Value in

takingas

for

year is

one

year.
in

of a givensum

Pr, and therefore for

Also

or

P,

(1)and (2)we

?i, r,

231.
due in

M,

any

years

I;

see

three be

(2).

if of the

that

giventhe

P,
quantities

fourth may

n, r,

7,

be found.

find the presentvalue and discount of a given sum

given time,allowingsimpleinterest.
To

Let P be the
r

one

(1).

M=P(l+nr)

is,

From

is,
/ =Pnr

that

the

shall find it

the interest of "1 for

and M the amount.
interest,

of years, I the

The interest of P
is Pnr ; that

may

solution of

in pounds,r
principal

the number

; but

sense

find the interest and

simpleinterest.

Let P be the
year,

to take

the

Interest,
Discount,Present

terms

rate of interest the interest

more

explainhow

with

ordinaryarithmetical

their

shall

chapterwe

Interest and Discount

formulae.
of algebraical

use

"We

ANNUITIES.

givensum,

the interest of "1

for

one

V the
year,

presentvalue,D the discount,

the number

of years.

INTEREST

Since

is the

time will in

AND

which

sum

years amount

P=

199

ANNUITIES.

put out to interest

have
to P, we

at

the

present

V(\+nr);
1

nr

P
D

And

'

nr

Pnr
'

nr

The value of D given by this equation is called the true discount.

Note.
when a sum
is paid before it is due, it is customary
in practice
of money
the interest on
the debt instead of the true discount, and the
to deduct
deducted is called the banker's discount; so that
so
money
But

Banker's Discount

Discount

Pnr.
Pnr

True

1 + nr'

The difference between the true discount and the banker's

"1900
paid 4 months before it is due is 6s. 8d.; find the rate
interest
being allowed.
cent.,
simple
per

Example.

discount

Let

on

denote the interest on

"1

for one
1900r

year;

then the banker's discount

~~

^~

1900''

"

is

"

and

"

".

a-

the true discount

"

is

"

i*
1900r

~3~

1900r
"""

7~T~3;
l+ir

~3~

1900r2=3

whence
1
*'"

t,

"

r~

"

"Jl +

.-.

232.

giventime

To
at

the number

the

1"151

22800
_

'

3800

3800
152

nave

f"aSui

rate per cent.

find the interest and

compound interest.

Let P denote

+ "-;

Rejectingthe negative value, we

100r

amount

and
of years, I the interest,

"

4.

of

amount

7? the
principal,

o?

given sum

of "1

in

the amount.

one

in

year,

200

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of the firstyear is PR ; and,since

at the end of
for the second year, the amount
this is the principal
PR2.
at the
the second year is PR
x R
or
Similarlythe amount
The

year is
\ that is,

years is PR"

at the end

third

of the

end

of P

amount

PR3,

and

so

; hence

on

in

the amount

M=PR";

I=P(Rn-l).

.'.

If

Note.

the interest

denote

In

233.

fraction of

business
a

fraction

of

reckoned

on

"1

for

one

have

we

year,

l+r.

transactions

year it is usual
the year.
Thus

when
allow

to

the

time

the

contains

interest
simjyle
of ,"1 in

amount

for the
is

year

(1

the

"

4f years

Similarlythe

at

compound
of

amount

in

m/

If the interest is
distinction between

in

of P

amount

(In

is PR"

years

"

; and

is PR*

interest

than once
a
year there is a
annual
rate of interest and that

payablemore

the nominal

which may be
received,
actually
if the interest is payabletwice

called the true annual rate ; thus

a
year, and if r is the nominal
r

annual

and

rate of

therefore

the
interest,
in the

amount

whole

year

of "1

in half

year is 1

of ""1 is (1

the amount

+-^

-J,

r2
1

or

r +

that

so

"

the

true

annual

rate

of

interest

is

r2

If the

234.

the nominal

interest is

annual

payableq

rate,the interest

year, and if r is
."1 for each interval is

times
on

and

therefore the amount

In this
(ftimes

case

year.

of P

in

years,

or

the interest is said to be "converted

qn

is
intervals,

into

principal"

AND

INTEREST

interest is convertible

If the

then q becomes
1
r

put

"

rx

the amount

thus

(l+-Y

=P(l-Y" P {(li)T'
+

235.
due in

q is infinite.

is infinite when

find the present value and discount of a givenstun

giventime,allowingcomjwund interest.
To

Let P be the

givensum,

V the

for

year,

of "1

the amount
Since

Penr,[Art.220, Cor.,]

principalevery moment,
find the value of the amount,

since

into
To

infinitely
great.
that q

so

201

ANNUITIES.

V is the

time,will in

one

present value,D the discount,

the number

which, put out to

have
to P, we
amount

sum

years

of years.

interest at the

present

P=VRn',

it

and

P(l-R-).

Example. The present value of "672 due in a certain time is "126; if

compound interest at 4" per cent, be allowed,find the time; having given

log2

-47712.

Hol)iI' *"**=!'

Here
Let

-30103, log3

be the number

of years ; then

672=126
25

672

"'"?ll0g24
1"gi26-'
=

100

?ilog

or

.-.

(log100

96

16

=logy;

log96) log 16
=

4
n

log3,

log2 log3
5 log 2
log 3
-

"72700
"

-01773

thus the time is very nearly 41 years.

'

Veiy

nea

'

202

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

XVIII.

EXAMPLES.

logarithmsmay be used,
requiredthe following
log2 -3010300, log 3 '4771 213,
log7 -8450980, log11 1-0413927.

When

of "100 in 50 years, at 5 per cent,

Find the amount

1.

a.

interest;givenlog114-674

2. At simple interest the interest on a certain

for the same
sum
,"90,and the discount on the same
rate is "80 ; find the sum.
same
In how

3.

years will
?

many

Find, correct

4.

8 years hence

to

the present value

farthing,
compound interest ; given

at 5 per cent,

log67683-94

of money
is
and at the

6. Shew that at
between the sum

become

What

8.

sum

to "1000

of money
at 6 per
in 12 years ? Given

log106

"2500

at 10 per cent,

the discount is half the harmonic

the interest on it.

due and

will increase more

that money
century at 5 per cent, compound interest.

amount

due

simpleinterest

Shew

7.

of "10000

4-8304856.

years will "1000

In how many
compound interest ?

5.

time

double itself at 5 per

of money

sum

sum

compound interest

cent,

mean

compound

2-0594650.

than

hundredfold

compound

cent,

2-0253059, log49697

in

interest will

4-6963292.

borrows "600 from a money-lender,

and the bill is
9. A man
at an increase of 1 8 per cent. : what time will
renewed every half-year
elapsebefore it reaches "6000 1 Given log1 18 2-071882.
=

"What

10.

compound

is the

of

amount

interest? Given

log106

a
=

farthingin

200

years at 6 per cent,

2-0253059,log11 5-0270

2-0611800.

Annuities.
*

annuity is

An

236.

fixed

certain stated conditions ; the

a

year
stated

or
we

at

more

sum

payment may

frequent intervals.

shall suppose

the

annuity certain is

under
paid periodically
be made

Unless

either once
it is otherwise

payments annual.

annuitypayablefor a fixed term

contingency
; a life annuity is
years independentof any
annuitywhich is payableduring the lifetime of a person, or
An

the survivor of

number

an

of persons.

of
an

of

204

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

findingthe present value of annuities it is always

customary to reckon compound interest;the results obtained
and unwhen
trustworthy.
simple interest is reckoned being contradictory
the
On this pointand for further information
on
239.

In

subjectof

the reader

annuities

consult

may

ofAnnuities and ReversionaryPayments,and

Britannica.
in the Encyclopaedia

the

on

Value

the article Annuities

find t/iepresent value of an annuity to continue for

(jiven number
of years, allowingcompound interest.
To

240.

Jones

Let

the number

of ""\ in
be the annuity, R the amount
V
the
of years,
requiredpresent value.
of A

presentvalue

The

due in 1 year is AR~l

one

year,

the

present value

of A

due

in 2 years

is AR~'J ;

the

present value

of A

due

in 3 years

is AR~3

and

so

[Art.235.]

on.

Now

payments

is the

.-.

of the

sum

V=AR-1+AR-3

present values
AK-3+

tow

of the

different

terms

R~"

AR~l

l-R-1
1-R-"
A

R-l
also be obtained
This result may
in
Art.
Rn.
238,
by
[Art.232.]
given

by dividingthe

Note.

Cor.
of

If

make

we

infinite

for the

obtain

we

value

of M,

present value

perpetuity
R-V
241.

If mA

is the

is said to be worth
In the

case

of

presentvalue

of

an

annuityA,

years'purchase.

'

perpetualannuitymA
100

1
m

rate

per cent.

"
"

; hence

the

annuity

INTEREST

of

that is,the number

obtained
As

perpetualannuityis

of

annuities

perpetual

arisingfrom

by
c.

years'purchase of

the rate per cent.

Government
many
Debentures.
A

2| p.

205

ANNUITIES.

by dividing100 by
instances

income

AND

Securities,
CorporationStocks,and

good test

the number

Consols

4 p.

c.

Stock

5 p.

c.

Stock

we
mention
the
may
in irredeemable Stocks such as

investments

96

80 is

at

Railway

Government

is furnished

of

years'purchaseof its Stocks ; thus the

96} are worth 35 years'purchase; Egyptian
is worth
24 years'
purchase; while Austrian

at

at

of the credit of

only worth

16

years'purchase.

the present value of a deferredannuity to

at the end of p years and
to continue for n years, allowing
commence
compound interest.
242.

find

To

Let A be the

annuity,R

the amount

of "1

in

one

year,

V the

present value.
first

The

is made

payment

at

the

end

of

(;"+ l)

years.

[Art.236.]
Hence
are

the

present values of the first,

second, third... payments

respectively
AR-{*+l\AR-(p+2\AR-(p+3\

.'.

V=AR-(p+l)

AR-{p+"+AR-(1,+3"+

Cor.

The

terms

(p+1)
-

"

"

AR-p-"

AR~V

present value of

after p years is

ton

7?~"

AR~

...

givenby

deferred
perpetuityto

commence

the formula

V~R-V
243.

freehold

estate

is

an

estate

which

yieldsa perpetual
the estate is equal

the rent ; and thus the value of

to the present value of a perpetuity
equalto the rent.

annuitycalled

It follows from

Art. 241

that if we

know

purchasethat a tenant pays in order to buy his

interest is reckoned
the rate per cent, at which
by

the number

of

years'
purchase.

of

the number

farm,

we

years'
obtain

by dividing100

206

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

reversion

after 6 years of a freehold estate is bought for

"20000; what rent ought the purchaser to receive, reckoning compound
interest at 5 per cent. ? Given log 1-05 = -0211893,log 1-340096
-1271358.
The

Example.

The

equal to the annual

may be purchased for
is

rent

years, which

be the value of the

Let "A

of the

value
"20000.

deferred
perpetuity,

for 6

'

annuity; then

since .R =

have

l-05,we

20000^* ^"5'-6;
"0o

.-.

.-.

-6

logA

lias obtained

Let

to the

for p

estate

an

is "1340.

Is. lid.

by paying down

tenant

wishes
he

that

sum

rent

to

the

annual

is called the

pay

p of the p +
value of a deferred

to continue

for

annuityA,

years ; that
AR-*

to

is,

AR-p~n
.

"

EXAMPLES.
The interest is
A

2.

Find the amount

4.

b.

unless the

contraryis stated.

stalment
person borrows ,"672 to be repaidin 5 years by annual inof ,"120; find the rate of interest,
reckoningsimpleinterest.

interest at

log1-045
so

XVIII.

supposedcompound

1.

"

[Art.242.1

"

-=

after

commence

be let

fine for

estate ; then
since the
be equal
years, the fine must

3.

sum

of the

value

paid for

n
the fine

compound

certain

q years, and that when

the lease for a term

renew

must

years of the lease.

present

p years and

elapsedhe

be

has

tenant

log1340-09G.

1310-096, and the

years ; the

renewingn

3,

3-1271358

lease of

have

q years
n

log 1-05

Suppose that

244.

p +

log A

~6= 1000;
(1-05)

of

4|
=

an

annuity of ,"100 in

per cent.

20 years,

allowing

Given

-0191163, log24-117 1-3823260.

=

A freehold estate is bought for "2750 ; at what rent should it

that the owner
may receive 4 per cent, on the purchasemoney ?
A

freehold estate worth

rate of interest.

"120

year is sold for

"4000; find the

INTEREST

estate,

If

of

an

6.
amount

7.

annuity

annuity

to

continue
the

paid now
having given log 104
Find

interest

If

years,

find the

30

rate

per

the

borrows

amount

of

ruined

has

log 2
The

annual

rent

calculate

the

years,

have

elapsed allowing

14.
n,

2-0253059,
If

payable
"30

at

interest

be

a,

at

log 675565

log 3

the

is

end

being

2 per

annuity

an

to

cent.,

continue

to

continue

2?i

years,

of

estate

an

fine to be

interest

at

is "500

paid

log4-688385

the

end
of

taken

5-829667.

'4771213, log 7

to

"

present
of
the
at

the

if it is let
the

lease

worth
year,
and
so
per

paid for

an

on

when

log3'118042

be

interest

he

will

be

'8450980.

ab + b2

cent,

that

'6710233,

first

third,
5 per

receives

having given

per
=

renew

cent.

b, c years'purchase must
respectively; shew

the

hence;

cent,

per

lease

7 years

'4938820.

annuity

to

tinue
con-

of

"10

that

2/i, 3?i years

What

e_1

paid for
annuity

an

and

a2
15.

given

at

years
'3678.

for which
he
capital of "20000
shew
spends "1800
every
year,
of the 17th year;
having given

of 20

logl06

must

be

70333

=-01

'3010300,

at

"5000
to

; if he
the end

per
before

13.

1-04

man

cent.

in 50

to "500

the

interest ; if the
compound
annual
are
repaid by 10 equal
instalments,
each
instalment
having
given
;

interest

12.
5

be

is 4 per cent., find what

sum
of "400
10
a
year
years
-8296670.
log 675565-

moment;

every

years' purchase, find

purchased for "2522.

20

can

amount

the

for 2 years.

cent.

man

log

at

will

sum

freehold

estate

2-0170333,

and

principal

interest

freehold

years' purchase must

years' purchase for

25

and

11.
find

what

being payable

10.
n

of

rate

for

given

years' purchase, find

25

is worth
which

for 3 years

receive

to

per

continue

to

perpetual annuity

If

be

9.

of "625

be

cent.?

is worth

perpetual annuity

When

8.

should

many

interest

207

ANNUITIES.

years' purchase
being calculated at 3i

How

5.

AND

ac.

of

"20
on,
annum

perpetual
the

at

end

annuity
of

increasing "10
?

the
each

second,
year;

XIX.

CHAPTER

INEQUALITIES.

Any

245.

is said

quantity a

be

to

greater than

another

positive;thus 2 is greater than -3,

2
because
(-3),or 5 is positive. Also b is said to be less
is less than -2, because
b- a is negative;thus -5
than a when
3 is negative.
5" (" 2),or

quantity b

when

is

-b

"

accordance

In

greater than

any

this

zero
definition,
negativequantity.

with

must

be regarded

shall suppose
(unlessthe
that the letters alwaysdenote real and
is directly
stated)

In the present

chapterwe

as

contrary
positive

quantities.
If

246.

"

b, then

it is evident
a

"

"

"

"

be ;

ac

that
c

"

will still hold

after each
is,an inequality
divided by the
or
multiplied,
increased,
diminished,

that

side has
same

been

positive

quantity.
If

247.

by adding c

a-ob,
to each

side,
a"b+

shews

which

from

"

b,

is,

an

inequality
any

term

may

be

transposed

if its sign be changed.

evidently b a ;
be transposed,the sign of
sides of an
inequality

then

if the
must
inequality

that

in

side to the other

one

If

that

c;

be reversed.

"

209

INEQUALITIES.
If

is,

"

"

b is positive,
and
b, then a
is
a
nd
therefore
("b) negative,

"

"

hence,if the signsof all

must
signofinequality
b, then

"

"a

"

"

ac

"

b,and

"

is

negative;that

b;

"

the terms
of an
be reversed.

the

Again,if a

"

b-a

be changed,
inequality

therefore

be ;

"

is,if the sides of an

that

be multiplied
inequality
by the
the signofinequality
be reversed.
must
negative
quantity,
If

248.

a."b,,

a.

boi a^"b.,,

"

"b

same

it is clear

that
al + a2

a3+...+

and

...

bm;

a:a2a,--'a,n"hAK-'-b,"r
If

249.

a"b,

and

if p, q

11

or

6,+ b^+ba+

"

am

a1

b9 ; and

"

therefore

then ^/a"^Jb,
positive
integers,

are

b' ; that

a'1"

is,a'1

"

b'\where

is any

positive
quantity.
Further,
250.

"

"

=-

; that is a~n

of

The

square
therefore greaterthan

zero.

every real
Thus (a
-

a2

"

is,the

arithmetic

-"

mean

b2 "

Similarly
that

2ab

"

a2

"

b~".

"

"

and
quantityis positive,
is
b)2 positive
;

b2 "

0 ;

2ab.

Jxy ;

is greater
of tivo positive
quantities

than their geometric

mean.

The

becomes
inequality

an

when
equality

the

are
quantities

equal.
The results of the

251.

article will be
preceding
in which
in
the
of
case
useful,
especially
inequalities
involved symmetrically.
are
H.

H.

A.

found

very
the letters

li

210

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If a, b, c denote

1.

Example

quantities,
positive
prove

a2 + b2+c2"bc
and

ab;

ca

c3)"bc(b+ c)+ ca(c+ a) +

b3 +

(a3+

that

ab

(a + b).

"2 + c2"2bc

For

(1);

c2 + a2"2c";
a2 + b2"2al);
whence

a2 + b2 + c2 " be +

by addition

It may

Again, from (1)

b2-bc
.-.

+ a".

that this result is true for any

be noticed

b3 +

(a3+

"
c3)

be

real values of a, b, c.

c2"bc

(2);

c3"bc(b+c)

(3).

b3 +

similar

the two

By writingdown

ca

(b+ c)+

[c+ a) + ab{a+b).

ca

It should be observed
that (3)is obtained from
factor b + c, and that if this factor be negativethe
longerhold.
2.

Example
.r3+l

x2 +

or

If

have

may

is the greater,

(x 1)

(x2-l)(x-l)

+ l).
(.r-l)2(*

accordingas
x"

252.

1 is positive
or

"

Let

their

and

product;

b be

two

then from
=

or

x2 +

"

negative;that is,accordingas

becomes
1, the inequality

4a6
we

x2

(x2+ x)=x3-

x3 + 1

find which

hence
[x l)2is positive,

Now

and

real value

any

(2)by introducingthe
inequality(3)will no

x.

x3+l-

If

obtain

and adding,we
inequalities

"

or

1.

equality.

an

$ their
positive
quantities,
the identity

(a+ bf

"

sum

(a b)\

have
iP

Hence, if S
given,S is least

S2
is

(a b)2,and
-

given,P

is

is,if the

sum

"P+(a- b)2.

greatest when

"

b\

and

if P

is

when
a=

that

S2

b;

is given,their product
of two positive
quantities
and
the
if
productof two positive
equal;
is least when
sum
theyare equal.

is greatestwhen theyare
is given,their
quantities

212

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

254.

To

when
find the greatestvalue q/'amb"cp.
beingpositive
integers.
m, n, p,

is constant;
Since

m,

"

\mj

( )
\nj \pj

) (-)

expressionis the productof

(

)+

"

all

( )+
"

.,

..

is greatest.
"

or

...

ni

...

this last

therefore

.,

is

sum

con-

the factors

Find

the

m+n+p

...\M4*4*+"

a.

is greatest
when
givenexpression
of the factors of this

hence {a +

c +

greatestvalue of (a+ x)s(a-a:)4for any real value

less than
numerically

sum

greatestvalue is

the

Example.

/a + b + c+

the

But

and

greatestwhen

The

c +

factors whose

...

c +

mmnnpp. (

equal,that is,when

Thus

of

\pj

ambncp... will be

Hence

stant.

are

(") +
\nj

\mj

ambncp... will
constants, the expression

are

n, p,...

"

...

greatest when

be

"

expressionis

x)3(a x)*is greatestwhen

-

"

^"

"

(
"

j"

j is greatest;

( "^- J+ 4 I

"

^"

or

x=

"

^"

or

but

2a;

63. 84

Thus

255.

The

a7.

determination

often be

may

the greatestvalue is

of maximum

simply effected

more

equationthan

by

the

this

have
alreadyoccurred
illustration.

Example.
is

odd

an

minimum

by
foregoingmethods.
in Chap. ix. ; we

integerinto

two

values

solution of

ratic
quad-

of
Instances
add
further
a

integralparts whose

product

maximum.
Denote

the

Divide

and
the

the

integerby

product by y

then

2/i+ 1 ; the two parts by

x* = y ; whence

(2n+ 1)x
2x

(2n+ 1)" V^h

I)2-^

and

2n + 1

and

213

INEQUALITIES.
but the

quantityunder the radical

be

must

and therefore
positive,

y cannot

11

be greater than
value must
and n+1.

be

256.

in which

+ n\

n-

Sometimes
Find

Example.

n'2+

or
+ l)2,
(2/t

we

case

minimum

the

since y is

1, or

n+

the

use

may

and

value

..

parts are

method.
following
'

'

of

'
"
"

then

(a-c

the expression

thus the two

Put c+x=y

its greatest
integral

+ y)
y){b-c
^-^
-

(a c)(b c)
+y+a-c+b-c
-

( a~CJyb~C)-^yy2j(a-c)(b-c).
+

Hence
is when
Thus

the

expressionis
y=J(a -c)(b- c).
the minimum

the

when

+ b-c

value
corresponding

of

+ 2

the square

is

*J(a c)(b
-

XIX.

(ab+ xy)(ax+ by)" 4abxy.

2.

Prove

that

(b+ c)(c+ a)(a+ b)" 8abc.

of any
that the sum
less than 2.
never

5.

If "2 + 62 +

l, and x2+y2

c2=l,

and

b, shew

that

6.

If

7.

Shew

that

8.

Find

which

9.

Prove

that

a36

10.

Prove

that

6abc

11.

Shew

"

real

positivequantity and
that

l, shew

x2+y2+
by+ cz

ax

that

a.

that

If a2 + b2

zero

Prove

4.

is

c);

1.

Shew
is
reciprocal

term

*/(" c){b c)-c.

EXAMPLES.

3.

value is
a-c

and

minimum

+ b-c

a-c

z2
"

ax

l, shew that

aabb " abba,and

loe

"

ab3
"

"

be

"4

or

aP+263.

64.

(b+ c)+ ca(c+ a)+

that b2c"+ c2a2 + a2b2

losr=
D.'-'-V2.

"

greater 3"62

by"\.

1.

+ y2z+ z2x)
(.r2^
(xy2+yz2+ zx2)

is the

"

abc

ab

(a+ b).

(a+ b + c).

its

214

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Which

13.

Shew

that

14.

Find

the

x3 + lSa2x

9a3,if x

hax* +

"

greatestvalue of

"

in order

values
positive

+ 2 for

x2+x

or

of x%

a.

that

7x2 + 11

may

be

x^ + Hx.

greaterthan
value of 24?

maximum

(\nf

that

16.

Shew

17.

Shew

that

(x+y

18.

Shew

that

n*

19.

If

be

?i

12#+40, and the

of x2-

value

the minimum
9x2.
8

Find

15.

greaterx3

is the

12.

+
1

"

and

""

"

6.

(w+ l)n.

2?i"

"
,s)3
27^^.

.(2n

1 ).

positive
integergreaterthan 2, shew

that

2ft"l+?iV2,7_1.

that

Shew

21.

(1) (x+y +z)3"

27

(y +

(2) xyz"(y+z-x)(z
22.
7 and
23.

y)(x+y

z).

(7 x)A(2+ #)5when

liesbetween

2.

no

x-y)(x+y-z).

value of

the maximum

Find

x)(z+

z-

"

T7v xu
Find
the

1
value

"

minimum

(5+ x)(2+ x)

off

=-*-*

1+*

To

*257.
am+bm

/a +

"

"

We

since

"

"

~"

if

and

is less than

-y"

6m

unequal,

xs

-^-J

we

action.

positive
proper jr

"

g-J;

-^

expand

may

each

of

and

these

in ascending
powers
expressions
+

and
positive

are

exceptwhen

a"

"

a1" + 6m

have

"

that

prove
b\m

/a

b\m

"'""~2~ =v~2-J

(m

(m

1.2
-

of

"

"

1)(a +

b\""-

\~r)

[Art.184.]
fa

b\*

\~r)

\)(m -2)(m-3) fa +
1.2.3.4
"A 2

bV"-4

fa

b\4

12 j+'"

215

INEQUALITIES.

(1)

If

is

all the terms

positiveinteger,or any negative quantity,

and therefore
rightare positive,

the

on

a"

b'n

fa
fa

the

(2) If m
rightafter

is
the

on

--

fa
fa

1, all the

terms

on

therefore

fr
b\m

"

"

positive,put

1 and

"

bm

"

If

'

positiveand less than

and
first are negative,
am

(3)

bsV"
6

\2~)

"

where

1 ; then

"

76

fam

bm\m
bm\m

fd"
fan

b7l\H
bn\n

{-"2) (-2-)

'am
"

(a*)m (b")H

bm\m

"

o"

/ox

]jy(2)

i
"

b'"\"1

"

"

"

.*.

Hence

the

fi-7

"

"

If

established.

proposition is

inequalitybecomes
*25".

"

If there

are

am+bm

cm +

'positive quantitiesa,
+

km

/a

b,

c+...+k

"

rt

Consider
a

....

and
a

quantities

..

the

,
i

value

expression

"

"

any

unequal ; if
a + b

are

"

altered,but

have

to

the
b

)"

positiveproper fraction.

Suppose on
that

1, the

c, ...k,then

"

or

equality.

an

...

unless

0,

am

we

lyingbetween

not

bm

c"1 +

and

replace

or

k"\ and

by

"

,
value

...

0 and

c+...+fc

k'" is

1.

suppose
the two
equal

remains

un-

-j

the value

of a"1 + bm

cm

...

diminished, since

216

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Hence

any two of the

the expression am + bm + cm +
the value of a + b + c +
altering

long as

so

...

of a"1 + b'n+ cm
a,

are
b,c,...k

km

be

diminished

and

therefore

can

...+k;

least when

all the

each of the

case

km

will be

In this

equal.

quantities
unequal
a, b,c,..."are

c +

the value

quantities

is equal
quantities

...

without

to

;
n

and

the value of am

bm

cm

fa

n{
Hence

when
am

bm

+km

then

...

c +

"

a,

are
b,c,...k

cn+...+lem

becomes

k\m

"

unequal,
"

/a +
fa

c+
c +

...+fc
+ k\m
...

If

lies between

?n

that the

signof

may in a similar
in the above result must
inequality
0 and

The

proposition
may

The

arithmetic

we

be stated

prove
be reversed.

follows

quantities
of the mth powers of n positive
in all cases
of their arithmetic mean
power

mean

is greater than the mth

except when m lies between 0 and

the series

verballyas

manner

of
consisting

1.

1 terms

; and

('^""""("-^"("-{)("
the series

After

of b +
consisting
the second

term
corresponding

is

greaterthan

is established.

1 terms.

term, each
of

(2);

the number

of

term

moreover

of terms

(1)is greater than

the number
in

(2); hence

of terms
the

in

the

(1)

proposition

INEQUALITIES.
X

*2G0.

if'xand

To prove

are

/lhV

+
/I
'I"^-

that

"

i-x'

i-y5

and ])ositive,
and
fractions

proper

1
.

,.

-lo"?-n
l-x

as

or

"

"

log

"l-2/'

Ilog^2(l+!\
5
\
1-2/

and

"

2/

1
.

log
*

thus the

"261.

i' "

To

prove

that

"

,
'
-

(1-x)1_x"l,if x"l,
(1+ x),+x
,

/a

"

and

b\a+b

then

(l+a)log(l+ x)+ (l-aj)log(l-a;)

x

{log(1+x)- log(1 x))+ log(1+ x)+ log(l"x)

-

JO

**s

*C

i//

2x^+3 ^+...)-2^
1
_

--.

is,

log
"

l-x

aabD

r\

that

\+y

"

(1 +jb)1+*
(1-a)1-*by P;

Denote

Hence

4- a;

'

is proved.
proposition

luce that

logP

y.

+? ?+""")"
tAAM^
S^lzS"2^

But

777

"

.71"f"flr"//g*|

according

and

x/l+x

For

217

JC

"*/

log P

is

Jit

and
positive,
+

therefore P"

(1+*)1 r(l-*)'-'"!.

1;

SI/

-6

...)

to

218

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

f9

In this result

put

where

"

; then

"

u
Z

sY+w/,

z\l~u

%1;

{1 u) ^-i)
+

y-^Y-"r"rl.
J
\

'u +

z\

(u+ z)u+*(u-z)u-z"u2u.

.'.

Now

put

+ z

a,

"

that

b,so

"

"

"

(TJ
*

1.

Shew

that 27

2.

Shew

that

3.

Shew

4.

If

EXAMPLES.

and /3are

b+

c4)" (a +

(n+ l)3"

that the sum

is greaterthan n (n+
a

"4 +

(a4+

XIX.

c)\

23 + 33+

(l3+

b.

n3).

...

of the firstn

of the mih powers

l)m,if m " 1.

and
positive
quantities,

"

even

bers
num-

/3,shew that

("-SM-jrHence

shew

that

if

1 the

"

of

value

(1 +

lies between

2-718...
5.

If a,

b,c

are

in

descendingorder

6.

Shew

7.

Prove

that

that

'a +
(a

'

~v

^.

c+...+k\a +

'

v~

If

ii

is

+ c +

--

log(1+ am) "

"

aabb"*..""*.
.

log(1+ an),if m

Ih

positive
integerand
1

#n

?"

"

A.n

"

+ 1

that

+ ,i

lib

8.

magnitude,shew

fb+ c\b
\b-cj

/a + c\a

\a-c)

of

1,shew

that

"

n.

and

XX.

CHAPTER

FRACTIONS.

VANISHING

AND

VALUES

LIMITING

If

262.

be

finite

constant

quantity,the

fraction

--

can

be made

small

as

increasingx
pleaseby sufficiently

we

as

; that

is, we

make

can

approximate to

this is

by takingx largeenough ;
"

when

is infinite the limit of

zero

as

nearly as

usuallyabbreviated

we

please

by saying,

is zero."

Again, the

fraction

increases

as

decreases,and by making

small

as

as

pleasewe

we

make

can

"

as

largeas

we

please;

when

thus

is

zero

has

no

is

finite

limit;

this is

usuallyex-

JO

"

pressedby saying,
263.
or

is

When

we

mean
we
infinite,

greater than

any

smaller
The
which
denote

we

that

mean

than

say that
that we

quantitywe

Similarlywhen
limit, we

when

any

say
we

zero

is infinite."

quantityincreases without limit

can
suppose the quantityto become

can

name.

quantity decreases without

the quantity to become
suppose

that

can

quantitywe

the limit of

can

name.

symbol go is used to denote the value of any quantity

is indefinitely
increased,and the symbol 0 is used to
of
value
nished.
dimithe
quantity which is indefinitely
any

LIMITING

The

204.

follows

as
symbolically

of Art. 2G2

statements

two

if

221

VALUES.

be written

now

may

is

co

then

is 0

if

is 0

then

is

co

in

But

making

be remembered

must

of such

use

that

concise

it
expression,

of

modes

abbreviations

only convenient

they are

of fuller verbal statements.

the

use

but

as

student

The

26~".

of the word

limit and

limitingvalue

Mathematics

had

wherever
limit,

conceptionof

clear

will have

the

in understanding
difficulty
have alreadyemployed it;

no
we

ideas

is necessary

conveyed by

words

higherbranches
their use
precisely

of

in the

proceedto explainmore

we

the

and

meaning.
266.

If y

Definition.

if when

=f(x),and

be made
a, the function f(x) can
pleasefrom a fixed quantityb, then

approachesa
by as little as

differ

value

to

we

b is called the

y when

1+2

as
n

we

2~J

22

Here

of

a.

"

if S
instance,

For

limit

is

'";

denote
then

function

the

'S'
=

of

sum

n ;
pleaseby increasing

and
that

^"

series

tArt 56*1

2~2^-

of n,

of the

terms

be

can

is,the

made

as

small

limit of S is 2 when

is infinite.

267.

shall often

We

of
consisting
common

some

series of terms

such
letter,
a0

where

the

have

coefficients

independentof

x, and

axx

expressions
arrangedaccordingto powers of

occasion

to

deal with

as

aax"+ a3x3
+

o0, a,, a2, a3,

the number

...

are

of terms

finite
may

quantities

be limited

or

unlimited.
It will therefore
connected

with

the

certain conditions.

be convenient

limitingvalues

to discuss

of such

some

propositions

expressionsunder

222
limit

The

268.

of the

a0
when

b be

Let

axx

a2x2+ a3x3+

is a0.

the series consists of

the

given series by
S"bx

a0

alf asi o3,

...

; and

S ; then

bx2 + bx3

of terms.

number
infinite

an

greatest of the coefficients

the

denote

us

series

diminished
indefinitely

is

Suppose that
let

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

...

bx
and

if

Thus
small

"

-=

"

diminished,S can be made

indefinitely
please; hence the limit of the givenseries is a0.

we

is

series consists

If the

in the

than

"

when

as

have

we

case

of

have

we

as

of terms, S is less
the proa fortiori
position

finitenumber
considered,hence
a

is true.
the series

In

269.

a0

a,x

,3

a2x

a3x

by takingx small enough ive may make any term as largeas we

pleasecompared with the sum
of all that followit ; and by taking
x
large enough we may make any term as largeas we please
compared with the sum of all that precedeit.
ratio

The

of

the

term

xn

the

to

of all that

sum

follow

it is
xn

a
or

'"

an+1xn+l+an+2x"+'2+

an+1x

...

When
as

small

as

we

is

x
as

we

au+2x*+..

small the denominator

indefinitely
that
is,the fraction can be
please;

can

made

as

large

please.

Again, the
precedeit is

ratio

of the

term

the

anxn to

xn

sum

of all that

a
or

a
n"l

where

be made

y
u

,ccnl+a
n

"

2+...'
"xn
2

a
n

"

+
,y
lts

ay2+...'

n"2"J

LIMITING

223

VALUES.

small ; hence,
largo, y is indefinitely
indefinitely
be made
in the previous case, the fraction
can
large as
please.
When

is

as

as
we

270.

following particular form

The
is very

In

the

of

foregoing proposition

the

useful.

expression
H-i

ii

,x
H

"

a.x

a
0 ",

of terms in descending powers

of x,
consistingof a finite number
be made
as
large
by taking x small enough the last term
a0 can
all
of
the
with
the
that
terms
as
we
sum
please compared
precede
and
first
the
be
made
ax*
term
can
it,
by taking x largeenough
of all that follow it.
as
largeas we pleasecompared with the sum
1.

Example
n4

make
the first term
of
can
large enough we
of all the other
please compared with the sum
?i4as the equivalent of the whole
take the first term
small as we
as
please provided n be taken large

By taking n
large as we

5/i3 -7/i + 9 as
terms
; that is,we
-

expression,with
enough.

may

an

error

3.t3

2x'2

"

Find

2.

Example

the limit of

"

=-=

"

"

when

(1) x is infinite

(2) x is

zero.

(1)

In

the

and

numerator

denominator

3a;3
the limit is

the first ; hence

^-s

we

disregardall

may

or

OXr

-4

When

(2)

is

small
indefinitely

the limit is

Find

3.

the limit of

/1

Let

the value

denote

of the

+
"

or

when

"

"--

Example

but

terms

is

zero.

given expression; by taking logarithms

we

have

log P=i {log(1+ x)-log (1-x)}

X

^(l ^' '^+.-.V

+

Hence

the

limit

required is e'2.

of

log P

[Art. 226.]

is 2, and

therefore

the

value

of

the

limit

224

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

FRACTIONS.

VANISHING

x2

ax

x2
when

If

find the limit of

to
Supposeit is required

271.

2a2

"

a2

a.

put

we

h, then

approachesthe value

h will

2a2

ax"

3ah

h2

3a
=

x2-a2
h is

as

a.

x2 +

when

zero

h for x,

a +
Substituting

and

value

approachthe

2ah

small
indefinitely

2a~+h'

h2

limit of

the

expression

this

is

-.
a

There

is however
x2

ax

x2
and
^r

if
as

we

another
2a2

the

value

2a

'

"

put

now

regardingthe question;for

(x a)(x+ 2a)
(x a)(x+ a)

a2

"

of

way

of

expressionis

the

before.

-j

If in the

fi

given expression

^
x

pat

we

"

before

"

0
it will
simplification
value

of which

form

in

be

approaches

Art.

long as

as

may

fraction

is indeterminate

to

the form

assumes

; also

Now

is not

removed,
the

it

factor

the

consequence
and denominator.

but
factor,
-

that

0
of

numerator

found

be

value

that

see

Ave

it has

appearingin

-a

divide

cannot

we

absolutely
equal to

and

then

we

", the

nearer

by

this
both

zero

the factor

find that

the

does

value

the

the

nearer

of

the

approximateto

or

in accordance

with

the definitionof

266,
i

when

ax

a, the limit of
x~

Jia

"

"

-^a"

is

VANISHING

225

FRACTIONS.

becomes

(x)are two functions of x, each of which

f(x) and "f"
value a of x, the
particular
equal to zero for some

fraction

^~

If

272.

form

the

takes

and

Ki

"f)
(a)

called

is

Vanishing

Fraction.

Example 1. If x

S, find the limit of

"T3-5:r2+ 73-3
'6

.T3

x-

When

reduces to the indeterminate form

3, the expression
from

removing the factor x-3

~2x+1

becomes

ox"

"

When

denominator,the fraction

and

numerator

S this reduces to

x2 + 2x + 1
requiredlimit.

Example

2.

find its

fractionJ'^-a-Jx

The

becomeg

when

and denominator

a;

"Jx+
+ Jx + a)' J'6x-a+
[x-a)(Jdx-a
a

find that the limit is

we

Example

3.

The

fraction

To find its limit,put

Thus the fraction

jugate
con-

2
or

by puttingx

by the surd

the fraction then becomes

(Sx-a)-(x+ a)

whence

%_a

limit,
multiplynumerator

J'dx-a-Jx +

to

is therefore the

which

x-a

To

^; but by

21x

when

expand by

l + h and

1_%xbecomes

(1+ fe)*

"j=

x=l.

the Binomial

Theorem.

l-(l

/0i

l-(l+J*-^"F+-.)
1

1,

9;"--

-5

25/l5

Now

273.
between

0 when

limit is
*ael; hence the required

Sometimes

the

roots

of

an

equationassume

form
in consequence of some
the coefficientsof the equation.

H. H. A.

relation

an

determi
in-

subsisting
lo

226

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

example,if

For

ax

(a c)x
=

"

d,

ex

b,

"

d-b
x

if

But

a, then

becomes

"

"

"

j-

or

great if
simpleequationis indefinitely
small.
indefinitely
solution of the

The

by +

ax

be'
ab'
If ab'
=

"

"

a'b

"

0, then

suppose

"

a'x +

b'y+

b'e

ca'

ab1

ab'-a'b

and

"

of
is

0,

c'a

both

are

'

infinite.

by substitutingfor

root

equations

0,

is,the

coefficient of

the

274.

; that

go

In

a', b\

this

case

second

the

becomes
equation

ax

by +

"

0.

cIf

equationsax

c, the two

equal to

is not

"

by +

0 and

c'
ax

+ b Jii H

differ only in
J

absolute

their

terms, and

being

Ml

be satisfied

inconsistent cannot

If

is equal to
^

"

have

c. we

any

-=-=-,
a

m
are

by

finite values of

and
b

the two

and

y.

equations

identical.

now

Here, since

be

"

b'e

0 and

ca'

"

c'a

"

0 the values of

and

Q
each

the form

assume

fact,in

the

involvingtwo
by

an

and

we
present case
unknowns, and

unlimited number

solution

is

have
such

of values.

an

is indeterminate.

In

reallyonly one equation

equationmay be satisfied

[Art.138.]

acquaintedwith AnalyticalGeometry will

in interpreting
these results in connection with
have no difficulty
line.
the geometry of the straight
The

reader who

the

228

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

EXAMPLES.
the limits of the

Find

when

(1)

XX.

followingexpressions,
(2)

#=oo,

'

#4 + 9
j \f-

y^-r^^

0.

(3r?- I)*

(2s-3) (3-5*)

when

"j

(a?-3)(2-5.v)(3a7+l)

(2a?
-I)3
(3 -*?)(*+ 5)(2-7*)
(7.r-l)(#+ l)3

_^_^:L^r
'

2^-1

'-a
"

2#2

when

x"

#2-l

when

8.

ginx

when

-"

1.

"

,.

/n

0.

v/#-\/2a+ V^-2a

when
,

when

a?=2a.

4a2

log(l+#2+#4)

l^(i-sto)-'whena,=ft

l-a?+loga?

13.
1

\/2x

when

a?=l.

x2

"

,.
14.

(a2-x2)2+ (a-xf
^,
^

when

"

x=a,

(a?-afi)*+(a-xf
\fa2+

+ x2

ax

*Ja2

18.

when
.

\Ja +

17.

ax+x2

"

"

15.

16.

"

-{

\j

"

when

log

A'

0.

Qtna

.r-"

11.
V #2

10.

log(l+#)

12-

gjc

9.

'

the limits of

Find

7.

'

i_1

when
,

"

when
,

0.

cc

00

0.

#=a.

'

CHAPTER

NVERGENCY

^
by

some

some

unfimitfd,it

is

In

lt: lb

the

is called

n2

that

Suppose

terminate

series

infinite

an

we

shall

+
i/-3

have

we

usually denote

An
of

infinite series is said

first

the

series consisting of

An

greatn

infinite series is said

the first

terms

can

If

978

series

we

we

may

ascertain

examining

whether

when

is made

For

example, the

numerically

exceed

the

sum

finite

some

be.
be

to

divergent

when

of the first

sum

whether

the

sum

any

series

the

it is

convergent

remains

of

terms

finite,or

or

of
finite

of the first

sum

terms

x2

x*

of the series

...

is

"

".

_a.

given

divergent

becomes

indefinitely
great.

1-*"
1

certain

sufficiently
great.
find the

can

terms.

increases

when

numericallygreater than

be made

quantityby taking n

may

convergent

be

to

cannot

terms

quantityhowever

by

series

infinitely
great.

else it becomes

fcmi*,or

q{

B^J.
series.

of n; if n
of the series will be a function
The
sum
either tends to become
the sum
equal to
indetinitely,
finite

at

number

formed

are

form

"ue

ux

ca'iea

preset chapter

expressionc-

series ; if the

^e

SERIES.

OF

the successive terms

which

called

is
w

reguJ"

terms

an

Ax
!
lrlaw

^
assigiMglt^m

DIVERGENCY

AND

in
expression

076

XXI.

finite,
in-

230
If

is

finite limit

less than 1, the

numerically
-

j"

is

terms

is

If
n

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

sum

converge,

the series is therefore

and

of t" first
greater than 1, the sum
numerically
and by takingn sufficiently
great,tk can
y

"

""*

"n*e

"Y

""

thus

l""*^

cUve?gednet.greater
serie's
rdi^entUm
*

If

x=

**

"

"" *"d

-1+

of

sum

,;Lthe

number

even

an

X ^
t,fe

"

be called o-iBo^

which may

A^c^

or

in

,many
/^' ?ihere
of the first
of finding
0ases

are

sum
the.

of

terms

"f

S:
4n

tra/mfeseries

Let the series be denoted

M,
where

"

are

u, +

be

Written

....

in each

of the

".-K-"J-("4-",)-K-"r)(1) we

is

following
^

(2).

of terms is
of any number
(2)that the sum of any nnmber
less than ", ; hence the series is convergent.

that the
positivequantity;and from

of terms

alternately

hod

We p"
the cTt
its
effecti
,".

K-",)+(",-"0+(".-",)
From

^1

by

for,"6

test

can

-*Hout

taAicA *Ae ferw

w*

w1"^"^a"w,"M

giVe" SerfeS may

series.

we

"*"

sum

""

we'haic

which

rules by which
therefore to investigate

280.

**"*"

of terms is I
and thiw +\L
of terms is 1
odd number
of an
Ac
between the values 0 and 1. Thi

is

*"""

1,the series becomes

1-1+1-1+1
The

; -,0 the

appro.

see

sum

281.

example,the

For

OF

DIVERGENCE

AND

CONVEltGENCY

231

SERIES.

series

11111
,

is

f-

is

1 in Art.

-"

223,

we

the series

23

4
+

T~2
is

term

_5

3"4

less
numerically

series is therefore

_7
~6+

than

'

precedingterm, and
givenseries is the sum

the

convergent. But the

11111
i

1-2+3-4
and

1-1+1-1
Now

2 if an
log,,
odd

of

number

even

number

For

if each

sum

of the

odd.

or

the

Hence

is taken.

is

term

first

greater than
is

terms

283.

Before
and

vergency
If

may

series is

almost

then
are

the terms
We

exceed

to

series in which
the series is

; for the

all the

that all the

is

when

add

we

or

are
some

remove

terms

is
positive
or

are

is

vergent,
con-

all of the

clearlygreatest when

terms

con-

important

of these

sum

terms

convergent

negative
; for the sum
have the same
sign.

shall suppose
contrary is stated.

tests of

convergent, and

will remain

when
divergent,

finite

any

two
lay down
regardedas axioms.

be

number
of its terms
any finite
a finite quantity.
If

na

quantitya,
and this,by

shall

convergentit

divergentit will remain

II.

made

further
to investigate
proceeding

divergency,we

which
principles,

terms

of the same
finitequantity

are

finite

some

greater than
be

taking n sufficiently
great,can
quantity.

I.

according'

or

small.

however

if

(2).

seizes in which all the terms

infinite
signis divergent\feach term is greaterthan some

the

(1)'

'

An

282.

of

given series
continuallyapproximatestowards
2
1 + log8
terms is taken,and towards

of terms is even
as
is convergent, and its sum
an

1-1

the

5"6+

(1)is equalto loge2, and (2)is equalto

the number

if

its

that

see

loge2.

Again,in

each

convergent. By puttingx

sum

unless
positive,

all

the

232

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

is convergent iffrom and aftersome

term is numerically
fixedterm the ratio of each term to the preceding
less than unity.
numerically
less than some
quantityzuhich is itself
series
infinite

An

284.

r,

"

"

"

u,12 +ur, + u+uA

3

u.
~1

since

u9

u.

"fa ux

"

ua

u3

u2

Ul

);

r2 + r3 +

1.

givenseries

the

Hence

is

convergent.
of the

In the enunciation

285.

/_.

it,(1+

"

is,"

"

Us

U2

should

r,

1.

Then

tliat

"

"

U:
where

UA
-*

U1

U0

let

by

uc" + u^3 + u^4 +

u,12 +

and

be denoted

the fixed term

beginningfrom

Let the series

notice

of
significance

the

precedingarticle

the

words

"

from

the student
and

after

fixed term."

and
to

largewe can make this ratio apby taking n sufiiciently

proxima
of
each
and
ratio
term
the
to x as nearlyas we
please,
if x
1 the
the precedingterm will ultimately
be x.
Hence
"

series is
But

convergent.
the

ratio

be less than

will not

"

"

1, until

u
n"1

that

is,until

"

Here
may

we

increase

have
up

to

example, if

beginto

1:

"

of

case
a

certain

x^^-r",
100

the terms
begin to decrease.

convergent series in which

pointand

then

99
For

"

=-

n"\

then

"

100, and

decrease until after the 100th term.

the terms

do not

CONVERGENCY

286.

infiniteseries in which

An

it iffrom
signis diverge)
to the 'preceding
term
term

Let the fixed term

unity,each
of

terms

DIVERGENCY

AND

and

all the terms

aftersome

be denoted

by

t*

of the

are

fixedterm

is greater than

'2Xi

SERIES.

OF

the ratio

unify,or equalto
If the ratio is

same

of ea"-li
unify.

equal to

of the

succeedingterms is equal to u and the

is equalto nul ; hence the series is divergent.
,

sum

If the ratio is

greater than unity,each of the terms after the

is greater than ux, and the sum
of n terms
is greater

fixed term

nu} ; hence the series is divergent.

than

In

287.

having to
greater or

of these tests, to avoid

practical
application
after which each term is
ascertain the particular
term
less than the precedingterm, it is convenient
to find
the

the limit of

"

when

is

this limit

increased;let
indefinitely

n"\

be denoted
If X"

1, the series is convergent.

If \"

1, the series is divergent. [Art.286.]

If
and
"

"

"

A.

by

the

X=l,

series may
test will be

further
1 but

[Art.284.]

either

be

convergent

required
; for it may

continuallyapproachingto

as

divergent,

or

happen

its limit ivhen

that
n

is

"

increased. In this
indefinitely
quantityr which is itself less

case

1 and

than

any finite
greater than X.

cannot

we

name

yet

Hence

fails.

the test of Art. 284

If,however,

"

"

"

1 but

con-

u
H

tinually
approachingto

limit,the series is divergentby

its

as

"

Art. 286.

We

shall

"

use

"

Liin

abbreviation

an

as

"

"

of the

words

u
n

"

,
1

"the

limit of

or

"

1.

is infinite."

Example
1

when

"

"

u
"

Find

whether

the

series whose

nlh term

is

"

"

.,

vergent
di-

divergent.
?/n
('"_!

(n+ l)a:n
n2

ru^1

(n +

{h 1)2
him

"x\

"

"

"n

l)(n-l)n*

is

con-

234

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

hence

if x

"

1 the series is convergent ;

if x

"

1 the series is

If

l, then Lim

2.

Example

=1, and

"

"

divergent.

further test is required.

Is the series
l2 + 22x + 32x2 + 4?xs+

convergent

or

divergent?

un

n2 xn~l

un-i

(n-l)-xn2

T
Lim

Here

if x

Hence

"

if x"
If

7jL=Lim-.

"

convergent ;

1 the series is

divergent.

l2 + 22 + 32 + 42 +

and

is

divergent.
obviously

In the series

3.

a+(a

d)r+{a

"=Lim T

"

n-1

2d)r2+...+ (a+

wn

,
Lim

1)d
(n-2)d

-t-(n

"

"*-i

".

d)rn~1+

...,

-^--.r

1 the series is convergent, and the

thus if r"

9=x.

"

1 the series is

1 the series becomes

Example

".0

r;

is finite. [SeeArt. 60, Cor.]

sum

series in each of which all the

infinite
in
and if the ratio of the corresponding
terms
terms
are
])Ositive,
both convergent,
the two series are
the two series is alwaysfinite,

If

288.

or

both

there

two

are

divergent.

Let the two

infinite series be denoted

ux

and

ua + w4

v,12 + v, + v,3 +

The

lies between

the

u,

is therefore

if

one

a,

+nn

ua^

-*,

series is finite in

value, so

[Art.14.1

-",

L
finite
quantity,

series is infinite in

proposition.

greatestand least of the fractions

Hence

v.

value of the fraction

ui

and

ua

by

say ;

value,so is the other;if

is the

other; which

proves

one

the

236

that the series

Prove

Example.

is

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

n+1

divergent.
Compare the

given

1 +

with

series

"

"

"

the nth terms

have

if "*n and vn denote

we
auxiliaryseries respectively,
Thus

un_n

"^

""""""

"

of the

given series and

the

+ 1

.
_
'

n2

i'n

re

?i

7/

hence

Zi-m,

=1, and therefore the

"

series

two

both convergent

are

both

or

series is divergent,therefore also the given

divergent. But the auxiliary
is
series
divergent.
This

completesthe solution

limit of

should

"

series
auxiliary
Take

the

in the

of

is finite by Art.

Art. 287.

it is necessary

288

Art.

finite ; this will be

following
way

the nth term

highestpowers
u

be

1.

Example

of
application

In the

291.

of

270, and

the result

by

and

we

retain

find

our

as

onlythe

the limit of

vn) then

be taken

may

if

case

the

given series

of the

Denote

n.

the

that

the 7ithterm

of

series.
auxiliary

3/2n2
-

1.

Example
r

Shew

that

the

series whose

nth term

is

1
=

,,

is

Z/S?vi
+ 2n+5

divergent.
As

increases,un approximatesto the value

l/w
Hence, if

1
v"=-r,we

have

'

or

4/3

n12

3/2

Lim

^r,

"

n1-

which

is

finite

quantity;

v/3

vn

therefore

the

series. But

divergent.

series whose

nth term

is

"

may

be taken

this series is divergent[Art.290]; therefore

as

the

the

auxiliary

given series is

Find

2.

Example

the series in which

whether

-n
^/;":}+l

vn=
is

convergent

237

SERIES.

OF

DIVERGENCY

AND

CONVERGENCY

divergent.

or

Here

\\/

* +

""="

//

*J

tf

(1"-"+-;"1)
+

~3n2
If

take vn=

we

have

we

9""5

Luti

=x.

"

v"n

the

But

9n'J

vMN

auxiliaryseries

JL + JL + Jl
P

is convergent, therefore the

To

292.

ur, ur+l
; then

is convergent.

expansionof (1 + x)n by

T/teorem is convergent when

Let

n1+"-

'"

given series

that the

shew

32+

22

the Binomial

1.

"

represent the ?*thand

terms
(?-+l)th

of the

pansion
ex-

n-r+1

r
r

When

negative;that is, from this

are
alternately
positiveand negative when x
always of the same
sign when x is negative.

point the terms

and
is positive,

is

this ratio

r"?6+l,

7/

when

Now
since
same

the

1 the

"

of

To

"

shew

that the

1"#"^

W
"

*-

""_,

numerically ; therefore

"

n-1

the value of x; hence

"

of the
some

of

negative. [Art.283.]

some

in

expansio?iof ax

is convergentfor every value

Here

"

if all the terms

series is convergent
are
therefore a fortiori
it is convergent when

sign;and
and
terms
are
positive
293.

is infinite,Lim

of

ascendingpowers

x.

; and

"

7-

11

"

therefore Lim

"

=-

"

"*__,
tlie series is convergent.

1 whatever

be

238

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

294.

To

of x

powers

expansionof log(1+ x) in ascending

less than 1.
is convergentwhen x is numerically
that the

shew

-i

n't

ni

value of

the numerical

Here

in the limit

which

x.

"

"

n
,

is

equalto
If

a5

the series is convergent when

l, the series becomes

1"

is less than
an^

77-t+--"
4
3

is

1.

con"

[Art.280.]

vergent.
If

\ hence

x~

1,

"

series becomes

the

"

-"

"

an(^

q_t" 4:

""""

*s

[Art.290.] This shews that the logarithmof zero is

divergent.
is otherwise
evident from the equation
infinite and negative,
as
e-""=0.
results of the two
in the course
will be required
The

295.
and

Put

\q"jx
the limit of "2-- when

Find

Example 1.

following
examplesare important,
of the present chapter.
is infinite.

ev; then

logs

y
~

y*

eV

yi

y'2

also when

is infinitey is infinite ; hence

Shew

2.

Example
Let

3+"

\2

x=-

so

that when

that

y"l;

that

n\ogy

the value of the fraction is

is infinitethe limit of nxn

zero.

0, when

x"l.

if

also let yn=z,

so

logz;

fu^="

when

i ^^

logz.

"

z'logy logy'

yn
Now

then

is infinite z is

and
infinite,

"

s_

0;

also

logy

is

finite;

Lim

therefore

296.

0.

an

whether
necessary to determine
infinite number
of factors is finite or not.

Suppose the productto

consist of

uMAia

if

It is sometimes

productof

then

nxn

as

be

order that

factors and to be denoted

io

the

by

mately
u
""1, the productwill ultiindefinitely
in
hence
zero, and if un " 1 the productwill be infinite ;
tend to the limit 1
the productmay be finite,
must
un

increases

Writing 1

DIVERGENCY

AND

CONVERGENCY

vn for un, the

239

SERIES.

OF

productbecomes

(l+*1)(l+*,)(l+*8) (l+Othe

Denote

logP

productby

P and

take

logarithms
j then

log(l+ vJ

log(l+v1)+ log(l+v8)+...+

and in order

tlie

that

finite this series must

be

productmay

(1),
be

convergent.
Choose

as

an

series
auxiliary
+

v,+v2

v3+

_1
2**+"

r-

log(l+ t;)
^

r.
Lim-2-l

Now

(2).

+vn

_.

/==1,

Lim\

since the limit of

the limit of

is 0 when

if

is 1

Hence

(2)is convergent,(1)is convergent,and

the

given

productfinite.
Shew

Example.

that the limit,when

13

is

of
infinite,
2n + l

2n-l

~JT~'~2ir

2' 2 '4*1*6' 6
is finite.
The

product consists of 2n factors; denoting the successive pairs by

Uj, m2, Ug,...and the

productby P,
P

we

**n=
"

logP

but
and

we

"

2"+l

"

uxv2u3

2n-l
where

have

"

2m

-5

"

,
1

n"

2n

1
t-?;
4"-

logM1+ log"2+ logM3+ ...+logMn

(1),

have to shew that this series is finite.

log"n log

Now

therefore
is finite.

297.

as

(l-^)=- ^
~

32/i-1

in Ex. 2, Art. 291 the series is

In

mathematical

'"'

convergent,and the given product

infinite
investigations

series

occur

of determining
their convergency
that the necessity
frequently
is
and
unless
take care
that
we
divergency very important;
series

we

use

are

convergent,we

may

be led to absurd

so
or

the

conclusions.

[SeeArt. 183.]

240

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

For

expand (l"x)~2by the

example,if we

Binomial

Theorem,

find

we

(1
But

if

in Art.

the

3ar

of

sum

...

of this series

terms

*"

n-l

4a3

as

plained
ex-

that

60, it appears

9
O
2.*;+ 3ar

in

2x

obtain

we

a;)-2 1

nx

t=

^^
ra

"

"=

(1 x)

4-

whence
3x~

I +'2x+
-'"'""

(l-x)2

...

nx
-

7z

1-*

(1-a?)9
i

ByJ

making"

gardedas

we
infinite,

of
equivalent

the true

ri

is

aj"l,

or

that

the
true

diminishes
x

"

ix3

=*

1 that
2x

if the series is

2x

4#3

3x2

conclusions

other
...

to

were

we

Theorem

as

if it

introduce

can

reasoningwithout

our

do

cannot

we

if

words, we

into

convergent,but

that
to inf.j

the Binomial

In

x.

x=l,

a,*"l,[Art.295],so

assert

can

erroneous

of

we

3x2

expansionof (1 x)~2by
for all values

infinite when

when
indefinitely

be led to

should

infinite series 1
is

3x2

infinite,this quantitybecomes

and

it is only when

we

2x

l-x

Ta

and

the infinite series

vanishes.

="

(1 -x)~
n

re-

nx

x
-rz

If

only be

can

-a

-z

(l-x)2
1

when

that

see

so

when

use

were

the
error

the series

divergent.

The difficultiesof divergent

series have compelleda distinction
between
its algebraical
For
to be made
a series and
equivalent.
example, if we divide 1 by (1 x)2,we can always obtain as
-

many

terms

as

we

pleaseof the
l

be, and

series

2a;+3"2+4a;3
in

certain

whatever

called its

algebraical
equivalent
; yet,as

does

may

not

so

reallyexist

except

sense

we

when

-p.

have
the

seen,

niay be

the

series is

valence
equicon-

CONVERGENCY

AND

vergent. It is therefore

DIVERGENCY

OF

to speak
appropriate

more

241

SERIES.

of

"

"

(l
as

the

generating
functionof the

"

X)

series

1 +2a,- + 3a2+
function which
Avhen
rules will givethe series in

being that

developedby ordinaryalgebraical
question.
The use
of the term generating
functionwill be more
fully
the
in
chapteron RecurringSeries.
explained

EXAMPLES.
Find

whether

the

XXI.

a.

series are convergentor divergent.:

following

Ill

1#

1
x

and

1
+

1.2

_1_

and y

1
+

273

371

475

quantities.
beingpositive
x*

x3

x2
1

1.2^2.3^3.4^4.5
/)"2

/""
tf

o"o

\Mj

T72

o***

%A/

\Mj

3T4

22
n
6-

(*+3)(y+3)+
(*+i)(y+i)4"+a)(y+*)

+ 3a

'

xy
x

.v

beingpositive
quantities.
1

6-

4.

x-^-2a

576

778+

42

32

1+I+I+I+

7-

\/l+\/i+\/f+\/1+

8.

1 + toe+ bx2 +

y*

1
2__
+

"i^ 2/'

ia

1 +

11.

.,

5
H.

H.

i.+ A
3p

4p+

2+5+Ib+-+,^TT+
3

la? + 9af*+

A.

x2 +

-x* , +
10

n2-\

15
"

17

xA +

-.,"-..

xn +

nl + 1

16

242

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

2
-.n

12.

14

2'l-2

-,

l +

+
g*+5*"+I^P

".

*p-i+

"

1
"

14.

"

2.r+"

--

/22

"

..+

-,"

2 7

/33

2\-!

3\-2

/44

4\-3

15'

/4_4_4\
="
+"="
(p-l)+(2-3-2)
\34 3^

16.

1 +

17.

Test the series whose

1C

--

generalterms

Jn*+l-n.

(1)
18.

44

33

22

(2)

are

jtF+l-Jnt-^i.

Test the series

1

.r

A+l

a+2

x+3

"-+

5+"
-2

/1N

11
-+

/on

(2)

Ax

?t3

-1

r-+"

A+l

T5+

+ 2

fraction.
beinga positive
19.

Shew

that the series

2"

3^

4"

1+I+I+E+
is convergent for all values of
p.

20.

Shew

that the infiniteseries

ux + 2i2+ u3
is

+ u" +

as
convergent or divergentaccording
Lim^funiti"1,

21.

Shew

that the
2

2
*

"

is finitewhen
22.

Shew

or

"1.

product
4

3' 3' 5

2ti-2

2tt-2

271-3'

2"-l"S^Ti

'

2n

is infinite.

that when

infinite,
except when

x=\,
is

no

term

negativeand

in the

expansion of (1+#)" is
numericallygreaterthan unity.

244

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

that is,

"

^-series is

Hence, if the

have

We

*300.

(vl+ v2 + v3

"

...).

in Art. 287 that

seen

vergent
it-series is also di-

divergentthe

series is

convergent

the limit of the ratio of the ?ithterm

divergentaccording
is less than 1, or greater than 1.
term
'preceding
convenient
remainder of the chapterwe shall find it more
as

or

In

to the

form
this test in the equivalent
series is

or

less than

Similarlythe
enunciated

to the

of

theorem

series whose

The

case

the

compare

general term

"When

"

is

generalterm
-

"

the

be

convergent

it-series will be

is un is

1 \ ""

"

di-

1, or

with

"

the

vergent
convergentor di-

1.

auxiliaryseries

"

series
auxiliary

the

un

(n+iy

Un+l

n?

is

convergent, and

if
or

(l

iy.

JSB."l+g+-J"CP-lV+"
/

2n~

,\

nKCrlrp+
is,if

may

^.

Lim

given series

un+i

that

the v-series is

; and

"

the given series is convergent

thatis,if

1.

"

divergentprovidedthat

\n (

Lim

as
according

"

^^

Lim

us

Lim

"

"

"

the v-series is

vergent when

whose

1, or

1,

Let

"

greaterthan

provided that Lim

*301.

"

"

the limit of

preceding article

the

w-serieswill be convergent when

The

is

term
succeeding

is,according as Lim

that

use

convergentor divergentaccordingas

the ratio of the nth term

to

the

Lim

\n (
"

I Wh

(p-l)

^+

1 )1"")".

J)

in this

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

245

SERIES.

series is convergent if y; is greater than 1

auxiliary
by a Unite quantityhowever small ; hence the first part of the
is established.
proposition
1 the auxiliary
When
series is divergent,
and by proceedp"
ing
before
the
second
as
we
part of the proposition.
may prove
the

But

a;

is convergent

1
=-;

it
"

"

un+l
the series is

2.4*

1.3.5

x[

+2~i.d'T+'"

divergent.

or

Lim

x=

L3

2* 3

Here

the series

Find whether

Example.

hence

if x"l

the series is convergent, and

if x"l

x"

divergent.
u

If

x=

1, Lim

"

In this

1.

"

case

un+l

1-3-5
M"

a;

is

term

"

'

'

J" (2n-l)2'

1 the series is convergent.

compare

the

generalterm

(n log

Lim

as
according

us

'

......

T/ie serieswhose

*302.

Let

"Urn

'"

when

2n(2n+l)
(2n 1)(2n 1)

un+1

hence

wn

and

1
(2w- 3)
(2n 2) 2~/T=T

_
~

j 1, or
"

"

is un is

givenseries

with

"

convergentor

vergent
di-

1.

the series whose

general

nl

When
case

the

"

auxiliaryseries

the

givenseries

is

-sn+

log

if

"

log

ij

this

[Art.300.]

**
or

in

lv

/"
1

"

"

"

convergent, and

convergent if

that is,if

is

log (1
P

"
"

'u

'
"

"
., 1
71+

):

7J

^-5 +
2n2

"3

246

In log

Lim

is,if

that

When

p " 1 we
series is
auxiliary

similar

proceedin a
divergent.

; in this

manner

case

the

the series

Find whether

Example.

)"p.

"

"

is established.
proposition

the first part of the

Hence

22z2

is

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

3sx3

55x5

4*r4

convergentor divergent.
un*-

"

Here

"

nnxn
'-

n+l
(n
+ l)
v

'

|n_

wn+l

.-.

3l

Lim

(n+l)** A

lyV
H)'

-1

[Art.220

Cor.l.

"?*

the series is convergent, if

if a?"-

7^

[n+

wn+1
Hence

/pW+1

"

the series is

#"-

divergent.

^St"

If:r=-,then
e

un+l

".log

-n"

loge-wlog( 1 +

_1 J_

3n8+"

~2n
un

".

hence

when

*303.

Lim

the series is

-^-

If Lim

[n

log

"

givenin

To

Arts.

discover

series whose

1, and

300, 301

further

general

term

divergent.

also

wn+1
tests

"

'

not

are

test

is

1, the

applicable.

shall make

we

"

Liminf-^- l))
) \un+i J)

r-

use

In

of the

order

to

auxiliary
establish

(logn)p

the convergency
of this series
or divergency
in
the
article.
next
proved

we

need

the theorem

AND

CONVERGENCY

DIVERGENCY

OF

247

SERIES.

If $ (n)is positive
integralvalues of n
for all positive
diminishes
a
nd
ive
as
n increases,
if a be any posit
continually
then
the
series
two
infinite
integer,
*304.

and

+
+ "/"(3)
+ ""(2)
"/"(l)
+
+ a3"/"
(a3)
a""(a)+ a2""(a2)

and
are

both

+
"/"(n)

...

...,

+
an""
(an)

convergent,or both divergent.

In the firstseries let

consider the terms

us

+ S),
+ 2),"f"(ak
"/"("*+
"M"i+1)
1),"f"(ak
beginningwith the term which follows "/"("*).

number

The
of them

is

is ak+l

of these terms

0)

ak,or ak(a-1),and

hence their
greater than ""(a*+1);

is

sum

each

greater than

that is,greater
ak(a-1)"f"(ak+1);

By givingto

than

ak+lcf"
(ak+1).

k in succession the values

0, 1, 2, 3,...we

have

++W"^x"*W;

+
+ 4"(3)-f"M4)
4"(2)

Co

+ 1)+ ""("
+ 2)+ "f"(a+
"]"(a
3)+

therefore,
by addition,

$!

""("*)"

"
""(1)

"

a2"f"(a2)
;

S2,
ct

", S2 denote

where

therefore

the

sums

of the firstand

series tively;
respecseries is divergent
also is the
so

if the second

second

first.

Again,each
sum

of the series

By givingto

of

and therefore
(1)is less than ""("*),
is less than (a" 1) x ak"j"(ak).

term

k in succession

+ ""(3)
+ 4"(4)
+
"j"{2)

the values

we

have

""(") (a- 1)x ""(1);

+ I)+ "f"(a
+ 2)+ "f"(a
+ 3)+
"f"(a

therefore,
by

0, 1, 2, 3...

the

"

1)x a"f"(a);
+"f"(a2)"(a-

addition

4-+(l)"("-l){4 + *(l)};
hence

if the second

Note.

generalterm

To

series is convergent
"'

so

also is the first.

obtain the generalterm of the second series we take "/"(")

the
of the firstseries,
write an instead of n and multiplyby an.

248

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

The serieswhose

*305.

generalterm is

"

is convergent
u

r"

n(logn)p

if p

if p
1, and divergent

"

divergentfor the

of p

values

same

1.

"

series will be

the

precedingarticle

the

By

1, or p

as

convergent

the series whose

general

is

term

1
ft"

\l

11
(\V

c\y

np'

a"(loga")p' (n\oga)p' (loga)'

The

factor

constant

fore the

givenseries

of

values

is

term

"

for
divergent
is

general term

"

; there-

term

the

Hence

generalterm
\\\(

"

"

givenseries

with

is un is
1

"

vergent
convergentor di-

logn

"

"

1, or

the series whose

series is convergent, and

j) " 1 the auxiliary
the givenseries is convergent by Art. 299, if

(w + l){log(n+l)}'
n {log
n)v

un

M,+i
when

is very

log(n + l) logn
the condition

log(1 +

V
.

,
+ l

'

?i

u
.,
n + l

nlog
n

"

log n

,
'

l)(l+P
log n)

u
-

nj \

uH+l

"

J logn

nj V

^"(l\

thatis,

(1)becomes

is,

1.

general

wlogw
o

in this

"(!)"

large,
+

Hence

"

(logny

When

Now

the

-.

case

same

[Art.290.]

Lim

the

compare

to every

common

will be convergent or

follows.

accordingas
us

is

r_

The series whose

*306.

Let

7=

the series whose

as

requiredresult

that

or

'

nearly;

)" 1

240

SERIES.

OF

DIVERGENCY

AND

CONVERGENCY

l0g?4

CSr1)-1}10*"^

"n

or

second

first

the

Hence

proved in

be

part may

is established. The
part of the proposition
the

indicated

manner

in Art. 301.

Is the series

Example.

22

22.42.62

22.42

^32^32.52^32.52.72
convergent

divergent?

or

A.

Here

*"*

ti

*-

Lt"i

.-.

=1, and

"

proceedto

we

In ( -1-

Lim

the next

I+

(1).

test.

"fe-l)=l+5

Fromfl),
.-.

1 +

and
-1)1=1,

we

pass to the next

"2"-

test.

ffe-1)-1}108^'^

*-"

"""^"[ffe-1)-1}108"]30'
^"

since Lt/u

"

[Art.295]; hence the givenseries

is

divergent.

*307.

shewn

have

We

series in mathematical
But

exercise caution
For

in

lead

to

of

use

erroneous

divergent
results.

convergent it is necessary

to

instance,the series

convergent when

by

Ou

%)C

JC

series

are

that the

usingthem.

is

183

reasoning may

the infinite series

when

even

in Art.

Jb

4/2~J/3 474~^5+
x=l.

[Art.280.] But

the coefficient of x2n in the

itself,
1

'""

if

we

multiplythe

productis
1

1
+

250

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

this

Denote

since

a2n ; then

by

a"2"

"

,
'

Jn
If

is therefore infinite when

and

"

"

no

since the terms

arithmetical

of two

agJ1 a2n+1 + a2"I+a

Let

enquireunder

If

denote

us

axx

4-

the two
+

a2x

conditions the

what

product

convergent.

infinite series
+

a3x

a2x

+
b2nx2n

.,

respectively.
series

multiplythese

we

'

series is also

bQ+ b^x+ b2x2+ b3x3+

A and

...,

the series has

infinite,

are

...

._

convergent

a0

by

a02/i+.,.1' affl
ol,
2;i+2
2h'

to

us

infinite

*308.

...

meaning.

leads

This

aBf

+a3-

%-ax
and

is infinite.

productbecomes

the

x=l,

J^

obtain

togetherwe

result of

the form

a"A + (aA

a(A)x

Suppose this series

it by G ; then we
be regardedas
C may
productAB.

have

2w

2/1 ",

1 terms

If

we

of each

B"2"
of

the

x2+
+ afiz)
+ afii
(aJ"o
continued
to examine

,
'

C"2" denote the series formed

what

let

equivalentof
B

are

us

conditions
the

positive.

by taking the first

JO

A, B, C respectively.

multiplytogetherthe two series A2aiB2nithe coefficient

power of x in their productis equalto the coefficient of

x2n is the

highestpower

of

in

x2" ; but
the term
of x higherthan

C2

"

2/i

form

C2nincludes

the

product A B

all the terms

in the

A2nB,n

x2n,whilst

2/1

the

last term
is a b x2n ; but
and
other terms
some
product

besides ; hence
C. "A
%n

in

C0n;hence

^o B*2/1
we

...

and
infinity

under

in A and

of x in C as far as
the like power
there are
terms
containingpowers

If

to

arithmetical

true

that all the terms

First suppose

A"

be

to

denote

Let

B
ii

ii

252

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

^EXAMPLES.
the

Find whether

.r2

XXI.

series
following
#*

1.3.5

b.

convergent or divergent

are

1.3.5.7.9

""

1.

1+2*4+2.4.6'8+2.4.6.8.10' 12+

2.

1 +

3.6.9

3.6

22.42

22
o
3.

62

o
"

32.?2
^1

12

,5
14

13

12.32.52
2

+
22.42'r
22.42.62^+*

22

|4

12.32

l2

54^
1

|3

43^

^1

|2

7'"

42
.

^+374^+3.4.5.6^+3.4.5.6.7.8*"+
n

22
G

2#

4
*'

3.6.9.12

+
^+7. 10^ +7.10.13*+7.10.13.16A

g(l-a)

"T

12

(l+ a)"(l-g)(2-g)

,
"*"

l2 22
.

(2+ q)(l+a)q(l-a)(2-,a)(3-q)
I2 22
.

beinga

32

fraction.

proper

(a+ 2#)2 (a+ 3ai)3

a+x

8*

IT*"

9.

1+^+^MM, (y+1)
1

+"13""

12~

a(a + l)(a+ 2)/30+l)(/3+ 2)

"*"

'

1.2.3.y(y+l)(y + 2)
(log2)*+ a?3(log3)i+ a?4(log4)*+

10.

x1

11.

i+a+__^+"

12-

If

^; '^r^w^S^'

integer,shew
^

_-^

that

the

and
i js positive,

series

w1 + ?^2+

divergentif A

"

"3+
-

1 is

where
is

* is

convergent if

negativeor

positive

zero

CHAPTER

XXII.

Coefficients.

Undetermined

309.

In Art.

230

if any rational
it is divisible by x

be

"

p0xn+ pxxn
rational

vanishes

Elementary Algebra,it

'

pjf

integralfunction
x is equalto each

when

of

[Seealso Art.

a.

"

Let

of the

integralfunction

that

"

by

al ,

function

the

514.

Avas

proved

when

a,

Cor.]

of

+pn
of

of the

"!" "*, %i
Denote

vanishes

dimensions, which

unequalquantities
"""

hy f(x);

tlien

since

f(x)

is divisible

have

we

f(x)=:(x-al)(p0x"-i+ ),
the

quotientbeing of

"

1 dimensions.

since f(x)is
Similarly,

2Wn~X+
the

quotientbeingof

Proceeding in

divisible

"

-a,7,

(x-aj-(pjf-+

by

this way,

we

shall

for more
of

than

the variable
Let

rational
values

must

the function

f(x)

be

)"

finallyobtain

If a

have

dimensions; and

f(x)=p0 (x a) (x-a}(x-aa)
310.

we

after

visions
di-

(x- aH).

integral
functionof\\dimensions vanishes
the coefficient
of the variable,
of each power
zero.

be denoted

hyf(x),where

!"x" +p)x"~x+p,c'-'+

+pn

254

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

vanishes when
x
suppose tha,tf(x)
unequalvalues alt a2i a3
an ; then

is

and

f(x) =Po (x ai)(x a2)(x "0

-

Let

since f(c)

which

therefore

makes

(c ai)(" a*)(G as)

Po

factors is

of

(x a,)-

f(x) vanish

p0

Hence

zero.

f (x)reduces

this expression
vanishes
By hypothesis

In

therefore px
similar

This result may

If
more

we

be

may

than

the

other

to

+Pnfor

than

more

values

equalto

that each of the coefficients

shew
zero.

also be enunciated

follows

as

rational

of

0.

manner

Vn must

2"o,P3,

0;

none
0, since,by hypothesis,

equalto

(c-"J

+ 2)3X"~3+
+p2xn-2
2\xn-x

of x, and

; then

have

0, we

and

value

another

be

of the

each

equal to

dimensions

integral
functionof n
values of the variable,
it must

vanish

vanishes

for

for

every value

of the variable.
If the

Cor.
of x, the

than
functionf(x) vanishes for more
than n roots.
equationf (x) 0 has more

values

"

Hence
roots it is

equationof
identity.

also,if an
an

Prove

Example.

(x c)(x a)
{b-c) (6 a)

than

more

that

b)(x c)
(a-b) (a- c)

(x

has

dimensions

(x a)(x b) 1
(c-a) (c-b)~
"

satisfiedby each
This equation is of tivo dimensions,and it is evidently
of the three values a, 6, c ; hence it is an identity.

rational

If two

311.

equalfor
every value

than

more

integral
functionsof n dimensions are
values of the variable,
they are equalfor

of the variable.

Supposethat

functions

the two

2)0xn+p1xn-1+2"2x"-2+
qoxn+ q^"-1+ q2x-2+
are

equalfor

more

than

values of

qmt

; then the

U"" %) x'1 + (Pi ?i)x"~l + (p" ad x"~2

-

+pH,

expression
+

(p* ?.)
-

UNDETERMINED

vanishes

for

than

more

255

COEFFICIENTS.

of x;

values

and

therefore,
by

the

precedingarticle,
is,

that

2\
the

Hence

Pi=9li" Pi^Vv

%"

l"n

and
identical,

are
expressions

two

"ln"
therefore

equalfor every value of the variable. Thus

functionsare identically
equal,we
if two rational integral
the
like
the
variable.
of
equate the coefficients
powers of
This
Art.

is the

of lower

This

still holds
proposition

dimensions

than

the other.
l

p0x"+ pff~

have

only to

0, and

then

of the

one

For

suppose that
Ave obtain

is

functions

if
instance,

+pn

+qn,

in the above

investigation
0,
qo
=

Ps=q3"

p,,

q"-

precedingarticle is usuallyreferred
The application
the Principle
as
of Undetermined Coefficients.
this principle
is illustrated in the following
examples.
312.

of

ElementaryAlgebra,

pjf~2 + pjf~*+

^o="" Pi="" P2=vs"

to

if

+ q3xn~3
+
q2xn~2

in the

may

227.
Cor.

we

assumed

we
principle

are

Find the

Example,1.

of the

theorem

The

of the series

sum

1.2 + 2.3

Assume

that

1.2 + 2. 3 + 3. 4 +
where

+n(n+l).

3.4+

...

+ Dn3 + Eni+...,
n(n + l)=A + Bn+Cn2
quantities
independentof n, whose values have

A, B, C, D, E,...are

to be determined.

Change
1. 2 +

into

+ 1 ; then

+ l)(n + 2)
2.3+...+?i(;i+ l)+ (?t

A+B(n

By subtraction,
(n+ 1)[n+2) B+C

{2n+ l)+

l)+ C(n+l)* + D(n

+ 3}i+ l)+
(3}v"

l)3+ E(n

+ 6ri-+
{"-n*

"n +

iy+....
l)+

..

This equationbeing true for all integralvalues of n, the coefficientsof the

be equal; thus E and all succeeding
respective
powers of n on each side must
coefficientsmust be equal to zero, and
=

1;

3D + 2C

D + C + B

3;

whence

1) =

"

(7=1,

3D

2;

256

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Hence

the

=A

sum

n2 +

"

To find A,

put

l;

Note.
rational
function
series.

1 .2 + 2

2,

A +

3 + 3. 4 +

0.

n(;i+ l)

...

or

(n+ 1)(n+ 2).

is a
the nlh term
It will be seen
from this example that when
the
for
sum
a
integralfunction of n, it is sufficient to assume
of n which
is of one
dimension higher than the wth term of the

Example

Find the conditions that x3 +px2 + qx

2.

x2 +
x3

Assume

+px2 +

qx +

ax

k + a=p,

r=(x + k)(x2+

the last

equation k

ak + b

be divisibleby

may

b.

q, kb

ax

of x,

coefficients of the like powers

Equating the

From

to its first term, and

the series then reduces

2

Hence

n3.

6).

we

have

r.

hence by substitution

obtain

we

b
r

that

is,

are

the conditions

which

a=p,

and n

(p-a),

and

ar
,

ar

by the

method

q;

(q-b);

XXII.

l2+3* + 5*+7*+...to

2.

1.2. 3 + 2. 3. 4 + 3. 4. 5 +

3.

1. 22 + 2.32 + 3.42 + 4.52+... to

4.

I3 + 33 + 53 + V3 +

5.

l4 + 2* + 34

.to

a.

Coefficients the

of Undetermined

1.

required.

EXAMPLES.
Find

+b

"

of

terms.
..

terms.

.ton
n

terms.

terms.

44 + ...to?i terms.

6. Find the condition that

factor of the form a?+%ax + a2.

x3-3px + 2q

be

may

7.

Find the conditions that ax3 + hv2 -\-cx+ d may

8.

Find

conditions that

the

,sum

a2AA + bx3+cx2 +

divisible by

be

cube.
perfect

dx+f2

may

be

perfect
square.
9. Prove
if b'1 ac, d=

that
a/,e2

ax2 +

cf.

+ 2tlv + 2ey +/
2bxy+ cif-

is

perfectsquare,

10.

If a.":i
+ bx2 +

11.

If 3tP

12.

Trove

+ d is divisible

cx

by x2 + h2,prove

shew
f"qx+4ris divisible by (x c)2,

"

g*=r*,

b2 (x-c)(x

"

a)

c2 (x

a)(x b)
-

"

~(b-c){b-a)~~Jc^aJ(c-b)

(.?-")
("y-^")(^-c)".y-cQ
(ff-c)(#-eg)
(rt-6)(a-c)(a-J)"t"
(b-c)(b-d)(b-a)

/0n

(x d)(x a) (x~b)

(x a)(x b)(x c)
-

{c-d){c-a)(c-b)

be the

\d-a){d-b)\d-c)*
'

the condition that

Find

ax2 +
may

bc.

the identities :

(a-6)("-c)

13.

that "id

that

"

a2(x-b)(x"c)

( }

257

COEFFICIENTS.

UNDETERMINED

+ by2-f 2gx + 2fy+

2/ixy

productof two

factors of the form

+ ^'y
+ r'.
jfctf+gy+r, jt/.t'

If

14.
same

"

lx

+ nz, r)

+ my

equations

with xt y,

l2+2mn
15.

l, m2

that the

Shew

nx

ly+

"=mx

mz,

for all values of x, y,

shew that
respectively,

true

are

+ 2ln

of the

sum

l~,and if the
changed
",77," are inter-

+ n// +

when

0, n2 + 2lm=0.

products-//

/"

togetherof

the

quantities
a, a2,a3,,..an is
+
a-l)...(a"-l)i("-r)("-r+l).
("y+ 1-l)(tt*a
.(a*-'-1)
(a-1) (a2-1)..

series a0 + a2x + a.,x2

is equal
+ a3x3
+
If the infinite
value of x for which the series is convergent,
to zero for every finite
be equalto zero identically.
tit
each, coefficient
must
en
313.

Let the series be denoted

by S,

and

let

pression
S\ stand for the exthen
S
and
therefore,
al + a2x + a:ix2
;
a0 + xSt,
for
0
all
finite
values
of
But
since S
+
x.
xSt
l"yhypothesis,
a0
is convergent,#, cannot
exceed some
finite limit;tlierefore by

takingx
In this
aQ must

small

enough xSx may be made as small as we please.

the limit of " is a0 ; but S is alwayszero, therefore

case

be

equalto

Removing the
x; that

is,ax

a2x

we
Similarly,

coefficients an
H.

ir.A.

zero

term
+

identically.
a0,

we

ajc2

may

a.,, a0

have

xSx

vanishes

prove
is

in

0 for all finite values of

for all finite values of x.

succession

equalto

zero

that

each

of

identically.
17

the

258

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

series
If tivo infinite

314.

value
finite

of the variable

then

the

"o
vanishes

series
+

axx

A0 +

and

A xx

)x

denoted

are

for

every
convergent,the

are

equal.

series are

by

+
a3x3
A2x2+ Aj? +

a0x2+

expression
"

Ao + ("i
"

for all values of

(a2-A2) ""2+ ("" Aa)"f +

-

within

assignedlimits

the

; therefore

the last article

by

a0-A0
that

is,

aB-Aa

Ot a.-A^Q,

"0

proves the

which

^0" "i-^n

a2

0, a3-Aa

0,

A2, a.d A3,

proposition.
2 + x2

as

both series

for which

the two
a0

another

one

of the variable in the two

of like powers
coefficients
Suppose that

equal to

are

Expand

Example

1.

the term

involvingx5.

in

-=

series of

"

2 + X2

ascendingpowers

of

as

far

'-

Let

where

"

r"

(1+

"

+ a.jx?
+
a2x'2

whose

constants

a0, fla,a.2,a:i,...are
2 + x2

a0 + ax

"

values

x2)(aQ+ Oj a; +

...,

to be

are

a2 ar + oa re3+

determined; then

)
.

of x on
In this equation we
may equate the coefficients of like powers
is
coefficient
of
side
the
xn
the
On
each side.
right-hand
an + au_1
an_2 ,
of x on the left,for all values of
and therefore,since x2 is the highestpower
?t"2 we have
-

this will suffice to find the successive coefficients after the first three
obtained. To determine these we have the equations

been

a0

2, a1 + a0

whence

a0

Also

and

X~
=

"

l + ic-a;2

a2 =

a5 + a"-a3
2 +

thus

~~

0, a.2+ a1-a0

2, ^=-2,

a3 + a2-a1

a4 + a3

a3=

0, whence

a4

0, whence

a5

l;

a2=5.

0, whence

2x + 5x2

7.t3+ 12x4

-7;
12 ;
19 ;

19a5 +

have

260

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

XXII.

EXAMPLES.

3 +
2

as

"'

l+x
"*

i_#_6#2-

2+.r + .r2'

l-

5
1 +

x2

"

ax

ax2

"

.r3

"

Find

Find

b, c

a,

+ bx + cx2

"

"

(l-.r)3
8.

9.

that the nth term

so

in the expansion of

-4-b

7-

v
--,

(l-.r)-

7.
a

and

"

(Sn-2)xn~1.

be

may

far

1_^_^.2-

'

l-"g

1+2^;

of

in ascendingpowers
followingexpressions

the

Expand

b.

may

be

If y2+

If cxz +

n-

-y

expansion of

0, shew that

value of

one

i"

"'"

a7

a4

Hence

value of y is

one

e?/3 3c2;/512c3;/7

shew that x=
equation x3 + 100.? -1

in the

xn

+ l.

+ 1),shew that
(3/
|.r+ s.r-jsSA

=#

ax

that the coefficient of

so

is
-00999999
0. To how

approximate solution
placesof decimals
many

an

of the
is the

result correct ?

10.
number

In the expansion of (1 + x) (1 + ax)(1 +

and a " 1, shew
of factors beinginfinite,

1S

When

"

nhr(r-l)

1,find the coefficient of

xn

(1)

is

shew
integer,
positive

that

nn+1-n(n-l)n+1+n^~1'
(n-2)*+1-

(2) nn-(n+l)(n-l)n
the series in each

(3)

expansionof
'

"

If

in the

to inf.

(1 ax) (1"a2x) (1 dAx)

12.

case

"

^"

beingextended

(l-O

(l-a)(l-a2)(l-"3)

11.

the
that the coefficient of

a\c)(1 + a\v)

(n-2)"to

terms

=jn\n+.l;
=1;

; and

=(-l)w \n;
l"-"2"+7t^~1"3a-

(4) (n+p)n-n(n+p-l)n+

^"
"

'
"

(n+p-2)n-

the series in the last two

cases

beingextended

\n;
'"

l"
to

+ 1 terms.

CHAPTER

XXIII.

Fractions.

Partial

of fractions connected

In

elementaryAlgebra,a group
by the signsof addition and subtraction
simple form by being collected into one
315.

is the

denominator
fractions.
a

group

lowest

is reduced

wish

we

of x,

ing powers
obtain

^--

we

iX

"

in

of Art.

the method

might use

express

the

given

series of ascend-

"

in

fraction

314, Ex. 1, and

if we

as

simplerto

wish

to find the

and it is
inapplicable,
the equivalentform

1
1-

term

given

OXT

-r

terms as we
please.But
many
generalterm of the series this method is

can

the

5a;

"

expand

to

"

whose

the

of

more

converse
a fraction into
process of separating
of simpler,
or
jwtial,fractions is often required. For

But

example,if
so

singlefraction

denominator

common

to

Each

"

expanded by

be

now

of the

expressions
(1"a;)-1and (1 3aj)-1
"

ox

"

Theorem, and

the Binomial

general

the

obtained.
In

316.

the

the
illustrating

shall

present chapterwe

of
decomposition

examples
partial

give some

rational fraction

into

subjectthe reader is
to treatises on
referred to Serret's Cours d'Algebre
or
Superieure,
In these works
it is proved that any
the IntegralCalculus.
of partial
resolved
series
rational fraction may be
into a
fractions;

fractions.

and

For

that to any
a

of

fuller discussion

linear factor

partialfraction

"

the

in the denominator

form

of the

"

factor

partial fractions,

times, there is

an

"

linear

; to

any

there

correspond

7?

l-jand

"

responds
cor-

cc

occurring twice in the denominator

7?

two

"

there

additional

If

*__

"

-.

(x

.
"

"

three

occurs

by

fraction
.

hnl

(x-b)"

aud

so

on-

To

262

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

quadraticfactor x2+px

any

Px
fraction of the form

x'

+])x

factor x2

if the

"

Here

the

vx

Q L"
s

y"~

+ q)
(x-+2)x

occurs

; and

so

P, Q, Pv Qx

Av Blt P2, B3,

quantities

independentof
We

partialfraction

second

'

q
P

twice, there is

partial

correspondsa

there

on.

are

all

x.

shall make

of

use

results in

these

examples that

the

follow.
5x

Example

1.

11

"

Separate=-^
2.r2+

Since the denominator

into

partialfractions.

(x+ 2)(2x 3),we

5.r-ll

B
+

2x2 + x-"
A and
where
determined.

2.c-3'

+ 2

quantities
independentof

are

assume

whose

values

have

to be

Clearingof fractions,
5x-ll
Since this equation is
of x ; thus
powers

(2x-S) + B(x

identically
true, we

2A+B
whence

5,

~SA

3,

B=

-1.

Resolve

2.

Example

";

x-6~

2x2 +

2x-B'

+ 2

r~.

into

r,

equate coefficients of like

may

2B=-U;

5.r-ll
'"'

2).

partialfractions.

(x a)(x+ b)
-

mx

Assume

=-r

(x-a)(x+ b)
.'

mx

z-.

-.

x-a

{x + b)+B

might now
equate coefficientsand
simpler to proceed in the followingmanner.
Since A and B
In

(1)put

independentof

are

x-a

0,

ov

(x-a)

we

giveto

may

(1).
of A

ma

r-

+ b

nib-n

putting x

+ b

0,

or

x"

-r,
B"

b,

"

CI

mx

"T*

/ma

+ b

mb-ii\

(x a) (x+ b)
-

x-a

and

any value

then

a;

x,

b'

find the values

We

is

+ b

B, but it

we

please.

23

Resolve

3.

Example

11 r'2

y"x

I) (J

"

"

23x-ll.r2
Assume

^-^

ABC
=

rm

2.c-l

(2.c-l)(3+ x)(3-.r)
"
.

23x

lLc2

By puttingin

succession

23.c

2^-1

1,

0,

3 +

'

"

"

3s2 + s-2

(x
."

Let

2x

2)-(1 2x)
-

%x- + x-2

~k

"

2x

"

0, then

find that

fractions.
partial
B

k~

(x 2)2+

0, we

3 -a:'

3+x

"

s-7

1_

into

"

"z-^-n

(2x 1)(3+ x).

"x\

")" (J.

"

^"

[x

"

'

"

-.

3.t2+
Resolve

i1)
5
w

3-x

-1.

C=

i,

lis2

0,

x"

(2.c-l)(9-x2)~2x-l

Assume

3 +
-

"'"

4.

Example

r+

(3+ x)(3-x)+B (2x 1) (3 x)+

.1

partialfractions.

mto

"

-.-rrx-

7^7"

203

FRACTIONS.

PARTIAL

"

x-2

'

(x 2)2
-

(1 2x){x
-

2)+

(1 2x).
-

let a; -2
To

0, then

C=-4.

find B, equate the coefficientsof x2 ; thus

3

2B ; whence

3.r- +
'

'

(x- 2)a(1 2x)

3(1- 2x)

42

Example
1

5.

Resolve

"

"

-7-3

-r

42

.-.

tt,

r;

19.r =

absolute

terms,
42

"'"

sometimes

The

+ B
"

x-+l

r-

C
+

.i--4'
C

(x*+ l).

C=-2;

equating coefficients of x'2,

317.

"3

(Ax +B) (x- 4)+

4, then

equating the

into Lpartialfractions.

Ax

"

(.^+ 1)^-4)

'

(x 2)2

19a;

-r-,

42-19.C

2)

[x2+l)(x-4]

Assume

Let

3 {x

42
-

A +

19a

C, and .4=2;

4Z? + C, and
2s -11

p+l)(x-4)"^TT

artifice

be found

employed in

useful.

11,

*-4*
the

followingexample will

2G4

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

9x*
Resolve

Example.
r

24rc2+ 48#

"

-;

(a:-2)4(a:+l)

9z3-24;r2+48;c
Assume

rrv

9x3-24"2

.-.

l)

48x

24s3 + 48x

"r3+ 16
-

"

"

\x"2)

put x-2

2;

+ 24

24

12

+
z^+~z^
~z4~

~z

1
+

12
+'

24
+

x-2^(x-2)'2 (x-2f^ (x-2f

nva

/.

-\

=
"

-i

(x-2)4(x+ l)

+ 1

n\n

/_

12

1,1,

9x-3-24j;2+ 48*

x-2

"

+,

Svi

(x-2)"

TZ

24
^-J

(x-2f

(x-2)4*

precedingexamples the

In all the

than

dimensions

has been
numerator
if
this
is
not the case,
;
until a remainder
is
the denominator

the denominator

divide the numerator

by

6r3 + 5#2-7
-zr-=

"

ox-

=-

2x

than

dimensions

is of lower

Resolve

Example.

to

z*

obtained which

remains

"3 + 16.

Z*

(x-2)4

we

value

x4 + x* + 16* + 16 ;

23 + 6^2+122

(2+ 2)3+ 16

.r3+16

of lower

whose

fractions correspondingto
partial

the

then

318.

1.

.'./(*)
determine

of

transposing,

and

^4

(x+ 1)/ (a) [x 2)4+ 9a3

"

{x-2)4'

(x-2)*+(x + l)f{x).

,l

1, then

Substitutingfor

To

x+1n

"

constant, and / (x)a function

where A is some
he determined.

x=

f(x)

A
"

"

^tx~?

".

(x-2)*(x+

Let

partialfractions.

into

=rr-

7^t~.

into

the denominator.

partialfractions.

By division,
3a:2 2.x
-

v-

2x + 3 +

Sx2

8a; -4
and

"

^-=

pr

3x2-2x-l

6^
'*

319.
fractions

We

="

5^-7

3x2-2x-l

now

x-1'

3.c + l

shall

5
^

2x

0
0
2.r
+ 3 +

1
-

3.T+1

explain how

be used to facilitate the

may
in
fraction
ascendingpowers of x.

*-l'

resolution

into

expansionof

partial
rational

PARTIAL

265

FRACTIONS.

;;,"'--|- ;"

Find

Example 1.

the

of

generalterm

"

"

"

"

when

"
.

(*- 2)-(l 2x)

in
expanded
l

series of

Ex.

By

of

ascending powers

x.

have

4, Art. 316, we
3.r2+ .r-2

15

(*-2)2(l-2*)

3(1-2*)

(*-2)2

3(*-2)

15

4
+

3(1-2*)

the

Hence

6
+

V
Example

expansionis

of the

generalterm

7+

2.

Expand

"

r+l\

2r

sr

in

r-^r"+

(1 + *) (I
the

(2-a?)a

3(2-*)

ascending powers

of

and

find

*~)

generalterm.
7+

Assume

.4

*
=

-"

(1+ *) (1+*J)
.\

Lctl

7 +

J(l

absolute

*).

3;

A +

C,

whence

A +

B,

whence

B"

+ (4
3(1 + .r)-1

3*)(1+

3{l-*

(4-3*) {l-.r2+

i ;
-

3.

4-3*
+

*^

(1+ *)(1+*2)_1 +

To

*2)+ (E*+C)(l

terms,

equatingthe coefficientsof *2,

7 +

1 + *2

1+x

then A

*=:0,

equatingthe

JB* + C
+

"

find the coefficient of xr

1+*2

*2-

x2)~l

(_l)P;CP+...j

*-"-

(-1)p*'^+...}.

:
r

(1)

If

/"

is even,

the coefficientof *r in the second

series is

4(-l)2;

therefore in the expansion the coefficientof xr is 3

( 1)2.
-

r-l

(2)

If

is odd, the coefficient of *r in the

second

series is

( 1) '-

r+l

and

the

requiredcoefficientis

( 1) 2
-

3.

EXAMPLES.
Resolve into

fractions :
partial

lx-\

46+13.r

l-bj;

XXIII.

+ 6jf-

'

12.t2-lU--15'

l+3.r

+ 2.r2

(1-2.r)(1-.//-')'

266

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

2x*+x2-x-3

.y2- 10a; +13

'

(x-l)(x2-5x+6)'

x(x-l)(2x
x*-

3x* -3a;2

(a;-l)(^+ 2)2'

(#+l)2(#-3)
2^2-lLr

26^2 + 208o;

(^--3)(^2+
5^

3^-8x2+10

(^2-l)(^+l)3'

(07-1)*
of

ascendingpowers

when
followingexpressions

of the

generalterm

the

4 +

."
"

5tt^

3 + 2x-x2
ttx*

18.

"

w,

1-*+i*

*"*
19.

20.

3
(1-tf)

(^-1)(^2+1)"

"-"""

21.

"

22.

*
-

Find the

(l)
[ }

24.

'

of

sum

(i+^2)(n-^)

(1 ax)

When

a?

1, find

"

(l-x) (l-x3)
Sum

to

"

(i+^)(i+^4)

the

terms

(1 a2x)
+
+
(1 ax) (1+a%) (1+ a3.r)
-

of the infiniteseries

sum

x2

25.

ax

(1+x) (l+ ax)(1+ a%)

a2)2

3.r +

of the series

terms

(i+^)(i+^2)
x

(2

'

'

(1 cw?)(1 te)(1 co;)

23.

2x2)

(2+ 3a;)(l+.r)2'

(l+a?)(l-4a?)2*
.

4 + 7x

no

"

7,

3^+2a'2

(1 x) (1 +

tf2+ 7a-+ uy

16.

"
*

(1 x2)(1 2.r)

17.

(2+a?)(l-#)'

2#-4
t^

#2 + 7;f+ 3

5a; + 6
'

l + llo; + 28^*

15.

expanded

x.

l + 3#
12#

5)

2^-

6.r2+ 5.r

,,
*

Find

+ 5

+ l)(^+ 5)'
(a;2

+ 10

"

7*

6*

in

3)'

xA
+

(1-a?) (1-.r5) (1-tf5)

(1-^)

the series whose

pthterm

xp(1+xp + 1)
(l-^)(l-.^ + 1)(l-^

is

2)'

26. Prove that the sum

of the homogeneous productsof n dimensions
which can be formed of the letters a, b,c and their powers is
an

(b-c) + bn + 2 (c-a)+ cn + 2 (a-b)

a2(b-c)+ b2(c-a) + c2(a-b)

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

268
terms
however

scale of relation

the

terms

many

illustration will
following
1

If

procedureis

of

method

the

As

known.

are

the

of, the

consist

may

same

be sufficient.
px

rx3

qx2

is the scale of relation of the series

+

aax2+ ajc3 +

a"x

have

we

+ rx3
+ "lx"an-2x'l~2
an-3x'l~3i
anx*=px an-ix"~1
+

am =pan_,

or

coefficient

thus

any

three

precedingterms

series be

when

coefficients of the

the

known.

are

of the

sufficient number

of

terms

be found.

of relation may

recurringseries

the scale of relation of the

Find

Example.

"".-" + m"-3 5

found

be

can

Conversely,if
given,the scale

323.

"

2 + 5x + 13x2 + 35x3+

Let the scale of relation be 1 -px

the

13

equations

whence

5, and

5p

q=

2q

to obtain p and

qx*-,then

0, and 35

6, thus

13p

5q

we

have

0 ;

the scale of relation is

1

5x + 6a;2.

it involves
If the scale of relation consists of 3 terms
termine
have
2 equationsto demust
constants, p and q ; and we
324.

2
at

least 3
have

must

relation

know
must
To obtain the first of these we
q.
and
second
of
obtain
the
the
to
we
terms
series,

and

given.

term

more

one

two
involving
'O

constants

obtain

Thus

to

must

have

we

at

scale of

least 4 terms

given.
If

the

3 constants
these

we

of

relation

must

have

scale

must

we

qx2 rx3,to find the

equations.To obtain the first of

be
3

"

"

series,and

of the

at least 4 terms

know

px

to obtain

terms
have two more
must
the other two we
given; hence
3 constants, at least G terms
scale of relation involving
a
series must be given.

find

to
Generally,
we

must

know

scale of relation

at least 2m

if 2m
Conversely,

consecutive

consecutive

terms

l\x

l\x* lhx*
~

of the

involvingm constants,

terms.
are

given,we

for the scale of relation

1

to find

-PJ**

may

assume

RECURRING

325.

To

find the

ofn

sum

2G9

SERIES.

series.
of a recurring

terms

of findingthe sum
is the same
The method
whatever
be the
shall
scale of relation ; for simplicity
it
we
to contain
suppose

onlytwo

constants.

Let the series be

au
and
so

let the

S ; let the scale of relation be

value of n greaterthan 1, we have

be

sum

that for every

Now

S"ait+

...

S=

px

"

pa0x

qajt?

a0

"

...

{ax-pa0)x

xn
+ qan_a)
{pan_x

of

for the coefficient of every other power

of the relation

is

qa^x**1,

in consequence

zero

an-Pan-l-"2a"-2=0'
x" + qan_}xH+l
+ qan-3)
-P"-Qx
(Pa,t-,
% + (",
1 px
1 -px"
qx2
qx2
of a recurring
series is a fraction whose
sum

Thus

"

\
-qaH_3x*-1
-qaH_ixn-qaH_lxu

px

x*t

2^"ciH_2xn~
pa

"

...

"

'

"

(1)
qx*;

,x"~\
1

a
/""

paxx*

"

S
qtf)

...+

qa?S=

(i-px

a,x2+

a.x

"

+ aj" +
a2x2

axx +

the

"

nominato
de-

is the scale of relation.

32G.

fraction in the

If the second

decreases

as
n
indefinitely

of terms

infinite number

increases
reduces

result of the last article

the sum
indefinitely,

to

"

"

px

"

"

"

"

of

"

qx"

"

develop this fraction in ascendingpowers of x

explainedin Art. 314, we shall obtain as many terms of
series as we please;for this reason
the expression
original
If

we

1 "px
is called the
327.

generating
functionof
the result of Art.

From

an +

-",

(a,
"Pa.) X
v
'

1 -px

qx2

"

""%"

"

"

qx'

the series.

325, we

obtain
.xi+ l

+
alt
"

a.x
'

ax-

...

xn

+a
"-1

px"

qx

an

as

the

270

HIGHER

from

which

we

function
althoughthe generating

that

see

ALGEBRA.

px

"

may be used to obtain as many

it can
be regardedas the true
a0

only if the

as

we

please,

of the infinite series

equivalent

a2x2+

remainder
+ (2an-^"+l
(I**,.-,
+qan-2)xn
1
qx2
poj
increased ; in other
is indefinitely
"

"

when

vanishes

of the series

terms

alx

qx2

"

words

only

the series is convergent.

ov

when

functioncan be expressedas a
generating
of a recurring
fractions the generalterm
series
group of partial
be easilyfound.
Thus, suppose the generatingfunction
may
fractions
be decomposedinto the partial
can
328.

When

the

ABC
h

1"

Mr
{Aar+ (-l)r
In

this

case

the

(I" ex)2'

bx

is

the "general term

Then

ax

of

sum

x\
(r+ 1)Ccr}

terms

may

the method

Find the generatingfunction,the

of the recurring
series

Example.
to

terms

Ix

x2

Let the scale of relation be 1 -px

-l +
whence

without

using

l, 5

Let S denote

then
"/.r2;

-43

+ 2"+

the

sum

6.r2.

of the series; then

=

-xS=

(l-x-6x2)S

x2-4Sxs-

l-lx-

7x2+

x*+

-6x2 + 42.r3+

-Qx2S=
=

l-8x,
J"8*

sis the

7"/ 0;

6; and the scale of relation is

.-.

general term, and the

43.-C3

7j"-"z 0,
1

which

be found

of Art. 325.

generatingfunction.

sum

RECURRING

If

separate

we

the

whence

8.r

to

sum
=

{2

"

1-305'

1 + 2a;

]."""".

0, 1, 2,...n-1,

1_-3*

xn

(1+ 3a

3%*

3"-1 xn~

l)

xn

find the

To

a;'1"1
}

(- I)""12"

-...

329.

terms

2n+1
( I)'1"1
l+lte

2 +
_

obtain

"

1-x-U.r-

22x + 2%2

we
partialfractions,

(r+l)tUor generalterm is
{(-lyw^-v

?i

into

^-"

Putting
the

271

SERIES.

3x~

'

and

generalterm

of n terms
of the
sum
series
have
find
to
+
the
+
we
a_,+
recurring
ai
only
a0
,
and put
+
generalterm and sum of the series a0 + alx + a2x2
,
1 in the results.
x
"

Find

Example.

the

generalterm

and

of

sum

of the series

terms

1 + 6 + 24 + 84+
The

scale of relation of the series 1 + 6.r+ 24x2 + 84x3 +

the

and

This

1 +

is

function
generating

"

Hence
n terms

"

partialfractions
3

3r

We

330.

of the

article the

'
-

2a;

(3'1 1)
the

the general

2r; and the

3r-3.

sum

student

generatingfunction

(2'1 1).

of

2r)xr.

given series is 4

remind

may

Ooj2,

OX"

the

Sx

(4
2

"

OX

"

expressionsbe expanded in ascendingpowers

the generalterm
is

ox

is equivalentto
expression

If these
term is

*"

of

is 1
.

that

in

be taken

cannot

the
as

preceding
the

sum

of

the series
1 +6x

except when

Hence

when

has such

24:x2+8"x3+

+
a

value

the

1 (inwhich case
function
is not
generating

But

the

the series

convergent.

the series is

obviously
divergent)
of
the
series.
equivalent

true

of

generalterm

1
is

to make

as

qfx, and
independent

24

84

whatever value

may

have it will

always

be the coefficient of x" in

1
We

therefore

generalterm

Gx

treat

24*2

this

as

in the usual way,

84a3

convergent series and

and

then

put x

1.

find its

272

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

EXAMPLES.
Find
series

the

generatingfunction

XXIV.
and

the

general term

following

2.

2-.v

4.

7 -6x

9.r2+13.r3 +

1.

l + 5.r +

3.

2 + 3x + 5x2 + 9x3 +

5.

3 + 6a? + Ux2

+
+ 36.r*+ 98.^ + 276.1-5

Find

the nth term

and

the

to

sum

8.

2 + 7^ + 25^

9.

1 + 2.v + 6x2 + 20#3 + 66x* + 212^

2 + 0 +

11.

Shew

that

+ 30.v3 +

the series
+

22 + 32 + 42 +

13 + 23 + 33 + 43 +

how

to

n2,

+n3,

find their scales of relation.

recurringseries,and
Shew

8+

12

12.

followingseries

+ 91^+

-^
+

9x2 + 27x4 +

-l+6.v2

7.

2 + 5 + 13 + 35+

5.r2-7.r3 +

of the

terms

6.

10.

are

of the

the

deduce

of the

sum

first

of the

terms

curring
re-

series

a2x2+ a^v3+

a0 + axx +
the

from

13.

infinity.

sum

to

Find

the

of 2n + 1 terms

sum

3-1

14.

The

scales of the

+ 13-9

of the series

+ 41-53+

recurringseries

a^x2+ a3.r3+

a0+ avv+

b0+ b1x+b^c2-{-b3.v3+
1

are

+px+qx2,
is

generalterm

l +

If

series whose
of the

rx

sx2, respectively;shew

("xn+6n)^"is

(p + r)x + (q+

scale

given series.

of relation

that

recurringseries whose
s

+pr)

x2

series be formed having for

series,shew that
recurring
given

15.
of

l +

(qr+ps) x3

the

series whose

scale is
+

qsx*.

the sum
its nih term
it will also form

will consist

of

one

more

term

of
a

terms

recurring
than

that

CHAPTER

XXV.

CONTINUED

331.

All

FllACTIONS.

of

expression

form

the

is called

c +

e +

fraction ; here the letters a, b, c,

whatever,but for the present we
quantities
continued

the

simplerform

ax +

integers.This

will be

a3+

where

an

...

may denote any

shall only consider

a2i "3,... are

positive

...

usuallywritten
1

in the

compact form

more

a, +

a2+ a3
When

332.
continued

of

the number

fraction is

quotientsis unlimited

quotients
a0 a0, "3,... is finite the
said to be terminating
of
; if the number
the fraction is called an
contirmed
infinite

fraction.
to reduce every terminating
continued
fraction
possible
the fractions in succession
to an
ordinaryfraction by simplifying
beginningfrom the lowest.

It is

To convert

333.

givenfractioninto

continued

fraction.

tn

Let

"

be the

quotientand

fraction ; divide

tnven

j" the remainder

n,

let

be

p
"

by

; thus

m
"

in

a.

+-

=a,
n

"

P
si. H. A

18

the

274

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

divide

quotientand

"" be the

by ^", ^

'

'

; thus

q the remainder

P
9.

quotientand

divide p by q, let a.6be the

Tims
on.
=

"

rn,

a.
i

a.

; and

the remainder

.so

a2+

a3

"o +

a3+.
If

?t, the first quotientis zero, and

is less than

put

we

7)1

ti

"m

and

proceedas

before.

It will be observed that the above

the greatestcommon
of finding
measure

and

where
every

are

commensurable

the

division

fraction

we

is exact

whose

and

Thus
process terminates.
and denominator
are
positive

the

numerator

be converted

can
integers

that
as
process is the same
of m and n ; hence if m
shall at lengtharrive at a stage

into

continued
terminating

fraction.

251
Reduce

Example.
Finding
process,

we

the
have

^^

to

continued fraction.

greatestcommon

and the successive quotientsare

251

of

measure

251

and

802

by the

usual

3, 5, 8, G; hence
1

3+

5+

8+

802

334.

third,

The

fractions obtained

of
quotients

6'

by stoppingat

continued

fraction

are

the

first,
second,
called the first,

in
convergents, because, as will be shewn
second, third,
Art. 339, each successive convergent is a nearer
approximation
to

the

true

value

of

the

precedingconvergents.

continued

fraction than

any

of

the

the

convergent differs from

(*+ l)th

The
the

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

27g

quotient
an

"

placeof aj

in the

ft*

hence

only in having
("+ 1)-"*

the

vergent

^n-n ^"+^"-i
?

"n+1 ?"

If therefore we

we

co.
^

by supposition.

?"_!'
put

denominator

of the (" + l)th

conthe
of
hold
in
to
case
was
supposed
of the third conhold
vergent,
case
therefore
*
it holds for the fourth, and so on;

and
^* the
^^numeratorwhich
th"t

^ftttVs
hence

inPthe

holds universally.
337.
the
We

It will be

convenient to call aH the n*

at
quotient
complete

this stage being an

partial
quotient;

a"+1+ ""+24
at'any
shall usuallydenote the completequotient
stage by ft.
We

have

seen

that

let the continued fraction be denoted by

; then

" only in takingthe completequotient

ft instead

quotient
a"

differs from

of the

partial

; thus
ftj^i-l+ ff"-2
_

X~kqn_x qn-2'
+

338

// Eb 6e

tfl6nth

convergentto

then
continuedfraction,

Let the

continued fraction be denoted by

111
a,1 +

aQ+

a3+

a4

277

FRACTIONS.

CONTINUED

then

^-2)1similarly,

(" 1)2(P.-9"-a-iV,

But

p2 qx -]\ q,

hence

("h%

1)

"x

we

0, and

that ax =

suppose

(- l)2J

unity,this

fraction is less than

the continued

stillhold if

a,

(- 1)".

/""g^, -#,_, g, =

When

"

result will

that the first convergent

is zero.
When

Note.

are

we

furnishes

an

of the

value

calculatingthe numerical

convergents, the above theorem

successive
of the

easy test of the accuracy

work.

Cor.

1.

convergent is in its lowest

Each

divisor it would
qn had a common
which is impossible.
Cor.
a

2.

divide pn qnl

difference between

The

fraction whose

is

numerator

unity;

Calculate the successive

1.

successive

unity;

convergentsis

a.

convergentsto

'

6+

1+

1+

11+

2 +

pn_l qni or

q,,qn-i'
XXV.

EXAMPLES.

"

iipnand

for

qnqn^

?"_i

q"

two

; for

terms

1111111

2.
2+

3+

2+

1+

44-

2+

111111

3.

3 +

3+

1+

2+

2+

1+

9"

as
quantities
Expressthe following

fourth

continued

fractions and

find the

convergentto each.
729
7.
11.

2318'
4-310.

278

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

12. A metre is 39*37079 inches,shew by the theoryof continued

fractions that 32 metres is nearlyequalto 35 yards.
13. Find a series of fractions convergingto "24226,the
days of the true tropical
year over 365 days.

..

A,

18

-,

the fractions
ratio of

nearlyequalto

is very

kilometre

14.

23

64

==

kilometre to

in

that

miles; shew

"62138

""*""*
the
approximations to ".

are

^z

excess

successive

mile.

divided into 162 and 209 equal

if their zero
pointsbe coincident shew that the
parts respectively;
with the 40th division of the other.
coincides
31 st division of one
nearly

15.

Two

16.

If

scales of

"

n3 +

is converted

nu

equallengthare

quotientsare
convergents.

that the

17.

Pn

(2)

\~Pn

9.n

+ 1

1 and

"

find the

is the nth

"

9.n

Pn

denote

convergent to

the

cJn

g"-l

continued

and
fraction,

continued

to the continued

and
fraction,

fractionthan

*" "-

^-*"J

""-"2

?" +

^+2

9*
consecutive

convergents;then

quotientin
(n+ 2)th
takingthe complete
this

and

by k: thus

Pn+1
^^
"

+ 1

+Pn
?n+l

differs from
the

a;

placeof

*-a"l

?"+

(%"+l+ 7.)

y.+ ,

(%"

+ ,

"

only in

; denote

Pn^l^n-Pn^l
~

an the

that

Each convergentis nearer

339.
convergents.
any of the 'preceding

three

cessive
suc-

Pn

shew
quotient,
corresponding

and
alternately,

n+l

(^-O^-fH-vr-2-1
\ Pn

Let

shew
fraction,

continued

2n

If

that

Shew

(!)

18.

into

+ l

?")

CONTINUED

Now

greater than

k is

difference between

and

therefore

that

x:

fraction than

than
fortiori

Combining

and

"
"

tlie continued

to

unity,and qm

the difference between

botli accounts

270

FRACTIONS.
is less than
' '

--"

and

is,every

the

lience

is less than

is

convergent

on

the

nearer

precedingconvergent,

next

precedingconvergent.

any

the result of this article with that of Art.

it
.""3.",

follows that
tli^ convergent

odd

of an

alwaysless than the continued

order

tin' covrergents of an

To

findlimits

the continued

for

order

even

Y-^1

r_n"2

"

k denote

to the

made

error

in

takingany convergent

^^t

"ln(k"ln+"+nJ

"ln

+9i)
'.(*""

greater than 1, therefore the difference between

and

p..is less than

.

let

convorgents, and

complete(n + 2)th
quotient;

the

k is

are

fraction.

])0 three consecutive

then

Now

hut
decrease,
continually

fraction.

Let

are

fraction
;

alwaysgreater than the continued

340.

hat
increase,
continually

"

and

"

..

greater than

Again, since

the
"7,1
+ l""7",

"

and

greater than

?.
From

341.

taking

p
"

in

taking

-"

instead

of

the

77-0"

v.+,

"

that

last article it appears

the

(I

of the continued

fraction is less than

?.?.+,
;

.,
II +1

ai+l is,the

in

error

1
instead

(a

is

qm
or

1
less than

error

7ill

+q 2

nearer

Ft"

that is,less than

3:

hence

the

larger

"

,)
1/

"
.

11+

does "2
/"

approximateto

.7
I ili

the continued

fraction;

280

HIGHER

convergent which

immediatelyprecedesa large
to the continued fraction.
approximation

therefore,any
is a
quotient

near

Again,since
to find

by

the

is less than

error

less than

givenquantity

"

it follows that in order

calculate the

only to

have

we

fraction

the continued

will differ from

convergent which

ALGEBRA.

successive

to

convergents up

"

qn2is greaterthan

where

a.

of continued fractions enable us to find

properties
small integers
whose
ratio closely
two
approximatesto that of
incommensurable
two
to that of two
or
quantities
quantities,
whose exact ratio can
by largeintegers.
onlybe expressed

342.

The

Find

Example.

to 3* 14159.
series of fractions approximating

and

of 14159
In the process of finding the greatest common
measure
are
7, 15, 1, 25, 1, 7, 4. Thus
100000,the successive quotients
3-14159

3+1

7+

15+

111

1+

25+

7+

1+

The successive convergents are

3
1

this last

convergent which

the
approximation,

25TP5)-

'

106

355
'

being less than

error

'

113

precedesthe large quotient 25

^-

near

very

therefore less than

and

is

""00004-

"

343.

Any convergent
other fractionwhose

any

333

22
'

is

fractionthan

to the continued

nearer

denominator

is less than

that

of

the

convergent.
Let

be

the

continued

fraction,

P
'-*=*"

two

"

consecutive

?.-,

"n
r

convergents,
"

fraction whose

denominator

possible,let

be

nearer

to

than

to

than

7)
-Ji^1

In

"-5=?

9.-X

it follows that

then

"

"

nearer

and

since

lies between

must
P
--

I"

must

lie between

and

"

be

?"

[Art.339];

"

If

is less than

'
"

?"-!

and

CONTINUED

281

FRACTIONS.

Hence
r

.'.

that

fWi"5^

spn_x"

than

"

";

fraction ; which

impossible.

is

Therefore

rqn_x

integerless

is, an

Pn-i

P"-*P.

be

must

"

to the continued

nearer

fraction than

"

P'

P
-

"

fractionx, then
greater

be two

consecutive

is greater or

"

less than

or

If

344.

gents to

conver

less than

continued

x2,accordingas

is

"

q
Let

k be

the

to
complete quotientcorresponding

succeeding
immediately
J
"

"

"

'

''

"

lience

factor
pp'
"

"

that

or

pq is

-f".'
"

"

lcq+

+ qY
"' w
{hq'
"

q
+

pY]

since p'"p, q'"q,

positive,

and k"

I;

or
as ]iq'
negative
x2,according
;
"p'q is positive

is,according as

Cor.

vergent
con-

(tfp'q,-pq)(pq'-2"'q)
+ q)2
qq'(kq'

ky'q'
"

then

q"

WW^YY

The

the

"

or

"

"

that the expressions

investigation
have the same
]iq'"2)/qi
p2 q2M2,q'2x2"p'2
VP ~cLcL^-"
It follows from

the

above
-

sign.

XXV.

EXAMPLES.

b.
222

1.
a

Find limits to the

metre, giventhat

metre

error

in

taking

is equalto 1-0936

"

to
yardsas equivalent

yards.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

282
Find

2.

to
approximation

an

7+

5+

3+

value

the true

which differs from

JL

JL J_ J- JL

11+

9+

less than

by

-0001.
99

by

Shew

3.

by

1*41421

Express
1

find the third

a4+6a3+
,

"

,.

convergent.
the firstand

that the difference between

to
is numerically
ecpial

a"

'

to s-5
quotientcorresponding

'

'"

Pn-1~

(2)

9n-l2n

Wh

Ms

that if an is the

Shew

convergent

...+

Mi

nth

(-l)n

6.

L_

_i-=an+_L_ ^2

a2+

"1

J_

1.

"3+

"2

...

ttn-3+

""-2+

an-l+

"3+

0"-3+

"n-l+ "u-2+

qn-1

1111

7.

In the continued fraction

shew

"

a+

"+

(1 ) Pn +P\
(2)
8.

If

Pn

=Pn

+ 1

lPn +

1+

"

""""""+

"

that

2"

qn-l-

is the ?ithconvergent to the continued

"

fraction

111111
"+

b+

b+

a+

6+

a+

shew

that

9.

q2n =p2n

q2n

+ u

#"..
br-n-

=
-

"

In the continued fraction

1111
a+

shew

6+

"+

'

6+

that
Pn

2~

+ 7

Shew

5.

,.

and
continued, fraction,

as

rs

1K
14a--+15a

,A

differs from

=-

a3 + 6a2 + 13a+10

"

4.

than

quantityless

fractions that

theoryof continued

the

(ah+ 2)Pn+Pn-2

"i 9n +

(ab+ 2)?u +

"?"*2

"-

XXVI.

CHAPTER

In

345.

Chap. X.
shall

and

a,

6,c

be

can

the

reduced

positive
integers.This

are

the

positive

first

degree involvingtwo

to the form

ax"by

equationadmits

c, where

"

of

knowns
un-

unlimited

an

of solutions ; but if the conditions of the problem require

of solutions may be
the number
integers,
y to be positive

number
x

now

equationof

Any

to obtain

efficients;
equationswith numerical coof
fractions
continued
properties
of any indeterminate
equationof

the

346.

how

apply the

generalsolution
first degree.

to obtain

the

shewn

have

we

DEGREE.

FIRST

THE

of indeterminate

solutions
integral
we

OF

EQUATIONS

INDETERMINATE

and

limited.
It is clear

that

equation ax + by
that the equationax

the

solution
integral
to

by

ax

"by
If

the
and

ax

"

"

by
; and
c) hence it will be sufficient to consider
=

"

"

and

b have

factor

which

does not

be satisfied by
c can
equationsax"by
y ; for ax " by is divisible by m, whereas
=

If a, b,c have a common

factor it can
that we
shall suppose
so
a, b, c to have
that a and b are prime to each other.

347.

To

find

the

equation

is equivalent

the

equations

generalsolution
ax
by c.

divide c, neither of
values of x
integral
is not.

be removed
no

in

common

by division;
factor,and

integersof
positive

the

"

"

be converted

into

continued

and let
fraction,

6
the

positive

no

c.

"

Let

has

"

convergent just precedingj

denote

"

q
; then

aq"bp

"l.

[Art.338.]

EQUATIONS

INDETERMINATE

If aq

I.

since

by

a(x

and

by

"

common

no

cq

"

"

"

b have

b ; hence

bt,where

cq

from

be

cP.

"

bt + cq, y

x
factor,
cq must
is an integer,
"

is,

l"e written

(aq b]j)
;

"

285

DEGREE.

cq)-b (y c/").

"

x-

that

FIRST

"

.-.

divisible

THE

bj) 1, the givenequationmay

"

ax

Now

OF

at + cj) \

"

solutions may be obtained by giving

positive
integral
value
value,or any negativeintegral
positive
integral

which

to t any

en

smaller
numerically
also t may

"

bp

ax

"

by

"
"

x
"

="

(y+ cj))
',

y + cp

cq
=

lience
from

t, an

bt

"

cq, y

"

at

CO

III.

If either
into

integer;

cp;

"

solutions
integral
positive
value which
positive
integral

may be obtained by giving

exceeds the greater of the

CD

of solutions is unlimited.

thus the number

quantities-=-,";

two

"

which

to t any

"

"

"

(aq bji)
;

a(x + cq)

.'.

cd

have

1, we

"
"

quantities
-j-

of solutions is unlimited.

be zero; thus the number

If aq

II.

the less of the two

than

or

continued

b is

fraction

unity,the

fraction

unit

with

j-

be

cannot

numerators, and

verted
con-

the

fails. In these cases, however, the solutions may be

investigation
thus if 6
written down
1, the equationbecomes
by inspection;
and the solutions may be found by
ax
c; whence
ax"c,
y
y
=

"

to x
ascribing

any

value greaterthan
positive
integral

It should be observed that the series of values for x and y form

in which the common
differences are b and a
arithmetical progressions

Note.
two

respectively.

286
Example.
In
is

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Find

the

into

converting
"

13
-jr ; we

have

generalsolution

29xl3-42x9

29x65-42x45

generalsolution

ax

by

obtain

be

29"

42"-65,

.'.

of
positive
integers

by

"

(x

c; then

ah

"

"

bk

t.

an

integer ;

"

at ;

in

integers
of the
positive

into

be converted

continued

and let
fraction,

D
"

; then

convergentjustpreceding
j
If aq

c.

y"k
=

"

bt, y

I.

"

Jind the generalsolution

ax
+ by
c.

To

ah

generalsolution.

equation
Let

equation

bk ;

"

349.

the

h) b(y k);

"

x"h
.'.

is the

20t~4o.

ij=

ax-by

ax

.'.

which

mte8er

*"an

generalsolution.

solution of

.'.

45);

45

u
=

-"j-

solution in

one

c, to jind the

h, k

Let

"

is
a:

Given

65

x
"*"

"

5;

65)=42(#

29 (* +

348.

42*/ 5.

-l;

combining this with the given equation,we

the

therefore

.-.

hence

29.r

justbefore

fraction the convergent

continued

integersof
positive

in

"

bp=l,

bp

"

"

1.

have

we

+by

(aq bp);
a(cq x) b(y + c2));
ax

.'.

cq
.

-=-=

"

y
=

"

b
x

"

cq

"

cp
=

"

"

an

integer
';
"

'

"

.'

aq

"

bt,y

'
"

at

cp ;

be the

THE

FIRST

may

be

solutions
integral
positive

which

from

OF

EQUATIONS

INDETERMINATE

obtained

CI)

to

integralvalues greaterthan
positive

If aq

II.

there is

conditions

these
fulfilling

bp

"

by

ax

"

co

integer

(aq bp);
"

en
=

"

t.

integer
0

an

'

"

x=bt

"

"

cq, y

"

cj)

solutions
positive
integral

"

at ;

be

may

by giving

obtained

co

As

integralvalues greater than

positive

no

before,the

of solutions

number

less than

and

-~

limited,and

is

there

may

be

solution

may

be

solution.
III.

found

If either

b is

or

Given

by

solution in

one

c, to find the

A, k

Let

be

equal to unity,the

in Art. 317.

as
by inspection

350.
ax

solution.

no

"

JL

to t

j-

"

which

CO

a(x+ cq) b(cp-y);

.-.

from

less than

have

1, we

and

by giving

limited,and if there is no

of solutions is

the number

Thus

"

287

DEGREE.

of
positive
integers

solution of
'

by

-f

ax

by

ax

.'.

"

"

"

is the

351.

To

bk

c.

bk ;

"

=-

"

t,an

-"

integer;

bt, y

at ;

"

generalsolution.
find the

number

equation
Let

(k y);

which

equation

"hk"y

ah

; then

"

ah

"

(x h)

.'.

.'.

Ike

generalsolution.

be converted

of solutions
+

ax

into

by

of the
integers
positive

c.

fraction,and let

continued

convergent just precedingj

in

q
; then

aq

"

bp

at

1.

be the

288

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Let aq

I.

-bp

l ; then
x

the

cq-bt,

integralsolutions

Positive

values
positiveintegral

generalsolution
y

at-

[Art.349.]

ep.

will be

obtained

by givingto

"f

greater than

not

is

and

not

less

than

"

a
c

(i) Suppose that

and

Let

"

m+f.
J

-"

the least value

of solutions is

therefore the number

cp

cq

n-vi

-"-

"r-

this is

of solutions is the

accordingas/

or

g is the

(ii) Supposethat
In this

case

"

or
fraction,

ab

Thus

less than g.

integernearest

to

"

greater or

the

less

greater.

is

z-

be written

may

accordingas /is greateror

fraction,

number

j.

ab

and
integer,

an

+fg=-"+f-g.
J
J
J

"

b
Now

a.
y'

positiveintegersand J\ g proper fractions ; then

have is m+
t can
1, and the greatestvalue is n;

are

m,

where

integers.
"

not

are

0, and

integer.

an

value of

one

is

If

zero.

include

we

this,the number

of solutions

is

which

-r+f,

must

be

an

in-

ao

teger. Hence

of solutions is the greatest integer in

the number

^7+1

or

-j

as
according

include

we

exclude

or

the

zero

solution.

(iii)Supposethat

is

integer.

an

cc

In this

this,the
the

number

case/=0, and

least value

of t is

of solutions

is

If we
of y is zero.
include
hence
and the greatest is n;

value

one

71

"

l.

or

"r

ab

q +

1.

Thus

the

OF

EQUATIONS

INDETERMINATE

TJIE

FIRST

289

DEGREE.

of solutions is the

number

cordingas

include

we

greatest integerin

exclude

or

(iv) Supposethat

the

zero

-7

or

ab

ab

solution.

and

both

are

integers.

0 and y
0, and both x and y have a
If we include these,
the least value t can
have is m,
value.
of solutions is 11-111+
the greatestis n ; hence the number
this

In

-y

If

1.

f"

case

exclude

we

ae-

"=".

the

values the number

zero

zero

and

1, or

of solutions is

ab

4-i.
ab
If aq

II.

-bp=

1, the generalsolution is

bt

cq} y"

"

cp

"

at,

and similar results will be obtained.

352.
+

ax

To

by +

find the solutions in

cz

d, we

"

integersof
positive
proceedas follows.

may

+ by
ax
By transposition

cz

"

; from

which

in succession the values 0, 1, 2, 3,

we
the form ax + by c, which may be solved as
=

353.

If

we

have
+

ax

simultaneous

two

by + cz=d,
of the

ax

the equation

by givingto z
equationsof
alreadyexplained.
obtain

equations
d\
b'y+ cz
=

say, we obtain an
of the form Ax + By
C.
Supposethat x "f, y g is a
solution can be written
then the general
one
by eliminating

unknowns, z

x=f+Bs,
where

is

an

integer.

for s, we
Substituting
x=f+Bh
the

solution,

g-As,

these values of x and y in either

Substituting
obtain an
we
equations,
equationof the form Fs
which the general
solution is
h + Gt, z
k
Ft say.
8

and

equation

"

values

of x, y,

of the
+ Gz
=

given
II, of

obtain
+
z

BGt,
are

g-Ah-AGt;

obtained

by givingto

suitable

values.
integral
H.

H. A.

19

290

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If

354.

ax

be

can

of
integers
positive

solution in

one

by +

cz

d,

b'y+

ax

solution
particular

h be the

ch

af+ bg +

d',

follows.

as

; then

d, a'f+ b'g+ ch

equations

be obtained

found, the generalsolution may

Lety, g,

c'z

the

d'.

By subtraction,

a(x-f) + b(y-g)+c(z- h) 0,
=

a'(x-/)

b'(y-g) + c'(z-h) 0;

whence

x-f

z-h

y-g

be
where
be

is

b'c,ca

"

b'c

"

ca

"

"

=f+ (be' b'c)

j
/c
"

"

c'a

"

integerand
c'a,ab' a'b.

an

ab'

"

'

of the

H.C.F.

Thus

generalsolution

the

(ca' c'a)

"

="

fc

generalsolution

a'b

k is the

solution, of
the least positive
integral

and

775.r-711y

l.

2.

455#-519y=l.

3.

4.

In how

ways

can

,"1. 19s. 6d. be

paid in

many

is

(ab' a'b)?.
fc

1.

denominators

XXVI.

EXAMPLES.
Find the

436#-393y

5.

half-

florins and

crowns

5.

of solutions in

the number

Find

of
positive
integers

lLe+15y=1031.
Find two fractions having 7 and
that their sum
is 1 "-"-.

6.
such

7.

Find

two

proper

fractions

8 for their denominators

and

and

9 for their

in their lowest

and
denominators,

having 12

terms

such that their difference is

"

24

8.
of y

certain

sum

consists of

pounds shillings
; find
x

Solve in
9.

the

and
pounds y shillings,

it is half

sum.

:
integers
positive

6#+ty
lhr +

8y-

21
4s=122\
6^=145

5J

10.

1 \y + 4z
1
2x
4^=22221
12.r-lly
=

'

-4.v+

5y+

z=ll)

XXVII.

CHAPTER

CONTINUED

RECURRING

FRACTIONS.

that a terminatingcontinued
Chap. XXV.
rational quotientscan
be reduced
fraction with
to an
and denominator,and
numerator
ordinaryfraction with integral
shall prove that a
be equalto a surd ; but we
therefore cannot
continued
fraction
quadraticsurd can be expressedas an infinite
numerical
We
shall first consider
a
whose
quotientsrecur.
example.
We

355.

Example.
fractions

have

in

seen

Express ^19

as

fraction, and

continued

find

series of

its value.

approximatingto

4 +

x/19

4+Tl93-+-;

(v/19-4)
=

v/19+ 4_

^19-3
N/19+ 2_1j_
=1+^

3'

5
.

3
+,

5
+ 2

8 +

N/
1

iN/19-4

2 +

0i
~

\/19 +

(N/19-4)
=

quotients2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8
V19-4

\/19 +

\/19

v/19+ 3_11 1V19-2_1

~1
+

after this the

3'

^"9-8

N/19+

1 +

/L9

2'

2
,
=

"

V19

,/19+

2,x/19z_2_

recur;

Jl_"

2+

1+

1+

8 +

hence
1

2.
""""

3+

2+8+

as
It will be noticed that the quotients recur
In
361
first.
Art.
we
the
of
quotientwhich is double

always the

case.

4'

soon

as

we

shall prove

come

to

that this is

CONTINUED

RECURRING

293

FRACTIONS,

[Explanation.In each of the lines above we perform the

operations.For example, consider the second line : we
in
greatestinteger

"

; this is

"

2, and the remainder

is

^
o

then

We

"

and

multiply numerator

denominator

the

2, that

"

is ^"

series of

same

first find

the

by

surd

conjugateto ^19-2,
line with

new

The

that after

so

rational

4
1

in

eiTor

less than
seventh

'

11

61
'

14

and

39

denote

to at least four

the continued

and

"

than

b, c,...h,
k, m,

a,

-,

be

n,...u,

the

x"

Thus

-00001.

the

one

of the

rational.
are
coefficients
y the

periodic
part,

y'

correspondingto

since y is the

the

completequotient,

p-qx ""
"

qy+q
r

to

-V
qx-p

positive
integers.

are

convergents

wlience

have

the

is therefore

placesof decimals.

fraction,and

then
h, k respectively;
quotients
p'y+p

Let

+
n

Let

and

'

that

suppose

where

'

326

fortioriless

are

continued fraction
is equal to
Every periodic

1421
'

convergent givesthe value

Let

we

170
'

of a quadraticequation of which

roots

begin

we

Art. 336

last of these is less than

or

356.

and

taking the

"
.

'

explainedin

as

48

13

9
'

result

denominator.]

convergents formed

first seven

The

invertingthe

be

"

tlie

convergents

to
r

quotients
u,

respectively
; then

Substitutingfor
of
quadratic

correspondingto

the

which

y in terms

of

y=

the coefficients are

i/ +

-~

and

we
simplifying

rational.

obtain

294

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

+ {s
r)y
equations'y2

The

v'y +
be substituted

in

givesthe value
value
positive

0, which

of
of

of oppositesigns
; if the

real and

y, has its roots

ii

"

"

"

the denominator
rationalising

on

"

-,

qy+q
the value of

is of the form

~-

since
beingpositive

Example.

A, B, C

where

"

the value of y is real.

,1111
l +
s

Express

integers,

are

"

"

~"

as

^-"

...

surd.

Let

be the value of the continued

fraction ; then

1=

""

2x2 + 2x
continued

whence
The

is therefore

7 = 0.
fraction is

equalto

the

equal to

"

of this

+ \X

"

1)

and
equation,

^"
-

"

XXVII.

EXAMPLES.

Express the followingsurds

sixth

positiveroot

1
"

"

convergent to each

a.

continued

as

hnd

and
fractions,

the

1.

v/3.

2.

^5.

3.

y/6.

4.

s/8.

5.

v/11.

6.

x/13.

7.

x/14.

8.

V22.

9.

2^3.

10.

4v/2.

11.

3^5.

12.

13-

j"-

14-

15-

\/s-

16-

\/n-

17.

Find limits of the

V33-

N/10.

268

when

error

"

"

is taken

for

N/17.

is taken

for

v/23.

65

916

18.

Find limits of the

wThen

error

19. Find
of decimals.

the first convergentto

20. Find
of decimals.

the first convergent to

Express as a continued
following
equations:
21.

x* + 2x-l

24.

Expresseach

25.

Find

0.

'"-

N/101that
VI 5

that is correct

fraction the

positiveroot

a8 -4*?-

22.

root of x2

the value of 3 +

5^ + 3

6+

6+

Find the value of

"

1+

x-

x"

5"

6 +

"

3+

1+

23.

3=0.

Ill

26.

is correct to five places

3 +

as

to five

places

of each

of the

la?- 8x-

3=0.

continued fraction.

RECURRING

CONTINUED

295

FRACTIONS.

111111

Find

27.

the value of 3+
2 +

1+

3+

1+

1+

10 +

2 +

3 +

3+

2+

1111

Find

28.

the value of 5

+
,

1+
Shew

29.

that

*+i+6+
Find

30.

1+

e+""~*\1+a+

i+

the difference between

and

5+

1+

3+

To convert

Let

"

fractions

111111

3+

*357.

the infinite continued

111111

1+

2+

be

let ax be the

N/iV
=

", +

Let b be the

""'

5+

3+

1+

surd
quadratic

5+

into

3+

1+

continued

positive
integerwhich is not an
contained in J N
greatestinteger

(Jff-a,)

-j""

", +

contained
greatestinteger

if r,

fraction.

exact

square,

j then

W-

",\
'

in

""

5+

"

; then

ri

JM+al
=

JN-bxrx

ax^h

where

"2

bir1 ax

"

and

JN-a2^h +

rx r2

a"2.

"

Similarly
2

where
and

"3

so

on

; and

"

"

"

a./

a32;

"

"

"

"

+
,

"-'
'

H"

JN-a
v

M-l

an

r2r3

generally

JN+a -s=i

where

as and

bf2

JN

"*2

r2

(1-1

jy

'

"

""_,/""_,
a"_1 and
-

?""_,*"" N
=

it

a/.

1111

*JN= a, +

Hence
and

thus
"We

any

JN
shall

can

be

expressedas

an

infinite continued

fraction.

curring
presentlyprove that this fraction consists of reever
periods
; it is evident that the periodwill beginwhencompletequotientis firstrepeated.

296

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

shall call the series of

We

JAr+

JAT.

quotients

JN

a,

r2

*358.
av

that the

From

"

q
"

The

the

"..

"r.

be the

be three

this

"

Clearingof

also

convergents
"

integers.
positive

and
JN.
x

to

fractions

and

; hence

"

=P JW+a"P+rvp

equatingrational

and

irrational

have

parts,we

"y
an

(pq

rnP

pq) =pp*

and
pq'"p'qssdslf
sign [Art.
344];

But
same

Since

stage is

r,t

v^=

the

consecutive

that the tities

quanshall now
prove

to the partial
convergent corresponding
quotientbn.

completequotientat

whence

P"

completequotients.

precedingarticle it appears
are
we
positive
integers;
rv bv b0,b3
are
quantities
a2, a3, a4,
r8,r3,r4,

Let

r3

second,third,fourth
first,

the

JJST+a

a2

rx

let

two

^Y"

ck"l + rnq =p

'^j rn {ptf"p"i)
"Z"7
=

ATq'2
"p'2.

p2 have
pq "pq-, pp'"qq'N, Nq2
hence an and rn are positive
integers.
"

convergents precedethe completequotient

-

r*

this

holds
investigation

*359.

To prove

In Art. 357
rn_l

for all values of

that the

provedthat
positive
integers
; hence an

are

greaterthan 1.

and partial
recur.
complete
quotients

have

we

rnrn_l
must

Also rn and
thus
be less than ^/JV,
=

N"a2.

have any
greater than av and therefore it cannot
values of
that is,the number
values except 1,2, 3,...ax'}
ofdifferent
an cannot
an cannot

be

exceed ax.

that is rnbn an +
Again, an+1=rvbu-ah,
rnbn cannot be greater than 2al; also bn is
=

hence

rn cannot

values

except 1, 2, 3,...2a1
; that

ofi\cannot

be

exceed

greater than

2ar

an+v
a

and

therefore

integer
positive
;

2av Thus rn cannot have any

values
is,the number ofdifferent

RECURRING

Thus

the

CONTINUED

297

FRACTIONS.

completequotient

have

cannot

"

"

than

more

rn

2a*

different values ; that

is,some

all subsequent
therefore
ones,
Also

must

and
completequotient,

one

recur.

bnis the greatestintegerin

"

; hence

"

the

partial

r
n

also recur, and

quotientsmust
each

We

be greater than 2a
']

To prove that a,

have

",_,

an
+

or

"?,t,-i5

N"-a;=rnrn_l-i

the

proves

*361.

Since,as

rn ,

"

an

proposition.

To shew

quotientand

periodbeginsloith the second partial

double of the first.
partial
quotient

that the

terminates ivith a
have

we

let us
place,

a.

shall prove

in Art.

seen

that the

suppose
then
the (*+l)th;

r,

359, a

must

recurrence

completequotientrecurs
(n+ l)th
and

b. b
=

take
at

that
a,4

We

;
bH_1rn_l

a"=

ai

we

rn

ive integer
6"_lis a posit
;

But

which

au

"

""_i

since

in
of partialquotients

cyclecannot

*3G0.

the number

.
"

=a

rm""

,
1'

"

=
,

ii

b,

1',
,

"

*"

ii

,
1

"

have
r.
*

r
"

,
i

'

-a,2

iV

"

"

"

it

"

,r
i

"r
ii

"

r,* ;
'

Again,

.-.

"

,'

a*
~

-b

7
"

n-1

om

=
.

zero,

or

an

integer.

298

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

But, by Art. 360, al-an_l".rii_x, and

therefore

'

a. -a.

"

"

aa

"

n-

therefore

unity,and

than

Thus

",_!

""_!, and

be

must

also

is less

-^

; hence

is

that

al-as_l"rs_i;

zero.

6#_1 6fl_i.
=

plete
completequotientrecurs, the ?^thcom(n+ l)th
therefore
the
(n- l)thcomplete
quotientmust also recur;

if the

Hence

and

also recur;

quotientmust

so

on.

proof holds as long as n is not less than 2 [Art.358],

the completequotients
recur, beginningwith the second

This
hence

quotient
1

rx
the

beginswith

with

second

"be

therefore

the

that

shall

partialquotientbx; we
a
quotient2ax.
partial

second

that it terminates
Let

follows

It

"

recurrence

shew

now

completequotientwhich justprecedesthe

the

when

completequotient
-

it

; then

recurs

a
"

"

ancj

l are

consecutive

two

completequotients
; therefore

"",

but N-

a*

Again, ay

r, ; hence
aH

"

"

rn

1.

?'", that is
""

Also

an +

rn bn
"

"

bn;hence

1 ; hence

ax

an

0, that

is

","

bn

establishes

2ai; which

the

proposition.
*362.

that in any
the beginning and

To shew

from
beingexcluded.
quotient
Let the last

distant
equiperiodthe partialquotients
the
last
end are
partial
equal,

completequotientbe

denoted

by

; then

"

r.

rn=l,
We

shall prove

cin

ax,

bn=2ar

that

^-2=^2)

"h-2="3"

^.-2="2^

ALGEBRA,

HIGHER

300

equalto

is therefore

and

parts,we

; hence

equatingrational

and

fractions

Clearing of

J 'N

ax +

and

irrational

obtain

*iP.+JV-i

Again

can

"

ai9,H 9rn-i=^"
-jfy"i

(!)"

from

be obtained

-^

and

"

by taking for the

quotient
1

2*1+
which

is

equalto

rtj+

V?V^
Thus

"

in

"

2^

"

from
,

U+%)qnq^

**

P"

%.qn

l(A *")

(1);

(2)"

?2"
In

like

we

manner

that if

prove

may

"

is the

penultimate

icn

period,
convergent in the cth recurring
"i ^c" +Fcn-i

Nqmi

we
by usingthese equations,

and

a, qcn + qm_l =#*,

""

obtain

may

suc-

"

cessively.
It should
of

be noticed

equation(2)holds

that

for all

multiples

; thus

Ol

proofbeingsimilar

the

*365.
fraction
with

In
can

Art.
be

to that

356,

we

have

expressedas

rational coefficients.

alreadygiven.

the

seen

root

that
of

periodiccontinued
quadraticequation

RECURRING

of
expression

and
integers,

the form

not

fraction.
with

the

and
rieure,
as

to

Continued

to

The

pamphlet on
Fraction,by

to each

periodic
part

Muir, M.A.,
XXVII.

and
fractious,

2.

J a*

4.

V/T7T.

5.

y""^f

7.

Prove that
3a+

-a.

find the

3.

N/"--l.

6.

^l

-i
"

"

6a +

2a +

6a +

find the fifth convergent.

8.

Shew

that
2

p
9.
V

Shew

1111

i+

i""

i+

p+

10.

If

r-

that
\

111
+

=Pa\

P9Cl2 +

"

/111
a\-\
tt3+

Ja'2+1

be

P9Ct4 +

"

aCLl+ PaZ

expressedas

2(a*+l)qn=pn_1+pn

2pn

qn_l + qn

1,

11.

Tf
If

.%'=

"

ax +

"2+

ai+ a2 +

...,

1111

"?/~2a1+
2"2+

""'

2ax+ 2a2+

1111

~3tf1+~3a2+
3^
shew

that

3"2+

'"'

+ 3z {a? y1)
{f- z-)+ 2y (z2 .r2)
-

"

OCl\+

shew
fraction,

continued

1111
11

will

F.R.S.E.

will

b.

continued

as

2a +

and

into

Expressionofa Quadratic Surd

N/a2
+ l.

positive

converted

the

case

1.

J9a*+

be

can

are

subjectof recurringcontinued
Serret's Cours cVAlgebre
Supe-

^EXAMPLES.

fourth convergent

-"4"
B, C

that

partialquotient,nor

Thomas

Express the followingsurds

of Art. 357

the first.

the

on

refer the student

we

where

second

double

For further information

fractions

"

In this

the

usuallybegin
last partial
quotientbe

not

tt~~

the method

perfectsquare,

recurringcontinued

"

301

FRACTIONS.

might prove by

we
Conversely,

an

CONTINUED

0.

l.

that

302

HIGHER

Prove

12.

that

b +

a+

V""""
'")\b+ a+

Jl J_

JL J_

ALGEBRA.

a+
1

13.

J_

J_

b+

b+

a+

J_

J_

shew

that

(ab2 +

If

14.

"

be

the

(a2b+

b)x-

J_

J_

nth convergent

P22+P32+'"+P2n

Pn

b)y

Ja2

to

"""'

b+

i+

a+

""'

a+

+
a+

a+

J_

X~a+

y-b

^
'")"b
=

b+

l. shew

lPn

a2-b2.

that

2-PlP2

that

Shew

15.

("

1
c

"

\a+
va+
If

16.

'

b +

c+

denote

"

the

"/

^+

c+

a+

rih convergent

17.

Prove

"~+P".n-l=P2n-p"L,
that

the

difference

is

equal

to

="

1 +

18.
number

19.
denoted

If
of

b+

l+ctb'

"

?3 +
of the

b+

c+

"

""

=
-

continued

infinite
i

"'

?5 +

that

shew

"

_i_j_2_
a+

l +

^"

to

"

qr

Pi+Pi"+

bc

?8"

ft.

fractions

i
'""'

a+

c+

ao

s/JV is converted
quotients in the

into

period,

continued
shew

fraction, and

if

is the

that

into a continued
\/^ De converted
fraction, and if the penultimate
convergents in the first,second, ...kth recurring periods be
that
by nlt n2i...nk respectively, shew
If

XXVIII.

*CHAPTER

THE

OF

EQUATIONS

INDETERMINATE

SECOND

DEGREE.

positiveintegersof indeterminate
though not of much
equationsof a degreehigherthan the first,
because of its connection
with
importance,is interesting
practical
shall confine
In the present chapter we
the Theory of Numbers.
second
of
the
two
attention to equations
degree involving
our
in

solution

The

*366.

variables.

to

the

obtain

values of
positiveintegral

the equation
satisfy

arid y which

ax2
a,

Iww

shew

To

*367.

2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy+

0,

b, c, f,g, h beingintegers.

Solvingthis equationas

quadraticin

as

x,

in Art.

127, we

have
ax

Now

hy+g

in order

the

that

py2 + 2gy +

be

r, must

Solvingthis equationas
+

(hg af)y+(g2-ac)...(l).
-

of

the

"

square ; suppose

t and

are

may
we

be

positive

may

denote

be

perfect

; that is

z2,suppose.

quadraticin

y,

we

have

Jq2-jjr+pz2;
the radical must

equalto t2; then

t2
where

and

which
radical,

and, as before,the expressionunder

that it is

perfect
square

py2 + 2qy +

py

values

expressionunder

the
integers,
kv

"J(h2-ab)
y2+

pz2 q2

variables,and

j\ q,

pr^
r

are

constants.

304

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the
integers,
equationcan be solved in positive
solution.
integral
equationdoes not admit of a positive
original
374.
shall return to this pointin Art.
We
this

Unless

If

b, h

a,

the left

on
expression

of the

[Art.2G9],and
values of

and

thus

be

for

zero

the
x

of

number

and

that of ax2 +

dependsupon

cannot

of

largevalues

for

limited,because

solutions is

is clear that

it
positive,

all

are

y the

sign

2hxy + by2

large positive
integral

y.

Again, if h*
and by
negative,

ab is

negative,the
similar reasoningwe

"

coefficient of

y2 in (1)is

that the number

see

of

solutions is limited.
Solve in

Example.

integersthe equation
positive

4xy + "y* 2x

a;2
-

Solving as

quadraticin
x

x,

we

2y +

29.

20*/
=

have

^30 +

"

24// 2y\
-

102
2 (y G)2
=
30 + 24?/ 2j/2
(y 6)2cannot be greaterthan
; hence
under
the
the radical becomes
that
find
a
51.
expression
By trial we
thus
the
when
integralvalues of y
positive
(y-6)8=l or 49;
perfectsquare
are
5, 7, 13.

But

When
x

29

or

21

have

We

1; when

7,

25

5; when

or

13,

in

the solution

that

seen

positive
integers

equation
ax2

be made

can

or

25.

*3G8.
of the

5,

?/=

2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy+

depend

to

the solution of

upon

equationof

an

the

form
x2
where

iV*and

Ny2

"

"

a,

integers.
positive

are

equation x2 + Ny*
equationx2 + Ny2 a has a
The

may be found by trial ; we

of the form x2
to equations

"

has

limited

no

shall therefore
-

Ny2

"

real

number

roots, whilst

of

solutions,which

confine

be

JN

2_

l-

'"

be

any

converted

hito

three

consecutive

our

attention

a.

To sJiew that the equationx2-Ny2=l

*369.
solved in positive
integers.
Let

the

continued

can

always be

fraction,and

convergents; suppose

let
that

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

THE

OF

SECOND

305

DEGREE.

t 17"a,/

,n

is the

to
completequotient
corresponding

*. (/"/
~

But r"

V'q) W

]"

..

-P"2

[Art.358].
"

JVq

"

; then

[Art.
period
.'3(51]

1 at the end of any

"

"

])(2)

]}(1
"

convergentof
beingthe penultimate

recurring
period.

in the periodis even,

quotients

of

If the number

any

convergent,and is therefore greater than

P

greater than
and therefore
p

Since

x=]"\y
is the

"

the
period,

thus

"pq

pq

1.

q is a solution of the

and
v/iV,

this

Jn

i.san

-,

therefore

p'* N"q'aJ,

case

"

equationxr

penultimateconvergent

even

of any

Ny*

"

1.

recurring

of solutions is unlimited.

number

in the period
is odd,the penultima
If the number of quotients
11
is
odd
but
the
an
tirst
in
the
period
convergent,
convergent
is
second
the
in
period an even convergent.
convergent
penultimate
solutions will be obtained by putting
Thus integral
x=p', y q\
"

where

is the

"

convergent in
penultimate

the

second, fourth,

also in this

periods.Hence
recurring

sixth,

case

the number

of solutions is unlimited.
To obtain

*370.

in the

As

solution,in positiveinte"iersof the equation

we
article,
preceding
f"

If the number

~KT

-Jq

have
'

'2

quotientsin

of

=pq-pq"
the

periodis odd, and

if
"1
"

is an

penultimate
convergentin

odd

'

and therefore pq

"pq

In this
equationx2

p'2 Nq2

where

case
"

is the

"

"
"

"

y1

"

any

period,-,-"-,
recurring

1.
-

-\, and

integralsolutions

1 will be obtained

x =p\
by putting

of the
y

"

periods.
recurring
,,

"

A.

',

third,fifth...
penultimateconvergent in the first,

11. n.

nappeu

i.H.10

we

can

discover

,irv

1:0

2fc U
"

306

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

We

13y2 "1.
=

that

shew

can

integersx2
positive

Solve in

Example.

11111

^13-3
the number

Here

1+ITl+

1+

6+

quotientsin the periodis odd

of

the

solution of

penultimatecon-

18

vergentin the first period is

hence

-=-

18, y

a; =

is

x2-13y2=-l.
By Art. 364, the penultimateconvergent in the second recurringperiodis
1

/18

2U
hence

By

649, y

obtain any

can

x2

*371.

When

found,

lias been

solution in

we

13y2=l.

of solutions of the
x2

one

649

"

the

penultimate convei'gents of

number

13?/2= 1, and

,u

180 is a solution of x2-

forming the successive

periodswe

io\

18Xl3J'thatlS'180'

obtain

may

lSy2

recurring

equations
1.

of x2
Nif
positive
integers
as
as
wre
pleaseby
many

"

th

method.
following

h, y k is a solution,h and k beingpositive

Suppose that x
is any positive
then (A2 Nk2)n 1 where
n
integer.
integers;
=

"

x2

Thus

Put

yJN

2x

to
ascribing

of

and

found

(h-kJJYy;

(h+ kjiry

(h kJN)" ;

(h kjNy.
-

and by
positive
integers,
solutions as we please
as
1, 2, 3,...,
many
so

the values

are

be obtained.

can

"

Similarlyif x
1, and
Xy2
=

"

k is
y
is any odd

hi

if n

x*
Thus
n

JN

(h+ kJN)n

2Usin
Tlie values

(h+ kJX)'1,x-y

.-.

x2

(x+ yjN) (x yJJST) (h+ kJN)n (h ks!X)\

".

-Ni/= (h* m?y

the values of

Ntf
and

is restricted to the values

*372.

become
solve.

"

the

equation

positive
integer,
-

are

the

same

as

alreadyfound,but

1, 3, 5,

ax',y
By puttingx
d= 1, which
IFyf*

of2

of

(h2 Nk2)\

solution

ay

we

the
have

x2
Ny2
equations
alreadyshewn how
"

"

"

a3
to

308

is not

one

When

equation#2-7?/2

the

x2

Ny2 a
JSfy21
=

in

Supposethat

*376.

and

let

h, y

g is

Ny2

By putting

solution of the

(f2 Kg2)(h2 Nk2)

(fh"Ngk)2-N{fk"gh)\

-fh

*377.
square ;
form x2

if,however,
=

Supposethat

"

Kgk,

-fk

gh,

"

explainedin

b is the

ny

b and

be,where

greater; then

b, x

ny

ny)

"

; if the

be.

of

values

these

Example.
equal to 60.

Find

60 is the

integers
; then

,xr

2,30; 3,20;

the values requiredare

ic

+ y

x-y=

obtained

y2 60
=

the

30,

that

2;

the numbers

are

16, 14;

8, 2.

obtained

+ y

10,

and y.

by

squares

6,10;

x-y=

or

one

y found
solution

is

+ y) (x y) 60.
is, (as

equations
#

the other equationsgivingfractional values of

Thus

4,15; 5,12;
from

and

difference of whose

product of any of the pair of factors

1,60;
and

the
integers
positive

two

Let x, y be the two

Now

371,

positive
integers,

two

are

are
integerswe have obtained
equations
be
of the equation
; the remaining solutions may
values.
to b and c all their possible
ascribing

from

Art.

supposedthat N is not a perfect

takes the
a perfect
square the equation
solved as follows.
may be readily

(x + ny) (x
Put

equation
equation

is

a, which

n2y2

of which

9.
of

it has been

Hitherto

their values found as

of solutions.
number

obtain any

may

easily

we

article.

the next

ascribingto h, k

and

; thus

solution of the

k be any

a, when

; then

x*

we

=f, y

=*=

by y=2, #
found, any number

has been
integers
in
obtained as explained

be

solutions may

is satisfied

53

solution

one

Ny2

"

denominators

mentioned

of the above

find that

equationsx2

of the

solution
integral
positive

x2

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

6;

INDETERMINATE

In like

Cor.

OF

EQUATIONS
manner

we

THE

SECOND

obtain

may

309

DEGREE.

the solution in

positive

integersof
+ c
2hxy + by1+ %jx + *2/'y

ax'

if the left-hand member

resolved

be

can

into

k,

two

rational linear

factors.
If in the

generalequationa, or b, or both, are

explainedin Art. 3G7
employing the method
example.
simplerto proceedas in the following
*378.

of

instead

Solve in

Example.

it is

positiveintegers
4a-2+ V2x

2.ry
-

in terms

Expressingy

zero,

of x,

11

have

we

4a;2- 12* + 11
V=

5y

"

"

=2tf-l+;2x

"

^r-r
2x

In order that y may

be

must

The
of

equal to
obtained

whence

the values

of

2, or

"

may
2x

be

must

an

integer;

hence

2.r

G.

"

clearlybe rejected;hence
5
5
" 1, 2x
" 3 ;

the admissible

values

3, 2, 4, 1.

.x- are

S, y = ll; s=2,

"

3, or

"

these values in succession

Taking

and

from

integer

an

2iX

1, or

"2, "6

cases

are

"

be

therefore the admissible

-3;

solutions

a;

3, y

obtain the solutions

we

9; ar=l, y=

4, ?/

-1;

are

11;

4, y

9.

principles
alreadyexplainedenable us to discover
values of the variables given linear or
for what
quadratic
of this
Problems
functions of x and y become
perfectsquares.
Problems
because
called DiopJiantine
kind are
sometimes
they
mathematician
first investigated
were
Diophantus
by the Greek
The

*379.

of the fourth

the middle

about

century.

Find the generalexpressionsfor two

the sum
such that if their product is taken from
are
difference is a perfectsquare.

Example

Denote

1.

the

integersby

and

x-

-xy

.-.

This

equation is

satisfied
mx=

where

and

are

y ; then
+

y'2 z'2suppose
=

x(x-y)
by

positiveintegerswhich

the

{z+ y),

z2-y-.

suppositions
n

integers.
positive

(x-y)

(z

y),

of their

squares

the

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

310
Hence

mx

nz

0,

(m-n)y-

nx

obtain by

equationswe

these

From

ny

0.

multiplication

cross

mz

.
_

2mn

m2

ri2

n2

m2

+ ri1

mn

and since the given equation is homogeneous

solution
x

Here
?n

7,

and

4,

2mn-n2,

are

arithmetic

m2

-vin

general

n2.

have

we

Example

take for the

may

positiveintegers,"i being the greater; thus if

two

any

m2-n2,

we

'

"0, y

SS,

37.

the general expression for three positive

integersin
of
is
two
a
the
such that
and
sum
perfect
every
progression,
Find

2.

square.

integersby

the

Denote

2x

2x-y=p2,

and

+ y;

x,

x-y,

q2,2x

r2 =

let
+ y

2q2,

then

p2 +

or

i*-q*=q*-p".
equation is satisfied by the suppositions,

This

where

and

are

(r q)

(q j"),n (r+ q)
-

obtain

by

r
_

we

may

the three

generalsolution

2mn-m*,
x

m2 +

{m2 + w2)2,y

n2'

m2 + 2mn-

m2 + n2

take for the

p=n*
whence

(q+p),

multiplication

cross

"l

V
w2 + 2mn-m2
Hence

integers.
positive

equationswe

these

From

and

r2;

n2, r
inin

)u2+ 2mn-u2;

(m2 w2)
-

be found.

integerscan

From
the value of x it is clear that m
be such that
odd ; also their values must

and n are either both even

or
is greater than y, that is,

both

(m2+ n2)2"8mn{m2-n2),

mz(m

or

which
If

Sn)+

2inn2 + 8m n* + n4

"

0 ;

condition is satisfied if m"Sn.

m

9, w=l, then

The
squares of

6242.

sums

a-

3362, y =2880, and

of these taken

in

pairsare

62, 82, 98 respectively.

the numbers

are

482, 33G2,

3844, 6724, 9604, which

are

the

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

*EXAMPLES.

Solve

in

5a-2-10.iv/+ 7?/2 77.

3.

y2-4.ry +

5.

3.y +

5.r2-10.i=

7.

.r2-14y2=l.
x2-

61/

the

+ 5

4.

14.

3.ry-4j/

the smallest

12.

solution

in

x2-3xy

18.

Find

the square

to

Find

represent the

are

20.

Find

such

that

21.

being

"

other

There

4^2-y2=315.

and

16.

by

is

S.

9.

x2-7y2-9

14.

y which

.t-2
=

4iy2-l.

0.

that

.v2-

17y2

each of the

make

1.

following

5^+y2.

17.

afi+2xy+ 2f.

the square

of

exceeds

one

105.

for three
sides

general formula
result

2.v

x2-5y2=l.

general formula
lengths of the

the

of their squares

6.

positiveintegerssuch

two

of the

xy

positiveintegersof

in

13.

3y2.

4.

11.

general values of
expressionsa perfectsquare :
15.

7^-2^+3y2=27.

positiveintegersof

0.

.r2-3/=l.
the

2.

^-19^=1.

8.

general solution

Find

19.

XXVIII.

Find

Find

311

DEGREE.

positiveintegers:

1.

10.

SECOND

to

obtained

of

integerswhich may be
right-angledtriangle.

express

two

by adding

taken

positiveintegerswhich

their

product

the

to

sum

perfectsquare.
three

came

of my
wives

Dutchmen

latelymarried

acquaintance
with

them.

to

see

The

me,

men's

; they brought
Geertruij,
Hendriek, Claas, and Cornelius; the women's
man's
wife.
of each
They
Catriin,and Anna : but I forgot the name
told me
had
each
as
market
to
been
at
bought
buy hogs ;
they
person
Hendriek
23
bought
hogs
hogs as they gave shillingsfor one hog;
many
than Geertruij; likewise,
than Catriin; and Claas bought 11 more
more
I desire to know
the
laid out 3 guineas more
his wife.
each man
than
of
each
man's
Mathematical
wife." (Miscellanyof
Problems, 1743.)
name
names

their

were

22.

Shew

that

the

of the

sum

square, if n is equal to k2
and k' the numerator
of an

or

k'2even

first

1, where

numbers

natural
k is the

numerator

convergent to N^2.

is

of

perfect
an
odd,

XXIX.

CHAPTER

SERIES.

OF

SUMMATION

of certain series have occurred

Examples of summation
here to give a
in previouschapters
; it will be convenient
which
have alreadybeen
synopsisof the methods of summation
explained.
Chap. IV.
(i) Arithmetical Progression,
Chap. Y.
(ii) Geometrical Progression,
metrical,
(iii)Series which are partlyarithmetical and partly geo380.

60.

Art.

(iv) Sums
Series,Arts.

by

Summation

(v)

of the

of the powers
68 to 75.

Natural

Coefficients,

of Undetermined

means

allied

and

Numbers

312.

Art.

(vi) Recurring Series,Chap. XXIY.

We
but

proceedto

now

in the

course

If the rth term

of two

that

of

;
greater generality

may
of

is of

series

sum

be

can

of which

1 , the

seen

that

some

employed.
usefully

stillbe

one
quantities

the other

methods

of the present chapter it will be

methods
of the foregoing
381.

discuss

expressedas

is the

same

ference
the dif-

function

of the series may

be

of

readily

found.
let the series be denoted

For

and

its

the form

by

sum

and

vr-vr_1;

suppose

by

that

any

term

ur

can

be

put in

then

^.=("i-0+(w.-"i)+(*.-"f)+"-+(w.-i-0!+(
=

vn.

OF

SUMMATION

Example.

Sum

to

the series

terms

1
+

the series

denote

we

""v"

"

+ 4ar)
+ 3.r) (l+ 3j-)(l
(l+ 2u-)(l

(l+ s)(l+2s)
If

313

SERIES.

by

*-"("-"\
1
2x
a;\l+

"

4*,/
'

a;\l+ 3#

1 +

x\l

i+n+i.x/

nx

ar\l +

a;

SL=-

b}'addition,

_!/
Ws

3*/'

I^

"

l+w

l.a?/

(1+ x)(1+
Sometimes

382.

Example.

the

Find

partialfractions by

a2

z~r

x~n

n,

t-,

.,

"n_1
ft*
nth
term=

By putting1

an~x -A

1 +
""_1.r,

l + a"-1^

equal to

in

zero

B=
1 -a'

u,

"

1 -a'
a

"

\1 +
/

a:

1 +

ax

a2

....

similarly,

t**=;

"

-5

"

a"-1

aw

Wn~l-a Vl+a*"1*l +
'""

*~l-o\l

terms.

suppose:
**

we
succession,

"

1/1
Hence

to
.

l + anx

nn

an-l
A=-

(1+ a7'-1*).

(1+ a**)+

aux

B
+

t-

".

w,

{l+ an-1x)(l+ anx)

.'.

5"

,,

A
=

"

"

"

(1+ a-x)(1 + a3x)

(l+ ax)(l+a*x)

(l+ x)(l + ax)

may be obtained
the methods
explained

of

sum

nu,
The

..r)

suitable transformation

into

u
by separating
in Chap. XXIII.

+ l

l +

anj/

anx)'

obtain

314

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

jind the sum

of\\terms of a series each term of which
in arithmetical progression,
the first
is composedof r factors
factors
arithmetical progression.
of the several terms beingin the same
383.

To

Let the series be denoted

by

ux + u2 + us +

un

where

(a + nb)(a+

Replacingn by

n"

u"

""k"-i !

(a+

("+

.'.

"

?i

"

Replacingn by

b)(a +

b)un
1

(a+

(a+

...

b).

"

/"

"

6)
.

(a+

..

b)?."."_!
=

"

b);

vn, say.

have

we

(a+

b)

have

1, we

")(a+ nb)(a+
.

6)tf" "Il+1j

+ r.

therefore,
by subtraction,

(r+l)b
Similarly,

(7+1)6.

un

wB_,

vn+i-vn.

r/(

/""_,,

1 "

(a 4-

"A un

(r+l)i
C

where

is

to
ascribing

The

quantityindependentof
value.
some
particular

above

result

the number
and
It

however

add

may

givesus

may

convenient
following

be found

rule

by

be

constant.

noticed

better not to

indicated.

the

n, which

the nth term, affix

the next factorat the end,divide
offactorsthus increased and by the common
ence,
differ-

Write down

by

+6'S'ly;

that

"

-,

\
"

(r+l)b
quote this result,but

"

-,

5t-t

(r+l)b

to obtain

m,lf ;
as

it is

above

316

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of\\terms of a series each term of which

metical
is composedof the reciprocal
of the productof r factorsin ariththe first
factorsof the several terms being in
progression,
arithmetical progression.
tliesame
find the

To

386.

sum

Let the series be denoted

by

it, +

ux +

u:i+

un

where
(a

"

nb)(a +

b)(a+

r-l

+ n
b)...(a

r"2

b)

(a+

.b).

4i

Un

Replacingn by
=

"

(a +

1,

b)(a+ nb)(a+

b);

M"_i
ln-l
.'.

(a+

r-l

Replacingn by

b)un

b)un_x

vni

say.

have

1, we

(a+

(a+nb)un
=

vn+1;

therefore,
by subtraction,

(r-l)b.
(r 1)b

Similarly

un

vn-vn+1,

un_x

vll_l

(r l)b

(r" 1)b

Wj

(r 1)b Sn

By addition,

v.2

vx

u.2

"

"

vx

vSt

"

vn

v.2

"

vn+1 ;

"

(a + nb) un
*"-(r-l)6~U (r-l)6

^i

tnatis

where

C is

to
ascribing

?W

quantityindependentof
value.
some
particular

n, which

'

may

be found

by

*
Thus

Hence

Sn

the

C-,

(r-l)6 (a+ n+L.b)... (a+

sum

be found

may

by

the

b)

r-l.

rule
following

Write doivn the nth term, strike offa factor

from the beginning,
diminished
and by the common
divide by the number
offactorsso

change the sign and

difference,
The

value of C=

-,

Vv~7

(r
each

case

to determine

add

constant.

tti

1) 6

1)
(r
to
C by ascribing
"

"

ui
n

'""

but ** is advisable
some

in

value.
particular

SUMMATION

1.

Example

Find

the

of

sum

1.2.3.4

OF

of the series

terms

re

2.3.4.5

317

SERIES.

3.4.5.6

The

re'1'
term

is

"(n + l)(n+ 2)(n+ 3)'

hence, hy the rule,we

have

3(n+l)(w+ 2)("+ 3)
rut

^=0-3^;

then

"=1,

"

Example

18

+ 3)
+ 2)(re
3(re+ l)(re

"

By making

obtain

indefinitely
great,we

Find

2.

(7=1;

whence

the

to

sum

a"

1.2.42.3.5

"

of the series

terms

fi^

T7"

"

r"

rt

3.4.6

because although 1,2,3,

Here the rule is not directly
applicable,
,
the firstfactors of the several denominators, are in arithmetical progression,
not.
In this example we
the factors of any
denominator
are
one
may
proceed as follows :
n
"

(n+2)2
+ 3)
n{n+l) (n+ 2) (re

+ 2

+ 3)
re(re+l)(re

(re
4-1)+ 3re + 4
:re(re
+ l)(re
+ 2)(re
+ 3)"
re

+ 2)(w + 3)
(re

Each
to which

of these expressions
may
the rule is applicable.
l
"

now

be taken

as

the ?ithterm

of

-c
n

put re=l,

+ 3)'
w(re+l)(n+ 2)(re

+ l)(re
+ 2)(re
+ 3)
(re

+ S

+ 3)
2(re+ 2)(re

+ 3)
(re+1)(re+ 2) (re

'

then
3-13

17271=
0
n

4
C

_29

36

re +

372.3

27174

+ 2) (re
+ 3)
(re

.4'

36;

3
3

29

Whence

"

"

"4

+ 2)(re
(re+ 1) (re
+ 3)'

series

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

318

the methods of Arts. 383,386 are directly

instead of quotingthe rules we may always effect the
applicable,
called ' the
in the followingway, which is sometimes
summation
In

387.

where

cases

of Subtraction.'

Method

Find the

Example.

arithmetical

of the series

terms

+ 8.11

+ 5.8

2.5
The

of

sum

this

in
progression

11.14+

is

case

2, 5,8, 11,14,
factor the next term
of the given series introduce as a new
In each term
and the given series
this
series
denote
"",
by
;
of the arithmetical progression
by S; then
S'
.-.

"'-2.5.8

2. 5. 8 + 5. 8. 11 + 8. 11.

+ 8. 11.14

5.8.11

+(3w-l)(3n+2)(3"+5);

14+
14.17+...

+ 11.

to

(u-1) terms.

By subtraction,

11.14+...to("-l)terms]-(3n-l)(3n+2)(3n+5)

+ 8.11 +

_2.5.8=9[5.8
2

5
.

9S

[S

5] (3/i 1)(3n+2)(3n+5),
-

+ 5) -2.
+ 2)(3/i
(3/i 1)(3/i

5. 8 + 2, 5.0,

fif=n(3n3+6n+l).
of

nth term

the

When

388.

series is

in a form which
be expressed
function of n it can
to apply the method
givenin Art. 383.
readily

"j"
(n) is

For

suppose
dimensions,and

cf)(n)A
=

where

will enable

of

function
integral

rational

integral

rational

us

of p

assume

Cti(n+ 1)+B)i(u+ l)(n+ 2)+

+Bn+

A, JB, C, D,

undetermined

are

constants

l in

number.
This

of n, we
may
thus obtain ^" + 1

for all values

identitybeing true

the coefficients of like powers

equationsto determine the p
Find

Example.

the

of

sum

of n; we
1 constants.

terms

n*+6n3

of the series whose

equate

simple
is

generalterm

+ 5w2.

Assume

Gn [n +

7i4+ 6/i3+ 5/t2 A + Bn+

=

obvious that
obtain C
we
successively,

it is at

once

"4 + 6"3

Dn

1)+

En

(n+ 1)(n+ 2) (w+ 3);

1 ; and by puttingn
,4=0, 2? 0, E
6, J) 0. Thus
=

[n+ 1)(n+ 2)+

+ l).
+ l)(n+2) (?i
+ 3)-6/t(/i
5/"2=//(n

2, n

SUMMATION

Hence

Sn

sn

OF

310

SERIES.

+ 4)
+ l)("+ 2)(n+ 3)(?i
2n(n+ l)(n+ 2)
(/t
-

\n(n+l)(n+2){n'i
2).
+ 7n +

Polygonal

Figurate

and

Numbers.
"

If in the

389.
of

terms

and
we

n+
expression
\n(n" l)b, which is the sum
of an arithmetical
whose
first term is
progression
difference b,we
give to b the values 0, 1, 2, 3,

common

1
""

get
u,

which

are

(n+ 1), n*s\n (Bn

\n

the uih terms

is

The

orders

fourth,fifth,
square,

orders;the

unity.

of the Polygonal Numbers

third,fourth,fifth,
each term

1)

"

first order

are

second,

beingthat in which

polygonalnumbers
sometimes

of the

of the

called

second,third,

linear,triangular

pentagonal

390.

To

find the

of the firstn

sum

of the

terms

rth order

of

numbers.
j"olygonal
The

nih term
.-.

$i=$n
=

391.

of the rtb order is

If the

as

1)(r 2);
"

l(r-2)%(n-l)u

\n (n+ 1)+

(r-2)(n-l)

(n + 1) [Art.383]

in(n + l){(r-2)(n-l)+ $}.

of

sum

of the series

terms

1, 1, 1, 1,1,
be taken

\n (n

the ?*thterm

of

obtain

we
series,

new

1,2,3,4,5,
n

If again

we

take

in

1)
which

"

is the

of

sum

terms

of the

-j

last

the ?tthterm
as
series,

of

new

we
series,

obtain

1, 3, 6, 10, 15,
this way, we
obtain a succession of series
of the
such that in any one, the nih term
of n terms
is the sum
precedingseries. The successive series thus formed are known

By proceedingin

as

Figurate Numbers

of the

second,third,
first,

...

orders.

320

find the nth

numbers.
offigurate
To

392.
order

second
(n

n(n+l)(n+2)
'L"
-"

of n

sum

1
tIl
term
the uth
..

"

~M
,
order
of the fifth
,

is

2,

1.2.3
that

is

"

Tims

2)(M + 3)

^-n

"

"

it is easy to

see

; and

so

that the nth term

of
n

01

"

"

"

rule

"

1 Ir

"

of the rth order is

terms

(w +

1)

order.
l)th

of tlie (r+

applyingthe

In
of

(n+ 1)(n + 2)

is the wth term

Note.
any order

(n+2)
n(n+l)
*-=
^5
1
2

of the rth order is

r-1
sum

is

|rc+r-2
.

which

on.

w(?*+l)(w+ 2)...(n+ r-2)

A"rain, the

tnat

"

0
.

w(w+l)(n

xl

of ilierth

terms

"V

order is 2

of the fourth

ntYlterm

1); the

the

of the
first order is 1; the nth term
of the third order is Hn, that is
the nth term

is n;

order

and

term

of the

nih term

The

\n

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of Art. 383

to

figuratenumbers, it will be found

find the sum

of
that the constant

terms

is

of

always

zero.

393.

The

interesting
on

his Traite du

propertiesof figuratenumbers
account

use

made

of them

in
arithmetique,
published
triangle

followingtable
form
simplest
The

of the

exhibits

are

the Arithmetical

historically
by Pascal in

1665.

Trianglein
1

...

its

SUMMATION

Pascal
rule

constructed

the numbers

in the

number

is the

of

sum

immediatelyto the

left
of it;

thus

15
From

the mode

the successive

10,

of

28

that

immediatelyabove

21, 126
vertical

or

rows,

first,
second,third,
.

line drawn

top

bases
Thus

the

ing
follow-

so

and

row

the

6th

left-hand

the

base

the

in

hgurate

orders.
.

an

of units from

equal number
is called

column

10, 5, 1 ; and it will be observed that there are

and that they are
the coefficients of the
of

that

70.

columns, are

beginning from the top

is a line drawn
through the

numbered

are

off

to cut

as

56

it and

follows that the numbers

it
construction,

horizontal

of the

numbers

the

triangle
by

Each

321

SERIES.

OF

base,and

left-hand
numbers

corner.

1, 5, 10,

six of these
terms

the

bers,
num-

in the

pansion
ex-

(1+ x)5.

The

of these numbers
discussed
were
properties
by Pascal
skill
in
Arithmetical
used
his
he
:
great
Trianyle
particular
to develop the theory of Combinations, and
to establish some
in Probability.The
interesting
propositions
subjectis fully
treated in Todhunter's Historyof Probability,
Chapter n.
with

ambiguityexists as to the number of terms

have used the symbol % to indicate summation
in a series,
we
;
modified notation,which indicates
the following
but in some
cases
"Where

304.

no

which

the limits between

found

is to be

will
effected,

be

convenient.

more

Let

the summation

(x)be
cf"

any

function

of x, then

"f"
(x)denotes

the

sum

x=l

of the series of terms

integral values

obtained
from

I to

'a1

For
terms

instance,suppose

from
m

it is

of the series obtained

"f"
(x)by givingto

all

to
required

from

the

find the

sum

of all the

expression

(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r)

by givingto
H.H.

A.

p all

tive
posi-

inclusive.

values
integral

from

r +

1 to j" inclusive.
21

322

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

(p r)(p

*=*

the

in

factors of the numerator

Writing the

required sum

"

ascendingorder,
+

1)

...

(p 1)
-

"

"-

i{1.2.3..
..r+2.SA....(r+l)+...+(p-r)(p-r+l)...(p-l)
l(p-r)(p-r

l) "(p-l)p

[Art.
383.]
J
L

\r

y~(-l)(y-2)...(^-r)
=

jr+1
i

for all values of p from

write the result in the form

givenexpressionis zero

Since the
we
inclusive,

may

%p (p-l)(p-2) """(p-r)

p(p-l) (ff-2)...(p-r)
_

\r

v-\

|r
XXIX.

EXAMPLES.
Sum

series
following

the

1.2.3

2.

1.2.3.4

3.

1.4.7

+ 4.7.10

4.

1.4.7

+ 2.5.8

5.

1.5.9

the

+ 2.3.4

+ 2.3.4.5

+ 3.6.9

+ 3.7.11
to

+
4.

7+77l0+
1

+
1.3.5
1

1_

5.7.9+

3.5.7

1_

1.4.7+4.7.10 7.10.13
4

10

1.2.3^2.3.4

J_

3.4.5
1

_1_
4.5.6

"

"

1.2.3

1-

io

\9,

5
1

11

and to

terms

II

174

3.4^

1.2^2.3
7'

2.3.4

4-

.3.4.5^

_JL

5.6.7+

*""'

5
-l

"

a.

+ 3.4.5.6

series
following

+ 7.10.13

2.6.10

terms

+ 3.4.5

1.

Sum

to

"

3.4.5

4.5.6

:
infinity

1 to

324

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

proceedto form the series of

the generalterms
of differences,
series beingA3ur, AAur, A5?tr)...
respectively.

From

this series

the

we

may
orders
third,fourth,fifth,...
these

of formation

the law

From

Ujt

u.2,

u3,

of the series
u",

Attj, Au.2, Au3,

A.y^

A2w2

A3Wj,

that

u.2 =

since
By addition,

"j

in

to the term

below
+

Au.2 u3

A.m^

it

term

the left.

on

have

we

the

equal to

2Au"

A.2ux

by using the second,third,and

exactlysimilar manner
series in placeof the first,
second,and third,we obtain
an

fourth

Au3
since
By addition,
?f4

So far
the

series is

any

=
t^ +
ii.j

In

Auly and Ait.2 Aui

4-

u.2 +

Au5,

A3u3,

immediatelyprecedingit added
Thus

u6,

A2ui

term

any

Aw4,

A3u,,

it appears

u5,

A.m3

of

we

law

same

by

prove

as

as

have

2A.2u1+ A^.

u3

Au3

ux

ZAux

have

we

u4i

SA^

of the Binomial

that this will

A^

numerical

proceeded,the

those

induction

Aux

coefficients follow

theorem.

always be

We

the

shall
For

case.

now

pose
sup-

that

un+i

"i +

mAmj

then

A,ul+

9
X

"

"CVA^j

...

AnWj i

-J

series
by usingthe second to the (n + 2)th
have
we
series,
(n+ l)th

in the

placeof

the

first to the

it (11

Aun+1

A%!

Mj

"

By addition,since
M"+a

"

+ -A.
jr-fnA.2u}
A3Wj+

fa + 1)Awj

Aun+1

un+l
.

+
BCfr_1A^w1

un+2i

we

An^uY

obtain

Arux +
(nCr+ *Gr_j)

...+

A"+1",
.

SUMMATION

(" ^

*Cr + HJr-i

But

OF

32.",

SERIES.

l) "Cr_x

?i"i

"C,,.,

(n + l)w(w-l)

...(w+l-r+1)
3... (r-l)r

1.2.
of formation

in the

f"n+8, hut

it is true

therefore

universally.Hence

""

,
(n

Ui +

39G.

1X

find the

To

"

of

sum

of the differences

in terms

(w-l)(w-2)
*"
""*_

1) A?^

for un+l it also holds for

of w4, therefore it holds for urn and

case

holds

An.iWi.

...

of ul.

the series u^, u.2, u3,...

Suppose

A2?^

of the series

terms

if tlie law

Hence

is the first order

of differences

of the series
Vl,
then

vn+1

v.2)

v4,...,

+
(vn+1 vn)+ (vn vn_t)

'"

"

^"+l

ua + un-l

...

"""

(v2 vx)+

u2 +

u\ + vl

identically
;

vx

"

in the series

Hence

0,

va1
1 )

v3i

the law

of formation

"'"

that

is,Wj

w3
n

nux

The

"

is the

uz

...

same

of

in the

as

-4

Aw3

"

s"

Awx

precedingarticle;
+

this

-^

-"

and

the

A2M!

of

differences,the nth

the formula

preceding article

slightlydifferent form, as follows

given series,(Ix,d2, d3,...the first

from

A"?^

n(n"l)(n-2)"
t

AWj

"

un

(n"\)
y"r

Aw2,

"Wi

v5

orders
obtained

formula)
in

of

""+i

v4,

2 )

Aw1?

term

v3,

term

if

terms

of the

A"?f ,

be expressed
may
is the first
of the

given

cessive
suc-

series is

326

HIGHER

and

the

of

sum

is

terras

ALGEBRA,

n("-l)(tt-a)(n-3)
,"("-l)("-2)f/

^i"^"1)^
2

j3

and the

Find the generalterm

Example.

of

sum

of the series

terms

?*

12, 40,90, 168, 280, 432,

successive orders of difference

The

are

28, 50, 78, 112, 152,

22, 28, 34, 40,

6, 6, 6,
0, 0,...

of n
The sum
62re.
2re3 + 52re2 +
obtain

",
12 + 28

?i3+ 5re2+ 6"t.

terms

Or

(re 1)+
-

we

found

II

by writing down

"M"-D

("-2) (-8)

46),

It will be

397.

when

differences

the

that this method

seen

series is such

eventually
will always be

that

to

come

we

equal.

series is

the value of
present article and

of the

in(re+l)(3n2
23re
46).

succeed

69re +

l"

+ 26re +
^(3re2

-3)'
M (re-2)(re
M
-v(re-1)

the formula

use

may

~P

be

now

may

22(re-l)(re-2)
'
K"

22"'"-1)("-2"
S^ia^28"'"-1'

are

,x

,c

the nth term

Hence

This

the

only
of

all the terms

if the nth term

case

of

will

forming the orders

series in which

function
rational integral
^"j

of summation

in

of the

n.

will consider a function of three dimensions;

we
simplicity
of proof,
method
however, is perfectly
general.

For
the

Let

the series be
ua2 + ua+
3

u.
1

where

ii

An3

.,+u

+u

Bn2

n+2

Cn

+
"

u
,

"

+ 3

D.

"

and

let

n'

orders of

,
ii*

denote

%
ii

differences;

the

?ith term

of the

first,second, third
*

SUMMATION

then

vh- mm+1" un

that

is,

vn

Similarly

3Au2

the

=w

pthorder

if
Conversely,
equal,the utu term
ii

11

C ;

I) + 3A

211

=6-4.
ii

in the third

terms

in the

(2n
iv

."
"ti

if the nih term

generally,

the terms

3A

Thus

l)+ 2?(2"+ 1)+C:

(3A + 2B) n

"

and

and

3n+

A(3n*+

327

SERIES.

OF

order

of differences

equal;

are

of the

givenseries is of p dimensions,
differences will be equal.

of

in the

the terms

of the series is

]jthorder of differences
rational integral
function

are

of

of p dimensions.
Find the "th term

Example.
The

of the series -1,

3, 3, 23, G3, 129,

successive orders of differences are

-2, 6, 20, 40, GO,

8, 14, 20,20,

6, 6, 0,
Thus

the terms

in the third order of differeLces are

assume

where

have

A, B, G,

Putting 1, 2, 3,
equations,from which
hence

the

ari is
in n, the series

If

for

4
we

in

7i

of the series is 3

Let S denote

the

(1 x)

--

here b

12

...

scale

may

a0

btx+ bjc2+

so

that

...

6n is of
""

Multiplyingthis

simultaneous

four

2,

\ ;

"

dimensions

xn
is

(I

"

x)p+1.

of the series ; then

,
,
'
1

have
=

ofrelation

(ax a0)x+ {a, ajx*+

"

we

"i

it

hence

2n2 + n9.

ao

"a

=a
n

sum

3n

ajx2+

ax

integral
function of

rational

ivhose
recurringseries,

succession, we
-3, C

obtain A =3, B

a,0 +
a

equal;

Dn3,

to be determined.

generalterm

398.

is

A+Bn+Cn2

itH=

last series

bx"
p

..

(a,
-

ax"+\

,_""

ax"

say;

1 dimensions

in

n.

by

x,

we

have

S(i-xy

=s+(^-a")*+(^-^K+..-+(6n-6"-iK-("J,+6""+l
=

here cn

+ ai:c,+%
+ cix^...+cX-{ai+biy,^
say;
c^+{b-a0)x+c^2

-bn-bu

so

that

cn is of p

2 dimensions

in

n.

328

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

it follows that after the successive multiplications

by
the
of
in
xn
coefficients
first,
the
second,
third,
products
x,
orders
of
differences
the
in
third,
terms
second,
first,
general

Hence
1

"

are

of the coefficients.
is

By hypothesis
an
arrive at

of

terms

of p
1
shall
we
x
exceptionof p
of

form
and p terms at the end of the series,
beginning,
each of whose coefficients is the same.
progression,
geometrical

terms
a

series the

multiplications
by
with
the
which,

after p

; therefore

dimensions

integralfunction

rational

at the

[Art.397.]
S

Thus
k

where

is

(1 xf

beginningand

the

x")+/(a?),
for

of the

at the end

p terms

...+

f (x) stands

constant, and

x"'+1+

k(xp+

the p

terms

at

product.

r.Sil-xyJ^l^K/ix);
kx"(l-x"-^) + (l-x)f(x)^
that

is,

thus

the

'

(1 -x)p+l
series is

recurringseries

scale of relation is

whose

(l-x)p+1. [Art.325.]
If the

found
readily

by
Find

Example.

given,the dimensions
explainedin Art. 397.

is not

generalterm

the method
the

function
generating

3 + 5a;+

of an

are

of the series

9a;2+15a;3+ 23a;4+ 33a;5+

have
we
Forming the successive orders of differences of the coefficients,
the series

2, 4, G, 8, 10,
2, 2, 2, 2,

in the second order of differences

thus the terms
rational integralfunction of n of two dimensions
of relation is (1 a;)3.We have

are

S
-

SxS

Sx2S

9a;2+ 15.r3+ 23a;4+ 33a;5+

3 + 5x +
-

9.r

15a;2

27.x-3 45a;4
-

69^

9a;2+ 15a;3+ 27.r4+ 45a;5+

-xsS=

By addition,

3^-

(1

S
a;)3

5a;4-

3-4.r
"*"

9a;5

4a;+ 3a;2;
+

3a;2

b~

(1-a;)3

equal; hence

; and

an is a
therefore the scale

OF

SUMMATION

399.

have

We
of

function

in

seen

Chap,

recurringseries is

329

SERIES.

that

xxiv.

the

generating

rational fraction whose

nator
denomi-

is the scale of relation.

Supposethat this denominator can
be resolved into the factors (1 ax)(1 bx)(1 ex)
; then the
into
fractions
be
function can
of the
separated
partial
generating
"

"

"

ABC
-

to rm

1,

Each

ax

of

series

ex

expandedby the Binomial Theorem

curring
series;hence in this case the regeometrical
of a number
of
be expressedas the sum

of these fractions

in the form

bx

"

a
can

be

can

series.
geometrical
If however

ax
any factor 1
factor there will be
than once, corresponding
to this repeated
more
A
A
: which
partial fractions of the form -^
r=,
-7,

scale of relation

the

contains

"

"

...

(1 -axy

when

expandedby

series;hence
as

the

sum

400.

of

The

the Binomial

in this

case

of

number

the

successive

(1

ax)

do not form

Theorem

series cannot
recurring

geometrical
expressed

be

geometricalseries.

orders of differences of the

geometrical

progression
a,

ar,

ar2,ar3,ar\ arn,

"(r-l), a(r"l)r,a(r-l)r2,a(r"\)r?'

are

a(r-l)2,a(r-l)2r,a(r-\fr2,
which

are

themselves
ratio

common

401.

where

Let

us

the

as

geometricalprogressions
having the

same

series.
original

consider the series in which

is a rational integral
function
"/"(rc)

of

of p dimensions,
and from this series let us form the successive orders of differences.
Each term
in any of these orders is the sum
of two
parts,one
from
of
the form arn~\ and the other from terms
of
terms
arising
the

form

in
""(?i)

is of ;;
series. Now
since "f"(n)
original
from "f"(n)
will be zero in the (p+ l)th
dimensions,the part arising
and succeeding
orders of differences,
and therefore these series
will be

the

whose
geometricalprogressions

common

ratio is

r.

[Art.400.]

330

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of a series are
if the first few terms
form
of differences of these terms

Hence

pth order

given,and if the
geometrical
progression

ratio is r, then we
may assume
is
ar""1
+f(n),where
generalterm of the given series
1 dimensions.
function of n of p
rational integral
whose

that the

common

f(n)

is

of the series

the nth term

Find

Example.

10, 23, 60, 169, 494,

successive orders of differences

The

are

13, 37, 109, 335,

24, 72, 216,

the

common

un"a
To

in which
geometricalprogression
for the generalterm

the second order of differences is a

ratio is 3 ; hence we may assume

Thus

the constants

determine

then

+ b+

c=10,

un

a,

Sn-^ + bn +

b, c, make

3a + 2b+c

whence
Thus

3'1"1+

+ 3

equal to 1, 2, 3 successively;

23, 9a

6, 6=1,

c.

3b +

60;

S.

3" +

n +

3.

of the

examples on recurringseries that we

have justgiven,on
forming the successive orders of differences
have obtained a series the law of which is obvious on inspecwe
tion,
have thus been enabled to find a generalexpression
and we
of the original
series.
for the ?4thterm
In

402.

each

of a
recurringseries is equal to the sum
whose
of geometricalprogressions
ratios are
number
common
of
form
Aa"'1
Bbn~l
is
the
term
its
+
+ Ccn~\
general
", b, c,
therefore
the
and
generalterm in the successive orders of

If, however,

the

...,

differences is of the
follow the same

form

same

law

; that

as

of the series

generalmethod

explainedin

coefficients

are

largethe

considerable arithmetical
while

to

whether

write

down

we

have

must

Chap.

orders

recourse

But

xxiv.

scale of relation is not

of differences

found

case

to

to the

when

the

without

labour ; hence
it is generally
worth
of the orders of differences to see

few

shall arrive at

we

the

the original
series. In this

find the generalterm

more

is,all

series the

law

of whose

terms

is

evident.
403.

We

add

some

principles.
preceding

examples

in

further

illustration of the

3.32

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Hence

""=("

+ 2)("+ 3)+ (n+ 1)(m+ 2);

[n+ 1)(?i

2m

1)(a+ 2) {2m(m+3)+ 1}

S"=ln("+l)("+2)(n+3)(n+4)+|(n

"'"

Example 4.

Find

the

2.2

+ 6.4

of

sum

hence

un
+ m)2'1
(rc2
(An2+

Assume

dividingout by

At 2

whence

.-.

wn

and

Sn

(2?i22n
-

0=C-A

B=

-2, 0=4.

4) 2n

(2m2 2m

{A (n-l)2+

C)2n-

2A+B,

A=2,

and

the nth term

the

4) 2n

(na

of

sum

terms

2.

8, 26, 54, 92, 140, 198,

3.

2, 12, 36, 80, 150, 252,

4.

8, 16, 0, -64,

5.

30, 144, 420, 960, 1890, 3360,

generatingfunctions

7.

1 + 2a + 9a2 + 20a3 + 35a4 + 54a3 +

8.

2 + 5a + 10a2 + 1 7a-3+ 26a4 +

9.

21a4 + 31a6 +

7Xs + 9a4

11a6

10.

I4 + 2% + 34a2 + 44^ + 54a4 +

Find

the

11.

12
1Z"

of the infinite series

sum

+
3

37a-5+

32

33

g4

i2_?-2
+
+ ??_iV2_62
+
5+52
*

53

5"

5*+"

of n,

1)+

2)2*"

} 2"-1

4.

b.
of the series

of the series

1 + 3x + 7x2 +13.^

3a + 5a2

-200, -432,

6.

(n 1)+ C\ 2"-1

we

B;

(n

XXIX.

4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114,

the

1.

Find

like powers
+

{2 (n l)2

EXAMPLES.
Find

{n2+ n)2n.

equatingcoefficientsof

2'1_1 and

is n2 +

the ?ithterm

Bn+

+ 30.32+

+ 20.16

+ 12.8

2, 6, 12, 20, 30,

In the series

of the series

??. terms

have

Find the
13.

the

and

generalterm

333

SERIES.

OF

SUMMATION

of

sum

of the series

terms

9, 16, 29, 54, 103,

-1, 11, 39, 89, 167,

14.

-3,

15.

2, 5, 12, 31, 8(i,

16.

1, 0, 1, 8, 29, 80, 193,

17.

4, 13, 35, 94, 262, Tr"5

Find the

of

sum

of the series

terms

18.

1 + 8* + 3."/+ 5.t-1
+
+ 4./,-';

19.

1+ 3.i-+ 6x2

+ 1 5.r* +
+ lO.f'5

onJLi

4.5'24
1.2*2+2.3 "2:2'f3.4'2!

21'

i-4S+4^
2T3-4+i"
5-4'+0-44+

22.

3.4

23.

1.3 + 4.7 + 9.13

24.

1.5 + 2.15

4.24

3.23

14-+-T5- -T6-+

27.

2.2 + 4.4

28.

3 + 3

4-

"

1.3.5.7.9

^-

4
k

1.3.5.7

2.2-'

1.2

26'

3
A

1.3^1.3.5

nn

+ 5.81

+ 3.31+4.53

'

16.21+25.31

1
oC

25

+ 24.31+35.44+

+ 8. 11 + 15.20

+ 7.8

32 + 5

+ 11.16+16.32

33 + 7

3" +

...

1.3.5.7

1.3.5

1.3

34+9.

rtr.
'

-"

30
^

+"
+

1.2

4. 6. 8. 10

6. 82.

4. 62.4.

2. 42.

ll
2+i5L 92, +4.5"2
23+
+
2.3'2+3.4'2

_5_

2.3.4'

32

_4_
1.2.3*3

(J

5" 33

3.4.

"+A + H ^
(3^ |4 |5 |6

32

19
33
'

'

28

I+
4

1
+

"

_39_
*

4
.

16

52

J_ +

'

4
.

32

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

334
There

404.

under

brought

foregoingmethods

of the

such
expansions,

certain known

cases

some

can

be

cation
skilful modifi-

be necessary ; in others it
of
dependson the properties

may

summation

the

that

found

Avill be

In

generalrule.

no

of which

series the summation

many

are

by the Binomial,

those obtained

as

Theorems.
and Exponential
Logarithmic,

Example

Find the

1.

of the infinite series

sum

50

28

12

78

|I+|5+
[I+|2 |3_+

""

-2; hence

3h(h-1)+4"-2

3h2+j"-2
a

is 3n- +

12, 28, 50, 78. ..v.

of the series 2,

term

]n

|n
2

Put

In"

n-1

;i-2

equal to 1, 2, 3, 4,...in succession

2
",

we

"2

3 +

have
4

4--;

then

ri-r2; "3=ji ^

-gj

and

so

on.

Whence

Se + 4e

,Sf"
=

Example

5e + 2.

{e 1)

(1+ a;)nc0 +

If

2.

+
c2.r2

crr +

cnxn,find

the value of

+ 22c2
+ 32c3+...
+ n\v
l-c1

As

in Art. 398

we

may

easilyshew

that

l2 + 22.r+ 32.r2+ "x3 +...+

Also

cn + cn_xx +

n-xn~l +

=
.

+ c^11'1
+ c0xn (1+ .r)n.
.c.2"n-2
=

Multiplytogetherthese

two results; then the given series is equal

(l+ .r)n+1
(2 1 x)n+1
-

in

."

,.,

(1 x)A

that

is,in

the coefficient of x11

2"+!

.-.

the

this

given series

2"+i
fL^+3

-n(w+l)2"-!.

expansion arise from

+
(1 .r)-3 (n + 1) 2"l (1 .t)"2
-

"

7-

containingjcn-1 in

only terms

J=

"

(1 x)3

The

"

\!l"Jll
%*-i

("+ 1)gn

(i

l)
?ii"":
2h-i

^-l.

to

METHODS

MISCELLANEOUS

IP

If b

3.

Example

is

)i

"-""("-""

(n 1)",,.

l, and

Theorem,

we

(n-5)(n-4)("-3)
expansionsof (1 x) ',

(1-.t)-2,(1-x)-*, (l-.r)-4,
respectively.Hence the
the
coefficient
in
the
to
x*
of
e"pial
expansion of the scries
ax*

required is

sum

a*x6

a-x4
+'

1-bx

that

see

the coefficients of xn, .r'1-2,

.rn_4,
.r'1-*5, in the

\6

(n-8)(n-2)

are

|2

By the Binomial

the value of

C-3)("-4)("-5)

rfj.

integer,find
positive

335

SUMMATION.

OF

'

{1-bx)3 (1-fcc)8 (1 bx)*

-

and although the given expressionconsists only of a finite number

this series may be considered to extend to infinity.
But

the

of the series=

sum

(1 +

""

"

1-bx

1-bx

"

of terms,

1-bx

+ ax"

Hence

the

given series

(a + l)x

a+1.

"

in

coefficient of xn

since b

ax-

(l-x)(l-ax)
coefficient of xn in

H+l
_

\1

1
"

a-1

Example

If the series

4.

x3

xe

X*

X8

X5

x'2

X7

1+

are

denoted
If

is

an

J3 JG
by

a,

"r

'

|8_+
]5+|7+ |2_+|5

a3 + b3 + c3

Sabc

of

root

{a +

b +

1+x

unity,

c)(a+
.t2

'lA~h +

Now

that a8 + 63 + c8-3o6c=l.

shew
b, c respectively,

imaginarycube

wb + w'-c) (a + w-b +

+ lob +

"/

OJ-C-1+

C0X+

"

Tl

-r^-

~\5

w4.c4

ur\r+

"T-

w'.r'
-r=~

similarly

0)=X
+ io'-b+

a
".

.,
,

wc
,

bc

uX

(l+u" + w!)x

co2X

1, since

l +

ojc)

Xs

.t4

xz

+
~\9+\3

w-.r-

and

'

ur

0.

1"x)

-ax

336

HIGHER

405.

To

find

the

ALGEBRA.

rth powers

of the

sum

n
of the first

natural

numbers.
Let the

be denoted

sum

by Sn; then

SH=V+2r
Assume

S
n

...

nr.

that

=Annr+i+Anr
0

where

3r

+An

A0nr-1+Anr~2+
2

A0,A^ A2,A3,

r +
+

whose
quantities

are

...

...

(1),
/
\
'

1
1

values

have

to

be

determined.
Write

1 in the

placeof

and

subtract;thus

+ Ax {{n+ 1)' nr]

(n+ l)r A0 {(n+ l)r+1nr+1]
+
+ A3{(n+ iy~2-nr-2}
+ A2{(n+ l)-1-n'-1}
=

+Ar...(2).

...

efficients
(n+l)r_1, and equate the coExpand (?i+l)r+\(n + l)r,
of
of like powers
n.
By equatingthe coefficients of nr,
...

we

have
1
l=A.

By equatingthe
A
r

"

(r+ 1), so

that

Aa

coefficients of nr

!,we

(r+ l)r

"

have
1

Axr;

"

whence

Ax

Equate the coefficients of nr p,substitute

multiplyboth sides of the equationby

for

A0

and

AJfand

\P
{r-2)+ 1)
r(r-l)(r-2)

...

we

thus obtain

i~p

In

(1)write

A'r

^
A'r(r-l)

1 in the

"

placeof

r(r 1)(r-2)

"^

and

subtract;thus

+
+ A2{nr'1-(n-iy-1}
nr=A0{nr+l-(n-iy+i}+Al{?ir-(n-l)r}

...

Equate the
o
p

coefficients of nr~p,and

substitute for

A0,A1; thus

'4+^-^gzi)+i/^;);^)-....w
(?" 1) (r 2)
(?" )

METHODS

MISCELLANEOUS

From

(3)and (4),by

p + 1

"r

OF

.addition .and

337

SUMMATION.

subtraction,

r(r-l)(r-2)

o^/_^)^/0'-i)(p-g(^-3)+
(6).
(r 1)
(?" 1)(r 2) (r 3)
3

"

to
By ascribing
from
(G) that each

from

and

to zero;
r

6"

}" in succession the values 2, 4, 6, , we

of the coefficients A.^ A5" A.,... is
(5)we obtain

1^

absolute

by puttingn=

expressedby
nr+x

result of the
the

r_x

"

0.

precedingarticle

is most

r(r-l)(r-2)

l2

r+1

Ar+l;

conveniently

formula,

"

+Ar-

equation(1),we have
+Ar
A0 + Al + Aa + A9 +
=

The

equal

obtain

(2),we

A% + AZ+

Ar+1

406.

see

1 in

thus

"

in

terms

\=A^AX
1

___1_ r(r-l)(r-2),
30'
li
_J_ r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4) ;
8~42"
|6

By equatingthe
and

r_3

r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4)

'6
7?

w}lprp

i
"-

7?-1

7?

the

...

Find the value of l5 + 25 + 35

Example.

n6
ttt
We

5
"

quantities
Bx,B3,2?5, are known as Bernoulli's Numbers;
of other series
to the summation
examples of their application
advanced
student may consult Boole's Finite Differences.

The
for

7?

7?

,
have

n5

r.

S" ^-+ ^
=

_?t6

n5

_5

^,5

^ -^n*
5?i4

+ n5.

-f

Ba

.
"

j"

3
"

n* + C,

n2

~6+"2+l2~r2'
the constant

being zero.

II. ii. A.

22

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

XXIX.

EXAMPLES.
Find the

of the followingseries:

sum

^
JL

5.

l +

6.

pr
*rz

c.

^+-\T'T
pr-i

(1+ .r)

7- TX^"
1+tm;

""

"^"2)

"'
_

"

X +

ii

|1

A^

r/3

-3

f^l.2-

to

2^

""(1+^)"
_

12

1+3a?
?i(?i-l)("-2)

to

2n + l

+ xY
/2/i

...

to

W2 (7l2

terms.

terms.

12) 7i2(ft212)^2^2)
+
12.2*.32
i-j[i+-ii7?
o,2

9.

1 terms.

to

+ 1 terms.

1 + 23

1L

r2T3+3^T5+5T677
+

12.

ji

3^6

18

11
+

]|+[3+|4
|5
2a8

23s5

121s6

is.

1+-J2-|3
"[7-'|r 16

14

Without

fuming

!"+*+*+

the

formula,find the

+"""

"

sum

of the series:

17 + 2; + 3? +

"-

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

340

coefficient of

If Ar is the

24.

*A2

2/

of

expansion

in the

xr

^.\2

(i+,f(i+|)2(i+|)2(i
2~3J
+

prove

If

25.

is

(^4r-i

2^

n-^~\i

^4

that each

"3^5

-3

If

equal

to

n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)(n-4)

*3

""'32

|5

"-

zero.

is

pti

If

27.

"

[3

26.

"

of the series

equal to

that

positiveinteger,shew

qn

1
.

(n-r+^-1),

Pr=(w-r)("-r+l)(n-r+2)
(r+^-1),

"=r(r+l)(r+2)
shew

andj

[5

w(w-l)(w-2)
11

is

^r-2)"

-3+

"

is

multipleof 6, shew

'

1072

2s,,

^lr

that

that
ho k

P"
If

28.

P2Q2

?i

is

P3Q3+

1"^"

P"-i^-i=

H
(n-r-l)(w-r-2)...(tt-2r+ l)

or

"

1_^2

according

as

is odd

or

is

xz

proper

fraction,shew
x5

even.

l_#6Tl_a?io

that
x

Xs

x3

+.v2^1+^

"'""""'

u.

If

(-!)

29.

g+l|n-2

(w-5)(w-6)(w-7)

to

|"+

+ q

"~

|3

is equal
u

\n-l+p

that

multipleof 3, shew

(m-4)(w-5)

"-3
,

'

l+.r10

CHAPTER

Theory
407.

In this

in
A

Numbers.

of

shall

chapter we

meaning

XXX.

the word

use

number

as

is not exactlydivisible by any

unityis called a prime number, or a

which

number

except itself and

valent
equi-

positive
integer.

to

number

prime;

is divisible

besides itself and

by other numbers
n
umber
thus
53 is a prime number,
a
composite
\
Two
numbers
is a compositenumber.
which
have no
factor except unityare said to be prime to each other ;
is prime to 77.
which

number

unity is called
and

35

common

thus

24

frequentuse of the following

elementary
of
which
arise
of
definition
the
o
ut
some
so
propositions,
naturally
be regardedas axioms.
of a prime that they may
We

408.

(i) If

number

b,it must

factor

since

For
since

shall make

is

(ii)If
divide
must

to
are

of the

one

prime

divides

number

productbe

factor of

found

in

number

factors

divides

; that

of that

b", where

is found

is,a

divides

and

is

prime to

one

c.

be, every factor of

b, no

prime

divide the other factor

prime

the factors of

divides

is found
in

divides

b;

in

be; but

therefore

all

c.

product bed...,it must

product; and therefore if a
is any positive
it
n
integer,
a

divide b.

(iii)If a is prime to each of the numbers b and c, it is prime

divide b or c ; therefore
factor of a can
to the productbe. For no
the productbe is not divisible by any factor of a, that is,a
is prime to be. Converselyif a is prime to be,it is prime to eacli
of the numbers

b and

c.

it is
b, c, d,
prime to each of the numbers
is
to
if a
prime any
prime to the productbed... ; and conversely
number.
it
factor
of
that
is
number,
prime to every
Also

if

is

...,

342

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of

This follows at

(v) If

are

from

once

is

prime to each other, every positive

is prime to every positive
integral
power of b.

and

(iv) If a
integral
power

prime

(iii).
fractions

b, the

to

and

=-

in their

are

j-

bo

ft

lowest terms,

are

beingany positive
integers.Also

equalfractions,and

two

any

and

and d must

of a
equimultiples

be

and

and

terms, then

respectively.

ofprimesis infinite.

The number

409.

is in its lowest

if

if not, let p be the greatest prime number; then the

ber,
product2 3 5 7 11 .p, in which each factor is a prime numis divisible by each of the factors 2, 3, 5, .p ; and therefore
For

divisible
number
p

formed

number

the

it is
any of these factors ; hence
itself or is divisible by some
prime number
case

the number

p is not the greatestprime

of primesis not limited.

formula
algebraical

rational

No

410.

let the formula

a
possible,
and
suppose
prime numbers only,
is ]), so that
the expression
p
x

that

product is not
either a prime
greaterthan

number,

and

fore
there-

represent prime

can

only.

If

when

their

by adding unity to

by

in either

numbers

np the

b (m

bm

is,

"

or

cm2

ex2 + dx3

that when

dm3

+
m

represent

...

the value

of

becomes
expression

np)

cm2
p

thus the

bm

bx

{m + np)2+

dm3

+
+

(m

np)3+

...,

multipleof p,

multipleof p,

is divisible by "", and

expression

is therefore not

prime

number.
A number

411.

can

be resolved into

in only one
prime factors
,

way.
Let

denote

the

number;

suppose

abed..., where

are
b,c, d,
Suppose also that JV
prime numbers.
Then
other prime numbers.
where a, /3,y, 8,
are

a,

...

...

abed...

a/3yS...
;

a/3yS...,

THEORY

hence

is

prime,therefore

343

NUMHEHS.

divide; abed... ; but eacli of the

must

OF

divide

must

one

are
a
a
prime ; therefore
Hence bed. =/3yS.; and as before,
/?must
factors of bed... J and so on.
Hence
the

and

But

both

Let

b,c,

a,

find the

To
N

denote

is

a' +

equal to

factors in

iV

are
a/3y"$...

only be

can

a.

of the

equalto one

resolved

of divisors of a compositenumber.
and

where
N"=apbg"f...,
suppose
and p, q, r,
are
positive
of the product
it is clear that each term

integers.Then

(l+a

the

number,

different

are

...

number

therefore

be

must

be

and
equal to those in abed...,
into prime factors in one
way.
412.

factors of this duct

proof them, a suppose.

prime numbers

+ b2 +
...+a'')(l+b

divisor of the

...

...

and

V) (I+

c2 +

...+cr)...

other number
is a
of divisors is the number
of terms in

givennumber,

divisor ; hence the number

product,that is,

that

no

the

+ l)
(f"+l)fe+l)(r

This includes
413.

find the

To

N" denote

Let

b, c...

each

integers.Then

(I+
is

a2

iV;

in which

requirednumber

in which

number, and

N
suppose
and ]), q,

prime numbers
term of the product

of)(1+

...

divisor of

each way

the

different

are

of ways
factors.

number

be resolved into two

can

a,

both unityand the number

divisors,

as

b2 +

(1+
b'1)

itself.

compositenumber
a'tyc'

r...

c +

c2 +

where

positive

are

cr)
.

divisors corresponding
but there are
to
two
iV can
be resolved into two factors ; hence the

is

}(!"+l)"
l)(r l)
+

This supposes

not

perfect
square,

is an odd
quantities^,
q, r,
If N is a perfectsquare,

so

that

one

at least of the

number.

...

of resolution into factors

way
is x/iVxJNj and to this way there corresponds
only one divisor
JX. If we exclude this,the number of ways of resolution is
one

l)(r l)...-l},
!{(p+l)(?
+

and

to this

for the

we

must

add

the

one

way

JN

N/iV;thus

requirednumber
l)!)("/+!)(""+
lj
\{(P
+

we

obtain

344

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

number

be resolved into two

can

which

of ways in
factorswhich

number

the

find

To

414.

composite

prime

are

to each

other.

before,let

As

in

factor and

one

in

occur

is

of

the number

Let

(1 +a

required
1.

Example

the

in which

the

factors;that is,the
2""1,where

of a

is

number.

(1 +
b'1)

c2 +

c +

of the divisors is

sum

Then

each

...+cr)...
equal to

this

cr+1-l

the number

63

102

of divisors

"

b-l

-1

Consider the number

21600

Since

,.

...

sum

23

33

52 = 23

33

3*-l

"

"

"

?
"

63x40x31

78120.

"

52,

72 ;

"

.
"

factors

be resolved into two

53-l

of the divisors

can

22

(5+ 1)(3+ 1)(2+ 1)

2

Also 21600

c-1

21600.

26-1
..

the

"

prime

to each

other

in

23_1,

4 ways.
2.

Example
We

If

is odd

have

Since
one

Hence

on.

or

so

in N.

...

i ""+'_!

"_

a.
sum

bq
Similarly

other.

of ways

two

divisors

b2 +

...+ar)(l+b+

the

factors

some

before.
as
by apbqcr...,

be denoted

divisor,and therefore the

product) that is,
is

be

or
1)(1+ 1)(1+ 1)...

of the

sum

two

product

a2+

into

different
prime factors

the number

of the

term

-(1

find the

To

415.

is

number

resolved

be

the

power of
in the other factor,
and thus

prime to each
only; and

the

equal to

can

of ways

number

there would

factors

of the

one

requirednumber
product abc...

....

of

power
not be

factors would

the two
must

some

Of

avbqcr

ap, for otherwise

contain

must

one

number

the

shew

that

n(n2- l)

7i

(n2-1) is divisibleby

{n- 1) (n+1).

is odd, n
1 and n+1
two consecutive
are
is divisible by 2 and the other by 4.

of them

even

numbers

Again n 1, n, n + 1 are three consecutive numbers ; hence

is divisible by 3.
Thus the given expressionis divisible by the
3, and 4, that is,by 24.
-

24.

hence

of them
product of 2,
one

the

Find

3.

Example

34".

NUMBERS.

OF

THEORY

in

is contained

of 3 which

highestpower

J100.

of
divisible by 3 as the number
Of the first 100 integers,
are
as
many
99.
times that 3 is contained in 100, that is,33 ; and the integersare 3, G,9,...
contain the factor 3 again,namely 9, 18, 27,...
Of these, some
99, and their
number
is the quotient of 100 divided by 9. Some
again of these last
of
integerscontain the factor 3 a third time, namely 27, 54, 81, the number
the
contains
One
number
of
100
27.
the
them
only,81,
by
quotient
being
factor 3 four times.
the highestpower
Hence
This
article.

example

416.

is

33 + 11 + 3 + 1

required=

of the theorem

case
particular

in
investigated

number

of a prime

find the highest'power

To

48.

the next

which

is

contained in In.
n

Let

the

in

contained
greatestinteger

by /

1,2,3,

2,

the

numbers

so

a,

( jwhich

are

2a, 3a, 4a,

the

Hence

on.

contain

tJ

"

...

CL

at least once,

are

) which contain "3

of

highestpower

contained

the numbers

among

there
Similarly

...

and

a2 at least once,

contain
and

Then
/(-"),...
] /(-,],

--

there

n.

...

respectively

"

Ct

Cv

be denoted

iii
"

-,

namely

I[-A which
at least once;

in \n is

'""'")*'6)+~
In

417.

to express

418.
divisible
Let

To

of this

the remainder

multipleof

that the

prove

chapter we

by

the

shall find it

venient
con-

symbol Jl(n).

prodicctof

consecutive

is
integers

by |r.
for the

stand

Pn

least of which

is

product of

consecutive

the
integers,

; then

Pn n(n+l)(n + 2) (u + r-l),
Pn+l (n+l)(n + 2)(n+3) ...(n+r);
nPn + rPH ;
nPm+i (n+ r)P
=

...

and

"

.-.

1"

-P

=lsxr
=

times the

product of

"

1 consecul ive

integer-.

346

1 consecutive

"

Pm+1-Pm

Now
also P.

is divisible by
integers

have

1, we

"

product of

if the

Hence
\r

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

P,
P

M(\r).

P2 is a multipleof \r\ therefore

of (r. We
have thus proved that if
multiples

are

rM(\r-l)

therefore

and
|?',

is divisible by \r 1,the
productof r" 1 consecutive integers
product of r consecutive integersis divisible by \r; but the
product of every two consecutive integersis divisible by 12 ;
is divisible
therefore the productof every three consecutive integers
by 13 ; and so on generally.
the

"

By

also be

proposition
may

This

in \n

is contained
This

leave

we

416, we

of Art.

means

as

shew

can

often at least

as

proved thus

exercise

an

as

that

every prime factor

it is contained in \n \r.

to the student.

of every term
If p is a prime number, the coefficient
is divisible by
+ b)p,
exceptthe firstand last,
expansionq/*(a
419.

the

"With

exceptionof

the

the first and

last,every

term

has

in
p.
efficient
co-

of the form

p(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r

l)

'where

have

may

this

is an
expression

is

divisor

of

integralvalue not exceedingp 1.

also since p is prime no factor
integer;

any

it,and

since p

factor of \r ; that
any
divisible by |r. Hence
the last is divisible
420.

If

(a+
Write

p is

+ c +

ft for b

+ c +

By proceedingin

greater than

1)(p

"

"

2)...
(p

coefficient

every

it cannot

r +

of

\r

divide

1) must

be

except the first and

by p.
prime number,
d

a5
...)p=

J3p (b+
=

is

-is,
(p

; then

(a+ py
Again

Now

"

bp +

d+

this way

b1'+ cp

by
a*
.

to prove

the

that
dp

M(p).

precedingarticle

p' + M(p).

)p (b+ y)psuppose
=

M{p).
we

may

establish the

requiredresult.

348

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

XXX.

EXAMPLES.
1.

the least

Find

of
multipliers

a.

the numbers

3675, 4374, 18375, 74088

which
respectively,

2.

will make

the least

Find

the

productsperfectsquares.

of
multipliers

the numbers

7623, 109350,
which
respectively,

will make

the

539539

productsperfectcubes.

aud if x"y
If x and y are positive
integers,
a?"y2 is divisible by 4.

is even,

3.

4.
is

that the difference between

Shew

number

any

and

shew

that

its square

even.

5.

by

If

-ix-y is a multipleof 3,shew that 4x2+ 7xy

2y2is divisible

9.

6.

7. In how
factors ?

two

many

can

ways

the

8.

Prove

that 24'1 1 is divisible

9.

Prove

that

10.
the

of divisors of 8064.

the number

Find

same

Shew

number

by

15.

+ 1)(n+ 5) is a multipleof
(?i

number

that every

be resolved into

7056

6.

and its cube when

divided

by

6 leave

remainder.

11.

If

12.

Shew

13.

If

is even,

that
is

shew

that

+ 20) is divisible by
(;i2

(?i2 1)(Sn+ 2) is divisible by

-

greaterthan 2, shew

that

n5

"

48.

24.

5n3 -f 4?i is divisible by

120.

14.

Prove

15.

If

multipleof
16.

240

if n

that 32n + 7 is
is

multipleof

prime number

8.

greater than

3, shew

that ?i2 1 is
-

24.

Shew
that n5
is odd.

"

is divisible by 30 for all values of n, and

17. Shew that the difference of the squares

numbers greaterthan 6 is divisible by 24.
18.

Shew

that

19.

Shew

that every cube number

no

square

number

is of the form
is of the form

of any

3?i

"

9?i

two

1.
or

9n"L

by

prime

THEORY

Shew

20.
is 0, 1

if

that

cube

number

is both

square

21. If a number
form 7n or 7?t+l.
Shew

is divided

that

and

24. Shew
may be.

number
triangular

no

that ax

or

26. Prove
13ft+l.

or

I7n"l.

27.

that

28. If n is
divisibleby 240
n

a*

even

the

8th power

prime

is any

number

prime

are

remainder

that

3u

1.

when
l2,22,32,...n2

always even,
odd

whatever

number

and

is of the

of any

number

is of the form

I3)i

of any

number

is of the form

I7n

greaterthan

number

that it is of the

be of the form

can

of every

power

that the 12th power

Prove

If

and

+ a

that every

25. Prove
form 8r + l.

5, shew

that

n4

1 is

"

greaterthan 3,except 7,shew

that

1 is divisible by 168.

nG"

Show
30.
and 37.

that ?i36- 1 is divisible

by 33744

When
both
p + l and 2p + l are
1 is divisible by 8(p + l)(2/)
+ l),if

31.
"**

by 7, the

cube,shew

23. If 2" 4- 1 is a prime number, shew

divided by 2"i+l leave differentremainders.

29.

349

NUMBERS.

6.

or

22.

OF

"

if

is

prime to 2, 3, 19

prime numbers, shew that

is prime to 2, "" + l,and
x

2p+h
32. If p is
divisible by pr.
If
that

33.
prove

is

prime,and

multipleof

423.

If

prime

prime number, and

am-2
is

to p, shew

a, b two

am~3b + am-4b'i+

that

numbers

xp1~pV

less than

1 is

m,

+ bm~2

m.

is any number, then any other number

N may
expressed in the form N
q is the integral
aq + r, where
when
N
is
divided
quotient
by a, and r is a remainder less than a.
The number
to
which
the
other is referred,
is sometimes
called
a,
the modulus
to any given modulus
there are a different
a
; and
be

350

forms

of

value

of

number

r.

Thus

iV, each

form

to modulus

3,

3"7,3q + l, 3q + 2; or,
equalto 3 (q+ 1) 1.

of the five forms

one

If

424.
the

leave

same

we

(mod.a),or

of these formulae

Either

If b, c

425.
and

])b

pc

"

426.

If

"

is

; which

pna

prime

if

when

ma

qb +

(m
b divides

prime to

less than
Thus

(m

; but

the

a, then

"

the

m'a

1 )a

different.

q'b+

and

ma
quantities

remainder

same

r,

"

of the

two

integer;

some

proposition.

all

are

is

quantities

(b

that

r,

so

divide

that

a
7/1')
(q-q')b;
=

m')a

this is

; hence

it must

since
impossible

and

"

m'

m', since
are

each

b.
the

remainders

are

of the series

1, 2, 3,

of
and since none
different,
by b, the remainders must be
in
b
1, but not necessarily

all

is exactlydivisible
quantities
terms

respect to modulus

the

proves

b, and

to

possible,
suppose
divided by b leave

then

it is

this

express

(mod.a).

?za, where

the remainders

by b,

ma

therefore

"

the
the
this

order.
Cor.
of the

a.

congruence.

2a, 3a,

a,

divided

c=0

congruent with

are

For

by

be congruent with
of a, and
a multiple

to

is

shall sometimes

is called

b
For, by supposition,

are

divided

when

numbe^

congruent,p beingany integer.

are

pc

therefore

case

of Gauss

"

2 is

3q +

5 any

pb

different

2.

5q,5q " 1, 5q "

In this

a.

notation

since

to modulus

manner

of the form

numbers

two

are

respectto the modulus

follows

have

we

integers,which
remainder,they are said

6,

the
following

correspondingto

simply, 3q, 3q"l,

more

In like

will be

as

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If

is

prime

to

b, and

number, the b

is any

p.

c,

c +

a,

c +

2a,

(b

"

1)a,

terms

THEORY

divided

when

OP

b will leave the

by

351

NUMBERS.

remainders

same

as

the

terms

of the series

though

will be 0,

wn7A
(o-tf

1, 2,

b.jb3,
-(/"b.,

are

...

modulus

regard to

a,

also

congruent.

For

by supposition,

b1-cl

nxa,

where

nlt n2, n3
.

are

...

(b- 1),

this order ; and

b- 1.

in
necessarily

not

427.

2,

1, c+

c, c+

therefore

respectively
congruent to cn
//te
"/te?i
products b,baba
...,

b2-c2 u2a, b3-c:i u./i,

integers;

the

mainders
re-

c", c},

^c.c.^

...

...

...

+ w:ja)
+ rc2")
+ ",")
(ca
(ca
bxbaba =("?!
+ M
(a),
c,c2c3

".

...

...

which

proves
We

428.

If
a

p be

proposition.

the

and

number

prime

giveanother proofof

now

can

prime

Fermat's Theorem.
p, then N1'-1

to

"

1 is

multipleof p.
Since JV and p

each

prime to

are

if, 2tf,3.V,
divided

when

by p

other,the

numbers

(p-l)iV

(1),

leave the remainders

(p-1)

1, 2, 3,

(2),

in this order. Therefore

the product of
though not necessarily
in (1)is congruent to the productof all the terms
all the terms
in (2),
p beingthe modulus.
That

divided

but

is,|^"1

by p

i^"l

N''~i and

number

is

prime

We
a

remainder

same

to

p ; therefore

shall denote

the

it follows

when

that

(j").

number

of

integersless

(a); thus
prime to it by the symbol "f"
"/"(18)G; the integersless than 18 and

and

""(13) 12;
=

1 leave the

; hence

JP"1
429.

\p

it being 1, 5,
consider unityas

7, 11, 13,

17.

It will be

prime to all numbers.

seen

that

than

1 ;
=
"f"(2)

prime to
we

here

352

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

each

if the numbers

To shew that

430.

b,

a,

d,

c,

prime

are

...

to

other,

(b) ""(c)
(f"
(abccl.) ""(a) "/"
=

Consider

product ab

the

line

in b lines,each

written

the first ab numbers

; then

k,

2,

be

can

; thus

numbers

containinga

1,

a,

2,

k,

a,

2a

2,

2a

k,

2a

a,

("_ \)a+ 1, (6- 1)a

2,

(b 1)a

a.

a+l,
+1,

2a

Let
k is

prime to

prime

have

to

of which

p., the terms

...

"

in the

contains

column

""(a)numbers
in each

there

of these.

one

divided

when

by

Cor.];hence

[Art.426

that

the

This column

b leave remainders

the

column

contains

b.

"/"
(a)vertical columns in which every
contain ""(b)integers
prime to b ; hence in the
(a) cj"
(b)integerswhich are prime to a and
"f"

each
Similarly,
is prime to a
term
also to

number

row

k is

beginswith

which

0, 1, 2, 3,
prime to
""(b)integers

table

beginswith h ; if
will be prime to a ;

vertical column
A.

the first

...

""(a)vertical columns
\ therefore there are
is prime to a ; let us
term
suppose
every

to

of which

an

Now

a.

which

no
divisor,

common

k,

of this column

all the terms

prime

will be

(b-l)a

...

consider the vertical column

us

but if k and

is

are

of the

by and therefore

to ab ; that is

""(ab) ""(a) ""(6).

-

(bed .)
(a) "j"
cf"
(abed...) "f"

Therefore

"j"
(cd...)
(a) (f)(b)
cj"

"f"(a)."t"(b)."t"(c)."}"(d)....

find the number

givennumber, and prime to it.
Let
where

JV
a,

denote

b, c,

the
are

...

...

ap"
a,

of positive
integersless

number, and
different

positiveintegers.Consider
1, 2, 3,

1, ap,the

2a, 3a,

To

431.

the

that

prime numbers,

only ones

not

prime to

a,
(a*-1 I)a, (a1"1)

JV

apbqcr

and

factor a1'; of the

...

suppose

than

p, q,
natural
a

are

...

r
bers
num-

...

THEORY

and the number

OF

of these is a''~i; hence

4"(av) a"
=

Now

all the factors

.

that

and

a'-'

ap,b'\c\

=a?(l- -^
.

of all the

sum

is any integer
less than N and
less
than
N
and
integer
prime to it.

integers
by 1,p,

the
S

l+p

+ q + r+...

of 0
the seriesconsisting

Writingthe seriesin
S
.-.

{N-l)

by addition,

2S

the

q, r,

From

which
integers

less than

prime to it,then

N-x

is also

an

their

by S; then

sum

{N-l),

order,

reverse

(N-q) + (N-r)+...+r

N + N + N+
S

less than

q+p

l;

to "p(N) terms;

...

$N"p(N).

last article it follows

the
are

are

and

...

integerswhich

(N-r) + {N-q) + (N-p)

.-.

432.

(N) terms.

(N-p)

Denote

other ;

-H)-H)-H)^""K)H)H)iir(i-i)(i-J)(i

^W

is,

each

primeto

are

...

"/"
"/"
(a)Vcr.) "j"
(a1')
(b1)0 (cr)

Example. Shew that the

prime to it is ^N"p (N).
If

353

NUMBERS.

J" and

that

the
not primeto it is

number

of

'-'(".4"("-i)(":3("i)
tliat

is,
N

_++_+..._
a

ao

be

ac

....

abc

N
Here

the term

"

givesthe
a,

of the

number

la, da,

integers

.a

"
...

(t

N
which

contain

as

factor;the

term

"

givesthe number

ao

H.

II. A.

23

of

354

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

integersab, 2ab, Sab,

the
and

multipleof

ab, which

contain
reckoned

integeris

Further, every

on.

so

-j
ao

...

ab

as

only; thus,
of a, once
multiples
among
the multiplesof ab,
among

ab

and

is thus

and

once,

will appear
once
of b,and once
the multiples

each

factor,

abc will appear

negatively
once
only.

reckoned

among

the

which

jo

ab'

ac'

and

among

each

multipleof

cases

"

the

b, c respectively;
among

of ab, ac, be respectively;

multiples
r
r
'
J '

are

be

may

433.

which

terms

=-

"

"

"

iV

"

JV

multiplesof a,

are

"

terms

the

among

iV

Again,each multipleof

once

the

of abc;that is,since
multiples

-jabc

occurs

and

once,

3-3+1

1,

other
only. Similarly,

once

be discussed.

Theorem.] If
[Wilson's

be

-p

prime number, 1

\p

is divisibleby p.

Ex. 2, Art. 314

By

have

we

'

Ijp-1 (P~ i)""1 (P i)(P 2r

=

Jp-l)(p
and

by

Fermat's

each

Theorem

of

is of the form

...

=M(p)
=

M(p)

Therefore

expressions
(j) l)p~l,
thus
+M(p)-,

tlie
1

+fl-(p-l)(P~l)(P~2)

M(p)

-...top-

terms!

{(i-iy-"-(-iy-"}

1, since p

"

$y-"

2)(p-3){p_irl+
top_lterms.

(p-2)p~\ (p-2"y~\
p-l

^z^ipD(p

Ip

"

1 is

even.

(p).

This
has
1

theorem
is only true when
p is prime. For suppose p
factor q; then q is less than p and must divide \p 1 ; hence
of q, and therefore not a multiple
of p.
\p 1 is not a multiple
a

"

"

Wilson's
result

Theorem

quotedfrom

Art.

may

also be

314, as

in the

proved

without

using

article.
following

the

356

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the

to
Many theorems relating
induction.
provedby

435.
be

can

Example
Let

xp

If p is

be denoted

prime number,

xp

=pxp~l

by p.

f(x

1)=f(x) +

2*5~ 2

+px

ifp is

prime [Art.419.]

multipleof p.

also

is divisibleby^i,so
therefore/^)

/(2)

x)

"

multipleof p,

{xP

*p"2
+P"f~01)
J.

If

numbers

by f(x); then

/ (x+ 1)-/ (x) {x + 1)p (x+ 1)

.-.

is divisible

propertiesof

+ l); but
is/(.r

(1+ 1)^-2,

and this is a multipleof p when p is prime

by p, therefore /(4) is divisible by^, and

419]; therefore / (3)is divisible

[Art.
is true
so
on; thus the proposition

universally.
This furnishes another
1 is a
it follows that xp~J

proof of

2.

Let 52n+2

that 52,l+2

Prove

24?i

if

is

prime to

p,

25 is divisible

by

576.

by f(n);

/(?i+l) 52n+4-24(w+ l)-25

then

52.52w+2-24n-49;

.-.

f(n+l)

(24n+ 25)

25/ (n)=25

24u

49

576 (n+ 1).

see

24/i

25 be denoted

theorem,for

multipleof p.

Example

Fermat's

if f(n) is divisible by 576, so also is /(u + 1); but by trial we

Therefore
is true when
fore
that the theorem
n =
l, therefore it is true when n=2, thereit is true when ?i
3, and so on; thus it is true universally.
=

The

above

also be

result may

52n+2

2in

25

provedas

25M+1

25

25 + 25

576n +

i)/(576).

24;i

Shew

that 10n + 3

2.

Shew

that 2

3.

Shew

that 4

4.

Shew

that 8

4"

+ 2

5H

6n + 5n

7n + 4"

+ 2

25

24 + M

(242) 24n
-

25

b.

+ 5 is divisible
5 is a

when

iW(576)

XXX.

7n+ 3

(1+ 24)"-24rc-25

EXAMPLES.
1.

follows

by

9.

multipleof

divided

is of the form

by
24

24.

20 leaves remainder

(2r 1).
-

9.

THEORY

5.

If p is prime,shew

6.

Shew

7.

Shew

that 2

that av, + l-a

that

the

OF

357

NUMBERS.

\p-3+

l is

multipleof p.

is divisible 1"y30.
of

highest power

contained

2r

in

is

2''-;--l.
+ 52'1+* is a

8.

Shew

that 34'1+

9.

Shew

that 3**+6+160"a

multipleof
243

56n-

14.

is divisible l"y512.

of the coefficients of the odd powers of x

10. Prove that the sum
when
is a prime number
in the expansionof (l+"r+#2 + #3 + .r4)n""1,
n
than
is
other
5, divisible by n.

11. If n is
divisible by 504.
If

12.

prime

is

an

odd

number

greater than

number,

7, shew

that

prove

that

n"-l

?i*5
+ 3"i4+ 7"i2- 11

is

is

multipleof 128.
If p is

13.
of

shew

prime number,

that the coefficients of the terms

less by unity than some
tiple
mul-

greater and
alternately

(H-a?)*-*

are

of p.
of the (p-l)th powers
If p is a prime,shew that the sum
of
wherein
the
numbers
arithmetical
in
ence
differcommon
progression,
any p
of p.
is not divisible by p, is less by 1 than a multiple

14.

Shew

15.

that a12- b12 is divisible by 91, if

and b

are

both

prime

to 91.

If p is

16.

prime,shew that

\p-2r 12r

1 is divisible by p.

17. If n" 1, n + 1 are both prime numbers

greater than 5, shew
that n(?i2-4) is divisible by 120, and ?i2("i2
Also shew
+ 16)by 720.
that n must
be of the form 30" or 30^ + 12.
Shew

18.

highestpower
nr"

is

that the

equal

nr

19.
l(p-D
a2

20.

is contained

in

\nr~1

r-

If p is a prime number, and

be found such that c2
c2 can
1 is divisible

Find

which

to
n-

number

of

the

to ]), and if a square

is divisible by pt shew that

prime

a
"

by p.

generalsolution
98a;-

1=0

of the congruence

(mod. 139).

358
that the
Shew
N and
number

21.
a

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

given

of the

sum

of all the numbers

squares

less than

to it is

prime

?(i--30-J)0-9-+?ci-."a-.)
and

the

is

cubes

of the

sum

?(i-3(x-])(t-9-+?a-^ci-"a
a,b,c...being the different prime
If jt? and

22.
divisible

given by

\pq is

that

positiveintegers,shew

two

any

by (|"")".
|#and by (\q)p.
\p.
that

Shew

23.

are

of iV.

factors

the

the square
of the

squares

of

an"^ ^hat

r-

pentagonalby

the

the

coefficients of the powers

also

are

of

powers

triangularare
of

numbers

square

2"

\)X -f"X

"

numbers
which
coefficients of the

in the

which

in the

are

pansion
ex-

also

expansion of

1_

that

Shew

24.
less than

and

the

prime

of the

sum

fourth

powers

of all the

numbers

to it is

-"*)...,
-gg(l-"*)(l-i")(l
a,

6, c,... being the

prime

factors

of A".

If

25.

prime

different

to

26.

of integerswhich
(iV)is the number
(f"
it,and if x is prime to JV,shew that

If

dv d2,ds,

^^-

denote

the

less than

JV and

(mod. JV).

divisors

of

...

+ ""(d3)
+
(dj + 0 (c?2)
(f"

Shew

are

number

JV,then

=iV.
...

also that

(!)r-;
"t"

"

9~0(3) r1;
"

fi

0(5)T^

"

"----

odinf.
=

"

-?~l

kJ.

Theory

General

The

*-436.

In

Continued

XXXI.

CHAPTER

Chap. xxv.

Fractions

Continued

of

have

we

of the form

Fractions.

the propertiesof
investigated

where
a
a
2'
3'
",+
%+
and a^ is either a positiveintegeror zero.
positive
integers,
shall now
consider
continued
fractions of a more
general

are

We

a, +

"

type.
The

*-i37.
~'

a1

=*=

any

"

"2

where

"i rZl
*

a3

general form

most

of

ai" a2" a3"

'

""""

continued

*,"K

fraction

is

represent

"""

=*=

whatever.
quantities
The

fractions

"

fraction.

continued

(i)that

in which

that
(ii)

in which
To

*438.

convergents to

We
the

the

first three

formed
a3, and

see

together;
manner.

our

sign
signis negative.

each

b2

a2bx

attention

to

component

two

is

the

cases;

positive
;

the successive

b3

a3.a2bi+b3.bl

that the numerator

numerator

also

of

components

convergents
ergents are

the
by multiplying
the

the law of formation of

investigate
the continued fraction

6,
AVe

before

bi
The

a3
shall confine

a2

called

are

"

"

a,

that

of
the

of the

third

convergent may be
of the second convergent by
numerator
the first by b3 and adding the results
denominator

may

be

formed

in

like

360

HIGHER

successive

the

Suppose that

let the
similar way;
denominators
and the

by

the

law

that

Assume

; that

-a

qlt q2, q3,

of

nl

b p
n-l

p
n

,
\

"

place of

in the

"

"

denoted

be

numerators

formed

are

in

by pit p2, p3...,

...

formation

=a

q
J- n

",
2"

"

holds

n-Ln

differs from

(n+l)thconvergent

convergents

for the

nth

vergent
con-

is,suppose

In

The

ALGEBRA.

+
"

,
1

bq
h-Ih"2

wth

the

_.

only

in

having

; hence

a
n

the

+ \

convergent
(n+ l)tb

If therefore

put

we

+b

nP

?" ^,=a

,,p

,,

+,

+,q

+b

,,q

,,

and denominator
of the (u+ l)th
that the numerator
convergent
follow the law which was
supposedto hold in case of the
of the third convergent ;
?tth. But the law does hold in the case
fourth
and
holds
the
it
for
hence
on
so
;
; therefore it holds
see

we

universally.
*-439.

In the

of the continued

case

b2

b,
"1
we

may

anPn-l

kPn-*

In the continued

have

""?"-!

k"ln-2
',

that of the

precedingarticle

fraction

h
a1

Qn

from

may be deduced
changingthe signof bn.
*440.

we

CC3

result which

by

b3

that

prove
Vn

a2

fraction

a2

"3

",
2'

qJ-n

that

seen

J-

=a
n

nl

,+bp

ii

"

n-L

"

^a

n-ln

"

,+bq
n-J-n"2
1

a.

GENERAL

THEOHY

OF

?"+

CONTINUED

Qn-J'

\9n

Ml

FRACTIONS.

but

and is therefore

fraction:

proper

hence

"

1
"

".+1
less than

"

"

"

is of

and

"

In

ft

sign.
opposite

In-}

By reasoningas
of

is numerically

"

odd

an

in Art.

shew
that every convergent
may
is greater than the continued fraction,

order

335, we

and

order is less than the continued

every convergentof an even
fraction ; hence every convergentof an odd order is greaterthan
order.
every convergent of an even
Thus

2--'^ ^
-

is

and
positive

"ss=l ^2"

less than

Also

?*=i
-

22/1

"

2---1
is

2/1 +

2/1 +

continued

the

of
but

"

2 2/1-1

2/1

2/1

2 2/1

convergents of
even

"

"

odd

an

"

order

"

are

are

all less than

hence

22/1-2

all

greater than

decrease,and
continually

but

order

2/1

"=s

^=*

less than

22/1

fraction

an

2/1

22/1

the

and
positive

Hence

; hence

2ft*-J 2*2/1

32/1+] 9 an

the

the continued

vergents
con-

fraction

increase.
continually

Supposenow

that the number

of

then
components is infinite,

convergents of an odd order must tend

and the convergents of an
order must
even
the

to

finite limit,

some

also tend

to

some

finite limit ; if these limits are equalthe continued fraction tends

definite limit ; if they are not equal,
the odd convergents
to one
tend

to

one

limit,and

limit,and the continued

this
two

that

case

the continued

the

even

convergentstend

fraction may
fraction is the

of which is the
one
quantities,
of the even
convergents.

to

different

be said to be

in
oscillating;
of
symbolical
representation

limit of the

odd,and

the other

362

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

that the continued

To shew

*441.

fraction
+

ax

has

value if
definite

greaterthan

when
of rf""n+I

fraction will have

and

is
infinite

W"

?"+!

when

is

zero.

?"

Pn-1

fPn
n+lffn-l

Now

""-!"

obtain

Pjt+X ""
_

a3 +

is equal to

"

9n+l

we

is

definite value

infinite if the difference of the limits of -^

whence

zero.

continued

The

the limit

a2

(_ 1 )-l

6"+^"-l"ng"-3 KV* KVl (P* Pl\

_

"2n+l

k.-i?

But

k.-M?
n+lin-1
+
li+1 !7u

^B+lS'n-l
an+l Qn

k^g
a.

an+lqn

"i

K?-i

""""-*)"*""+!

an(

^n+lSn-l

"n+lSn-l

also neither of these terms

"

case

n+1

is

greater than

the limit of

zero

-J**^

b^xqK

^n+1

be

can

^n+A^-2

"+

also is the limit of

so

if the limit of

negative;hence

is less than

and

therefore

Qn+i
the limit of the
and

must
same

infinite number

an

therefore be equal to

.For

limit ; which

example,in

zero

proves

the

the continued

^"i_ -^ "a
q"+i

productof

that

of proper

is,-^

and

?"+:
the

; in which

T-

qn

fractions,
-"-

tend

qn

proposition.
fraction

3-

n~
"

3+5

2n+l

"

"

a. a

Lim

and

-f-^-1 Lim*"+i
=

therefore the continued

7\,2
(n+iy

-' =

fraction tends to

definite limit.

to

364

vergents form
order of
tend

to

of the components is infinite,

the coninfinite series of proper fractions in ascending

If the number

Cor.

an

magnitude;

and

in this

definite limit which

*443.

as

determine

we

9n

succession

Pn

have

we

are

"

"

18

if
Similarly

S'

find

^=___

whence

3"-1

3*-1

"""

method

for all values

will

of

...

a+

successive
the

we

5form a recurring
series
the relation

by

'

2x

(3" 2").
-

qnxn~x+

i___r_;J
2*-1

S'^1

2'l+]

6(3"-2w)

yw_

'

3n+1

in the

2?l+1

when

a"

and

of the

case

shew

may

12
1

2'1"1=

q3x*+...+

only succeed
Thus

n.

5-

l-3x

12

ffn

This

5-

=-^ ;

18

qx + q" +

gn= 9

"

5x + 6a;2

hx + Qx-

c
-

+pnxn~1+

"

6
1

general

(P2~5Pl)X

Pl +

S=

pn

vergent^
con-

5p"-!+ "Pn-2'

"

the first two convergents

whence

of the

many

however,

connected

are

S =p1 +p.2x +Prf?+

then, as in Art. 325,

as

the numerators

Let

"."_""

cases,

To find the wth convergent to

we

unity.

a"n-,

certain

We have pn
Sp,^ 6pn_2; hence
any three consecutive terms of which

But

fraction must

for the 11thconvergent.

be found

expression
Example.

in

please. In

can

exceed

cannot

hPn-t*

"*nPn-i+

always

may

the continued

case

the formula

From
Pn

we

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

that

the

bn

constant

are

continued

fraction
of the

numerators

a+

convergentsare

expansionof

coefficients of the

the
7-2

and

the

denominators

of

are

in

the

ft

coefficients of the powers

of

powers

in the

expansionof

^
1

-I- ti/Y*

7-2
~

OjX

"

ox

THEORY

GENERAL

of the generalvalues of pn and qn

investigation
referred to works on Finite Differences
; it is only
be found by Algebra. The
that these values can

is

the student

cases
special

be found

will sometimes

following method

12

the value

Find

Example.

of

="

either of them

; then

un

un

or

Similarly,

whence

(n+ 1)""_!

i^j

tal"e i*nto denote

us

+ nun_2,
-

("u_2-ra-

"n_3).

l)un_1 (-iy^(u2-3ui).
=

first two

convergents

pn-(n
Tims

let

qn;

obtain
we
by multiplication,

un-(n
The

(uB_, ?wn_2).

RUtt_s=

for pn and

nun_x

5"

z +

holds

law of formation

same

useful.

-"

1 +

The

are

2
T ;

hence

-A

l)Pn^=(-l)n-\

qn-(n + l)qn-i (- I)""2=

(" !)?l-l

Pn-1

^n

0n

I)""2
j"+ l

(~

gn-1
_

7i

+ l

lra+1

iw+l

to

(~ l)"-8

ffn-1

9"-2

Art

At!

'

In

In

|n-l

In

?3

Ps_Pi

In

"h
_

|2'

13

3i

2'

'2

[3'

|2'

whence, by addition
|n + l

n+1

By making

we
infinite,

1-7^+1

jn+1

"77

obtain

of the

e)

'

(- l)n~a

|2 |3 |1

2n
is therefore the value

i-

Lit1.

,
=

|3+|4

12

7a

which

305

FRACTIONS.

For the

*444.
in

CONTINUED

OF

e-V

given expression

+ 1

366

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

If every component of

*445.

numerator
fractionwith integral
fractionis incommensurable.

if

For

and

equalto

-^

"

"

is

"

"

...

denominator,the

proper

continued

fraction

continued

A and B

where
,

a3 +

ao+

3jj+
and

that the

possible,
suppose

mensurable

"

"

is

com-

positive
integers
;

are

XL

then

; hence

^-

*
"

...

integersand f

are

Similarly
J
fraction

f,denotes the infinite continued

*"m , where

-7

"

"

C is

therefore
positive,

is

Now

suppose.

*-=

"

positive
integer.

"*-

*-

"

; hence

S^

"

7*

infinite continued

the

fa denotes

where

a2+f

a3+

than

"=

which

"

is

jy
a

are

...

proper

fraction

Thus

"

; and

...

above

"=

For

that

-*

is less than

less

is

as

is

-^
O

an

commensurable.

result still holds

suppose

-j

if

some

of the

providedthat from and

proper fractions,
all the others are proper fractions.

not

,
; tor

series of positive
integers
infinite
Hence
the
absurd.
magnitude; which is
form

order of
descending
givenfraction cannot be
in

The

on.

so

on.

so

A, B, C, D,

..

tractions

proper

ax
less than

as

B
.

Again, -7

; and

suppose

before,it follows that D is a positive

integer
; and
.

A, B, "x, 6X

-=

"

*"-

fraction

and

"

all the

components

after

fixed

are
ponent
com-

succeedingcomponents

are

proper fractions ; thus, as

fraction

we

tinued
just proved,the infinite con-

have

beginningwith

is incommensurable

-s

; denote

a
n

7)

it

by k, then

the

to
completequotientcorresponding

n
"

is

in

and

therefore the value of the continued

fraction is ^-^
9n-l +
"

"~2

hn-2

THEORY

GENERAL

This

CONTINUED

commensurable

be

cannot

OF

unless

P
l-^^

n_1
=

"

tfn-l
condition

hold

cannot

finallyH=

"

; that

?n-3

""60 0, which

is

Qn-z

;ultl

9n-4

is impossible ; hence

the

?,

%
.

givenfraction

be incommensurable.

must

*446.

this

P^*t

?n-a

and

"

?"-"

?2=a *-=2 Pn=B

unless

3G7

FRACTIONS.

//*eirarycomponent of

1
-

"

"-

"

*-

"

?'s

...

ai
and

aa

""

a3

proper

""

fractionwith integralnumerator
denominator,and if the
the
continued fractionbeginningwith any comvalue of
ponent
infinite
is less than unity,the fraction
is incommensurable.
The

demonstration

1.

Shew

is similar to that of the

EXAMPLES.

XXXI.

article.
preceding

a.

that in the continued fraction

_h

ax-

a2-

h_
'

Pn

2.

Convert
"

3.

Shew

4.

anPn

m
|

^nPn

~
-

'^-

into

a3Qn

2J

an9.n-\~

"?i?n
-

"

fraction with

continued

unit

rators.
nume-

that

"

V*+6="+^^

(2)

V^="-2|_"r.

.......

In the continued

fraction

"

"

"

"

"

"

....

"1~
of every component exceed
pn and qn increase with n.

5.

the numerator

If alf a,, rtg,..^,,are

an

^"2^

a%~

in harmonical
1

2^

2~="

if the denominator

a3~
shew
by unityat least,

shew
progression,
1

2^

"2

SJ'

that

that

368

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

that

Shew

6.

cc+

and

"

"

\/

:
"

"

...

2a+"7\

2"+

pn

+ x

that

.v

bqn

Prove

is

equalto
Shew

a+

ak

"

A_

roots

of the

equation

0.

_1_

,7

J_

J_

-6+

-c

fractions

_x_
-0?+

-a+

'"'

that
1

1-

5-

13-

-L JL

(?i2-l)2

64

^2~1

_?*fo+3)

2" + l~

7-

+ 3)
(n+ l)(w+ 2)(2/i

"2+("+l)2

25-

_"_

5-

'

"- i ji- ""L 5"|-1+i+i"+|.+...+

2-

3-

4-

!"

?i

+ l"

"*

1-

3-

4-

1+

2+

3+

5-

3.4

I"

+ 2

!
"

L_

=.-1.

w+l-

2(e2-l)

2/i + 2

14.

3.3

?i

-2=1

13.

e2+l

n+

3(n + 2)

3.5

15.

_'6(2e3+l)
"

1+

16.

^n

px

"

/3the

a,

'"'

a+

"

1-

12.

"

8P

"

the continued

10.

11.

2a'2

"

productof

d+

c+

ax

components, and

_L

2a2-

%n

+ 1

6.-^7
ax

a+

that the

J_
6+

apn

1-

k2
9.

"7

of

2a2,

a+

number

beingthe

a+
,

"

a+

6an

b
Shew

8.

...

2a-

o^--)=a~
2a-

"7T2a-

a+

that

2a-

) (a

shew

fraction

In the continued

7.

2a +

2a+

[a
V

...

If

2+

u,

3+

v,

Ucy
a

5e3-2

n+

Uo

"*

e"

"f

+ 26

each successive fraction

bein" formed by takingthe denominator

of the numerator
and the sum
and denominator of the preceding
and denomifraction for its numerator
nator
shew
respectively,

that

"=**"=
"

OF

CONVERSION

17.

SERIES

Prove that the nih

INTO

CONTINUED

convergentto the continued fraction

J'

y'H+1

")'

y.

is
r+l-

18.

r+l-

Find the value of

"

20.

Shew

"

'

a.,+ l-

'

a3+l-

and greaterthan unity.

beingpositive

a19 a2" a3v

the (2m
v

"*+1-l

r+l-

cij+ l-

19.

309

FRACTIONS.

that the nlh

to
1 )lh
convergent
;
6

Shew

that the 3nth

convergentto
"

"

"

1+2+1+

"

is

equal to

"

2 +

convergentto

1111111

n
is

2-

5-

21.

Shew

hence shew

2-

5-

1-

5-

3-d

2+

3+

4+

e-2

that

that

Conversion
*417.

1-

lies between

of

Series

3"i + l

'

2" and 2r8T.

Continued

into

Fractions.

It will be convenient here to write the series in the form

Put

then

(ur+ xr)(ur++ lb)

=

uur+

x ,

u
r

r+

24

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

370

Similarly,
+

"

"

"="

us

ux

u3

u2

ux

11111
+

uy
-

"

"

"

ux

ux-

x2

u2

xa

12

UQ

ux

'

ux
and

so

Example

1.
1

Express

as

u3

continued fraction the series

x2

xn
,._

(-!)n

a0

u2

u2"

generally

; hence

on

ux

a0a1a2...an

a^a.^

a0ax

an

anan+l

an + Vn

Put

(an+ yn)(an+l x)

then

anan+1 ;

a"x
*
"'"

Un=

"

"

an+1

aux

Hence
a0
1

X2

a0

a^

a^-x

Again,

a0+

a0 + y0

a0ax

axaj

a0 \aj

a0

fl0"V2

"

+ Vi)
a0(a1-

a0

a0x
a1 + y1-x

"o+

axx

rt0.r

a0+
:

generally
a0

a2-x'

^'^

X2

and

ax

...+(- l)n

"

a0a1a.2...an

o,q(Ii a^a-^ac,

ao

Example
We

have

The
fraction

2.

"h

Express log(l+") as
log(l+ a;)
=

.T---

x2

/y"2
+

required expression is most

equivalentto the series

"2

a2

an~x

continued fraction.
/""3
"

"

"j*4
+

simply deduced

xs

xx

a3

a4

"!

an-\x

a^

a0x
+

from

the

continued

ALGEBBA..

HIGHER

372

that

Shew

1111

1.

"

un

m3

u2

Wj

UQ

"0 +

?"

...

i"+oa+
'
22

7-

2n+l

1-

2-

3x

2x

l+

x+4-

+ S-

n*+(n+Yf'

l2 + 22-

1-

la

1111
+

l+-

5",

-i

-i

b-l+

a+

c"

"

...=

abed

abc

ab

9.

n2

?i4

(n+ 1)2

1114

l2

5-

3-

1-

?i+l

"

8.

quotients.

1114

11
l+ s +
+
3
2

1-4-1"4-

ex

to

"

-.

"

7.

*^

11

6.

+ 2-

"

-.

"

^"^

"

n+l
5.

^n

?' +

+ 1-

"

iX-xJu

Ctry.0

1111

.2^
4.

"

"

r+1

"~

lvn-l

-iCt-v "JI
CIqCC

Cl^Qz-tCto

r
~~

a?

J.

r"\

Unn

ClfiCCt

3.

+
U.2 ?""!

UQ +

X2

X
"

"n

Mj

u2n_
n-1

ut2

ic02

1
-+-

,.

(-l)Jl

2.

b.

XXXI.

^EXAMPLES.

r5

"

?**

r3rn+ 1

"

"

,5 , ,1
r5
+

if

u.
shew

a2+

a3

1+

an

,4-c+4-

p=4a+

that

(a+

q
c

"
'

b+

1 +

Q)

b+
a

c+

"""
"

'

"("_
H-l

"2-f "3+

"x +

yr-r 1
r
+

"

'
'

ax+

7-3

...=i+

+ -a + -iB+
?,J rlb

d"l

1+

'

d+

Q.

12.

that

Shew

9*

fraction

denominators

"

/""

"

of the successive

...

is equal to the

con-

Mt

Ms

M2

9i
tinued

\-

1
/""

where
....

convergents.

#.,

q",

a*.

...

are

the

CHAPTER

XXXII.

PROBABILITY.

and

b ways,
or

If

Definition.

449.

each

event

an

of these

happen in a ways and fail in

the probability,
equallylikely,

can

is

ways

chance, of its happening is

the

and

"

of its failing is
G

that

'

a +

instance,if in

For
the

that

chance

lotterythere

person

holding1

are

prizesand

ticket will win

25

blanks,
7

prizeis

"

25
and

his chance

of not

winning is

"

Oa

The

450.

may
If

be made

event

an

for

reason

clear

the

by

happen

can

in

mathematical
the
a

definition of

considerations
following
fail to

and

ways

bability
pro-

happen

in b

assert that the

we
can
likely,
ways, and all these ways are equally
of its happening is to the chance of its failing
chance
as
a to b.

if the

Thus
k is

of its

chance

happening is represented
by ka, where
then
the
chance
of
its failing
constant,

undetermined

an

represented
by kb.
chance of happening + chance of failing k (a + b)
.-.
Now
is certain to happen or to fail ; therefore the sum
the event
of the chances of happening and failing
must
represent certainty.
If therefore we
take
to
a
s
our
unit, we have
certainty
agree
will be

+ b),
(a
v
'

or

"

.-.

the chance

that the event

will

happen

is
a

b
and

the chance

that the event

will not

happen

is
a

of the happeningof
probability
of its not happeningis 1 p.
probability

Cor.
the

If p

is the

"

+
an

event,

374
Instead

451.

is

event

an

in

event

b to

or

these

are

will

event

are

to b

happen

is

Art. 449 may be given

is sometimes
Useful. If c is the

to occur, and of
beingequallylikely
that the
event, then the probability

and

event.

in
probability

of cases, each
favourable to the

total number

againstthe

which

different form
slightly

stated that the odds

it is sometimes
,

definition of

The

happeningof

favour of the
452.

of the

the chance

sayingthat

of

in

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the

it will not

that
probability

is 1

happen

is the chance of throwing a number

from 1 to 6?
whose
faces are numbered
die
ordinary

are

an

the die

possibleways in which
to the event required
;

There
are
favourable

From

Example 2.
3 at random

what

and
fall,

can

therefore the requiredchance

draws

greaterthan 4

What

Example 1.
with

of these two

bag containing 4 white

and 5 black balls

againstthese being all black ?

the odds

are

man

be drawn
is 9"73,
3 balls can
of ways in which
and
The total number
is
3
black
balls
therefore
the
chance
of
of ways
the number
drawing
5C3;
of drawing 3 black balls

~*C%~9.8.7
Thus

the odds

The

with two

event

the chance

Find
dice.

Example 3.
throw

againstthe

number
possible

of

cases

is 6

'

42

37 to 5.

are

of

throwing at

least

one

ace

in

single

6, or 36.

die may be associated with any of the 6 numbers

An ace on one
the
on
each
other die,and the remaining 5 numbers
die
the
first
be
on
ciated
assomay
with the ace on
the second die ; thus the number
of favourable cases
is 11.
Therefore

requiredchance is

the

"
.

3b

Or

we

reason

may

as

follows

There are 5 ways in which each die can

be thrown
not to givean
as
so
throws
of
the
dice
will
That
hence
exclude
25
two
ace ;
aces.
is,the chance
25
is ^ ; so that the chance of throwing one
of not throwing one
or more
aces
36
ace

at least

is

do

or

^,
oo

375

PROBABILITY.

Example

the chance

Find

4.

of

than 15 in

throwing more

with

throw

one

3 dice.

A throw amounting to 18 must be made up of 6, G, G, and this can

occur
in 3 ways;
occur
16 may
in 1 way;
17 can be made
up of G, G, 5 which can
in
be made up of G, G, 4 and 6, 5, 5, each of which arrangements can
occur
3 ways.

Thereforo

the number

of favourable

1 + 3 + 3 + 3,
And

of

the total number

10.

or

is 63,or

cases

is

cases

21G;

therefore the requiredchance =^

21G

108

Example 5. A has 3 shares in a lotteryin which there are 3

in which there is 1 prizeand
6 blanks ; B has 1 share in a lottery
chance
of
is
to
shew that A's
ZJ's as 1G to 7.
success
A

may

draw

prizesin

1 way

draw

1 blank

prizesand

in

6 ways

prizeand

2 blanks

in 3

win

prize. Also

is 64, which

of these numbers

sum

he

is the number
9.8.7
3 tickets in
,

therefore -4's chance of

"

success

of

success

in which

of ways

"

or

84 ways

r=

can

"

is

21

84

Z""schance

'

'

draw

can

-r-^r
ways

JL

the

6
draw

"^"
JL "

he may

2 blanks

he may

prizesand

clearly
-

1 C

therefore A 's chance

chancer"

B's

:
L

"

16

7.

6.5.4
Or

might have reasoned

we

20
20 waysJ

;
'

the chance of which

is

"-.

84

therefore A's chance

of

success

of which
a,

b,c,

to

occur

The
and

one

there

must, and

or

"

21

-"

-".

are

ZL

onlyone

of events

number
can,

occur

A, B, C,...,
that

; also suppose

these

in which
of ways
respectively
is
of
that each
these ways
can
equallylikely
of
eacli
find
event.
t
o
it
is
the
chance
required
;

...

events

Suppose that

'

5
or

"

453.

A will get all blanks in

thus:

are

the

numbers

happen, and

total number

of

of these the number

equallypossible
ways
favourable

to A

is a;

is

hence

+ c+

...,

the chance

376

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

that A

is

will happen
rr

is

will happen
ri

-.

c +

Similarlythe chance that B

+ c+

...

and

so

on.

...

given it will be seen that

in Probability
the solution of the easier kinds of questions
requires
than a knowledgeof the definition of Probability,
nothing more
tions.
of the laws of Permutations
and Combinaand the application
the

From

454.

have

exampleswe

EXAMPLES.
1.

In

XXXII.

with

singlethrow

a.

dice find the chances

two

of

throwing

(2)six.
(1)five,
2. Prom
are
a pack of 52 cards two
chance that one is a knave and the other

drawn
a

at random

; find the

queen.

3. A bag contains 5 white, 7 black,and 4 red balls: find the

all white.
chance that three balls drawn at random
are

two

4. If four coins are

heads and two tails.

one

is two-thirds

5.

One

find the chance that there

tossed,

events must happen : giventhat the chance of the

that of the other,find the odds in favour of the other.

If from a pack four cards

will be the four honours of the same

7.

8.
one

can,

the odds

Thirteen persons

9.

10.

are

Compare
12 with

In

are

shew
placesat a round table,
particular
together.
persons sitting

A, B, C, one of which must, and only

8 to 3 againstA, 5 to 2 againstB: find

the chances
three dice.

of

throwing 4

four
a pack of cards,
shuffling

are

be

missingcards

should

with

that the chances

as

1 ; 6 ; 18,

of

with two

die,8

one

dropped; find
accidentally
one

from

each suit.

are
respectively

that

three events
the odds are

that the

Shew

they

suit.

has 3 shares in a lottery

containing3 prizesand
B has 2 shares in a lottery
containing2 prizesand 6 blanks
their chances of success.
12.

that

drawn, find the chance

take their

happen;
againstC.

the chance

11.

againsttwo

one

There

dice,and

be

of two

6.

it is five to

should

throwing six

with

4, 3,

9 blanks ;
:

compare

or

2 dice

377

PROBABILITY.

There are three works,one

of 3 volumes,one of 4,
consisting
the other of 1 volume.
They are placed on a shelf at random ;
works are all together
prove that the chance that volumes of the same

13.

and

3
18

'

140

throwinga
15.

row

In

by

what

at whist

are
Clifton

vowels

come

is the chance

9, find i"'s chance

placedat random
together?

that

the

in

kings are

There are 4 shillings

and 3 half-crowns placed at random
in
of the extreme
shew that the chance
coins being both half-

is

crowns

hand

throws

specified
player]

17.
line

dice ; if A

letters forming the word

is the chance that the two

The
what

16.
held

throw with two

highernumber.

-1 and B

14.
of

Generalize this result in the

of

case

and
shillings

half-crowns.

455.

We

have

hitherto

which

in the

languageof

When

two

more

the

jointoccurrence
For

and
made
of

or

considered

only those occurrences

called Single events.
are
Probability

of these

occur

is called

example, suppose

in connection

Confound
have

with

each

other,

event.

bag containing5 white

8 black balls,and two
drawings,each of three balls,are
from it successively.
If we
wish to estimate the chance

chawing

first 3 white

dealingwith
In

such

we

and

compound
case

the

then

3 black

w^e
balls,

should

be

event.

result of the

second

drawing might

or

might not be dependenton the result of the first. If the balls

after beingdrawn, then if the first drawinggives
not replaced
are
3 white balls,the ratio of the black to the white balls remaining
is greater than if the first drawing had not given three white;
of drawing 3 black balls at the second trial
thus the chance
is affected by the result of the first. But if the balls are
placed
reafter beingdrawn, it is clear that the result of the second
drawingis not in any way affected by the result of the first.
We

are

Events
the

occurrence

others.

thus led to the

are

definition
following

said to be dependent or independent according

as
of one
does or does not affect the occurrence
of the

Dependent events

are

sometimes

said to be

contingent.

378

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

456.

If there
of which

happen.
Suppose that

independentevents the respective

babilitie
prothat both will
known, to find the probability
two

are
are

first event

happen in a ways and fail

in b ways, all these cases
beingequallylikely
; and suppose that
a'
in
and fail in b' ways,
the second
event
happen
ways
may
all these ways beingequallylikely. Each of the a + b cases
may
be associated with each of the a + b' cases, to form (a + b) (a!+ b')
compound cases all equallylikelyto occur.
In aa' of these both events
happen,in bb' of them both fail,
and in a'b
in ab' of them
the first happens and the second fails,
of them the first fails and the second happens. Thus
the

may

aa

that both

events

happen

is the chance

that both

events

fail ;

is the chance

that the first happens and

is the chance

(a+ b){a'+b')

bb'

(a+ b)(a+b')
ab'

(a b)(a'+b')

the second

fails ;
a'b
is the

chance

that

first fails and

the

the

second

(a b)(a'+b')
+

happens.
if the

Thus

chances
respective

p\ the chance
reasoningwill apply in

and

that
the

it is easy
respectivechances that a
Hence

events.

separatelyhappen,
pxp2p3

the

(1
"

will

both

independentevents are
happen is pp'. Similar
of independent
number

of any
that if plf p2, p3,
to see
are
of independent events
number
case

the

...

that

chance

they

will

all

will

happen

is

the two first will happen and the rest

for any other ticular
P3)(1 "pj'- " and similarly
par-

; the chance

...

fail is 2\Po

of two

that

case.

If p is the chance
will happen in
that an
event
in
t
he
chance
it
will
that
cession
trial,
happen
any assignedsucof r trials is pr ; this follows from the precedingarticle

457.
one

'

by supposing
P1=P2=P3
To

find the chance

some

one

at

least of the

proceed thus : the chance that all the

and except in this case
(1-px)(1-]).,)
(1 -p3)
the events
must
happen ; hence the requiredchance

happen
is

that

=P-

we

events
events
some

-.-j

of

is

will
fail
one

380

HIGHER

events

ALGEBRA.

happen togetheris aa\ and

can

the

of
probability

their

aa

concurrence

is

"

-.

tr
o

("+ o) (a +

"

of the first event, and p' the

probability
the probability
that the second will follow,
probability
contingent
Thus

of the

if p

is the

of the two

concurrence

is pp

events

that

Example 1. In a hand at whist find the chance

holds both the king and queen of trumps.
the

Denote

playerby A

for this

^;

The

to A.

card
particular
chance

the chance

then

13

specified
player

has the

that A

be dealt in 52 different ways,

can

he has the

that,when

king,he

king is clearly

13 of which

fall

also hold the queen

can

is

12

then

"

ol

for the queen

12

13
m

Or

,
the chance

"

Therefore

fall to A.

required
u

might reason

we

12 of which

be dealt in 51 ways,

can

"

follows

as

---

ol

52

17

of ways in which the king and the queen can be dealt to A is

12.
number
of permutations of 13 things 2 at a time, or 13
equal
be
of ways in which the king and queen
And similarly
the total number
can
is
dealt
52 51.
The

number

to the

13

Therefore

the chance

*.

12
=

52.51

17

before.

as

"

""

"

Two
taining
drawings,each of 3 balls,are made from a bag con5 white and 8 black balls,the balls not being replacedbeforethe
second
that the first drawing will give 3 white and
trial: find the chance
the second 3 black balls.

Example 2.

At the firsttrial,
3 balls may
and 3 white balls may be drawn

be drawn
in

in

13C3ways

5C3ways;
5.4

13

therefore the chance of 3 white at firsttrial:

1.2"
3

and

white balls have

8 black balls ;

therefore at the second

and

3 black balls may

therefore the chance

been

trial 3 balls may

be drawn

in

of the

The

student should

compare

143

in

10C3ways

compound
143

1.2.3

trial

15

1.2.3

'

event

7
x

10.9.8_ 1_

'

11
.

of 3 black at the second

8.7.6

12
.

removed, the bag contains

be drawn

8C3ways

"1.2.3
therefore the chance

and

drawn

=-=

15

When
2 white

429

this solution with that of Ex.

1, Art. 457.

381

PROBABILITY.

459.

which
the

If

sum

regardedas

This is sometimes

follows

provedas

Suppose the
; and

event

let

or

chance

self-evident

proposition
arising

probability.It

ever,
how-

may,

happen

can

in

two

the chances

"=* be

ttvo

definition of

of the

out
immediately

be

can

mutuallyexclusive,the

are

concur

happen in

more
different
ways
that it wilt happen is
of the chances of its happeningin these different
ways.

event

an

Avays

of the

which

cannot

happening of

the

in these

event

there

Then
of bfi2cases
out
two
respectively.
ways
the
in
which
in
the
event
first way,
happen
axb2
may

are

and

a0bJways

and

tlieseivays cannot

there

the

that

the

event

may
Therefore

concur.

favourable

a,b"+ ak,b,cases

are

chance

in which

will

to

in

one

+ a2bx
axb2
a_x

a,

event

happen

happen

in the

second;

cases
all,out of blb2

in
the

hence

event:

other

or

the

of the

two

ways is
bh

bf

6,

12

Similar
ways

if an

Hence

the number

reasoningwill applywhatever be
in which the event can
happen.
event

can

happen in

of

clusive
ex-

which
are
mutually
ways
the probabilities
that the

exclusive,and

if plt pa, p^
will happen in these

---Pn are
different ways
the prorespectively,
bability
of
these
that it will happen in some
is
one
ways

event

+Pn-

Pi+Pl+Pa*
Example
with two

Find

1.

the chance

throwing 9

of

at

least in

singlethrow

dice.
4

be made

can

up in 4 ways,

and

thus the chance

throwing 9 is

of

10

can

be made

up

in 3 ways, and

11

can

be made

up in 2 ways,

12

can

be made

up in 1 way,

thus the chance

of

and thus the chance

of

throwing

10 is

Now

the chance

separate chances

of

throwinga

and

thus the chance

number

not

of

throwing 11 is--

throwing
9 is the

less than

.*.

the required chance

=
"V/.

ou

lb

12 is

sum

-^

of these

382

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

One

2.

Example

contains

purse

sovereignand

4 shillings,
and
purse contains 2 sovereignsand

coin is taken
a
that it is a
chance
find
the
random,
and

Since each
the firstis
chance
x

j
4

of
,

or

; and

far

Similarlythe chance

12

it

as

of

the second

on

is

purse

or

of

drawing

sovereignis

or

"

of

precedingarticle

the

In

event

an

series of events
events onlywhen
a

the

of

occurrence

third purse

the

-.

tc

have

the

the

as

sum

probability
of

it is very
other of

; but

separate events

more

that

seen

considered

be

of one
or
probability
of the probabilities
of the separate
is the sum
that is,when
the events are mutuallyexclusive,
of any
with the occurrence
is incompatible
one

notice

important to

or

we

sometimes

may
of
two
probabilities

the

it

as

x*5

460.

the

from

requiredchance

the

.-.

the

1
x

far

sovereign so

; and

13
chance

; hence

1
x

selecting

of

the first purse is

depends upon

drawing

12

depends

taken, the chance

be

drawing a sovereignis

of then

sovereignso

one

sovereign.

equallylikelyto

the chance

drawing

=^

is

purse

of

out

shilling. If

3 shillings,
second
a
third contains 3 sovereigns
of the purses selected at

the

that

of the others.
From

Example.
drawn

at random

The

chance

with the first 20 numerals,

20 tickets marked
find the chance that it is a multipleof 3 or of 7.
is

that the number

multipleof

3 is

"

is

one

and the chance

that

it is

multipleof

7 is

"

; and

these events
6

if the

multipleof 3
Because

or

is

"

question had
of 5, it would

that

the chance

-^

or

been: find the chance

have been incorrect to
is

number

the

that the number

is

it is

multipleof

5 is

might
are

not

or

be

a multiple both of
mutually exclusive.

461.

simpleand

It

should

be

compound

5 is

multiple of

3 and

as

reason

is

number

follows

3 is

"

and

therefore the chance

"

the
that

1
,

or

For

of 5,

observed

events

the

that

multiple of

4
chance

the

requiredchance
But

mutually exclusive,hence

are

so

the number

that the two

that

is in many

the

on

events

distinction

cases

the ticket

considered

between

purelyartificial

383

PROBABILITY.

one

in fact it often amounts

between

two

A bag contains
is the chance that

Example.
what

drawn

(i) Regardingthe

than

distinction

occurrence.

5 white and 7 black balls; if two

is white and the other black?

balls

arc

one

occurrence

nothingmore
viewingthe same

to

of

different modes

as

simpleevent,the

chance

(5*7H.=C2=6-6.

be regardedas
(ii) The occurrence
may
followingcompound events :

the

happening of

one

or

other

of the two

(1) drawing a white and then

black ball,the chance

"r

12

(2) drawing a

black and

then
7

11
a

132

of which

is

white ball,the chance

of which

is

35

i2Xir0r132'
And

since these events

are

the requiredchance
mutually exclusive,

j$5+ ^5__35

-132

two

132~66'

that the chance of drawing

It will be noticed that we have here assumed
drawn
taneously.
simulif they were
is the same
as
specifiedballs successively
be the case.
A littleconsideration will shew that this must

EXAMPLES.

XXXII.

is the chance of throwing an

1. What
successive throws with an ordinarydie ?

b.

ace

in the firstonly of two

Three cards are drawn at random

from an ordinarypack : find
the chance that they will consist of a knave,a queen, and a king.

2.

3. The odds againsta certain event are 5 to 2, and the odds in

of the former are 6 to 5 ; find the
favour of another event independent
chance

that

one

at least of the events

will

happen.

4. The odds againstA solvinga certain problem are 4 to 3, and

the odds in favour of B solvingthe same
problem are 7 to 5 : what is
the chance that the problem will be solved if they both try 1
is the chance of drawing a sovereignfrom a purse
and
and 2 sovereigns,
compartment of which contains 3 shillings
?
other 2 sovereigns
and 1 shilling

5.

What

one

the

with the numbers 1 to 17.

17 counters marked
drawn
is
A counter
and replaced;a second drawing is then made:
and the second
what is the chance that the first number
drawn is even
6.

odd?

bag contains

384

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

7. Four persons draw each a card from an

the chance (1)that a card is of each suit,
(2)that
equalvalue.
8.

of

Find the chance

with

throwingsix

ordinarypack: find
no

cards

two

singledie

are

at least

of

once

in five trials.
will be favourablyreviewed by three
is
; what
independentcritics are 5 to 2, 4 to 3, and 3 to 4 respectively
that of the three reviews a majoritywill be favourable ?
the probability

9.

The

odds that

book

and 4 are successively

10. A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls,
the
chance
that
what
is
not
and
drawn out
they are alternately
replaced
;
of different colours %
with

11. In three throws

doublets at least once.

pairof dice,find

the chance of

throwing

taken at random
are
12. If 4 whole numbers
multipliedtogether
shew that the chance that the last digitin the productis 1,3, 7,or 9
.

1S

16

625'

10 coins,all shillings
a
except one which is a
purse are
Nine coins are taken
all
in
coins
another
ten
are
shillings.
sovereign
;
and
the
from the former purse and put into
latter, then nine coins are
taken from the latter and put into the former : find the chance that
is stillin the first purse.
the sovereign

13.

14.
will be

In

If two
5 heads

coins

If 8 coins are
will turn up head?

16.

cut,on
their

times,what

that there

is the chance

and 5 tails \

15.
one

tossed 5

are

is the chance

tossed,what

A, B, C in order

cut

that

one

them
pack of cards,replacing

condition that the firstwho

cuts

spadeshall win

and

only

after each
: find
prize

chances.
respective

and B draw from a purse containing3 sovereignsand

chances of first drawing a sovereign,
: find their respective
shillings
coins
the
when drawn not beingreplaced.
17.

18.

two

party of n

^persons sit at

individuals
specified

next
sitting

round
to each

find the
table,

odds

against

other.

A is one
of 6 horses entered for a race, and is to be ridden by
of
two jockeysB and C. It is 2 to 1 that B rides A, in which
one
all the horses are equallylikely
to win ; if C rides A, his chance
case
is trebled : what are the odds againsthis winning?

19.

20. If on an average 1 vessel in every 10 is wrecked,find the chance

that out of 5 vessels expected
4 at least will arrive safely.

385

PROBABILITY.

The

462.
trial

beingknown,

exactlyin

...

be the

happeningof an event in one

of its happeningonce,
probability

requiredthe

three times,
twice,
Let

the

of
probability

trials.

of
probability

the

happeningof the event in

then the probability
that the
in n trials is the (r+ l)th
term

and let q
1 -p\
singletrial,
will happenexactly
event
r times
in the expansion
of (q+ p)*.
a

For if

select any particular

set of r trials out of the total
will happen in every one
of
n, the chance that the event
trials and fail in all the rest is prq"~ [Art.
456],and as

number
these
a

of

set

we

trials

be

can

selected in

to the
equallyapplicable

in

case

nCr ways, all of which

chance is
point,the required

Crp q
If

the Binomial

+ q)"by
expand (/;

we

have

Theorem, we

2f +

+ nC0jS'-2q2+ +"Cn_rprq"-r
+
"C12)n-1q

the

terms

thus

are

...

qn;

...

of

this series will represent respectively

the
of the happeningof the event exactly
1
n
probabilities
times,n
2
inn
trials.
times,n
times,
"

"

...

If

463.

(n

twice,

"

...

the

happens

event

r) times,it

times

happens r

that it happensat least r times in

chance

Pn + "Cy-*q
or

times,

the

of

sum

the

"CaPn-Y+

first

r +

"

Example 1. In four throws with

throwing doublets twice at least ?

or
n

of the

terms

pair of dice,what

is

-^

do

are

thrown

doublets

is

four times, three

Now

the

or

^
o

requiredevent

sum

of the first three terms

H.

the chance

H. A.

"

of

and the chance

of

times,or twice ; therefore the requiredchanco

of the

expansionof

h+d

5\4
.

19

Thus

is the chanco

follows if doublets

/l

is the

expansion of

i
,

5
throw

to
failing

once,

tv^r.

...

of doublets

single throw the chance

only

; therefore the
trials is
more

In

fails

or

(1+ 4.5

6.5-)=

-^

25

386

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of balls,some
of which are
A bag contains a certain number
and
is
then
drawn
another
replaced;
white; a ball is drawn and replaced,
find
of drawing a white ball in a singletrial,
and so on : if p is the chance
in
have
been
drawn
trials.
is
to
n
most likely
of white balls that
the number
2.

Example

chance

The

find for what

of drawing exactly
r white balls is nCrprqn-r,and
is greatest.
value of r this expression

to

nCrprqn-r"nCr-lpr-lqn-(r~l\

Now
so

have

we

(n-r + l)p"rq,

long as

(n + l)p"(p

or

But

p + 5

q)r.

required value of

the

1; hence

is the

greatest integerin

p[n + l).
If

and

successes

Suppose that

464.
of
a

is
that pn
qn failures.

is such

"x;

integer,the

an

there

are

most

tickets in

lotteryfor

since each ticket is equally

to win
likely

then

all the
possessed

person who

tickets

the

prize

and
prize,
value of

win, the money

must

of pn

is that

likelycase

each

ticket is "

in other words

this would

be

fair

sum

to

for each

pay

ticket;hence

person

who

r tickets might
possessed

TX

reasonablyexpect
who

one

any
"-

as

"

wished

the worth

the

as

"

to

priceto

buy them;

of his chance.

be

that

paid for
is,he

his tickets

would

It is convenient

by

estimate

then

to

in-

troduce

definition
following

the

If p represents a person's
in any venture
chance
of success
and M the sum
of money
of success,
which he will receive in case
the

of money

sum

465.
to

In

person,

appliedto

denoted

the
we

same

may

by pM

is called his

expectation.

is used in reference
expectation
the phraseprobablevalue
use
conveniently
way

that

things.

1 sovereign
5 shillingsand
contains
: a second
first
and placed in
purse contains 6 shillings.Two coins are taken from the
the second ; then
2 are
taken
from the second and placedin the first:
find the probable value of the contents of each purse.

Example

The

1.

chance

One

purse

that the

sovereignis in the first purse is equal to the

the chances that it has moved

twice and that it has not moved

at all ;

sum

of

388
We

466.
and

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

shall

problemswhich

givetwo

now

lead to useful

results.
interesting
and n points of
m
respectively
of winning a singlegame
are
p and q
is
is
the
stake
to
unity;
belong to
q
determine the probabilities
in favour

Example 1. Two playersA and B

winning a set of games ; their chances
the sum
of p and
where
respectively,
who
firstmakes
the player
up his set :
of each

want

player.

win the
to do this he must
Suppose that A wins in exactlym + r games;
The
chance
of
and m-1
out of the preceding m + r-1
last game
games.
this is "+^-10m_1p"-1 qr2h or m^~1Cm-1pmqr.
1 games,
be decided in m + n
and A may
the set will necessarily
Now
1 games,
1 games;
or m+
or m + n
win his m games in exactlym games,
,
that A wins the set by givingto r the
shall obtain the chance
therefore we
1 in the expression
values 0, 1, 2,
n
m+r-1Cm_1pmqr. Thus AJs chance is
-

...

...

chance

B's
similarly

is

\m +

n(nA-l\
*

1.2

questionis known

This

as

n-2

jm-1

"

the

ii

Problem

of

Points,"and

has

of the most eminent mathematicians

attention of many
It was
since the time of Pascal.
originally
proposedto Pascal by
discussed by Pascal and
the Chevalier de Mere in 1654, and was

engagedthe

Fermat, but they confined themselves

supposedto be of

playerswere
exhibited

in

of his

in
published

Example

problem
2.

There

The

1714.

have

we

result

same

Laplace,and

by Lagrange
very fullyunder

the number

be
of the / faces may
dice
in
which
the
of ways
may
one

exposed on
fall is

any

by

fications.
modi-

one

of the

for this coefficient arises out

1, 2, 3,.../can be taken

so

x* + x3 +

...

for

xf)n\

of the different ways in which

to form p by addition.

as

dice,

/n.

thrown
will have
the numbers
of ways in which
Also the number
is equal to the coefficient of xp in the expansion of
their sum

{xl+

tained
obthe

1 to /; if these
of the numbers

thrown
at random,
are
exhibited shall be equal to p?

Since any

work

various

from
dice with / faces marked
that the sum
is the chance
what

are

given are

afterwards

was

treated

was

the
also

were

for the firsttime in

and

in different ways
latter the

formulae

The

they appear

as

in which

case

equalskill : their results

different form.

assignedto Montmort,

to the

of the

indices

3-S!)

PROBABILITY.

expression

the above

Now

x11

(l+

x2 +

...

+ xf

')"

-("?)""
We

have

therefore

to find the coefficient of xp~n

in the

expansion

of

(I x')n(I x)~n.
-

Multiplythese
product ;

thus

we

1+

n(n-l)(n-2)

.,.

?t("+l)(w+ 2)
"(n+l)
*
'
a;2
+

nx

x3+...

"

series

.,,

"

",

"

-"
"1 .r)

and

n(n-l)

the coefficient of xp~n

togetherand pickout

in the

obtain

n(n+l)...(p-f-l)

n(n+l)...{p-l)
it

\p

\P -n

-f

(n 1) M(;t+ l)...(j"-2/-l)

""

1.2

where

the

series is to continue
obtained

is
requiredprobability

This

problem is due

in 1730 j it illustrates

Laplaceafterwards
laborious

more

the

planetsto
direction
may

Moivre

and

of

obtained

the

same

was

formula,but

; he
of

appliedit in
primitivecause

Todhunter's

attempt

which

has

Art.
Historyof Probability,

EXAMPLES.

XXXII.

certain game A'a skill is to 2"'s as

of .1 winning 3 games at least out of 5.
In

an

in

him

much

strate
to demonmade

the

in orbits close to the ecliptic,

and in the same
move
On this point the reader
the earth round the sun.
as

consult

1.

The

appear.

publishedby
frequentutility.

method

manner

existence

long as no negativefactors
this series by/n.
dividing
by
so

to De
a

\p-n-2f

2. A coin whose faces are marked

is the chance of obtaininga total of 12 ?

987.

c.

3 to 2

2, 3 is thrown

find the chance

5 times

what

it is 2 to 1 in favour of the winner

3. In each of a set of games
of the previousgame : what
is the chance
that the player who
wins
the first game shall win three at least of the next four ?
There
9 coins in a bag, 5 of which
are
are
the rest are unknown
coins of equal value ; find what
value of a draw is 12 shillings.
the probable

4.

sovereignsand
they must be if

390

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

A coin is tossed n times,what is the chance

odd number
itself
of times ?
an
present

that the head will

5.

From

6.

bag containing2 sovereignsand

to draw

is allowed

coins

a
shillings

7. Six persons throw for a stake,which is to be

who first throws head with a penny ; if they throw in
the chance of the fourth person.
Counters

8.

by the one
find
succession,

marked

1, 2, 3 are placedin a bag,and

The
replaced.
operationbeing repeatedthree
is the chance of obtaininga total of 6 ?
A coin whose

faces
the odds againstthe sum

are

Find

10.

chance

the

pectation.
ex-

won

and

9.

person

find the value of his

indiscriminately;

is drawn
withtimes,what

one

marked 3 and 5 is tossed 4 times : what

of the numbers thrown beingless than 15?

are

of

throwing10 exactlyin

one

throw

with

3 dice.

Two

A and B, are
playersof equal skill,
playing a set
leave
off
playingwhen A wants 3 pointsand B wants
games ; they
If the stake is "16, what share ought each to take \

11.

A and B throw

12.
of

throwinga

with
highernumber

3 dice

if A throws

of
2.

8, what is Z?'schance

A had in his pocketa sovereignand four shillings

; takingout
coins at random
he promises to give them to B and C. What
two
is
the worth of (7'sexpectation
?

13.

In five throws

14.

(1)three

aces

with

singledie

exactly,
(2)three

aces

what

is the chance

of

throwing

at least.

15. A makes a bet with B of 5s. to 2s. that in a singlethrow with

dice he .will throw seven
before B throws four. Each has a pair
of dice and they throw simultaneously
until one
of them wins : find B's
two

expectation.
16.

person

the common
cube,and the other
the lowest face beingtaken in the
on
a regular
tetrahedron,the number
that the sum
of the tetrahedron;what
of the
is the chance
case
numbers thrown is not less than 5 ?

17.

bag contains

whose

throws two

dice,one

coin of value

aggregate value is

draws the coin 31

J/,and

A person
m.
find the value of his

draws

number
one

of other coins
at a time till he

expectation.

18. If 6n tickets numbered

6n0, 1, 2,
and three are drawn
out, shew that the chance
numbers on them is equalto 6?i is
3?"

(6n-l)(6n-2)'

are

placedin

that the

sum

bag,

of the

3Dl

PROBABILITY.

Probability.

*Inverse
In allthe

*467.

supposedthat
certain event

have hitherto considered it lias been

we

cases

knowledgeof

our

is sucli

as

the

to enable

which

causes

us

to

produce a
may
the chance of

determine

happeningof the event. We have now to consider

For example, if it is known
of a different character.
of
of some
in
one
has happened
event
consequence
the

problems
that

an

certain

to estimate the probability

it may be required
number
of each cause
bability
beingthe true one, and thence to deduce the proof future events
occurringunder the operationof the

of causes,

causes.

same

and

we

shall

Suppose there are two purses, one containing5 sovereigns

and 1 shilling,
3 sovereigns
the other containing
3 shillings,
lias been drawn : it is requiredto
suppose that a sovereign

find the chance

that it

from

came

the event

5
in

and

purse.

that the firstpurse would

assume

second

the first or

iV of trials ; then, since before

very largenumber
to be taken,we
eacli of the purses is equally
likely
may

Consider

of these

sovereign would

in

be chosen

be drawn

iV of the

thus

8
-

~iV,or "N

second

The
3

of these

be drawn

times from

times from

in

be chosen

purse would

would
sovereign

3
-JV

sovereign
"

the first purse.

lb

trials,

5
be drawn

would

give a

illustration.

numerical

and

the generalcase
discussing

Before

*468.

be drawn

the second

of the

; thus

and
trials,

in

would
sovereign

purse.

number
is otherwise an arbitrary
;
5 n times
be drawn
would
let us put iV-16n; thus a sovereign
from the first purse, and Qn times from the second purse; that is,
of the lln times in which
a
out
sovereignis drawn it comes
Now

from

the

JV is very

largebut

first purse

bn

times,and

from

the

second

purse

0?i

392

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

that
probability

the

Hence

times.

5
is

first purse

and

"

it

that
probability

the

from

sovereigncame

the

the

from

came

the

6
second A'

is

rr.

It is

*469.
directed

to the

the student's

importantthat
of the

nature

attention

should

be

made

in

assumptionthat has been

instance,
preceding article. Thus, to take a particular
die
with
it may
throws
in
60
a
perfectly
symmetrical
although
not
exactly10 times, yet it will
happen that ace is thrown
the

doubtless

be at

admitted

once

increased
continually
of throws

number

There

"

is

in the

; hence

another

the six faces will have

The

above

ratio of

will tend

reason

no

the

instance

that

why

more

if the number
the

and

the limit

oftener than

appear

long run the number of times that each

appearedwill be approximately
equal.
is

of

to James

may

of

generaltheorem
first given in the Ars

case
particular

Bernoulli's theorem

death.

is
the

to

aces

nearlyto

more

Bernoulli,and was
publishedin 1713, eightyears
Conjectandi,
is due

which

of

number

face should

one

of throws

be enunciated

after
as

author's

the

follows

that an
event happensin a single
trial,
If p is the probability
i
t
becomes
is
trials
a
then ifthe number
increased,
indefinitely
of
to the
that the limit of the ratio of the number of successes
certainty
the
number
other
number
words, if
of
of trials is equal to p ; in
be
be
taken
number
the
to
trials is N,
pN.
of successes
may
A proof
Chaptervn.
HistoryofProbability,
in the
is given in the article Probability
of Bernoulli's theorem
Britannica.
Encyclopaedia
See Todhunter's

*470.
number

An

observed

event

of mutually exclusive
of any assignedcause

Let there be

causes,

of the
probability
Px, P2,P3, Pn. Let

that the

and

has

some
through,
Jiappened
causes
: requiredto find
the
being true one.

beforethe

event

existence of these

took

causes

of a

one

the probability
.

placesuppose
'

was

estimated

that when the

pr denote the probability
the event has occurred
exists the event will follow : after
the
it is required
that the rth cause
to find the probability
was
at

...

r*1*cause

true

one.

393

PROBABILITY.

cry greatnumber JV of trials ; then the first cause

the event follows
exists in PXN of these,and out of this number
there are p^^N trials in which
the event
in pxPxN j similarly

Consider

the second

follows from
Hence

causes.

;md

the number

in which

the number

the event

'P,.I\Nlience afterthe event

the true

so

for each

on

of the other
the event follows is

of trials in which

',

was

and

cause;

the

was

due

the rth

to

is

cause

that the rth

probability

cause

is

one

pJPjr+NUpP);
tliat

that
is,the probability

the event

produced by

was

the r"'

PrK
cause

is

Mvn
It is necessary to distinguish
between
the proclearly
bability
of the existence of the several causes
estimated
before

*471.

afterthe event has happenedof any

probability
The former are usually
called
assignedcause beingthe true one.
and are
a prioriprobabilities
Pn \
represented
by Px, P0, P
and
denote
the latter are called a posteriori
if
we
probabilities,
have
them by Qt1 Q", Q3,
that
we
QHf
proved
the event, and

the

...

...

Qr

(PP)

'

of the event
where pr denotes the probability
of the existence of the rth cause.
this result it appears
that S (Q)
evident as the event
has happened from

From
of the

the

on

hypothesis

lj which
one

and

is otherwise

onlyone

causes.

We

shall

give another proofof

article which does not depend on
now

of the prethe theorem

ceding
enunciated
the principle

in Art. 469.

happenedthroughsome one of a
of mutually exclusive causes : requiredto find the probability
cause
of any assigned
beingthe true one.

*472.
member

An

Let there be
the

observed

of
probability

event

causes, and

has

the event
before

the existence

of these

took placesuppose

causes

was

that

estimated

at

the

that when
Pn. Let pr denote the probability
exists the event will follow ; then the antecedent probability
that the event would follow from the rth cause
is prPr.

Pt, P2, Pz,

...

?-thcause

394

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the

Qr be

Let

the rth cause

that
probability
posteriori

the

was

the true one

that the rth cause
was
probability
if
in
existence,this cause
to the probability
is proportional
that,
would producethe event ;

true

the

then

one;

i
s("?)
s(PP)'
Hpp)

"?"

A._JL=

'"

"

p.p,

pA

pA

Prpr

"?,=

"

(pP)

it appears that in the present class of problems the

estimated as a first step;
productPrpr, will have to be correctly
are
in many
cases, however, it will be found that Plt P2, P3,
Hence

...

equal,and

all

the work

is

simplified.

therebymuch

Example. There are 3 bags each containing 5 white balls and 2 black
balls,and 2 bags each containing1 white ball and 4 black balls : a black ball
from the first group.
having been drawn, find the chance that it came
Of the five

If

the first group

bag is selected from

if from

the chance is

the second group

thus px

6
lh

lh

1_3o'

When

*473.

of

method

has

event

an

Art.

472

to

from

came

one

of the first group

is

been

43*

observed,we

estimate

the

true

one

able

by

then

any
estimate

second

trial,or

we

the

are

of
probability

being
particular
may
;
of the event
happening in a
probability
of the occurrence
find the probability
we
may
the

cause

;
o

2~~25'

\35"h25/

35

p.2=

8\15

JL^/A
'

the chance that the black ball

Hence

"

the

4
;

drawing a black

of

the chance

ball is

2 to the second ; hence

bags, 3 belong to the firstgroup and

of

some

other

event.

For
from
cause

that
the
causes

example,pr

the

rth

is the

if in

cause

chance

that

and
existence,

the

event

will

happen

that the rth

the chance
second trial the chance

Qr; hence on a
is prQr. Therefore
the event will happen from the rth cause
of the
chance
will happen from
that the event
some
one
is the true

on

one

is

second trial is 2

(2}Q)'

396
shall

We

*474.
be

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

shew

now

how

truth of
is assumed
credibility
the

estimate

appliedto
whose

theoryof probability
may
attested by witnesses
statements

the

to

We

known.

be

shall

what he believes to be the truth,

suppose that each witness states
is the result of observation,
or
his statement
whether
deduction,
be
or
experiment; so that any mistake or falsehood must
wilful
deceit.
and
to
not
of
attributed to errors
judgment
shall
problems we
and althoughthe
intellectual exercise,
of any practical
importance,it will
as
class of

The

the verdict of

speaksthe
made

truth

by

of those which

results cannot
be found

that

useful

regarded
they confirm
be

that
probability
a
largenumber
and
that p is
examined,

it is asserted that the

that
is p, it is meant
to the whole

true

are

been

has

him

a person
of ments
statethe ratio

number.

bilities
independentwitnesses,A and B, whose probaand
truth
the
are
p' respectively,
agree in
p
speaking
that the
is the probability
certain statement
: what
Two

*476.

of

making

furnishes

sense.

common

When

*475.

discuss

is true %

statement

the
the observed event is the fact that A and B make
Before the event there are four hypotheses
statement.
; for
same
A and B may both speaktruly; or A may speak truly,B falsely;
B truly; or A and B may both speak
A may
or
speak falsely,
of these four hypotheses
are
falsely.The probabilities
Here

P'Q-P)* (1-P)(1~P') respectively.

PP\ p(l~P\
Hence

after the observed

same

statement, the

the

that
probability

event,in which

that
probability
it is false

that
is,the probability

the

as

and

jointstatement

to

make

is true

the statement
pp

(1 p) (1-p');
-

is true

the
is to
that

is

pp'

pp'+ (l-p)(l-p')'
of speaking the
Similarlyif a third person, whose probability
that the
the same
truth is p", makes
statement, the probability
statement

is true

is
./"//

ppp

ppY
and

so

on

for any

number

{1-p){i-p')(i-p")}
of persons.

397

PROBABILITY.

*477.
have

In the

knowledge

no

B ; if

and

of the event

have

we

of
probability
taken

precedingarticle

in

into account

supposed that

the statement

except

information

the truth

it lias been

from

other

made

we

by

as

to

the

of the statement, this

falsity
of the
estimatingthe probability

must

be

sources

or

various

hypotheses.
For
the

and

instance,if A

is P,
prioriprobability

in

agree
then

statinga fact,of
should

we

estimate

which

the

bability
pro-

of the statement
falsity

of the truth and

by
(1 P) (1 p")(1 p') respectively.

Ppp* and

"

"

raffle with 12 tickets and two prizesof "9 and "3.

of speaking the truth are ^, ", f respectively,
probabilities
who
holds
ticket. A and B assert that he has
one
report the result to D,
the "3 prize;what is D's
the "9 prize,and C asserts that he has won
won
There

Example.
A, B, C, whose

is

expectation?
Three

cases

Now

have

D may
possible;
spoken falsely.
are

all have

C may

with the notation

of Art.

the

have

472, we

P-A

P-i

"9, "3,

won

or

nothing,for A, B,

prioriprobabilities

P-".

*i-12" *a-l2' ^3~12'

1

1133

24

12
also

Pi~2X3X5-30"

**~~2X 3

30

"

D's

27'

of "3

="1.

1
*

2_ 2
X5~3();

of "9 +

expectation

="

"

13s. id.

respect to the results proved in Art.

With

*478.
should

A_2

20

hence

'

be noticed

that

it

assumed

was

that the statement

in two ways only,so that if all the witnesses

falsehood.
the same
they agree in telling
that

the

two

falsehood

be

that c is the chance

suppose
will agree in telling
the same
that the statement
is true is to
the probability
the

case,

witnesses

; then

can

tell falsehoods

made

If this is not

47G, it

let

and

us

that it is false as pp' to c (1"p) (1 p').

probability
As
a
general rule, it is extremelyimprobable that two
falsehood,so that c is
independentwitnesses will tell the same
usuallyvery small; also it is obvious that the quantityc becomes
the

"

smaller

as

the number
increase

two

or

more

of witnesses

becomes

greater. These

that a statement
probability
independentwitnesses is true, even

of each
credibility

the

witness

is small.

asserted

though

siderations
con-

by
the

398

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example. A speakstruth 3 times out of 4, and B 7 times out of 10; they

from
a bag containing 6 balls
both assert that a white ball has been drawn
of the truth of the assertion.
all of different colours : find the probability
There

coincident

hypotheses; (i)their

two

are

it is
testimony is true, (ii)

false.
Here

Px

"1

P-5P2

=
,

2~6'

6'
~

"P2~25X4X10;

^1-4X10'

for in estimatingp.2 we must take into account the chance that A and B
it has not been drawn ; this chance is
both select the white ball when
1

11
"r

of the
probabilities

the

5
Now

will

25

two

hypothesesare

as

P^

to

P2po, and
35

therefore

as

*479.
of the

that the
1; thus the probability

35 to

The

have

we

cases

is true is

relate to the

testimony;the

of concurrent

truth

considered

statement

"

probability

followingis

case

of

traditionary
testimony.
If A

states that

of its

account

certain event

occurrence

or

that the event

probability

took

place,
havingreceived
from

non-occurrence

did take

B,

what

an

is the

place1

happened (1) if they both spoke the truth, (2)if

did not happen if only
; and the event
they both spoke falsely
of them spokethe truth.
one
The

event

Let

p, p

truth ; then

that A
probabilities
did
that the event
probability

denote
the

and

the

take

speak the

placeis

pp'+ (l-p)(l-p)}
and

the

that
probability

it did not

take

placeis

p(l-2))+p'(l-p).
*480.

The

solution of the

article
preceding

is that which

has

tions,
usuallybeen given in text-books;but it is"open to serious objecfor the assertion that the given event
happened if both A
that
is not correct except on the supposition
and B spokefalsely
be made
the statement
can
Moreover,
only in two ways.
from
his
account
stated
A
receives
that
it
is
expressly
although
generallybe taken for granted as it rests on
B, this cannot
A'" testimony.

399

PROBABILITY.
A

full discussion

and
question,
found

of the different ways

of
of the different solutions to which

in the Educational

Times

^EXAMPLES.

four balls in a
1. There
are
ball is drawn
colours they are ; one
chance that all the balls are white.

2.

In

there

bag

drawn
and found
are
is left in the bag.

are

to be

Reprint,Yols.

XXXII.

bag,but
and

the
interpreting

they lead,will

XXVII.

and

be

XXXII.

d.

it is not

found

known
to be white

of what
find the

six balls of unknown

colours;three balls
find
the
that no black ball
chance
black;

to have come
either from London
Clifton ;
or
the
consecutive
letters
two
ON
are
postmark only
legible
; what
from London
is the chance that it came
?
on

3.
the

letter is known

the chances
of three runners,
Before a race
A, B, C, were
to 5, 3, 2 ; but during the race
estimated
to be proportional
A meets
with an accident which reduces his chance to one-third. What
are
now
the respective
chances of B and C ?

4.

value ; a coin drawn

A purse contains n coins of unknown
at
is found to be a sovereign;what is the chance that it is the
only sovereignin the bag ?

5.

random

has 10 shillings
and one of them is fcnown to have two
6. A man
and tosses it 5 times and it always
at random
He takes one
heads.
the
chance
that
it is the shilling
what
is
with two heads ?
fallshead :

colour; a ball is drawn

bag contains 5 balls of unknown
found
to be red : if two balls
is
and
in
each
case
replacedtwice,
find the chance that both are red.
drawn simultaneously
now

and
are

or

7.

8.

purse

be a shilling
contains five coins,
each of which
may
drawn
and found to be shillings
are
: find the probable

sixpence; two
value of the

9.
thrown

remaining coins.

A die is thrown
three times,and the sum
is 15 : find the chance that the first throw

of the three numbers

a four.
was

A speaks the truth 3 out of 4 times,and B 5 out of 6 times :

that they will contradict each other in .stating
what is the probability
the same
fact ?

10.

400

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of 3 times,and B 4 times out of 5 ;

from
6 balls of different
a bag containing
they agree in the assertion that
that the statement
colours a red ball has been drawn : find the probability
is true.

speaks the

11.

12.

One

of the
chance

of

truth

pack of

cards

52

2 out

cards has been lost ; from the remainder

and are found to be spades; find the

drawn
pack
that the missingcard is
two

are

spade.

tickets and two prizesof value "5

ticket and is informed
by B that
C
that
he
has
the
asserts
while
he has won
the "b prize,
won
,"1 prize:
of B is denoted by ", and
what is A's expectation,
if the credibility
that of C by f ?
and

13.
"1

There

is

raffle with
respectively.A holds
a

10

one

four coins ; two coins having been drawn

sovereigns find the chance (1) that all the coins
sovereigns,
(2)that if the coins are replacedanother drawing will

14.

found

to

purse

contains

be

are
are

give

sovereign.

P makes
a bet with
Q of ,"8 to "120 that three races will be
the
three
horses
by
A, B, C, againstwhich the bettingis 3 to 2,
4 to 1, and 2 to 1 respectively.
The first race
having been won
by A,
and it being known
that the second race
either by B, or by
was
won
a horse D
againstwhich the bettingwas 2 to 1, find the value of P's

15.

won

expectation.
From
n
a bag containing
balls,all either white or black,all
ball is drawn
which turns out
numbers
of each being equallylikely,
a
ball is drawn, which also
and another
to be white; this is replaced,
If this ball is replaced,
turns
out to be white.
prove that the chance

16.

of the next draw

givinga

black ball is

(n

"

1)(2n+ l)~l
.

coins have been distributed into m purses, n into each,

find (1)the chance that two specified
coins will be found in the same
when
and
what
the
chance
becomes
r
(2)
purses have been
purse;
coins.
examined
and found not to contain either of the specified

17.

If

mn

A, B are two inaccurate arithmeticians whose chance of solving

are
givenquestioncorrectly
-"and y1^respectively
; if they obtain the
their
to
1
and
if
it
is
1000
same
making the same
result,
against
mistake,find the chance that the result is correct.
18.

makes
but one false statement in
Ten witnesses,
each of whom
event
in
that
certain
took
a
six,agree
asserting
place; shew that the
odds are five to one
in favour of the truth of their statement, even

19.

althoughthe

'prioriprobability
of the event

is

as

small

as

^9

"

"

41 1 1

PRoUAl'.ILITY.

Probability.

Local

Geometrical

Methods.

of Geometry to questions
of Probability
application
aid
of
the
the
in
IntegralCalculus;
requires, general,
be solved by
which
can
there are, however, many
easy questions
Elementary Geometry.
The

*481.

Example 1. From each of two

off at random, and removed : what
remainders is less than I?

equal lines of length I

is the

chance

that

portionis cut

the

sum

of

the

the lines parallelto one

another, and suppose that after cutting,
the questionis equivalentto
Then
right-handportionsare removed.
is greater
the
chance
of
is
what
the
the
that
sum
right-handportions
asking
is
than the sum
of the left-hand portions. It is clear that the first sum
the
thus
be
than
to
less
the
or
second;
required
equallylikely
greater
Place

the

is
probability

Cor.
chance

Each

lines is known

of two

that their

sum

is not

to be of

greaterthan

Z is

I: the
length not exceeding

Example 2.
justas likelyas

If three lines are chosen at random, prove that

not to denote the sides of a possible
triangle.

they are

three lines one

be equal to or greater than each of the other
must
of the other two lines is that
its lengthby I. Then all we know
to
the lengthof each lies between 0 and /. But if each of two lines is known
that
chance
their
is
it
0
be of random
and
sum
even
between
an
1,
length
is greaterthan /. [Ex.1, Cor.]
Of

two ; denote

Thus

the

requiredresult follows.

to a given circle :
at random
Three tangents are
drawn
shew that the odds are 3 to 1 againstthe circle being inscribed in the triangle
formed by them.

Example 3.

lines P, (),11,in the same

Draw three random
plane as
to these lines.
draw to the circle the six tangents parallel
H.

H.A.

and
the circle,

2G

402

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

it is evident that the circle will be

of the 8 trianglesso formed
Then
in
2
and
this is true whatever be the original
as
escribed to 6 and inscribed
;
result
follows.
directions of P, Q, R, the required

Questions in

*4:82.

solved

Example.
find

random:

On
the

rod

aid of co-ordinate

the

by

sometimes

Probabilitymay
length a

of

that
probability

point

veniently
con-

Geometry.

b+c, lengths a,

no

be

of the

measured

b are

at
lines will

measured

coincide.
AP = x and
the line,and suppose
PQ = a; also let a be
must
be less than b + c.
measured
from P towards B, so that x
Again let
from P' towards B, then y must
AP' = y, P'Q' b, and suppose P'Q'measured
be less than a + c.

Let

be

AB

Now

in favourable

cases

hence

+ x,

y"a
for all the

Again

x"b

or

we
possible,

cases

x"0,

and

Take

b+ y

(1).

"a

c)

make

equal

OX

to

b + c, and

OY

W
are

in the

figure;and

the line

P'

YM, EX

TML

KB.

Then

+ c)

representedby

+ x,

representedby

"A

AP"AQ\

c.

the line y

Draw
x

else

have

""

and

pair of rectangularaxes

a
a

or

+ y

must

2/"0, and
equal to

AP'"AQ,

have

must

we

each

equal to

031, OT

c,

b-

-0."Q
are

each

equalto

a.

The conditions (1)are only satisfied by pointsin the triangles

and
MYL
while the conditions (2)are satisfied by
rectpoints within the angle
any

ItXR,

OX, OY;
.*.

c2

the requiredchance

"

{a+ c)(b+ c)
*483.

We

shall close this

chapterwith

some

Miscellaneous

Examples.
Example
balls
r

are

1.
thrown
each

compartments

box

is divided into m equal

compartments into which n
; find the probability
that there will be p compartments

at random

containinga balls,q compartments each containingb balls,

each containing
c balls,
and so on, where
Z"a+qb +

rc

=n.

404

requiredchance

when

case
particular

the

In

the

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

*-=

""

=-

2,

"

-4-

(n+ 1)

~2(2n+l)'
If

is

large,the
indefinitely
'

'

the

limit,when

is in-

fc+ 1.'

k + 2

equal to

"*+!

V^2

1
of
finite,

is

chance

fe+ 1
and

is

thus the chance

the halls

(ii) If

"+2*

replaced,

not

are

r
r

(r-k

p,

Qr=i

and

it

"

"

"

'

r
"

A; + 1

'

"

"

k+ 1

'

(r-l)r

l)(r-k + 2)

r=K

(r-l)r

+ 2)
("--"+l)(r-ifc

r=0

(n-l)n (n+1)

+ 2)
+ l)(n-Jfe
(u-ifc

chance

The

that the next

drawing

will

give a

white

ball=

2
r=0

(;i A)(u
-

/c+

"

Qr

Ii

s"(r-fc)(r-fc+l)
(r-l)r

1)

?i

(n + 1) r=0

fc+ 1
_

+ l)
(/i-A-)(n-/v
k~+2~
l)

n("i+ l)

(n-k)(n-k

l)

n(n

Jfc+1
~k
which

+ 2'

independentof

is

Example 3. A person
letters are
placedin the
every letter goes wrong ?

the number

writes

of balls in the

letters and

envelopes at random,

bag at

first.

addresses n envelopes; if the

what
is the probability
that

Let un denote

the number
of ways in which all the letters go wrong,
and
that
in
which
all the letters are in their
represent
arrangement
own
envelopes. Now if a in any other arrangement occupiesthe place of an
other.
assignedletter b, this letter must either occupy a's place or some

let abed

(i) Suppose

occupies a's place.

Then

the number

of ways in which
all the remaining n
be displacedis un_2, and therefore the
can
numbers
of ways in which a may
be displacedby interchange
with some
one
and the rest be all displaced
1 letters,
of the other nis (n 1)""_2.
-

2 letters

405

PROBABILITY.

occupiesi"'splace,and

b does not occupy a's. Then

in
t
he
in
since
is
fixed
"'s
conditions,
a
place,
arrangements satisfying required
must
be all displaced,
which can
be done in h__j ways;
the letters b, c, d,
of ways in which a occupiesthe place of another letter
therefore the number
but not by interchangewith that letter is (n 1)un-l ;

(ii)Suppose

...

.-.

vn

which, by the method

from

Also

n1

0, tig
=

(n-l) (Mn_!+ ""_");

of Art.

1 ; thus
,

we

4-44,we

find un

( l)n(ttj
Uj).
-

(-1)'1!

in which
the
the total number
of ways
the
is
is
therefore
chance
In
required
places
;
Now

11

|"+|4

problem liere involved

things can

be

put in

(- 1)"
_

Tlie

obtain
finally

f1

[2

nun_1

'""+

in

'

is of considerable

modifications lias maintained

of its many
in works on
the Theory of Probability.It
by Montmort, and it was generalised
by De
some

and in
interest,
permanent place

first discussed
Moivre, Euler, and
was

Laplace.
*484.

The

is so extensive that it is
subjectof Probability
to give more
than
sketch
of the principal
a

here
impossible
methods.
An admirable
collection of problems,illustrating
algebraical
process, will be found in "NVliitworth's
every algebraical
Choice and
Chance; and the reader who is acquaintedwith the
Calculus
bility
Integral
may consult Professor Crofton's article Probain the Encyclopcedia
JJritannica. A completeaccount
of
the originand developmentof the subject
is givenin Todhunter's
Historyof the Theory of Probability
from the time of Pascal to
that ofLaplace.
The

of the theory of Probability

to
practical
applications
transactions are beyond the scope of an
elementary

commercial

refer to the articles Annuities

treatise ; for these we
may
Insurance
in the JEncyclopcedia
Britannica.

^EXAMPLES.
L
throw

What
the odds in favour
are
with two dice ?

XXXII.
of

and

e.

throwingat

lea.st7 in

single

and 4 shillings.
If theyare
2. In a purse there are 5 sovereigns
drawn out one
what
is
the
that
chance
out
by one,
theycome
sovereigns
und shillings
with ;t sovereign?
alternately,
beginning

406

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

9 ships out of 10 return safe to port,what

3. If on an average
at least 3 will arrive 1
is the chance that out of 5 shipsexpected

4. In a lotteryall the tickets are blanks but one; each person

draws a ticket,and retains it : shew that each person has an equal
chance

5.
contains

of

drawing the prize.

One

and a second bag

contains 5 white and 3 red balls,
of
and 5 red balls. From
one
them, chosen at random,
drawn : find the chance that they are of different colours.

bag

4 white

two balls are

A, B, C, B, E throw a die in the order named

throws
of winning,
of
them
ace : find their relative chances
an
one
till
the
throws
continue
to
an
ace
supposing
appears.
6.

Five persons

until

7.

Three

is the chance

8.
a

squares
that two

person

of

are

chess board being chosen at random, what

of one colour and one of another 1

throws two

dice,one

case

compare

9. A's skillis to 2?'sas 1

find the chance that A in three
twice at least.
10.
an

ace

chance

11.

common

number
on
of the tetrahedron ; find the
the chances of throwing5, 6, 7.

the
regulartetrahedron,

the

cube,and the other

lowest face being taken in
average value of the throw,and
the
the

3 ; to Cs

trials,
one

as 3 : 2 ; and to Z)'s as 4 : 3
with each person, will succeed

A certain stake is to be won

by the first person who
with an
die : if there are 4 persons what
octahedral
of the last ?
Two

playersA,

of

equalskill are playinga

to complete the
wants 2 games
their chances of winning.

set,and B

wants

throws
is the

set of games

3 games:

; A

compare

: a
purse contains 3 sovereignsand two shillings
person
draws one
coin in each hand and looks at one
of them, which proves
to be a sovereign
likelyto be a sovereign
; shew that the other is equally

12.

or

shilling.

A and B play for a prize

and is to
a die first,
; A is to throw
win if he throws 6.
If he fails B is to throw, and to win if he throws
If he fails,
A is to throw
6 or 5.
again and to win with 6 or 5 or 4,
and so on : find the chance of each player.

13.

14. Seven persons draw lots for the occupancy

of the six seats in
first class railwaycompartment : find the chance (1)that two specified
persons obtain oppositeseats,(2)that they obtain adjacentseats on
the same
side.
a

15.

number

consists of 7

whose
digits

sum

is 59 ; prove

that the

.4

chance of its being divisible by 11 is

16.

Find

the chance

of

"

throwing12

in

singlethrow

with 3 dice.

407

PROBABILITY.

with the numbers 0, 1, 2, ...G

7 tickets marked
and replaced
A ticket is drawn
that
respectively.
; find the chance
of the numbers
drawn is 8.
after 4 drawingsthe sum

bag contains

17.

There are 10 tickets,

5 of wThich are blanks,and the others are
marked
with the numbers
of
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 : what is the probability
when
tickets
in
three
the
at
10
are
trials,
(1)
replaced every
drawing
trial,
(2)if the tickets are not replaced?

18.

If

19.

at random

integerstaken

that the last

that the chance

shew
multipliedtogether,

are

digitof

the

productis 1,3, V,or

9 is

"

o
An
_

the chance

of its

8 is

being 2, 4, 6, or

="

"

9"i
"

Kn

; of its

being 5

.pi

is

+ 4n

10H-8'l-5n

and of its beinc:0 is

10*

and a metal
two
A purse contains two sovereigns,
shillings
form and size ; a person is allowed to draw out one
dummy of the same
at a time tillhe draws the dummy : find the value of his expectation.

20.

of money
is to be given to the one
of three
first throws 10 with three dice;supposingthem
until the event happens,prove that their
in the order named

21.

certain

sum

persons A, B, C who
to throw

chances

are

respectively
/8\2

56

(ja)'
W"

[")'

and

/7\2

of speaking the
probabilities

persons, whose

Two

22.

and

assert
respectively,

that

of a bag containing
15 tickets: what
the assertion ?

23.

bag

contains

"

has been drawn

ticket
specified

is the

truth

of
probability

counters,of which

out

the truth of

is marked

one

are

1,

marked
4, three are marked 9, and so on ; a person puts in his
and draws out a counter
at random, and is to receive as many
marked
it : find the value of his exthe number
pectation.
as
shillings
upon

two

are

hand

24.
a

If 10

things are

distributed among

particular
person having more

than

5 of them

persons,
is
_

....

the chance

of

rod is marked
in n points and divided at
at random
those points,
the chance that none
of the parts shall be greaterthan

25.

"

If

th of the rod is

"

408

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

and a
two
There
containingthree sovereigns
are
purses, one
A
and
a
t
hree
other
and the
sovereign. coin
shillings
containing
shilling,
and
droppedinto the other ;
is taken from one (itis not known
which)
and then on drawing a coin from each purse, they are found to be two
the odds againstthis happeningagainif two more
What
are
shillings.
26.

are

drawn, one

each purse 1

from

is formed by joiningthree pointstaken at random

If a triangle
of a circle,
in the circumference
prove that the odds are 3 to 1 against
its beingacute-angled.

27.

of a
the circumference
on
of any two of the arcs
so

28. Three pointsare taken at random

circle: what is the chance that the sum
than the third ?
determined is greater

into three parts,what

29. A line is divided at random
?
that they form the sides of a possible
triangle

is the chance

and the
contained 25 sovereigns,
originally
purses one
and 15 shillings.
One purse is taken by chance
other 10 sovereigns
is the
: what
and 4 coins drawn
out, which prove to be all sovereigns
the
is
and
what
contains
this
that
chance
able
probonly sovereigns,
purse
value of the next draw from it?

30.

Of

two

line of lengtha two pointsare taken at random

On a straight
find the chance that the distance between them is greaterthan b.

31.

line of lengtha is divided

A straight
random
taken
at
points
; find the chance that

32.

33.

If

measured

at

shall not

exceed

into three parts by two

partis greaterthan b.

no

of length a + b
that the common

straightline
random, the chance

on

lengthsa, b are
part of these lengths

two

c2
c

is

ab

that the smaller

where

"

lengthb

is less than

lies entirely
within

the

or

also the chance

largera

is

"

(Jj

34.
measured

If

on

at

a
straightline of length a + b + c two lengthsa, b are
random, the chance of their having a common
part which

shall not exceed

d is

"

7.

(c+ a)(c+6)'
35.

Four

where

d is less than

either

or

b.

to each other,
are
passengers, A, B, C, D, entire strangers
m
railwaytrain which contains I first-class,
second-class,
and n third-class compartments. A and B are gentlemen whose
spective
reof travelling
a priorichances
first,
second, or third class are
representedin each instance by X, fi, v, C and D are ladies whose
similar a priori chances
each representedby I, m, n.
Prove
are
for
all
values
of
when
that,
X, fi, v (exceptin the particularcase
X : p : v=l. : m : oi),
A and B are more
likelyto be found both in the
of the same
lady than each with a different one.
company

in
travelling

CHAPTER

XXXIII.

Determinants.

485.

present chapteris

The

determinants

their

and

devoted

to

brief discussion of

elementaryproperties.The slight
given will enable a student to avail
himself of the advantagesof determinant
notation in Analytical
other
Geometry, and in some
parts of Higher Mathematics
;
this branch
of Analysis may
fuller information
be obtained
on
from
Dr Salmon's Lessons
Introductoryto the Modern
Higher
and
Muir's
Theoryof Determinants.
Algebra,
introductorysketch

48G.

Consider

more

here

the two

homogeneous linear equations

a]x

bly 0,

a2x

b2y 0;

multiplyingthe first equation by bsithe

and dividing
by x, we obtain

This

and

the

of two
term

result is sometimes

expressionon
rows

is the

and

two

product

by

tracting
sub,

written
ax

bx -0,

a"

b"

the left is called

columns, and

of two

second

determinant.

in its

it
quantities;

expanded

is therefore

It consists
form

each

said to

be

of the second order.

The

letters

"

b0

aa,

determinant, and tile terms

b2 are

called

ab.
",/",,,

are

the

constituents

of

called the elements,

the

410

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

487.

Since

aA

a.

"A

a.

a"

a.

it follows that the value

the

into

rows

488.

of the

determinant

is not altered
into rows.

the columns

columns,and

seen
Again,it is easily

that
a,

6"

a"

that

is,if we

Let

489.

interchangetwo

obtain

ive

us

By eliminating
x,

the

bxy+

cxz

0,

a2X

b2V+

c2z

o,

a3x

b3y+

c3z

obtain

in Ex.
+

linear

c,("A

aA)

is

b,

equations

2, Art. 16,

a.

This eliminant

a.

0.

as

minant,
of the deterdiffers
from it onlyin sign.

axx

we

a2

columns

two

homogeneous

Kc2)+ bi("v*3vO

or

or

ivhich

consider

y, z,

a" (Kcs

rows

determinant

now

by changing

""

0.

usuallywritten
o,

and

the

expressionon

of three

and

rows

K
h

the left

three

c2
C3

beinga

determinant

is called

columns

which

consists

determinant

of the

third order.

490.
the above

By

rearrangement of

determinant
aX vV8

or

a.

may

terms

the

expanded form

be written

+ "2("3C1
hSC2)
KC3)+ "a(6lC.h2^\
"

of

412

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

492.

The

determinant

ax

bl

cx

"**

h2
b3

C2

C3

"362)
KC2)+ hl(C2"3C/h)+ C,("A
""C")Cll(C2b3CJ"")Cl(Ka3 6A)
bl(a2CB

", (KC3

"

"

"

hence

bx

",

a2

b2

ax
a

(i

c.

C3

if two adjacentcolumns, or rows, of

the sign of the determinant
interchanged,
that

it appears

Thus

determinant

are

changed,but

its value remains

If for the sake of

ax

bt

cx

(l2

h
K

C2

(VsO
we
Similarly

(ci"A)
=

If

493.

two

rows

let D

For

two

whose
J)

"

value

D,

be
rows

is

"

that is D

but
0.
a
1

494.

("Acs)-

(aAb3)
=

("AC3)-

columns

of the

of

tlie determinant

the

Thus

A,1

"

determinant,then

columns

two

or

D;

be written

may

are

vanishes.

value

the

two

or

identical the determinant

just obtained

that

shew

may

"3

have

we

the determinant

denote

brevitywe

the result

is

unaltered.

"3
then
by (axb2c3),

the

aAn
2

obtain

we

determinant
have

we

+
2

aJLm3

the
=

is

by

changing
inter-

determinant

unaltered; hence

following
equations,

D.

If each constituent in any row, or in

by the same factor,then the determinant
multiplied
by that factor.

any

is

column, is

multiplied

413

DETERMINANTS.

For

tnax
ma2
ma
a

max

"

which

the

proves

Ax

ma2

A2 +

maA

A3

m(alAl-a2A2+ a.iA,y,

proposition.
of

If each constituent

Cor.

"

one

row,

or

constituent
the corresponding
column, the determinant vanishes.

multipleof

column, is the
of another

same

row,

or

constituent in any row, or column, consists of tivo

he expressed
the sum
can
as
of tvio
terms, then the determinant
other determinants.

If each

495.

Thus

for the

have

we

on
expression

(ax+ a^ A

(V,

which

In like
consists of
sum

the

proves

of

(a2+ a2)^12+ (a3+ a3)y12

M*

M3)

terms, the

determinant

other determinants.

we
Similarly,

("v*i M2
-

aA)

proposition.
if each constituent

manner
m

the left

may

shew

that

in any
can

one

he

column,
expressedas the
row,

or

414

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

if the

thus
easilybe generalised;

results may

These

columns

of the three
the determinant

consist of m,

n, p

expressedas

the

sum

-a3-

b3

be

can

terms

stituents
con-

tively,
respecof mnp

determinants.
that

Shew

Example 1.

b+

a-

b-c

+ b

The

Of

Babe

"

c3.

b
a

"

"

these four determinants the first three vanish, Art. 493; thus the
reduces to the last of the four determinants ; hence its value

Example

Find

2.

-ab)-b (ac "2)+

(c2

"c

Babe

a3

b3

(a2 be)}
-

c3.

the value of

67

19

21

39

13

14

81

24

26

have

67

10 + 57

19

21

57

19

21

39

0 + 39

13

14

39

13

14

81

9 + 72

24

26

72

24

26

496.

as

given determinant

We

10

10

19

21

10

19

19 + 2

10

19

13

14

13

13 + 1

13

24

26

24

24 + 2

24

20-63=

-43.

13

24

19

13

Consider the determinant

in the last article

we

can

shew

that it is
+

equalto

qct

C2
6*

9C3

c"

pression
ex-

415

DETERMINANTS.

494 Cor.].
of these determinants vanish [Art.
the last two
whose
one
Tims we see that the givendeterminant is equalto a new
from the constituents of
is obtained by subtracting
firstcolumn
of the
determinant
the first column of the original
equimultiples

and

unaltered.

remain

third columns

and

columns, while the second

of the other

constituents
corresponding

Conversely,
+

a{

a., +

C2
a

and

b{

PK

^2

"7C2

c"

c.

has been

what

+ qc}
j)bx

here

reference to the firstcolumn

rows
; hence it appears

provedwith

is

equallytrue for any of the columns or

that in reducinga determinant
we
may
columns by a new
column
rows
or
or
row
way

replaceany
formed

one

in the

of the

following

Take
and

the constituents

increase

or

of

diminish

constituents

the

them

of

by

one

or

row

any
more

or

column

be

replaced,
responding
equimidtij)les
of the corthe
other
rows
or
of
to

columns.
After

may

columns

or

little

practiceit will be found that determinants

two
more
or
rows
by replacing
quicklysimplified
for
it
is
:
example,
simultaneously
easy to see

often be

that
ai

2}b} b}
-

qcx

+Ph2 K C1C2
a3+2jb3K-Qcs
%

in any modification of the

must
be taken to leave one
row

but

Thus,

if

on

the left-hand

of the third column

c,

ra

we
respectively,
by

ax

c,

"ll

"2

Ct2

b2

c3

a..

b"

rule

unaltered.

column

or

side of the last

should

have

2"bt bx
"

i'K K

identitythe

replacedby

were

qcx

the

rax
ra"

"a +

enunciated, care

above

as

vci

c.,

ra..

cl+rali

former

c2 +

value

stituents
con-

ra^
creased
in-

416

HIGHER

and

of the four

there is

into which

determinants
does not

which

one

ALGEBRA.

this may

be

resolved

vanish,namely
ra,

pbs

Example 1,

The

"9

the value of I 29

26

22

25

31

27

! 63

54

46

given determinant
26-4l

3
-6

-3x4x

31

-4

54

-8
1

-12

=:

Find

ra

qc2

26

I -3

-12

132.

[Explanation. In the first step of the reduction keep the second column
diminish
each constituent of the first
column
unaltered;for the first new
column
by the correspondingconstituent of the second ; for the third new
diminish each constituent of the third column
column
by the corresponding
constituent of the second.
In the second step take out the factors 3 and
4. In the third step keep the first row
unaltered ; for the second new
row
diminish
the constituents of the second by the corresponding ones
of the
diminish the constituents of the third by twice
first; for the third new
row
the corresponding constituents of the first. The remaining steps will be
-

easily
seen.]

The
a

+ b +

+ b +

2a

2a

2b

b-c-a

2b

2c

2c

c-a-b

b +

c)x

(a+

b+

c)x

c-a"

(a+

b+

b-c-a

2b

2c

2c

c-a-b

-c-a-b

I -b-c-a

0
-c"

a-

(a+

b +

2b

-b-c-a

11

2c

c)x

2b

2c

2b

b+

a+b+c

b-c-a

2c

(a+

a-b-c

given determinant

2b

(a+

that

Shew

2.

Example

c)3.

cf.

417

DETERMINANTS.

[Explanation.In the firstnew determinant the firstrow is the sum of

of the originaldeterminant,
the constituents of the three rows
the second
the
the
In
third
unaltered.
of
and third rows
the
determinants
new
being
while
the
remains
second
and
columns
third
first column
unaltered,
are
the constituents of the first column
from those of
obtained by subtracting
The remaining transformations
the second and third respectively.
ciently
are suffiobvious.]
Before

497.

"i"i

"A

"A

Vi

KPt + c*y, %%
hA + Wi
%%

a3ai +

Art.

From

^7,

495, we
the

expressedas

to

determinant,we

as

shewinghow

sum

hA
hA
bA

know

terminan
express the product of two deshall investigate
the value of
+

ci?2 aia3 +

c*y2

"2"*3+

^3y2

"3a3

bA
hA
"A

ri7-s

caya

c3y3

that the above

determinant can
be
of 27 determinants,of which it will be

specimens:
givethe following

sufficient to

*1"S
"2ft3
a3a2
these

"3a3

respectively
equalto

are

a.

aia2a3

a2

"

"Ay,

a.

""

ct"

a"

a"

ct"

C3

*,

"3

will be found that 21

The six determinants that

vanish.

of the 27 determinants

remain

".

it
vanishes;similarly

the first of which

out

aAy2

a.

equalto

are

ft

(aAy3

Ay2

a2"yi
-

Ay3

aAy2

aAyd

a""
cc"

that

is,

a.

",

"x"

""

a"

""

hence the given determinant

other determinants.
two
The

498.

Consider

productof two

the two

linear

can

be

", "3
expressedas

determinants

is

the

b.

product of

determinant.

equations

axXx+ bxXa 0)
=

agXx+ b^9
H.

H.

A.

o]

(1),
27

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

418

Xl

where

a2x2\

a^

.(2).

^=A*i+/W
for X,
Substituting

and

X2

in

have

we
(1),

(a^ + 6^) x, + (a^+bfij x2

+ bfi2)
+ b2P})
x2
(atax
xx + (a2a,
values

than

x2 other

of xx and

a^

equations(3)will

But

will be the

zero,

bfr

if

bfi2

(4).

equations(1)hold, and

(5),

b2

aa

Xl

if

which

0 and

ft
ft

a.
a.

therefore

hold ; and
factors the
the

equations(5)and

if

of the

determinants

be numerical

.(6).

determinant

the

determinants

(4)must

0;

in

on

numerical
the two

; hence

a*

a.

above

Since

the

write the
two

several

aia2
of

method

to be

b*

a,a2 +

hh

a'

unity.

bfi2
b:

proof is perfectly
general,and

holds

be the order of the determinants.

whatever

of

hA

"ia, +

equations,
beingseen

"",

The

as

factor,by comparing the coefficients of afyafl,

sides of the

Cor.

contain

(4) must

(6); and a consideration of

shews
that the remaining

"iai + " A

the

also

(6)hold, equation(4)must

in (5)and

dimensions

factor of

X2

that
requires

last condition

Hence

this

either if

case

or

for

have

must

we

axa2 +

hold

(3).

Oj

hold
simultaneously

equations(3) may

that

order

In

0\

rows

value
as

columns,

determinants
ways

of

; but

determinant
and
be

is not

the columns

altered

as

expressed
may
these will all give the

as

rows,
a

same

when

the

product

determinant
result

we

on

in
pansion.
ex-

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

420
12.

13.

that

expandingthe determinants,prove

Without

equations

Solve the

0.
^r

14.

15.

16.

a"

b2

x
x

"2

b+

(y-z)(z-x) (x-y)(yz +

c).

zx

xy).

xy
a

+ b

+ c

b+

-26

c +

c+b

-2c

(b+cY
62

Express as

4(b + c)(c+ a)(" + b).

2dbc{a+b+cf.

a-

{c+ af

^2

20.

*2

zx

-la

19.

(b c)(c a)(a b)(a+

y2

yz

18.

c3

a?

17.

(b-c)(c- a)(a b).

62

(a+bf
determinant

b
21.

Find

satisfied
and shew

the condition that the equation lx +

be
my + nz=0
may
the
three
of
values
sets
by
(au bltc{)(a.2,
62,c2)(a3,b3,c3);
that it is the same
as the condition that the three equations

b1y+ ciz 0, a2x + b2y+ c2z 0,

satisfiedby I,m, n.
simultaneously

alx +

may

be

a3x +

b2y+

c3z

421

DETERMINANTS.

22.

23.

where

be written in the form

*j 1,can
"

A-iB

C-iD

-C-iB
hence deduce the
The

A + iB

following
theorem,due

productoftwo

each

sums

to Euler

offour squares

be

can

as
expressed

the

offour
squares.

sum

Prove the

identities:
following

24.

bc + ad

b2e2+ a2d2

|1
1

ca

+ bd

c2a2 + b2d2

ab + cd

a2b2 + c2d2
=

be

25.

be +

"

a2

"

ca

(b-c)(e a)(a-b) (a- d) (b d) (c-d).

ca

ab

bc

"

b2

ca

26.

be +

c2

ca

ab

(c+ a)(c+ b)

3(b-c)(c- a) (a-b)(a + b + c)(be+

ab).

{b-y)2 (b-zf
(e-y)2 (c-z)2

Find

in the

form

of

(b-c)(e a)(a-b){y-z)(z-x)(x-y).
-

determinant

the

condition

expression
Ua? +
be the
28.

"

may

ca

(a x)2 (a y)2 (a z)2

(h-xf
io-xf

27.

ab

ab

(a+ b)(a+ c) (b+ c)(b+ a)

=

V@2+ Wy2+ 2u'Py+

productof

Solve the

two

+ 2 ic'aft
c'ya

factors of the first degreein

equation:
u

+ a2x

w' + abx
c

the
expressing

result

+ b2x

u' + bcx

acx

by

w' + abx

means

v'+

acx

u' + bcx
w

+ c2x

of determinants.

0,

a,

ft,y

that the

422

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

be usefully
of determinants
employed
properties
may
linear
simultaneous
equations.
solving

499.

The

in

Let the

be
equations

axx

a2X

aja

hxy+
b2y+
bg +

cxz +
c2z+
cji +

dx 0,
d2 0,
d^O;
=

and add the results,

by Alt -As, A.Arespectively
A3 being minors of alt a2i aa in the determinant

multiplythem
A

*,

a,
a"

^3

"3
The

in virtue of the relations

coefficients of y and z vanish

493, and we obtain

proved

in Art.

(Mi

M*

we
Similarly

M3)

shew

may

(6,5, 6 A

6 A)

(M

M2

Mb)

"*A) 0,

"-

that
2/+

("*A "*A
-

and
" + (dfi, dfia
+ d3C,) 0.
fcff,e,C,+ c3C3)
-

Now

hence

"A

atA,+ "A

the solution may

x

or

more

(6,5, 6,5,+ 6A)

-

be written
z

"y

symmetrically
x

-y
a.

500.

Supposewe
:
equations

have

the

C3

system of four homogeneous linear

423

DETERMINANTS.

axx

a2x

a3x

ax

+
4

From

the last three of

x

dxu 0,
d2u 0,
d3u 0,

bxy+
b2y+
b3y+

c,s +

+
bAy
W

+ du
cAz
4
4

"

c2z +

c3z +

have

these,we

0.
in the

as

precedingarticle

"y

"

^2 ^
\ 4
64 "

".
%

"4
in
Substituting

the first equation,

the eliminant is
0.

".

This may

be

bx
h2

a2

c,
C2

C3

b.

a.

the

we

see

c.

dx
(h
"*3
d,

More

0;

of the fourth order.

coefficients of "z,, bx,c,, dx taken with

the minors obtained
by omittingthe row

that

the

their proper signsare

contain
and column
which respectively
501.

the left beinga determinant

on
expression

Also

in the form

written
concisely

more

if
generally,

we

these constituents.

have

homogeneous

linear

equations
axxx +
+

a2xx

a
"

involvingu
can

x,1 +

unknown

be eliminated

and

+ cxx3+
bxx2
+ c2x3+
b2x2

b xa
2
"

+
ex,
n
3

kx=

"

0,
'

these quantities
quantities
xx, x2, x3, ...as,,,
in
form
the
the result expressed

a.
a.

kxxn 0,
k2xn 0,

"
ii

0.

424

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

consists of

of this

member

left-hand

The

and

rows

which
determinant
is called a determinant of

equationis

columns,and

order.
the IIthis
of determinant
here
sufficient
beyond the scope of the presentwork ; it will be
which have been established in the
that the properties
to remark
of this

discussion

The

of determinants

case

general,and
any

generalform

more

of the

second

and

are

orders

third

capableof being extended

to

are

quite

determinants

of
1

order.
above

example,the

For

determinant

of

nth order

the

is

equal to
+ (-l)"-1k1Kl,
+ c1C1-d1D1+...
a1A1-b1Bl
+ (-1)"-1
+ aBA3-a4A4+
anAn,
ctlA1-a2A2

or

...

we
as
developit from the first row or the first column.
according
letters stand for the minors of the constituents
Here the capital
and are themselves
small letters,
denoted
by the corresponding
be exof these may
Each
of the (n-l)thorder.
determinants
pressed
of the (n 2)th
of determinants
of a number
the sum
as
minant
form
of the deterorder ; and so on ; and thus the expanded
"

may

be obtained.
of
alwaysdevelopa determinant by means
method,
above,it is not alwaysthe simplest
of
find
value
the
is
much
not
to
so
object
determinant, as to find the signs of its several

Although we

may
the process described
when
our
especially
the

whole

elements.
502.

The

expanded form

of the determinant

+ aAGi
afi2G3afi3C2
~

a2KC3+ a*hic2%h2Gx;
~

and

it appears that each element is the productof three factors,

taken from each row, and one
from each column; also the
one
of
half
the
of
and
terms
the
other half
The signs
+
are
signs
-

of the several elements

element
is

in which
cixb2c^

positive
; we

element
suffixes.

may
The

The first
may
the suffixes follow the arithmetical order,
be

obtained

shall call this the

from it

be obtained

sign +

or

is to

as

follows.

leadingelement ; every other

the
interchanging
by suitably
be prefixed
acto any element

425

DETERMINANTS.

it

cordingas
or

even

odd

the element

3, therefore

can

deduced

be
of

number

from

leadingelement

the

permutationsof two

by an
instance,

is obtained by interchanging
the suffixes 1 and
a3b2c1
is obtained
its sign is negative
ajb1c2
; the element

the suffixes 1 and

first interchanging
its
2, hence
signis positive.

by

suffixes ; for

3, and then the suffixes

1 and

503.

thus be

may

determinant

The

expressedby

whose

leadingelement

axb2c3dA
...

the notation

%^aJ"aeBdA
placedbefore

is

the aggregate
leadingelement indicating
of all the elements
which
be obtained
from it by suitable
can
of suffixes and adjustmentof signs.
interchanges
the 2

Sometimes

the

the

determinant

is still more
within

the leadingelement
enclosing
is used

as

an

From

of 5

In the determinant

Example.
the element

abbreviation

"

simplyexpressedby
brackets;thus (a^crf ...)

a,b"c"dA....

(a^c^e^

what

sign is

to be

prefixedto

a^c^e.,1

the

leadingelement by permuting the suffixes of a and d we get

have a4b3c2d1e5
a4b2c3dxe5
; from this by permuting the suffixes of b and c we
;
by permuting the suffixes of c and d we have aib.ic1d2e5
; finally
by permuting
the suffixes of d and e we obtain the requiredelement rt4"3c1rf5?2
; and since
have made four permutations the signof the element is positive.
we
If in Art.

504.

equal to zero
it is equalto
order,and

the

501,

each

determinant

of the constituents

reduces

to

; in other

...

If each of

is

words

productof ay and a determinant of the (n

infer the following
easily
generaltheorem.

the

we

"

l)th

the constituents

column
or
of the firstrow
of a
determinant
is zero exceptthe first,
and if this constituent is equal
is equalto m times that determinant
to m, the determinant
of lower
order ivhich is obtained by omittingthe firstcolumn
and first
row,

Also

since

any
zero,

row

the

suitable

interchangeof rows and columns any

can
brought into the first place,it follows that if
column
has all its constituents
or
except one equal to
determinant
minant
can
immediatelybe expressedas a deter-

constituent

by

be

of lower order.
This is sometimes
of determinants.

useful in the reduction

and

simplification

426

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example.

each constituent of the firstcolumn

Diminish
by twice the corresponding
constituent in the second column, and each constituent of the fourth column
by three times the corresponding constituent in the second column, and
obtain
we

505.

The

followingexamples

-3

artifices which

shew

are

casionally
oc-

useful.

Example

1.

Prove
=

that

(a+

b +

By adding togetherall the

d)(a
-

b +

d)(a

d)(a+

d).

that a + b + c + d is a factor of the

we
see
the
and third rows
first
and subtracting
determinant; by adding together
from
the result the sum
and
of the second
fourth rows
that
we
see
a-b
d
is
also
factor
i
t
shewn
a-b-c
be
that
a
+ c
+ d and
; similarly can
d are factors ; the remaining factor is numerical, and, from a coma + b-cparison
of the terms
involvinga4 on each side, is easilyseen to be unity;
hence we have the requiredresult.
rows

Example

2.

Prove

that
:

a*

The
columns

b*

(a 6)(a c)(a d)(b-c)(b- d) (c d).

-

d*

givendeterminant

vanishes when
b
a, for then the first and second
b is a factor of the determinant
identical ; hence a
[Art.514].
each of the expressionsa
d is a factor of
Similarly
d, b c, b d, c
c, a
the determinant; the determinant
being of six dimensions,the remaining
factor must
be numerical ; and, from a comparison of the terms
involving
bc2d3 on each side,it is easilyseen
to be unity; hence we obtain the required
result.
are

"

"

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

428
Solve

equations:

the

12.

ax

a2x

b2y+

c2z

a2x +

u=l,
by + cz+ du=k,
b2y+ c2z+ d2u k2,

cfix+

bsy+

c3z+ d3u

P.

that

Prove

b+c"a"d

be

c+a"b"d

ca

a+b-c-d

ab

Prove

"

"

"

(a+ d)-ad(b-t-c)

ad

be

bd

ca(b-\-d) bd(e + a)

cd

ab

"

(c+ d) -cd{a

b)

(b- e)(c-a) (a-b) (a-d) (b d) (c-d). \

-2

that

a2-(b

b2

b2-(c-a)2

c2

c2

(a

"

be

c)2

a2

ca

ab

b)2

(b-c)(c-a){a-b)(a

17.

by + cz=k,
b2y+ c2z k2,
b3y+ c?z= P.

z+

y+

x
ax

16.

a?x +

l2.

ax

a2x +

by + cz=k,

14.

15.

13.

0=1,

y+

x+

+ b+

c)(a2+ b2 + c2).

that

Shew

ABC

CAB

cc

"

A=a2-d2

where

+ 2ce

-2bf,

B=e2-b2+2ac-2df,
C=e2

-f2

+ 2ae-2bd.

is of the ?ithorder, and if the constituents

of
the first n figuratenumbers
...nth
rows
are
second,third,
first,
is
shew
that
its
value
...nth
the first,
unity,.
orders,
second,third,

18.

of its

If

determinant

XXXIV.

CHAPTER

506.

laws

of

which

EXAMPLES.

remarks
the
on
begin this chapterwith some
form, briefly
reviewingthe fundamental
algebraical
shall

We

permanence

AND

THEOREMS

MISCELLANEOUS

have

been

established in the

course

of the work.

we
expositionof algebraical
principles
proceed
do
the
down
and
outset
not
at
we
new
names
:
lay
analytically
our
new
ideas, but we
begin from
knowledge of abstract
which
Arithmetic
are
capable
; we
prove certain laws of operation
the general theory of
of verification in every particular
case, and
constitutes the science of Algebra.
these operations

507.

In

the

it is usual

Hence

and
Algebra.,
former

define

to

speak of

to make

Arithmetical

distinction

symbols in

Algebra and

between

them.

bolical
SymIn the

arithmetically
intelligible,
operation; in the latter
the laws of Arithmetical
assume
we
Algebra to be true in all
of
whatever
the
the
nature
symbols may be, and so find
cases,
out what
meaning must be attached to the symbols in order that
Thus
the
gradually,as we transcend
they may obey these laws.
limits of ordinaryArithmetic,new
results spring up, new
guage
lanhas to be employed, and
interpretations
given to symbols
in
which
not
the
definitions.
At the
were
contemplated
original
from
in
the
which
the
laws
of
time,
same
general
Algebra
way
we

our

deduce

and

thence

are

established,we
even

fundamental

when

are

laws

assured

they are

sense

of

of their

permanence

not
appliedto quantities

and

versality
uni-

cally
arithmeti-

intelligible.
508.
the

Confining our attention

symbols,the followinglaws are

arithmetical

definitions.

positiveintegralvalues of
easilyestablished from a priori
to

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

430
Law

The

I.

(i)

Commutation, which

of

Thus

b-c

a-c

b-c

follows

as

order.

in any

a.

be made

divisions may

and
(ii)Multiplications

order.

in any

axb=bxa;

Thus
axbxc

axcxb'}

-=-

(a-f- c)x

and
b

Distribution,which

of

Law

The

bxcxa

ab-"-c
II.

be made

subtractions may

and

Additions

enunciate

we

on.

(b+ c)xa.

enunciate

we

be distributed

divisions may

and
Multiplications

so

as

follows

additions

over

subtractions.

and

{a

Thus

c)m

(a b)(c d)
"

ac

"

"bm

am

ad

"

cm,

bc

"

bd.

Arts. 33, 35.]

[SeeElementary Algebra,
And

of

since division is the reverse

law for division requires
no

III.

The

the
multiplication,

separate discussion.

of Indices.

Laws

amxan

(i)

am

(n)

aH

am+n

[a

am-".
a

[SeeElementary Algebra,Art.
These

laws

laid down

are

butive
distri-

as

fundamental

suppositionthat

proved on the
and
and integral,
positive
above
that the operations
been

that

indicated

our

restricted in such

way

arithmetically
intelligible.

are

of Symbolical
hold, by the principles

If these conditions

do not

Algebra we

the laws

assume

235.]

to

subject,
having
symbols employed are
to

the

they are

233

and accept the

in every case
leads us.
By this course

of Arithmetical

Algebra

to be true

to which
interpretation

this tion
assumpassured that the laws of
we
are
and that they include in
self-consistent,

are
Algebraicaloperation
the particular
their generality
cases

509.

From

for the removal

Arts.

of

the

law

and

insertion

21, 22]; and

by

of

ordinaryArithmetic.

commutation

deduce

we

of brackets

the aid of these rules

the

rules

Algebra,
[Elementary
we

establish the law

of distribution

as

(a-b)(c d)~ac
"

restriction that

the

with

greaterthan b, and

example,it is provedthat

For

in Art. 35.

b, c,

a,

431

EXAMPLES.

AND

THEOREMS

MISCELLANEOUS

ad"bc

"

are

greater than d.

bd,

and a
positive
integers,
it is the provinceof
Now

all restricresults like this when

tions
Algebrato interpret
Symbolical
Hence
removed.
are
by puttinga 0 and c 0, we obtain
("b)x ("d) bd, or the product of two negativequantitiesis
Again by putting6 0 and c= 0, we obtain a x ("d)="a"I,
positive.
the productof two quantities
or
ofopposite
signsis negative.
=

thus led to the Rule of Signsas a direct consequence

and henceforth
the rule of signsis
of the law of distribution,
laws of operation.
included in our fundamental
"We

are

laws are applied

the way in which the fundamental
of algebraical
the reader is
to establish the properties
fractions,
of the Elementary
referred to Chaptersxix., xxi., and xxn.
Algebra;
For

510.

be

it will there

give any

cannot

to

laws of indices

The

511.

prioridefinition

conform

them

to make

symbols and operationsto which we

are
so
as
always interpreted
the laws of Arithmetical
Algebra.

that

seen

of the

ElementaryAlgebra.

and

"

n,

we

prove

am xan

fullydiscussed

are

When

from
directly

am+n ;

am

-r

and

are

in

Chapterxxx.
positive
integers

the definition of

a'1=

index

an

that

(am)nam".

am~n j

the indices
the first of these to be true when
free from all restriction,
and in this way we determine meanings
does
definition
not
for symbolsto which our
apply.
original
then

We
are

assume

are

for a\
interpretations
found to be in strict

and

henceforth

The

with

the laws of

a0,a~"

thus derived

from

the first law

conformitywith the other two laws ;

and
be applied
indices can
consistently

perfect
generality.

512.

In

Chapter vill.

defined

we

the

symbol

J"

or

this

definition,and

and

it will be

as

by
obeying the relation
of
enabled
laws
the
i
are
we
to
Algebra
general
making subject
of the form a + ib, in
of expressions
to discuss the properties
Such forms
combined.
which real and imaginaryquantities
are
i2

are

sometimes

reference

Articles

From

complex numbers,
92 to 105

that if

we

perform

on

seen
a

by

complex

addition,subtraction,multiplication,
division,the result is in general itself a complex number,

number
and

to

called

"

the

operationsof

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

432
Also

since

those

above

follows

mentioned, it
is in

complex number

involves

function

rational

every

generala

that

operationsbut

no

be

have

We

220

in Art.

seen

of

"

being

defined

real

any

by

means

The

when

\
and

in the

treatingit is

real

being any

development

worthy

is

infinite,

when

is

shall

methods
and
identities,

theory of complex
Chapters x. and XI.

of the

514.

of

is

will

find the remainder

divided by x
a.

fix) denote

found

be

Schlomilch's

and

trating
examples illususeful in proving

ivhen any rational

integral
function

until

function
of x ; divide
any rational integral
remainder
is obtained which
does not involve

and R the remainder

Q be the quotient,

f(x)
Since

value

we

does

involve

not

giveto

put

Q(x-a)

a, then
=

QxO

Q is finite for finite values of

; then

R.

it will remain

x
=

f(a)
now

often

of

will be

Theory of Equations.

To

f(x) hyx-a
x

which

theorems

numbers

Let
; let

give some

now

in the

similarly

be

infinite,

fullydiscussed in
Handbuch
der algebraischen
Analysis.
We

of attention.

quantities.

found

513.

to

general

more

quantity; the quantityex+i!/

may
of the equation

e*+iy Lini (1
x

included

nj

be reduced

can

that

(x\n)
1

fully-

Moivre's

iB.

course

mode

another

ax+i\but

form

ex+iyis of
expression

The

functions

that such

of the form

complex numbers

complex number.

\og(x"iy) cannot
Expressionsof the form ax+ly,
treated without
Trigonometry;but by the aid of De
theorem, it is easy to shew

of

function

rational

R;

x, hence

unaltered

whatever

THEOREMS

.MISCELLANEOUS

exactlydivisible by x a, then
functionofx
f(a) 0 ; hence ifa rational integral
a.
x
a, it is divisibleby x
If f{x)is

Cor.

433

EXAMPLES.

AND

==

0, that

is

vanishes when

"

contained in the preceding

article is so
proposition
giveanother proofof it which has the advantage
the form of the quotient.
exhibiting

The
515.
useful that we
of

Suppose that
denoted by

is of

the function

dimensions,and

let it be

+P-^""3+
p0xn+2\x"~}+P^"~2
-+P""
then the

will
quotient

be of

1 dimensions

; denote

it

by

+qixn-2+q2xn-3++qH_l;
q{fc"-x
...

let R

be the remainder

then

x ;
containing

not

+
+p.ax"~3
pjf +p1x-1+2"2x'-2
+P"
+
+ q2x"~3
(x-a)(q0X^+ qix"~2
"""

we

equatingthe

and

out
Multiplying

...

+ R
qa_x)

coefficients of like powers

of x,

have

9.2-aQi=P2"
q3
R
thus

each

n2

ihi

oqn-%=Pn,

successive

or

qs

or

"

or

a4i+Pa'"
""i2+ ih ;

aqn_l +pn;

coefficient in the

by a the coefficient last

multiplying
The
coefficient in the dividend.
next
of the quotientand
successive terms
arrangedthus

formed

by

adding the

the
process of finding
the remainder
be
may

Pa

Pa-X

P3

P2

Pi

Ct(lx Cl(l2 Cl(In-2 (l(2n-l

"?0

formed, and

Po

Thus

quotientis

qx

?.-,

v,

+ P*
+#.-i)
(""?"-+
=P"P*+P^"~1+P/""n~2
+P,r

aq^

+pn

"

"""

If tlie divisor is x + a the

this case the multiplier
is a.

same

method

can

be

used,only in

H. H. A.

28

is

Example.
divided by
Here

Find
x

2, and

In the

by writingdown

be
frequently

-24

11

6a;2+12a;-3, and

work

has been

only the coefficients of the

used

to

save

several

Divide 3a;5

1+ 2 +

8a;4

4-8)3-8-

mainder
re-

abridged

terms,

zero

of Detached

Coefficients
may
elementaryalgebraical
functions we
are
dealingwith

labour

in

the
when
processes, particularly
is another
rational and integral.The following
are

Example.

the

to powers
corresponding

representterms
This method

absent.

are

-6

12

example the
preceding

coefficients beingused to
which

12

7a;5+ 14a;4+ 3a;3

21

00
-6

14

the quotientis 3.r6

is 11.

516.

-28

14

-7

have

we

31

-6

Thus

2.

multiplieris

the

a;6+ 31a:4+ 21a; + 5

3a;7

quotientand remainder when

the

3-10

of

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

434

5a;3+ 26a;2

by a;3 2a;2 4a;+

33a; + 26

5 + 26-33

illustration.

26(3-2

8.

+ 3

3 + 6 + 12-24

-5+2
Thus

the

quotientis

3a;2
-

2;r + 3 and

the remainder

is

5a;+ 2.

the signof every

It should be noticed that in writingdown the divisor,
this
been
enables
has
us
to replace the process
changed ;
term except the first
of subtraction by that of addition at each successive stage of the work.

517.

by the
may be stillfurther abridged
which
is known
Horner's
Method
as
of

The work

arrangement,

following
Synthetic

Division.

3-2+

3+

0-

5+

of figuresto the left of the vertical line

[Explanation. The column
consists of the coefficients of the divisor,
the signof each after the first being
changed; the second horizontal line is obtained by multiplying2, 4, -8
by 3, the first term of the quotient. We then add the terms in the second
column
to the rightof the vertical line ; this gives 2, which is the coefficient
of the second term of the quotient.
With the coefficientthus obtained
-

Put

0, then A

Put
=

3, being the coefficientof x2y in the

pansion
ex-

(x+ y)3.

of

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

436

l, and

get 27

we

(3

6)+

B ; whence

6.
Thus
=

z)3

(x+

x3 +

y3+

z3 +

3x2y+ 3xy2+ 3y2z+ 3yz2+

3z3x

with
is said to be alternating
when its signbut not its value is altered
variables,
Thus x
of any pairof them.
y and
function

520.

3zx2

6xyz.

respectto its

by

change
the inter-

"

a2

(b-c)+

b2(c-a)+ c2(a
-

b)

functions.
alternating

are

It is evident

that there

be

can

linear

no

function
alternating

and also that the product of

than two variables,
more
involving
function and an alternating
function must
be an
a symmetrical
function.
alternating

521.

functions
Symmetricaland alternating
denoted by writingdown
of the terms
one

the

symbol %

; thus

%a stands for the

may
and

be

cisely
con-

prefixing

of all the terms of which

of all the terms of which

sum

is the

type, %ab stands for the sum

ab is the type; and so on.
For instance,if the function involves
a

four letters a,

b,c, d}
^a-a
%ab

and

so

ab

+
+

+ c +
+

ac

d;

ad +bc

bd+ cd;

on.

if the
Similarly

function

involves three letters a, b,c,

$a2(b-c) a2(b-c)"b2(c a) + c2(a b)

%a2bc a2bc + b2ca + c2ab;
"

and

so

on.

It should be noticed that when there are three letters involved

%a2b does not consist of three terms, but of six : thus

2"a2b a2b + a2c + b2c+ b2a

=

The

symbol 2

regardto

two

or

also be

may

sets of

more

%yz (b-c)
=

yz

used

to

c2a + c2b.

imply summation

thus
letters;

(b~c)+

zx

(c-a)+

xy

(a b).
-

with

THEOREMS

MISCELLANEOUS

The

522.
form

productsand

the

Example 1.

(a+

%a

an

abridged

%a3

32a2b

Gabc j

2"3

3$a2b

Gtabc;

c)4 %aA

i%cfb

6Sa"6fl
+ 1 2%a2bc;

%a2b

df

c +

in

to express

us

437

EXAMPLES.

of symmetricalexpressions
: thus

powers

(a+b + c)3
(a+

enables

notation

above

AND

2"2

2a3

that

Prove

a5

(a+ b)5
-

b* =

5ab

(a+ b)(a2+

ab +

b2).

the left by E

on
Denote the expression
0 ; hence
vanishes when a
Again E vanishes when a"

; then E is a function of a which

factor
of
E ; similarly
6 is a factor of E.
=
a
a
is
is
and therefore
a factor of E;
a + b
b, that
E contains ab(a + b) as a factor. The
remaining factor must be of two
dimensions,and, since it is symmetrical with respectto a and b, it must be
of the form Act?+ Bab + Ab'z ; thus

(a + b)5 a5
-

where

and B

Puttinga
putting
whence

are

b5= ab

(a+ 6)(Aa*+

independentof

and b.

have 15

2A + B ;

1, b

2, b

1, we

have 15

1, we

5A

Bab

Find

+ A

b~),

2B ;

5; and thus the requiredresult at

o, J5 =

Example 2.

is

follows.

once

the factors of

+ a3)(c-a)+ (a3+ b3)

("3+ c3)(b-c)+ (c3
(a b).
-

the expression
Denote
by E ; then E is a function of a which vanishes
when a = b, and therefore contains a
b as a factor [Art.514]. Similarly
it
thus E contains (b c)(c a)(a b) as a
contains the factors b-c and c-a;
factor.
-

Also since E is of the fourth degreethe remaining factor must

be of the
and
since
it
is
function
of
first degree;
be of
a sj^mmetrical
a, b, c, it must
the form M{a + b + c). [Art.518];
.-.

To

obtain M

thus by
requiredresult.

Example 3.

(x+

y+

(b-c)(c-a) (a-b)(a+

giveto
may
puttinga 0, 6

we

Shew

zjt-x5-yb

a,
=

b + c).

b, c any values that

2, we find M=l,

1, c

we

find most
and we
have

venient;
con-

the

that
-

z?=

(y+ z)(z+ x) (x+ y)(x2+ y2+

z~

yz + zx+

xy).

the left by E ; then E vanishes when

Denote the expression
on
y=-z,
therefore y + z is a factor of E; similarlyz + x and x + y are factors;
therefore E contains (y+ z)(z+ x) [x+ (/)asa factor. Also since E is of the
and

438

symmetricalin

x, y, z, it must

y=l,

0; thus 35

have

of these have

5,

for reference

collect here

useful in the transformation

are

xy)

requiredresult.

the

We

523.

zx

5A + IB ;

A=B

whence
we

(yz+

it is

thus 10=^1+5;

Put"=2/=z=l;
x=2,

(x2+ y2+ z2)+

put

degree,and, since

is of the second
be of the form

remaining factor

fifth degree the

and

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

occurred

^bc (b

in

list of identities which

of

algebraical
expressions;
many
of
the
Chap.xxix.
ElementaryAlgebra.

c) "(b-c)(c- a)(a b).

=

"

$a2(b-c) -(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
=

$a(b2-c2) (b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
=

2a3
as + b3 + c3
This

(b-c) -(b-c) (c-a)(a-b) (a+

=

3abc

identity
may

a3 + b3 + c3-3abc

(a+

be

givenin

l(ab
+

c)(a2+b2+c2-

another

c).

bc-ca-

ab).

form,

+ (c-a)2
+ (a-b)2}.
c){(b-c)2

(b-c)3+ (c-a)3+ (a-b)3 3(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).

(a+ b + c)3-a3-b3-c3 3(b+ c)(c+ a)(a+ b).
=

Hbc

(a+

(b+ c)+

2abc

%a2{b+ c)+

2abc

c)(be+

2b2c2 + 2c V

ca

abc

ab)
-

(a+

by

=(b

c)(c+ a)(a+ b).

Find the remainder

when

XXXIV.
3^

+ 1 1^

a.

+ 90#2

19# + 53 is divided

+ 5.

2.

Find the

equationconnectinga
2xi-7x3+ax

may

c)(b+ c-a)(c+ a-b)(a+b-c).

EXAMPLES.
1.

+ a)(a+ b).
=(b + c)(c

2a2b2 -tf-fr-c*
=

+ a)(a+ b).
(b+ c)(c

be divisibleby

3.

and
+ b

b in order that

MISCELLANEOUS
Find

3.

qxi

Find

in order that x3-7x

tf

Expand

5.

2xA

when

iqv + 13 j"sdivided

+ 5 may

by x2

be

3v + 2.

a.

^.^^.g

factor of

4^ + 19.V2 Six + 12 +

439

EXAMPLES.

AND

quotientand remainder

the

jfi 5#4 + 9iV3

4.

THEOREMS

descendingpowers

of

to four

terms, and find the remainder.

the factors of

Find

6.

a(6-c)3+ 6(c-a)3+ c(a-6)3.

7.

a4 (62

8.

(a+ 6 + c)3-(6+ c-a)3-(c+a-6)3-(a

9.

(6 cf +

10.

(64 c4)+ b (c4 a4)+ c(ai- 64).

11.

(6c+

12.

(a+ 6 + c)4-(6+ c)4-(c+ a)4-(a+ 6)4+

a4 + 64 + c4.

13.

(a+ 6 + c)5-(6+ c-a)5-(c + a-6)5-(a

14.

(tf a)3(6 cf + (x b)s(c af + (x c)3(a 6)3.

64 (c2

+
c2)

"

a2)+

(c af

a6)3 J3**3 c%3

ca

identities :
following

15. 2

(6+

2a)3 3(6+

c-

2a)(c+

a(b-cf

He-*)*

(c-a)(a-6r

(a-6)(6-cr

_?L

J^
a

+ 6

6+

26)(a+

a-

6-

2c).

c{a-bf
_fl|M.g
(6-c)(c-a)

(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)_3

2c

6-c)5.

a363.

the

17'"

6-c)3.

Prove

i0,

62).

c(a- 6)2+ 8a6c.

c4 (a2

(6+ c)(c+ a)(a+6)

18.

+ c-a)(c + a-6)(a
+ c)-2a3-2a"c=^"
2a2("

iy*

(a-6)(a-c)^(6-c)(6-a)^(c-a)(c-6)

20.

42(6-c)(6+ c-2a)2 92(6-c)(6+ c-a)2.

21.

ty+z)*(e+x)*(x+y)*=tx*(y+zY+2(^z)3-2^2z*'

22.

^ ("6 c2)(ac- 62)

23.

"6c

24.

5(6- c)3(6+

"-c)-

(26c 2a2).
(26c)

(2a)3 (26c)3abc 2a3

=

2a)

263c3 (a2 6c)(62 ca)(c2 a6).

0 ; hence

deduce 2

y)("+

2a)3
=

"-

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

440

(b+ cf+(c + af+(a

25.

bf-Z(b

c)(c+ a)(a+ b)
+ c3-3abc).
2(a3-\-b3

If x=b+c-a,

26.

#3 +^3 + #

g^g

63 + c3

s-

we

2(a + 6 + c).

"_w_

"

i
(a-b)(a-c)(x-a) (b-c)(b-a)(x-b) (c-a) (c-b) (x-c)'
,w

a2

29.

b2

"

c2

"

b2

cz

c2

a2

"

wt

(b-c)(b a)

(b-c)(b-a) (b+ x)

3__w^w

32.

^.
(a-b) (a- c)(a d)'

"

If

33.

+ y +

s, and #yz

'jp_y\(p__z\

p)\zs p)

,y"

shew
=""2,

identities

Many

be

can

of the cube
use
properties
will be denoted by 1, w, o"2.
Shew

The

expression,E,

Puttingx

contains
ury

as

(x+

/" A /" y\
\xs pj\ys p)
_

the

left vanishes

y)

as

xy +

'

"8

when

y2)2.
x

0, y

0,

0;

factor.

(_ w2-w-l)y7

1} y7= {(_w2)7 w7
_

wy

as

x^ + xy
or
(x- ury)
(x to2?/),
-

!} yi

0;

a factor ; and
we
similarly
that
is,E is divisible by
factor;
x

readilyestablished by making
roots of unity;as usual these

+
Ixy (x+ y) (x2

{(1+ ta)7 W7

have

coy, we
E

on

contain xy
=

'

that

(x+ yf -x7-y7
hence it must

(a- b)(a c)(a- d)

'

Identities.

of the

Example.

#\

pj\xs p)

Miscellaneous
524.

(c+p)(c+ (J)
(c-a) (c-b)(c+ x)

that

\zs

'

"

fp__ A /".

Z"2

(b+p)(b+ q)

(a-b)(a-c)(a+x)
31.

a2

"

(c-a) (c-b)

"

(a+P)(a+ "l)

30.

"

/1

"

;+77

ft7

(a-b)(a- c)

if

the value of

Find

hence

3a6c).

3s

28.

b-c, shew that

(a3+

the value of a3 + b3 + c3 3a6c is unaltered

where
b,s-c for a, 6,c respectively,

that

Prove
substitute s-".

27.

a-b,

c +

may

y2.

shew

that it contains

MISCELLANEOUS

441

IDENTITIES.

Further,E being of seven, and xy(x+ y)(x2+ xy + y2) of five dimensions,

the remaining factor must be of the form A (x2+ y'2)
+ Bxy ; thus
x7

(x+ y)7
-

Puttinga;
putting

y7

{x+ y)(x2+ xy

xy

l, we have

l, y

2, y=-

21

whence
-

aa + b3 + c3
also

have

we

3abc

a* + b2 + c2

a3 + b3 + c3

hence

be

"

ab

"

3abc

"

7;

xy +

y2)2.

b2 + c2 -be-

c)(a2+

ca

ab);

"

3, Art. 110, that

ca

"

7, B

+
y7 Ixy (x+ y)(x2

(a+

in Ex.

seen

5^1 -2B;

elementaryAlgebrathat

from

know

We

525.

x7

(x+ y)7

.-.

2^+5;

have 21

1, we

y2)(Ax2+ Bxy + Ay2).

ub

(a+

(a+
ore)

be resolved

can

"a2b+

wc);

into three linear

factors;

thus

a3

b3 + c3

3abc

(a+

mb

+c) (a +

(a+
arc)

"D2b+

wc).

Example. Shew that the productof

a3 + b3 + c3
can

be

product

obtain the three

we

where

Thus

the

ax

b, c

a,
a

0,

If however
method

SABC.

w2" +

(x+

z)(x+ uy

urz)(x+ w2y+ uz).

y+

uz);

cry +

pairs(a+
and

(a+

b+

urb +

wc)

c)(x+

y +

uc)(x+

z);

wy +

urz),

products
partial
A + B +

C, A

by +

cz, B

B +

+
"

wB + u-C, A+u2B
bx + cy + az, C

C) [A +

wB

u)C,

+
cx

u2C) (A +

ay + bz.

orB +

"C)

A3 + B3+C3-SABC.

order

to

find the

these

values

of

expressionsinvolving
by the equation

connected

quantitiesare
might employ the substitution

we

Sxyz

ore)(a+

when

z3

product (A +

In

y3+

[a+ b + c)(a+ wb

526.

a;3+

w2c)(x+

u"b+

and

six factors in the

By taking these
(a+

dabc

A3 + B3 + C3

put into the form

The

"

the

exhibited

k, b

ioh +

(x"2k,c

ufh

u"k.

involve a, b, c symmetrically
the
expressions
is
following
example preferable.

in the

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

442
If

Example.

(a5+ b5 + c5)

(a3+

62 +

c3)(a2+

63 +

c2).

identically

have

We

+ b +

that

0, shew

1 +px

(1+ ax)(1+ bx) (1+ cz)

=

where

+ b + c, q

"

bc +

ca

ab,

qx2+rx3,
r

abc.

"

Hence, using the condition given,

(1+ ax)(1-t bx)(l+ cx)

'

(an+

xn,

have

we

expansionof log(l+ qx2+ rx3)

xn in the

cn) coefficientof

bn +

qx2+ rx3.

coefficients of

equating the

Taking logarithms and

(~

l+

+ rx3)3
+ ^ (qx2
+ rx3)2
+ rx3) ^ {qx2
[qx2

coefficientof xn in

By puttingrc

2, 3, 5

=*"

"-

3"

=r'

"

once

T-=-"?r;

"

and the requiredresult at

'

"

follows.
is satisfied;hence

c
If a=fi-y, 6 = 7 -a,
a-/3, the given condition
for all values of a, /3,
have identically
y
=

we

a5 + b5+c5

a3 + b3 + c3

a2 + b2 + c2

whence

obtain

we

j"

+ (7-")5+("-/3)5}
6{(iS-7)5
=

that

5{(/3-7)3+ (Y-a)3+ (a-/3)3}

{{"-y?+ (y- a)2+ (a-/S)2}

is,

+ ^
+ (7-a)5+ (a-^)5=5(J8-7)(7-a)(a-i3)(a2
(/3-7)5

Ex.

compare

If

(a + b + cf

integer(a+ b +
2.

XXXIV.

Shew

+ 1

cfn

3.
an

4.
a3

c)(2b
-

that (x+y)n-x1l-yn is divisible by

Shew
odd positive
integernot a multipleof 3.

Shew

+
(bz cy)3
-

when

is

positive

that
=

is

b.

a3 + bz + c3,shew
that
a2n + 1 + b2n + 1 + c2n+ K

+ (a+ a"2b+ a"c)3(2a

(a+ "ob+ a)2c)3

72-/37-7a-a^;

3, Art. 522.

EXAMPLES.
1.

a)(2c
-

b).

xy(x2+ xy+y2), if

that
b3 (ex
-

azf +

c3 (ay

bx)3
=

Sabc

(bz cy)(ex az)(ay bx).

-

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

444
If

b+

d=0, shew that

24.

-"

3"

(a3+ Z"3+

d3)2

c3+

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2

g? + b3+ (?+ d3

+ c#"

a5 + "5+c5
23.

25.

If 2s

+ b+

2o-2 a2 + 62 +

and

abc)2
(be-ad)(ca bd)(ab cd).

+ cda + da" +

(M

26.

+ a-2).
(4s2
{s2 cr2)

+ (v3+ 6xy2+ 3x2y x3)3

(a?+ 6.2%+ 3.vy2y3)3

that

Shew

that

c2,prove

5 (s b)(s c)(a2 a2)+ 5a6cs

-

Zlxy (x+y) (x2+

xy

+y2)3.

a5

27.

that 2

Shew

(a b)(a c)(a d)
"

"

28.

Resolve

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2

ab +

ac

ad+bc

bd+cd.

into factors

2"262c2 +

(a3+

b3 +

+ c-%3 + a3Z"3.
+ Z"3c3

c3)abc

Elimination.

527.
a

In

system of
of

form

Chapterxxxiii. we
linear equations
may

determinant.

have
at

once

General

that

seen

be written

methods

of

the eliminant

of

down

in the

elimination

plicable
ap-

equationsof any degree will be found discussed in

treatises on the Theory of Equations; in particular
we
may refer
ductory
the student to Chaptersiv. and VI. of Dr Salmon's Lessons Introof
to the Modern
Higher Algebra, and to Chap. xm.
Burnside and Panton's TheoryofEquations.
These methods,thoughtheoretically
not always
are
complete,
shall therefore onlygivea
the most convenient in practice.We
brief explanation
of the generaltheory,
and shall then illustrate
of elimination that are
methods
more
by examples some
cally
practito

useful.
528.

Let

us

quantitybetween
Denote

the

first consider

the elimination

equations.
equationsby f(x)

of

one

unknown

two

Q and

""(x) 0, and suppose

=

that,if necessary, the equationshave been reduced to a form in

which f(x) and ""(x)represent rational integral
functions of x.
Since
some

these

two

value of

functions vanish
which

there
simultaneously

satisfies both

the

must

be

givenequations
; hence

445

ELIMINATION.

the eliminant expresses the condition that must hold between the
coefficients in order that the equations
root.
may have a common

Suppose that
then
be

a,

at least of the

one

equalto

zero

J3,x y,... are the roots of f(x) 0,

must
quantities
"f"
"f"
"f"
(a),
(/?),
(y),
=

the eliminant

; hence

is

4"(a)"f"
tf)"f"
(y)

the left is a symmetricalfunction of

on
expression
the equation
fix) 0, and its value can be found by
explainedin treatises on the TheoryofEquations.

The
roots of

methods
529.

shall

We

it will

of
to equations
applicable

purpose
in each

case

take
the

simple

process

is

is due

to

degree.

any

illustrated
principle

our

that

seen

to

the
the

tion
of elimina-

explainthree generalmethods

now

sufficient for

be

it will be

example,but
The

=0.

in the

followingexample

Euler.

Example.

Eliminate

ax* + bx2 +
Let x + k be the factor
and suppose that

fx2+

k, I,m,
From

beingunknown
these

+ d

cx

equations

0, fx2+

ex

+ d

gx + h

(x+ k)(ax2+

bx2 +

cx

to both equations,

common

m),

(x+ k)(fx+ n)

d)(fx+ n) (ax2+

like powers

gl+fm

of x,

h).

obtain

we

-bn

+ ah-

en

cf= 0,
-

df= 0,
=0.

hm-dn
these linear

gx +

ag-bf=0,

-an

Jd + gm-

m) (fx2+

Ix +

fl

From

lx +

0.

quantities.

Equatingcoefficientsof

we

have identically
we
equations,

+
(axs

n,

gx + h

the root

to
corresponding

ax3 + bx2 +
and

the

between

the
equationsby eliminating

obtain the determinant

ag-bf

ah-cf

-df

0.

unknown

I,in,
quantities

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

446

(x) 0 can
f(x) 0, "f"
equations
determinant
Dialytic
by Sylvester's

eliminant of the

The

530.

as
a
expressed
easily
We
Elimination.
of

be very

Method

the

shall take

example

same

as

before.

Example.

Eliminate

axs + bx2 +

+ d

cx

equations

the

between

0, fx2+gx +

first equation by x, and the second

have 5 equationsbetween which
thus
; we
x
x4,xz,x2, regardedas distinct variables.
quantities

Multiplythe

succession

ax* + bx2+cx

fx2+

hx

ltx2

fx4+ gx3+
the eliminant

Hence

531.

0,

0,

=0.

is
0

0.

either of the determinants

shall choose the same
We
of

giveCauchy'smode

Example.

Eliminate

these

we
equations,

the

gx + h

have
bx2 +

+ d

ex

+ b

cx

fx +g~

and

(ag bf)x1
-

Combining these

two

+ d
'

Jix
+

(ah cf)x2+(bh
-

'

gx2+hx

{ah~cf)x- df= 0,
eg

df)x

equationswith

fx2+gx

+ h

0,

dg

0.

0.

Bezout;

determinant

by

example

whence

obtained

equations

d=0, fx2 +

cx

ax

is due to

conductingthe elimination.

between

ax3 + bx2 +
From

of the following
method
principle
the result as
advantageof expressing

methods.

equationsare

The

The

it has the
lower order than
and

can

we

=0,

gx + h

fxs+ gx2+

x2 in
x and
eliminate the 4

equation by

d=0,

+ dx

axi + bx3+cx2

0.

as

of

the preceding

before,

447

ELIMINATION.

and

regardingx'zand

distinct variables,we

as

f
ag
h

532.

If

have

we

2/)=0,then
"".,(#,
we

have

y may
this

the

eliminate

function of

0,
x.

03 (a;"
y" *) ""
=

second

obtain

and
equations,
of the
equations

two

^ (x"y)

""

y from

"

methods

the form

the firstand

"",(x,y)

of the

"-

equationswe

these

then
form

have

result of

form/*(a:)0.
=

By reasoningin
n

any
will be

(""V)
"A,
we

by

the eliminant

third,we

form

the

02 (^ y" z) ""

z between
l"yeliminating

the firstand

dg

eliminated

of
equations

three

df

-df

eg

for the eliminant

=o.

equationsof

case

If

-cf

be

0, (*"y" z) ""

between

bh

two

in
alreadyexplained;
If

ah

cf

bf

obtain

variables between

533.

this
n

it follows that

manner

we

can

eliminate

equations.

The

generalmethods of elimination alreadyexplained

but the eliminants
be employedwith advantage,
may occasionally
obtained are rarely
in a simpleform, and it will often happen
so
that the equationsthemselves
suggest some
specialmode of
elimination.
This will be illustrated in the following
examples.
Example 1.

Eliminate
lx + my

By squaringthe

first two

Z,m
=

a,

vix-ly

equations

b, Z2+ m2=l.

equationsand adding,

7-.c2
+ m-x2 +

""V

*V

+ y*)
+ /"2)
(Z2
(.t2

that is,

is

hence the eliminant

.t2+

sin $, the third

If Z = cos0, m=
the eliminant of
x

is

the

between

cos

6 + y sin 6

x2 +

?/2
=

equation is

y*

sin 6

a" + b*.

a2 +

"2"

a2 + Z,2;
a2 + ZA
satisfied

cos

that is,
identically;

Z"

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

448
Example

2.

*" +

have

-=a,

w2
z2

c5

z2

z2

z2

z2

y2

t/2

a;2

sa

2/2

X'

a2 + "2+c2-4

x2-y2=px-qy, "xy

abc ;

a"c.

x2 +

y2=l.

the second

first equationby x, and

xs +

qx+py,

equations

the

#, ?/ between

Eliminate

the
Multiplying

equationswe obtain,

three

.-.

3.

-+"

(a2 2) + (62 2)+ (c2-2)

2 +

Example

cxy.

togetherthese
by multiplying

hence

y*

x2 +

y*+z*=zayz,z2 + x2=bzx,
We

equations

the

x, y, z between

Eliminate

by

y,

we

obtain

Sxy~=p {x2+ y2)\

hence, by the third equation,

p

Similarly

Thus

p +
.:

x3 +

Sxy2.

Bx2y+ ys.

q={x+y)3" p-q={x-y)3\

(p + q)*+ (p- q)* {x+ y)*+ {x

=

4.

Eliminate
v

?---

have

a,

the

between

We

x, y,

yf

2(x2+ y2);

Example

b,

equations

--^

c.

x(y2-z2)+y(z2-x2)+z(x2-y2)
a

xyz

_{y-z){z-x)(x-y)
xyz
If we
change the sign of x, the
signof a remains unaltered ;
hence

signsof

b and

(y-z){z+ x)(x+ y)

a-b-c"

xyz

Similarly,

b-c-a

(y+ z){z-x)(x + y)
=

xyz

and

c-a-b

(y+ z)(z+ x){x^y)

=

xyz

are

changed, while

the

ELIMINATION.

.-.

{a^b+c)(b + c-a){c+ a-h){a + b-c)

441)

-{ul~Z")2^~fJ^ztl

y)

\z

-a?b-2c2.

."

2a262

+ 2c2a2 +

26V

a4

1.

Eliminate

from

m2x
2.

Eliminate

m\v
3.

Eliminate m,
mx

4.

my +

"

"

ny

Eliminate

q+

ny +

"

from the

0,

Eliminate

from

ax2
6.

Eliminate

y +

7.

q)=y,
y

"

3ax

0.

(1 m).

z2

d2.

equations

p-q

"

x"

k(l+pq),

xpq

equations
y2 b2, x3"y3
=

a.

c3.

equations
x2+y2 b2, #*+#*=c*.

a,

Eliminate x, y, z, u from the

x

12.

1.

"

equations
c2, x2+y2+

xy

x2

a,

Eliminate x, y from the

x+y
11.

the

x, y from the

Eliminate
x

10.

from

Eliminate p, q from the

+

a2 + x2

??i),wy

a2, zx=b2,

x(p
9.

equations

(1+

mx=a

Eliminate a:,y,
yz

8.

from the

equations

2a2x + 1=0,

0.

2a-x,

qr=

the

equations

apqr=y,

5.

m2 + n2

2amu,

Of a(qr+rp+pq)

"

mn

equations

+ my

nx

"

c.

equations
the

between

p, q,

the

0, n2x

0.

my + x=Q.

a=0}

(m2 n2),

"

c4 + a262c2=

equations

?ny +

from

m,

the

"

i4

XXXIV.

EXAMPLES.

z) \y x)

\x

by +

cz

cfti
+

a#

Eliminate x, y,

x+y

from
+

rfw} y=cz

fry,w
the

equations
=

cu;

+ cfo+ a#,
+

by+

equations

0, x2+y2+ z2 a2,
=

+ 25
aP+ff+sP^fc,
^,5+y5

n. h. a.

cs.

c5.

29

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

450
Eliminate

13.

z^x^y

'

y
14.

the

from

#, y,

Eliminate

'

15.

16.

+ y 2)
(.r2
=

the

Eliminate

from

#, y,

equations

Z"y, 2(x2-y2)

ax

abc

c3

b3

x, y from

Eliminate

the

ax

(x+y

from

x, y,

z)(x-y

the

z) ayz,

(y+

a?,y from

the

x2y=a,
19.

Shew

that

is the eliminant

c2.

)2 4c2#y.
=

x) (y

y)

x)

6s#,

cxy.

c.

c)3-4 (b+ c)(c+ a) (a+ 6)+ 5a"c=0

ax

the

by +

cz

=yz

zx

+ xy

0.

equations
=

"

"3c3+ c%3 + a3P=

=c.

"

5a2b2c2

of

ax+yz
22.

+ cz2
fry2

that

is the eliminant

x(x-{-y) b, 2x-\-y

#, y from

Eliminate

Shew

equations

ax2-t-by2=ax+by
21.

xy

of

cm;2+

20.

(a+6

"

Eliminate

by,

equations

(z+x"y) (z
18.

+
(a;

Eliminate

equations

+ #)2 46^,
(y-f-z)2 4a2yz, (2;

17.

y)

g2fo+ff)a^a!l(

a3

xj\x

equations

ff2(y+z) y2(z+ x)
=

zj\z

\y

the

from

#, y,

equations

Eliminate

bc, by +
x, y,

cz +

zx=cai

xy

ab, xyz=abc.

from

x2+y2+z2=x

+ y +

z=l,

^(x-p)=-(y-q)=C-{z-r).
23.

Employ
ax3 +

Bezout's method

bx2y+ cxy2+ dy3 0,

=

to eliminate

a'x3 +

x, y

from

+ c'xy2
+ d'y3
b'x2y
=

0.

ALGEBHA.

HIGHER

452

of the nth degreehas

Every equation

538.

the

Denote

by/(a;)0,
givenequation
=

roots,and

real

equationf(x) 0 has a root,

denoted by a,; then/(a)is divisible by
=

P*'

imaginary;let

or

more.

where

+
f(x)=pQ"?+PJXT1+2"2xn~"'

The

no

that

so

x-a},

this be

f(x) (x-ai)"f"l(x),
function of n-1
"t"(x)is a rational integral
0 has a root real or
*"
the equation
=

where

Igain,

"0^^**

this be denoted by a2; then

dimensions

"""

divisibleby x-a2,

is

so

that

fa^^ix-aj^x),
function of

2 dimensions.

is a rational integral
"f"a(x)
/(a") (" ",)(* O *b(*"
Thus

where

this way,

Proceedingin

obtain,as in Art. 309,

we

/(") PoO* "i)(a ^)

"

the

Hence
when

sc

f(x)=
equation

has any

Also the

0 has

(* a-)*
roots, since f(x)
-

than n roots; for if x has

have more
..."",all
axi a2, a
any of the quantities
different from zero, and therefore
are

cannot
equation

value different from

the factors on the right
cannot vanish for that value of

f(x)

In the above

x.

of the

some
investigation

this case, however, we

has stilln roots,althoughthese
equation
be

equal;in

the
investigate

To

539.

vanishes

of the values ax, a2, a3,...an.

any

may

quantities
al,a2,a3,...anj
that

shall suppose
are

not

the

all different.

and

relations between the roots

the

in any equation.
coefficients
Let

us

the

denote

by
equation

xn+p1xn-l+2"2xn~2+ +Pn-lX
and

the roots

by

a,

b, c,

k;

then

we

have

P"

0"

identically

x"+p1xn-l+2)0xn~'+ +Pn-ix+P"
hence, with the notation of Art. 163, we
xn

have

+
+Pn.^+Pm
+paxn-*
+plxH~l
+ (- iy-%-^
+ Ssx*~*
wT
Sxxn~l
-

(x-k)'}

(x-a) (x-b)(x-c)

(" !)"","

THE011Y

Equatingcoefficients of
-

OF

Sl~ sum

of the roots ;

pa

S"

of the

sum

of

like powers

%"x
"

453

EQUATIONS.
in this

productsof

identity,

the roots

taken

at

three at

two

time;
"pB

of the

Sa -sum

"

productsof

the roots taken

time ;

(" \)*p**SU productof

the roots.

If the coefficient of x" is poi then

]?uithe equationbecomes
aj"+

Po

+ ay + a2z =

these
satisfythe cubic
From

hence

a31 x

equations we
equation

by + b2z

see

that

b*, x

a,

", e

-(bc+

+ b + c, y=

ca

If a, b,c are the roots of the

equationwhose roots are a2,62,c2.

requiredequationis

the values

are

equationx3+p1x3+-PzC+pa=0,

if y

x2 ;

(x a) (x b)(x c)(x+ a)(x+ b) (x+ c)

-

0.

(x a)(x b)(x c) x3 +p1x2+p2x +pt

But

{x + a)(x+ b) (x+ c) x3

hence

the

pxx2+p."

pv

requiredequation is
(x3+p1x'z
+p2x +p3)(x3-pxx2+p*x -p3) 0,
=

(x3+p")2

or

and

if we

replacex2 by y,

(pxx2
+p3)2 0,
=

x2 p.2
(2ft j^2)x4 + (p.2 2p1p.i)

x6 +

or

we

0;

obtain

(2p,-p2)y2+ (p.? 2pdh) y -p:2=0.

-

of t which

abc.

(y a2)(y b2)(y c2)=0,

Thus

cy + c2z = c*.

ab),x

(x2 a2)(a;2 62)(x2 c2) 0,

is,

0;

2.

or

that

(- 1)"^
Po

t3-zt2-yt-x

Example

P0

Solve the equations

The

abc...k

V,

Example 1.

the

have

-", 2aft=",%abe -%".

Po

form

Po

Pu

and, with the notation of Art. 521, we

=

by

term

+P"=1X+ P"=0

;-1xn-l+]-^x"-2+
Po

"

dividingeach

on

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

454

that the relations established

might suppose

student

The

540.

any proposed
is
relations
to
of
the
equal the number
equation;for the number
that is this not the
A little reflection will shew
of the roots.
1 of the quantities
eliminate
n
we
for suppose
any
case
determine
the remaining
b,c,...kand so obtain an equationto

in the

to solve

him

enable

article would
preceding

"

a,

involved
are
symmetricallyin
quantities
shall always obtain an
it is clear that we
each of the equations,
this equationis therefore
coefficients;
equationhavingthe same
stituted
the original
equationwith some one of the roots a, b,c,...ksubthen

one;

since these

for
Let

us

x.

example the equation

take for

x3
let a,

and

be the

b,c

pxx2+

p2x

ac

+ c

"]:"x"

bc=

ps)

abc=

by a2,
Multiplythese equations
rf

a3 +

is,

which
The

above

by

or

will sometimes

enable

to obtain

us

are

p3

in the

in arithmetical

is

placeof

x.

quitegeneral,and

of

equationare
provedin Art.
properties
the completesolution.

roots

Solve the equation 4.r3

Example 1.

0,

is

degree.

any

of the

more

add ; thus

-l\rf-l\u"-p3i

the
assignedrelation,

an

and
respectively

of elimination

process

If two

that the roots

a, I

pxa?+ p2a

of
to equations
applicable
541.

p3.

"

equationwith
original

is the

0;

roots; then

ab

that

p3

an

24a;2+ 23x + 18

nected
con-

539

0, having given

progression.

Denote
of the roots is 3a ; the
the roots by a
b, a, a + b ; then the sum
of the products of the roots two at a time is 3a2
62 ; and the product
of the roots is a (a2 62)
the
hence
have
we
equations
;
-

sum

3a

6, 3a2-Z"2

^, a(a2-62)=-|;

5
from

the first equation we

find

2, and

from

the

second

and

6="-,
a

since these values

Thus

the roots

satisfythe third,the three equations

1

are

2,

"

are

consistent.

OF

THEORY

Example

2.

455

EQUATIONS.

Solve the equation 24a;3

14.r2

(ftx + 45

0, one

root

being

double another.
Denote

the roots by

obtain

equations,we

the first two

have

we

2a-6=-^.
^, 2a2 + 3a"=--^,

Sa + b =

From

2a, b\ then

a,

8a2-2a-3
1

3
a

.-.

0;

25

-or--and"=--or-.

1
It will be found

trial that the values

on

a=

25
6=

--,

do not

satisfy

15

the third

equation2a26

"

hence

restricted to the values

are

we

3
a

the roots

Thus

are

Although we
w
equation,e can make

"

the roots

functions
symmetrical
of the squares

sum

x3

by a, b, c
a

-px2 +
;

",

a3 + b3 +
.-.

bc +
b+

(a+

"p2
Again, substitute

b, c for

qx-r

0.

"

c)2
-

in the

+ ab

ca

(bc+

If a, 6, c, d

are

q.

ca

ab)

2q.

givenequationand add;
b+

c3=p(p2-2q)-pq
=p3

Example 2.

of the cubes of the roots

and

"?-p{a2+ b2 + c2)+ q{a +

a3 + b3 +

of the roots.

then

+ b + c=p,

a2 + b2 + c2 =

Now

be able to find the roots of an

of the relations proved in Art. 539
not

use

the values of

Example 1. Find the

equation

"

may

of the

Denote

b=--.

-v

542.

to determine

c)-Sr

thus

0;

+ Sr

Spq 4- dr.

the roots of

xA +px* +

qx2+

rx

+ d

+ ad + bc + bd + cd

0,

find the value of Ha2b.

We

have

ab +

ac

+ b+

abc + abd + acd + bcd

"

q
-r

(1),

(2),
(3).

456

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

From

these

have

equationswe
-pq

.-.

2a-b

Sa26 + 3

Sa26-3r;

3r-pq.

+
(dbc

XXXV.

EXAMPLES.
Form

the

1.

|,|,"V"

3.

2, 2, -2, -2, 0,

Solve the

3:

equationwhose

roots

5.

86x2

are

2.

0, 0, 2, 2, -3,

4.

1 76# + 105

a? -16x3+

6.

4r3 + 16.r2 9x

7.

4^ + 2(Xr2 23.r + 6

8.

Sx3

9.

2a?

36

b, a-b,

-a

-3.

b, -a-b.

0, two of the

22#-

"

24

0, the

7.

being zero.

being equal.

being

roots

and

of the roots

roots

of the

0, two

sum

being1

roots

of two

0, the

"

x2

0, two

26x2 + 52.27 24

"

a.

equations:

5.

"

aid + acd + bed)

roots

in

geometricalprogression.

being in the

ratio of

4.

10.

24x* + 46.2?2
+ 9#

"

beingdouble

root

0, one

another

of the

roots.

11.

"r4

oppositein

2^

-27^,2 + 6# + 9

0,

of the roots

two

being equal but

sign.

12.

54^

13.

32^3-48^2+22^-3

14.

6#*

-39^2-26^7+

29^

+ 40a3

16

0, the

roots

being in geometricalprogression.

0, the roots being in arithmetical progression.

1x -12

0, the productof

two

of the roots

being2.
15.

#*

2x* -21.r2 + 22.27+ 40

0, the

roots

being

in arithmetical

progression.
16.

27.274-195.273
+ 494.r2- 520.27+ 192

0,

the

roots

being in

metrical
geo-

progression.
17. 18a3
other two,

8U2 + 121.37+ 60

0, one

root

being half

the

sum

of the

OF

THEORY

If a,

18.

b,c

are

457

EQUATIONS.

the roots of the

equationXs -paP+qx

0, find

the value of

^+1
+ 162
c2
a2

(1)

If a,

19.

(1) {h-cy

the roots of .r3+ g'.r

+

(c-a)*+ (a-b)\

Find

20.

c are
"",

the

#* +
Find

21.

the

i,+
t

c2rt2 aaja

"

r=0, find the value of

qx2+

and of the cubes of the roots of

+

rx

0.

of the fourth powers

sum

+r

(2) ("+ c)-i+ (c+ ")-i+ (a+ ?,)-i.

of the squares

sum

(2)

'

'

of the roots of

x3+qx+r=Q.
543.

7?i

in

occur

equationwith

an

real

coefficients
imaginary

roots

pairs.

Suppose that f(x)

suppose that it has

ib is also a root.
that a
and

is

equationwith real coefficients,

imaginaryroot a + ib ; we shall shew

an

an

"

factor of

The

(x
Let

"

ib)(x

"

"

divided

these two

ib),or (x

the

"

Rx

put
identity

(x a)2+
-

b2

zero

the real and

is not
by hypothesis
.-.

Hence

b2.
the

quotientby

E.

by hypothesis
; also

0.

imaginaryparts,
Rb

E=Q,

0;

zero,

0 and

0.

f (x)is exactlydivisible by (x a)2+ b2,that is,by

"

(x
hence

"

(a+ ib)+

Ra
b

ib,then f(x)

0 ; hence

Equatingto
and

roots is

',

f(x) Q{(x- a)2+ b2}+

In this

a)2+

"

by (x a)2+ b2; denote

then
remainder,if any, by Rx + E

f(x) be

Q, and

to
f(x) corresponding

a-ib

544.

is also

In the

f{x)

0 has

is a factor of the

"

ib)(x

"

ib)\

root.

precedingarticle we have
a pairof imaginaryroots

f(x).
expression

seen
a

"

that if the tion

equathen
ib,
(x a)2+ b2
"

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

458

Suppose that a"ib, c"id, e"ig,...are the imaginaryroots

(x)is the product of the
of the equation
f(x) 0, and that cf"
to these imaginaryroots; then
factors corresponding
quadratic
-

+ /}....
+ d2}{(x-e)2
+ b2}{(x-c)2
"j"(x){(x-a)2
=

for every real

positive
for real values of x.
(x)is alwayspositive
"f"

of these factors is

each

Now
hence

543

in Art.

As

545.

we

surd
rational coefficients,
a

root then

is 2

root

one

Since

6z4

13z3

the other roots

hence

35a:2

+ 3

Example

are

0,

"/2+

we

^/
-

must

3,

the

of whose

coefficients,
one

+ 3

0, havinggiven

is also a root, and

quadraticfactor x2 4# + 1.

+ 11*
1) (6a;2

or

+ 1)(2z+ 3)=0;
(3a;

2 +

^/3,2-^3.

equation
is

of

3) ;

,J2+ sj

rational

3.

3 as another

degree with

fourth

the

/J-3,J2-J-

/J2+

roots

have

J2

4x +

{x2

sponding
corre-

Form

2.

is

obtained from

are

thus the roots

35z2

2+^/3

root, we

6a;2+ 11a; + 3

Here

13x3

know
that
to this pairof roots we have the

Also

Jb

^3.

is

2-^/3

root.

equation6z4

Solve the

Example 1.
that

is also

Jb

a-

equationwith

an

pairs;that is,if a

in

enter

roots

that in

shew

may

of x;

value

as

one

pair

of roots, and

pair.

+ 5,
Correspondingto the first pairwe have the quadraticfactor x2 2/v/2x
factor
to the second pairwe have the quadratic
corresponding
-

and

x2 +
Thus

the

2fJ2x+

5.

requiredequationis

(x2+ 2,J2x+ 5) (x2-2fJ2x+ 5) 0,

=

(x2+ 5)2-8a2 0,

or

a^ + 2x2 + 25

or

Example

3.

that the

Shew
A2

x-b

x-a

has

no

equation

B2
+

0.

C2
7

H2
+

...
'

,=",

"

x-h

x-c

imaginaryroots.

If possible
let p + iq be a root ; then p
iq is also a root. Substitute
these values for x and subtract the first result from the second ; thus
-

A2

{(p-ai)2+ q2

B2

C2

(p-b)2+ q2^(p-c)2+ q2

which is impossible
unless q

H*
'

""

'

(p-h)2+

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

460
Hence

product
ambiguityreplaceseach
that in the

see

we

(i)an

of

continuation

sign in

the

polynomial;
original
after

and

the signsbefore
(ii)

ambiguityor

an

a change of signis introduced

(iii)

us

of

at the end.

suppose that all

from (ii)
see
we
continuations;

unfavourable

take the most

and

case

replacedby
whether
of changes of signwill be the same
that the number
take the upper or the lower signs;let us take the upper;
of changes of signcannot be less than in
the number
are
ambiguities

the

this series of

and
with

If then

we

signsis the

same

change of

additional

an

biguities
am-

unlike;

are

Let

set

-+,

in the

as

original
polynomial

signat the end.

to the negative
corresponding
each factor
alreadymultiplied
together,
positiveroot introduces at least one

the factors

suppose

imaginaryroots to be
to a
a
x
corresponding
therefore
of
no
equationcan
change
sign;
roots than it has changesof sign.
and
"

Again,the

we

thus

roots of the

have

positive

more

equation
f("x) 0 are equalto those
in sign;therefore the negative
of /(^) 0 but opposite
to them
the positive
of f(x)-0 are
of /*(-#) 0; but the
roots
roots
of these positive
exceed
roots
number
the number
cannot
of
changes of signin f{" x); that is,the number of negativeroots
exceed the number
of f(x) 0 cannot
of changes of sign in
/(- ""
=

Example. Consider the equationa;9+ 5x8

Here

there

two

are

x* + Ix + 2

0.

changes of sign,therefore there

are

at most

two

roots.
positive

Again /(- x)= x9 + 5x8 + x3-7x + 2, and here there

of sign,therefore the given equation has at most three
therefore it must have at least four imaginaryroots.
"

EXAMPLES.
Solve the

1.

3xA

"

b.

equations:
lO.'o"3
+ 4x2

"

2.

6s4

3.

xA + 4-r3+ 5x2 + %x -2

XXXV.

three changes
are
negativeroots,and

l"e3

35#2

+ 3
=

0, one

0, one

0, one

root

root

root

being
being2

being

1+

N/3.

,J^1

THEORY

OF

4.

X* + 4./,-"
+ G.f2+ 4x + 5

5.

Solve
another

"2J-

^3

and

one

Form
the equationof lowest
of whose roots is

+ 8x2-9x

equation x5-xA

the

8.

-J^l+J5.

9.

N/5+ 2x/6.

the

equationwhose

roots

are

"

11.

Form

the

equationwhose

roots

are

1"

12.

Fomi

the

Find

13.

coefficients,

*/

1.

"/- 2, 2" J

-3.

a/3,5

=l

rational

with

efficients
co-

"

of the roots of the

the nature

Shew

equation of the eighth degree

whose roots is "J2+ J3 + x/ 1.

3xi + l2x2
14.

being

root

one

rational

7.

Form

of

0,

with

dimensions

10.

one

15

"

1.

siZ+J^2.
-J2-J^2.

6.

being "/-l.

root

0, one

4G L

EQUATIONS.

+ bx-4

0.

4.V3

equation 2.v7 xA +

that the

equation

at least four

0 has

imaginaryroots.
What

15.

may

be inferred

roots of the

the
respecting

equation

a-10-4a6 + xA -2.y-3=0?
the

the condition that x3

Find

(1)
(2)

imaginary

of the

roots

"

17.

of

least possiblenumber
0.
o?" + xA + x2 + 1

Find
equation x"

16.

two roots
the roots

-px2 + qx r 0
equal but of opposite
sign;
in geometrical
progression.
=

have

may

18. If the roots of the equation xl+p.v3-\-qx2

+ rx +
arithmetical progression,
shew that p3 4pq + 8r=0; and
shew that p2s r2.
in geometrical
progression,

if

"

in

are

they

arc

19.

If a,
value of

If the roots of the

1
xn
equation
(l-a)(l-/3)(l-7)

b,c

the roots of the

are

20.

Za2b2.

22.

If a,

b,c, d

24.

%a*b"

(*!)"
+

are

the roots

of

are

1,a, /3,y,

shew
.

=n.

equationx3-px2

+ qx

-r

0, find the

21.

(b+ c)(c+ a)(a+ b).

23.

$a2b.

xA+px3 +
25.

qx- +

$a\

that

.,

rx

0, find the value of

462

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

f (x) is

find the value of f (x+ h),when

Junctionofx.
integral
To

548.

rationed

+
+Pn-ix +Pn i then
f(x)=pQxn+plxn~l+P2X"~2
+
+ h)"-*
+2"2(x
fix + h) p0(x+ h)n+2\ (x+ h)H~}
+2\-Ax + h)+Pn

Let

Expanding
powers of h, we

each

result in

arrangingthe

and

term

ascending

have

+
+2^xn~2
Poxn-\-2\xn~l

...

+pn.lx+pn

+
+ (n-2) p2xn~3
{np^-1+ (n- ljjyrf-1

p^}

2pn_2}
^{n(n-l)p0x"-2
(n-l)(n-2)Plx'"-3+...

...+

^{n(n-l)(n-2)...2.12"0}\nl

usuallywritten

This result is

/(" + *)=/(*)+ hf{x)+

in the form

*J/" *j/-" *i/",

+

functions

the

who

student

The

the

first,

of the Differential Calculus

the elements

knows

called

f (x),
f"(x),f"(x),...are
derived functionsoifix).
second,third,...
and

...

expansion of f(x + h) is only a

of Taylor'sTheorem; the functions f (x),
case
f" (x),
particular
down
written
the
therefore
at
be
once
by
ordinary
f'"{x)may
rules for differentiation: thus to obtain f'(x)
we
"romf(x) multiply
of x in that term
and then
in f(x) by the index
each term
diminish the index by unity.
will

see

that

Similarlyby
J

\X),

the

successive

"

h in the

+
f(x-h)=f(x)-h/'(x)

The
x

differentiations

obtain

we

fix),

....

By writing

to

above

function

and

h;

placeof h, we

have

h'f"(x)Jff'"(x)+...
{- I)-%-f{x).

f(x + h)

is

evidentlysymmetrical with

hence
i

,n

fix

h)=/(h)+ xf (h)+

*r
"

(h)+

...

f/*(h).
\n

respect

THEORY

OF

463

EQUATIONS.

denote the results

Here the expressions
f'(h)if"{Ji),f,"{1b)i
obtained by writingh in the placeof x in the successive derived
...

f"(x),....
/"(#),
f'(x),

functions

If

Example.

/ {x)
=

2x*

/ (x) 2x*

Here

/' (x) 8z3

=

x*

xs

2xz + 5x

2x* + 5x

Sx"-

4x +

1 , find the value of

1,

that

so

/ (3)= 131

5, ana /'(3) 182

=

/ (x+ 3).

and -^
^-)=12a"-3aj-2,
97;
=

QS-te-1,and/-^3)
23;
=

ii
/ (x+ 3) 2s4 + 23r*

Thus

+ 97x2 + 182* + 131

calculation may, however, be effected

in the next article.
process, as explained
The

Let

549.

put x

Now

"

h;

"

suppose

hence

we

that

have

f [x)then

the

+pn_lx

...

pn;

becomes

identity

+ p2xn~2
+...
p0x"+p1xn~l
=

systematically
by Horner's

+ p2x"~2
+
f{x)=p0xn+p1xn~1

h, and

more

qo(x-h)n+qx(x-h)-1+

+pn_1x
.

pn

qn_x(x h)+
-

qn ;

therefore qn is the remainder

found by dividing
f(x) by
f
rom
the
division is
quotientarising

x-h;

also the

q0(x-h)*-l+ql{x-hy-'+...+qH_i.
Similarlyqn_l is the remainder found by dividingthe last
from the division is
expression
by x- h, and the quotientarising

9o(x-hT'2+ QAx-hT~3
and

so

equalto

-+Qn-2'}

Thus qn, qn_1, qn_a,

plained
may be found by the rule exin Art. 515.
The last quotientis q0, and is obviously

on.

j)0-

"""

464

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Example.

Find

the result of

changing x

into

+ 3

in the

expression

2a;4_^_2x2+5x-l.

Or

Hence

the result is 2xi + 23a3 + 97sc2+ 182x + 131.

be remarked

It may

that Horner's

process

is

more

thus
briefly

Art. 548.

Compare

in numerical

useful
chiefly

work.

If

550.

the variable

functionf (x)will
Let
We

and

c +

from a to
changescontinuously
changecontinuously
from f (a)to f (b).
x

h be any two

values of

lyingbetween

b the

and

b.

have

+|/"(e);
vw+"/"W+-

/("+*)-/(")=
and

enough the difference between/(c+ /i)and

f(c)can be made as small as we please;hence to a small change
in the variable x there corresponds
a small change in the function
and therefore as x changesgradually
tion/*^)
from a to b,the funcf (x),
from
changesgradually
/(a) to f(b).
by takingA

551.

It is

small

importantto

f(x) always increases from

notice that

/(a) to

have

we

fib),or

not

decreases

proved that
from f(a)

fib),but

that it passes from one

value to the other without
it may be increasing
and at other
any sudden change;sometimes
"times it may be decreasing.
to

The

student

who

has

knowledgeof

the elements

of Curve-

tracingwill in any particular

example find it easy to
of
value
gradualchanges
oif(x)by drawing the curve
552.

the

follow
y

If f (a)and f (b)are of contrary signsthen

f (x) 0 must
lie between a and b.
equation

one

the

=f(x).
root

of

As

from
changesgradually
from f(a)to f(b),
and
gradually
x

to

b, the function f(x)changes

therefore

must

pass

through all

OF

THEORY

intermediate

f(a)and f(b)have contrarysigns

lie between
them; that is,f(x) 0 for some

values;but

the value zero must

value of x between

4G5

EQUATIONS.

since

and b.

It does not follow that f(x)= 0 has onlyone

root between
and b; neither does it follow that if f(a)and /(b)have the same
signf(x)0 has no root between a and b.

553.
root whose

Everyequationof an odd degreehas

to that of its last term.
signis opposite

In the function
then
successively,

"

oo

and

for

the values

least

co

one

real

0, -co

f(0)=pnJ /(-oo) -oo.

then f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween
is positive,
0 and
and if pn is negative
f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween 0
/(+oo)

If pn

f(x) substitute

at

+ co,

co

Every equationwhich is of an even degreeand has

has at least two real roots,one positive
and
negative
negative.
554.
last term

For in this

one

case

/(+co) +co,
f(0)=pn, f(-co) + co;
hence f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween
pn is negative;
and
root
+ co
a
co
lyingbetween 0 and
=

but
and

its

f (a)and f (b)have contrary signs,

555. If the expressions
odd number of roots of f (x) 0 will lie between a and b; and
an
andi(h)have the same sign,eitherno root or an even number
"/*f(a)
ofroots will lie between a and b.
=

Suppose that

is greater than b, and

that a, /3,y,
a
k
all
of
roots
the
0
and
which
lie
between
b.
a
represent
f(x)
be
Let "f"
the
when
divided
is
the
quotient
(x)
by
product
f(x)
.

a)(x /3)
(x y) (x k ); then
f(x) (x a)(x"/3)(x-y)
Hence
f (a) (a a)(a /3)
(a y)

(x

"

"

"

"

...

"

"

"

"

(x )""(x).
(a k)"/"
(")"
"

...

"

...

/(8)=(5-a)(6-J3)(6-r)...(ft-K)*(5).
Now

and "f"(b)
must be of the same
"{"(a)
sign,for otherwise a
root of the equation
0, and therefore of f (x) 0, would
"j""(.x')
lie between
and b [Art.552],
which is contraryto the hypoa
=

H. H. A.

30

466

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

if

Hence

thesis.

and

/(a)

contrary signs,the

have

/(b)

ex

pressions
(a a)(a-fi)(a-y)
-

(a k),
-

...

(b-a)(b-P)(b-y)...(b-K)
contrarysigns.Also the factors in the firstexpression

have

must

and
positive,

all

are

the number

hence

be

of factors must

/?,y, k must be odd.

if /(a) and /(b) have
Similarly

roots a,

of

number

of

be

In this

even.

the

givencondition

the

case

/ (x)
=

the

Here

of them

/{x)
"

it does
and

b.

(x k).
"

k are
not necessarily
unequal.
quantities
a, b, c,
then
t
to
to
to
s
are
b,
equal a,
c,
/(x) p0 (x a)r(x b)s(x c)'
...

"

it is convenient

case

havingn

as

b ; thus

equation
/(x) 0,then
...

this
0

"

"

is satisfied

root between

a)(x-b)(x c)

j?0(x

In

less than

the roots of the

b,c, ...k are

If a,

556.

signthe

same

negative;

odd, that is the number

all greater than a, or

are
/?,y,
follow that y*(as)0 has
necessarily

if a,
not

all

are

...

factors must

If

second

factors in the

the

"

still to

speak of the equation

equalroots beingconsidered

roots,each of the

distinct root.

557.

equationf

1/ the equationf(x) 0 has r roots equal to

(x) 0 will have r 1 roots equalto a.

Write

divided

by (x a)r
;
"

"

h in the

/(x

placeof
+

+ "'(x)+
.-../(")

/(x) is

""(#)be the quotientwhen

/(x) (x a)r$"{x).
=

the

"

Let
then

a, then

x;

h) (x-a
=

thus
+

h)r4"(x+h);

%/"(x)+..
.

Ux-a)rr(x-a)r-xh ...\U(x)
hcf"'(x)+~
"}""(x)+
...]
+

In this

identity,
by equatingthe

coefficients of

A, we

have

/'(x)=r(x ay-'^x) + (x a)r$ (x).

-

contains the
Thus/'(aj)
is,the equation/' (x) 0
=

factor
has

?"

x-a
-

repeatedr-\
equalto a.

1 roots

times;that

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

4fi8

roots
that if the equation/^)0 has r
But
to
/(a) 0 has r 1 roots equal a.
equalto a, the equation
of f (x);hence the equation
r(x) is the first derived function
the equation
roots equalto a; similarly
0 must have r-2
IheseL
3 roots equalto a; and so on.
have r
o must
discover the equal
considerations will sometimes enable us to
the method ot Art. 559.
roots of f(x) 0 with less trouble than
=

have

We

560

seen

f'\x)
f"tx\
=

If

561.

a,

b, c, ...k

of the equation f (x) 0, to

the roots

are

prove that

f(x)
v

M+M

'

We

f (x+ h) (x
=

equal to the
(1);therefore,as

f(x)
of

*,,

"

,
that
is,

f'(x)
=

to find the

sum

Example.

in Art.

Let

Ax)

+^-{
x-b

"

h)

...

(1).

right-hand

in the

163,

(x-k)+
f(x)

Ax)
^-J
x

+...

-/^/

"

...;

"

'"

article enables us very easily

preceding
assigned
power of the roots of an equation.

of

an

the

of the

sum

t=

fcthpowers

of the roots

of the

0,

S4, S6 and S_4.

/' (x) 5x*

=

Now

',

f(x)=x5+pxli+ qx* +

then

(x-k

/" (")+...

r^

coefficient of h

x5+px* + qx2+

find the value of

...

result of the

If Sk denote

equation

(x)+

h)

...

Ax)
J^^x

The

h)(x-c

(x-k) + (x-a)(x- c)

...

562.

4-

is

f(x)= (x-b)(x-c)

t',

4ps3+ 2qx.

fix)

Z^=rf+(a+P)x3+
so

and

h)(x

(x-k);

...

x,

h )=/(").+ hf

f(x +

member

placeof
+

But

hence

x-k

x-c

h in the

M+...+lWk.

fix) (x- a) (x-b) (x-c)

have

writingx

x-b

x-a

similar

(a2+ ap)x2+(a*+ a2p+ q)x +

expressionshold for

/(*)

fw

/")

/w

x-b'

x-c'

x-d'

x-e'

a4 +

a?p+

aq-,

THEUltY

409

EQUATIONS.

by addition,

Hence
5ar*+

OF

4px*+ 2qx =5x*

(St+ 5p)x?+ (S2+pSJ

x2

{Si+pS2 + 5q)x

{S4+p83 + qSJ.

By equatingcoefficients,

S1+ 5p
S2+pSl
S3+pS2
S4+pS3

+ oq

"p, whence

8X

0, whence

S2=pz;

2q, whence

S3

."

qSx 0, whence

p ;

p%-Sq;

S4=pi + 4j)q.

To find the value of Sk for other values of

k, we

proceed as follows.

the givenequationby #*~5,

Multiplying
x* +pxk~1+
for
Substituting

results,we
Put k

adding the

5 ; thus

S5+pS4

6 ; thus

5t =

qS2+

-p5 op2q

0,

bt.

S6+pS5

whence
To

0.

a, b, c, d, e and
Sk +pSk_x + qSk_3+ tSk_5 0.

S5
=

in succession the values

obtain

whence
Put k

qx*~3+ to*-5

qS3+ tSx 0,

+ Sq2+ bpt.
S6=p6 + 6p'*q

find

5_4,put

Si+pS3

4, 3, 2, 1 in succession;then
+

qS1+ *#_! (),whence

S_x 0;

2,/

S3+pS2

5q + tS_2 0, whence

S_.2=

S.2+pS1+ qS-1+ tS_3 0, whence

S_3 0;

S1+ 5p + qS_2 + tS_4 0, whence

"_4

563.
as

When
in the

Example.

the

coefficients

following
example.

Find

the

x*-2x2
Here

+ x-l

x*-2x2

f(x)
=

/ -.-'

f(x)

/l
=

i",

Xs

X~

X3

x*

"

X*

"+...

o"

Oo

a3
+

x-

-+"
X

a2

\x
=

x-c

+_+-

l.

x"b

x-

x-l,

we

may

of the roots of

0.

f'(x) Sx2-"x
Also

Ap
-

of the fourth powers

sum

numerical

are

"

also proceed

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

470

#4

which

is very

coefficientof

the

equal to

is

hence

in the

quotientof f'{x)by f(x),

the method

obtained by
conveniently

of

division
synthetic

as

follows :
3-4

+ 3

6-3

4-2

-1

4-

2 + 2

10-5

+ 5

3 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 10 +
2

the

Hence

quotientis

-2 +

2
-3 +

10

-4 +

-g +

S.

10.

thus

XXXV.

EXAMPLES.
xA

If

f{x)

2.

If

f(x)=xi-

3.

If

/(#)

4.

If

f(x)=x*

5.

If

f(x) ax9 + bx5 +

6.

Shew
0 and

between

2#4

I2x3 + 11x2-9x

13#2

16^

the

10a;

19,find the value of f(x + 1).

129, find the value of f(x

"

equation 10a*3

17#2 +#+6=0

equationx*
between

5x3 + Sx2 + 35#

2 and

root

70

0 has

root

3 =0

has

root

Shew
a

has

3.

8. Shew
that the equation x*
l"2x2+ I2x
between
4 and another between 2 and 3.
3 and
9.

1.

7. Shew that the

between 2 and 3 and one

3, and

4).

find the value of /(# + /i)f(co It).

c",

ex

4).

1,find the value of/(#+ 3).

12x2 + 64a;

that

65, find the value of f(x

+ 39#2 + 76o;+

10^

1.

c.

that x5

root between

Solve the

5x*

+
-

20x2

4 and

19a;

0 has

following
equationswhich have equalroots

10.

a;4-9a;2+ 4a;+12

12.

a,-5-13#*+67#3- 17la;2+ 216^-

13.

x5-x3 + 4x2-3x

15.

xG-3x5

16.

x6

17.

xi-(a + b)x*-a(a-b)x2+ ai(a+ b)x-a3b

root between

2x*

0.

6x3-3x2-3x

11.

14.

0.
+ 2

4xA + 12a,*3 Sx2

-

2 and

5.

^-6^

+ 12^_

1007 + 3

108=0.

8^ + 4^3-18^+11^-2=0.

0.
18a; + 18

0.
=

Q.

0.

TRANSFORMATION

0, 4#*

18.

2s*

19.

4#* + 1 2x*

20.

Find the condition that

21.

Shew

22.

Find the ratio of b to

have

2a-3+ x2 + 3x -6

#2 -15.*;

that xi +

common

have

0, 6^4 +

1 3a;3

x1l-px2+

4a;2

r=0

roots in

0.

equalroots.

equalroots.

three

equations

xs-2x2 + 2x-l

=0

common.

equation
nxn~1 + n (n 1)xn~2

...

\n
=

equalroots.
Q has

24. If the equationx5- l0a3x2 + bix + c5

shew that ab* 9a5 + c5 0.

three

equal roots,

ax3 + bx2 +

equationxA +

If the

25.

have

may

in order that the

0.

1 bx

have

0 cannot

0 and

2s3 + 3x -9

that the
xn +

cannot

qx2+

(1)one, (2)two

Shew

23.

shew that each of them

is

26. If x5-hqx3
+ rx2 +
them will be a root of the

equalto
t

"

equationx3

27.

In the

28.

In the

equationxi

equalroots,

^r

equal roots,prove
4qr

that

one

of

0.

=0, find the value of S6.

x3 -1x2 +

has three

"

0 has two

+ d=0

cx

quadratic
15rx2 6q2x+ 25*

and

have

ax2 + bx +
may

471

EQUATIONS.

equationswhich
following

the solutions of the

Find
roots

OF

0, find the values of "4

S6.

Transformation

564.

discussion

The

of

an

it into another
by transforming
assignedrelation to those of the
useful in the
are
especially

of

Equations.

equationis sometimes simplified

equationwhose roots bear some
tions
one
proposed.Such transformasolution of cubic

equations.

transforman equationinto another ivhose

those of the proposedequationwith contrary signs.
565.

Let
Put

To

f(x)

-y

0 be the

for x;

root

of

equationf("y)
its signchanged;

the

0 with

0.

are

proposedequation.

then

f(x)
is
equation f("y)

every

roots

is satisfied by
thus the required
0

472

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

proposedequationis

If the

then it is evident

p0yn-py~l

p2f~2

from

is obtained

which

equationwill
required

that the

(- irxA-,y + (- W.

o,

equationby changing the

original
with the second.
beginning

the

alternate term

signof every

be

transforman equationinto another whose roots are

equalto those of the proposedequationmultipliedby a given
quantity.
566.

Let

To

0 be

f{x)

given quantity. Put

equationis f ( J

chief

The

and
proposedequation,

the
y

qx,

"

that

so

the

then

the

required

0.

of this transformation

use

"

let q denote

is to clear

equationof

an

fractional coefficients.
Remove

Example.

fractional coefficientsfrom

the

equation

*"-"*-* .+1-0.
Put

multiplyeach

and

term

4 all the terms

and
integral,

become

dividingby 2,

on

obtain

we

ys-Sy2-y

the

thus

13

By puttingq

by q3;

567.

To

Let

f(x)

0.

transforman equationinto another whose

reciprocals
of the roots of the proposedequation.

"

; then

the

be

the

proposedequation
; put

requiredequationisy( )
-

roots

are

so

that

0.

One
values

of the chief
of

uses

of this transformation

expressionswhich

negativepowers

of the roots.

involve

is to obtain the
symmetricalfunctions of

TRANSFORMATION
If a, b,

Example 1.

Xs

-px2 +

find the value of

for x,

"

r.,

a2

Write

qx

equation

0,

-s

b-

473

EQUATIONS.

the roots of the

are

OF

c-

multiply by y'\ and

change all the signs; then

the

re-

y
-1

ry9 qy2+py

equation
suiting

0,

111
has for its roots

''

a'

hence

2-

b'

^, S-=

=-:

ab

q2 2pr
-

a2
If a,

Example 2.

b, c

r-

the roots of

are

"3 + 2x2-3x-l

a-3 + b~3 + c~3.

find the value of

Writing
-

for x, the transformed

equation is

y*+ Sy2-2y-l
and

the

0,

is equal to
givenexpression

Here

0;

the value of

Ss in

this

equation.

S1=-3;
"2=(-3)2-2(-2)

and

13;

S3+ 3S.2-2S1-3 0;
=

whence

obtain

we

S,= -42.
1

568.
is called

If
a

If the

an

equationis

unaltered

by changingx

into

"

it

reciprocal
equation.
givenequationis

+ ^=0,
xn+Plxn-l+p2x"-2+ +1-"n_2xi+Pn_iX

the

equationobtained by writing

for x, and

of
clearing

fractions

is

V"?

+ pn-X~2 +
l\-pn~x

If these two
Fl

'

p
from

"

"

+l\n2+PF

"

are
equations

the same,

?'2

V"-*~

'

'""'

the last result we

have p
classes of reciprocal
equations.

we

'

p
=*fc

1,

must

+1

0.

have

*-"-"
and

thus

'

P"-p
we

have

"

two

474

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

(i)If pn=lt then

is,the coefficients of

that
and

end

2"n

end

If

of
If

has

before

so

If

even

an

root

0 is

reciprocal
equation.

=0
is
"f"(x)
degree.

of
reciprocal
equation

second

of

class and

the first class

odd

an

degree,it

1 ; in this case f(x) is divisible by as" 1, and

0 is a reciprocal
equationof the first class and

"j"
(x)
=

as

of

degree.
0 is of the

f(x)

has

x2

1,and

"

even

an

0 is of the

f(x)

even

an

equal in

"

0 is of the first class and of an odd degreeit has a

is the
that f (x)is divisible by aj + 1. If "f"(x)

f (x)

then
quotient,
and

""TO=0.
ning
beginand
in
magnitude
opposite sign,and
degreethe middle term is wanting.
=

"1;

Ps=-pn-3,
=

Supposethat f (x)

569.

root

are

equationis of

if the

beginning

dimensions
of 2m
pm
pmi or
from the
tlie coefficients of terms equidistant

case

and

p2=-pn-2,

equationis

if the

In this

the

1) then

p,=-ps_1,
hence

from
equidistant

terms

equal.

are

If
(ii)

'"

Pb=P*-B"

P*=P*-"

Px=Pn-^

root

class and

+
as

of

Hence

1 and

class and

second

1;
before "f"(x)
Q is a
a

root

an

even

of

degree,it
in this case f{x) is divisible by
reciprocal
equationof the first

degree.

reciprocal
equationis of
be reduced to
or
can
positive,

any

its last term

therefore

considered

be

even

an

the

as

degreewith

even

an

thisform; which

of

form

standard

may

reciprocal

equations.
A

570.
to

an

Let the

ax2m

xm

be

can

duced
re-

equationbe
bx2m-] + cx2m~2 +

dividing
by
a

reciprocal
equationof the standard form
equationof halfits dimensions.

xm and

...

kxm

...

the terms,
rearranging

ex2
we

bx

0;

have

i)+6(^'+5L)+.(.r-'+;

476

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

4x* + 32a;3+ 83a;2+ 76a;+ 21

equation

by

roots exceed

equationwhose

the

Find

Example.

2 the

0.

2 for
be obtained by substituting
x
proposed equation ; hence in Horner's process we employ x + 2 as
and the calculation is performed as follows :

The

requiredequation will

chief

The

573.

article is to

use

the

substitution

assignedterm

some

remove

of

+ p2xn~2
+
+ p1x"~l
2?Qx"

if y

from

in
an

in the

a;

divisor,

preceding
equation.
the

givenequationbe

Let the

then

of the

roots

obtain

h, we

"

the

...

new

+pn_xx+pn

0;

equation

A^+*)"+ip16r+*r,+A(y+*ri+-+p.=0i
which, when

arrangedin descendingpowers
1

(/w
(77,

*"

"2

If the term
so

that

"

to be removed
:

"

pft + (" i)M

-

is the

if the term

of y, becomes

second,we

=o.
+i\yf~*+-"

put npji+

is the third

to be removed

])l

we

np0

n(n-\)

-^2
"

and
any

so

obtain

other

"

Poh

quadraticto
assignedterm.
a

(n l)l\h+P*
-

find h \ and

""

we
similarly

may

remove

0,

put

OF

TRANSFORMATION

it will be

Sometimes

convenient

more

477

EQUATIONS

proceedas

to

in the

followingexample.
Remove

Example.

the second

from

term

px? + qx2+
Let

by "-

each of the roots

dp

will be

equal to

be

that

be the roots, so

/9,7

a,

rx

in the transformed

that

equation

0.

p+

the

y=

Then

--.

equation the

if

increase

we

of the roots

sum

is,the coefficient of the second

term

will

zero.

Hence

the

requiredtransformation

will be effected

x--~
by substituting

6p
for

in the

574.
whose

givenequation.
From

roots

the

equationf(x)

connected

are

with

we

may
of the

those

form

equation
givenequationby
an

assignedrelation.

some

y) 0
y be a root of the requiredequationand let cf"(x,
the assignedrelation;
then the transformed
equationcan

Let

denote

function of y by means
a; as
a
by expressing
of the equation"" (x,y) 0 and substituting
this value of x
f(x) "; or by eliminatingx between the equationsf(x)
and "f"
(x,y) 0.
be obtained

either

in
Q

the roots of the

Example 1. If a, b, c are
the equationwhose roots

form

in the

"

givenequation,y

a-

ab

ca

1
,

r=0,

"

be

When

qx +

are

11
a

equationx3+p"x2+

in the

=-

transformed

equationj

but

a-"

"

and

therefore the transformed

+ -;

=a

"

be

abc

equationwill

be obtained

or

~-

1 +

thus the

requiredequation is
r2y3+Pr{l+ r)y2+ q{l + r)2y+ (l+ r)*
=

Example

2.

Form

the

the substitution

ry

y
v

by

equation

whose

roots

are

0.

the

squares

of the

differences of the roots of the cubic

x3 + qx +

Let

a, b,

equation are

Q.

be the roots of the cubic

then the roots of the required

(b c)2, (c a)2, (a b)2.

-

478

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

2a6c

(b-c)2

Now

fc2+ c2-2fcc

a2 + "2 + c2-a2-

2abc

(a+

c)2

b +

(be+

ah)

ca

a2

-25-a2

^;
a

also

when

in

the

given equation, y

(b-c)2

the

in

transformed

equation;
2r
.*.

?/=

2o-

a;JH

Thus

have to eliminate

we

the

between

equations

xs + qx + r=0,
.r3+

and

By subtraction

(2#+ y)x
3r ;

(#+?/)#
=

or

4^3

0.

(-)

is

that
negative,

+ qx +

have

0 may

+(f) must

equation has
4#3=0 the transformed
has
two
roots.
equal
original
equation

If 27r2 +
the

all positive
; therefore

order that the equation xz

be

c)2,(c a)2,(a 6)2are

If a, ", c are real,

Cor.
("
27r2 + 4g3is negative.

real 27r2 + 4"73must

a:

+ 27,-2+

+ 9^
ys+ 6(2^2

in

0.

obtain

and reducing,
we
Substituting

Hence

2r

be

1.

Transform

the

XXXV.

equationx3

and unity for

coefficients,
integral

4#2 +

"

3.

2x4 + x3-6x2

4.

^-10^

5.

x*-5xi + 9x3-9x2

6.

4#fi 24^ + 57xA

Idx3 + 57 x2

+ 2

+ 1

0.

26^-10^+1

5.^-1

imaginaryroots,
negativeroot in

0 into another

equations:
x

negativeroot

with

the coefficient of the first term.

-

therefore

d.

the equation3xA
5x3 + x2
2. Transform
whose
first term is unity.
the coefficientof

Solve the

negative.

root zero,

one

the transformed
If 27r2 + 4g3 is positive,
equation has
therefore
the
have two
must
originalequation
[Art.553],
since it is only such a pair of roots which
can
produce a
the transformed equation.

EXAMPLES.

all its roots

0.
=

0.
-

Mx

+ 4

0.

0 into another

TRANSFORMATION

The

8.

479

EQUATIONS.

equation3./,-322.r2+

7. Solve the
in harmonica!

are

OF

48.r

32

0, the

of which

roots

progression.
of x3

roots

lLr2 + 36#-36

in harmonica!

are

gression
pro-

; find them.

that the

shew
progression,

Solve the

10.
which

equationx3

If the roots of the

9.

mean

equation4(Xr4-22^-2Lr2

in harmonica!

are

from the

11.

a?8- "c*+ 10a?- 3=0.

12.

x*+4o?+ 2a2 -4# -2=0.

13.

afi+ 5xA + 3X3 + x2 +

14.

afi 12s5 + 3.v2

15.

Transform

by

1 7.v+ 300

of

roots

0.

equationa^-j

roots
corresponding

the

+ 2.t*+l =0, the

0.

exceed

in harmonica!

equations:

the

are

progression.

the second term

Remove

ax2 +x"b=0

root is 3b.

7=0

"

of the

mto

whose

one

roots

givenequation.

22

16.

Diminish

17.

Find the
root of the

than

18.

by

the

Find

3 the roots of the

equation each of whose

equationx3 bx2 + 6x 3

the

Form

equationwhose
x* + x3

19.

roots

equationwhose

roots

roots

b,c

greater by unity

0.

of the roots of

0.

of the roots of

the cubes

are

0.

is

r-0, form

equationwhose

the

are

20.

ka~\ hb-\ hr\

b+

24.

~n

27.

are

29.

+ r,
b

Shew

givenby
28.

b2c\c2a2,a2b2.

21.
+ b

the

-,
c

25.

"(6 + c),"(c+a), c(a + b).

26.

roots

of x3 + qx

the roots

are

roots

the squares

are

2x2 + x+

x3 + 3x2 + 2
If a,

equation

"3,63,c3.

b
+

--

of x3 + ax2+bx

that the cubes of the roots

equationx3 + a3x2 + b3x + a3b3

Solve

the equation x*
of the form ", "a,b,
"

bx*

+ ab=0

are

0.

bx3 + 2bx2 + 4a

20

0, whose

b,c.

If the roots of x3 + 3px2+ 3qx +

shew that 2gs=r(3pgr"
r).

are

in harmonica]

gression,
pro-

480

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

Cubic

575.

The

generaltype

Equations.

of

x3+Px2

explainedin
simplerform

but

as

which

shall take

we

To

576.
Let

x3 + qx
as

the

to

0,

form

equationx3 +

qx

z3 +

=y3 +

present y,
that their

equation; if
q

be reduced

equationcan

the standard

of

cubic

equation.

0.

z3 +

3yz(y+ z) y3+
=

z3 +

y3+

3yz +

fi=0,

3yzx,

givenequationbecomes

the

At

equationis

; then

x3
and

Qx

Art. 573 this

solve the

cubic

equalto

further

we

0.

quantities
subjectto

two

any

is

sum

0, they are

are

(3yz+ q)x+r

of the

one

the
satisfy

they
suppose
determinate.
completely

We

dition
con-

of the

roots

that

the

given
equation

thus obtain

o3

y3+ z3=-r,

y3,z3 are

hence

-^;

y3z3
=

the roots of the

quadratic

and putting
Solvingthis equation,

yz=-\Jriit
+

sr~

2
we

obtain the value of

"

"

27

from the relation

z; thus

fr2
+

-2+V4

q3Y

q3^

11r2

27}+H-V"
'

+
97

solution is generally
known
as Cardan's Solution,
in
first
him
the
Ars
as
published
Magna, in 1545. Cardan
by
obtained
the solution from Tartaglia;
but the solution of the
The

above

it was

cubic

seems

to have

been

due

to ScipioFerreo,about
originally

CU13IC

1505.
found

historical
interesting

An

of Burnside

at the end

577.
side of

note

and

subjectwill be
Theoryof Equations.
this

on

Panton's

the right-hand
on
By Art. 110, each of the quantities
equations(1)and (2)of the precedingarticle lias three
it would

roots,hence

cube

481

EQUATIONS.

however, is

not

the

that

appear
For

case.

since yz

has nine

values ;

^,the

cube roots

"

this,
are

that the productof each pairis rational.

if y, z denote the values of any pairof cube roots which
Hence
fulfil this condition,the only other admissible pairs will be
the imaginarycube roots of
a)Z, where
co, or are
wy, ta*zand ii"2y,

to be taken

unity.

in

pairsso

the roots of the

Hence

y
Solve the

Example.
Put y +

z,

wy

equation x3

equationare
+ wz.
w2z, "x)2y

15.r=

126.

for x, then
+ z* + {3yz-15)x 126;
y"*
=

put

3f/2-15 0,

then

y^z3

also

126;

y*zs 125
=

hence

z:iare
y's,

the roots of the

equation

i2-126"

u,y +

u~z

and the roots

578.
values for
from

the

6,

are

To
x

wz

-3 +

1.

-3

5+

2^/^3;

3-2^/^3;

2*7-3,

reason

z3 +

-3-2

why

-3.

obtain
apparently

we

observe that y and

576, we

y3+
equations

^"-

explainthe
in Art.

6;

w-y +

5,

5+ l=

0;

y
j/+

+ 125

2/3 125, sfc=l;

.-.

Thus

0, yz

"

\j

nine
found
be
to

are

but in the process of

solution the second of these

H.H.

A.

was

changedinto yJz3
=

q3
-

31

which

482

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

if yz

also hold

would

values of

x3 + wqx

equationx3 +

qx

and

^;

x3

0,

"

+ r
ou2"p;

consider

the other

six

of

the

0.

fullythe

more

q
+

-r

z3

then y3 and
positive,

represent their arithmetical

hence

roots

0.

are

wy

z,

cube

both

are

real;let
the roots

roots, then

oy2z,(o2y
+ wz.

for
real,and by substituting

first of these is

The

yz

(i) If

proceedto

We

579.

or

solutions of the cubics

are

"

a"

w2 the

and

become

other two

"73

r2
If
(ii)

-j

"

of
pressions

is

and
then ?/3
negative,

the form

roots of these

this

"

case

?/ =
"

z, and

?/.

"73

r2
If
(iii)

y3 z3\ in

then

zero,

or
+ co2),
+ to2),
2y, "3/,
2y, 2/(w
2/(00

become

the roots

^=-is

ib and

are
quantities

in and

are

imaginaryex-

Suppose that

ib.

"

23

in; then

"

the cube

the roots of

the cubic become

m

in

which

"

in,

o"

2m ;

or

or
(m in)"o2,
m) co2+ (m in)"o, or

(m + m)
(m +

"

"

"

"

+ n

"m

^/3;
^3 ;

all real

quantities.As however there is no general

arithmetical or algebraical
method
of findingthe exact value of
of
the cube root
imaginaryquantities
[Compare Art. 89],the
solution obtained in Art. 576 is of little practical
when
the
use
roots of the cubic are all real and unequal.
are

This

case

is sometimes

called the Irreducible Case of Cardan's

solution.

580.
be

In the irreducible case

justmentioned

as
completedby Trigonometry

follows.

the solution may

Let the solution be

+ (a
ib)3;
(a+ ib)3
-

484

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

b from

a and
by eliminating

these

obtain

we
equations,

+p* q)(k2 s),

(pk r)2 (21c
=

2k3

or

found

2 (pr

-qk2 +

this cubic

From

s)k

p2s

qs

r2

real value

equationone

0.

of k

always be

can

Also
[Art.553];thus a and b are known.
(ax+ W'"
(x2+px + W
.'. x2 +px
+ k
"(ax + b);
=

the values of

and

and

(p a)x

x2

+ a)x+ (k+ b)
(2)

"

0.

5x- + Hh;

2.x3

(a2-5)x2 +

2x* +

"

a2x2 + 2abx + b2 to each side of the

x*

quadratics

equation

xi

Add

the two

(k b) 0t

x2

Solve the

Example.

to be obtained from

are

{ab+ 5)x

0.

equation,and

assume

+ 62

(x2

k)2
"

have
we
by equatingcoefficients,

then

a2=2fc

6, ab

+ 6)(fc2
+ 3)
(2fc

.-.

But

from

find that k=

2k* + 5k2 -M-

the

3;

0.

7=

4, "2

a2 =

1 ; hence

+ 5)2;
(7c

.-.

we
By trial,

b2=k2

-k-5,

4,

ab=

4.

assumption,it follows that

(x2-x + k)2=(ax+ b)2.

the
Substituting

x2
that

z2-3.r + l = 0,

is,

whence

k} a and b, we

values of

the roots

are

"

"

(2x 2);

and

x2 + x-3

The

~"

assume

x4

the

qx2+

equations

Q;

"

solution
following

Supposethat

the two

583.

have

givenby Descartes

was

biquadratic
equationis reduced

rx

x1

qx2+
=

(x2+

rx

kx

to the

0;

1)(x2
-

kx

in 1637.

m) ;

form

485

EQUATIONS.

BIQUADRATIC

have
we
by equatingcoefficients,

then

I+
From

vi

"

k2

q,

"

(m

l)

of these

the first two

Im

r,

"

s.

obtain

we
equations,

2m

AT +

2l=k2

third

in the
substituting

hence

-j;

equation,

(k3+ qk + r)(k3+ qk r) 4sk2,

r2 0.
k2
" + 2qk4+ (q2 4s)
=

or

real positive
solution
in k2 wliich alwayshas one
[Art.553];thus when k2 is known the values of I and m

This

is

cubic

the solution

determined,and

are

by solvingthe

kx

x2

0, and

kx

"

z4-2a;2 + 8j;-3
x4

Assume

2a;2+ 8#

m=0.

(x2+

0.

kx +

1)(x2 kx
-

m)

have
we
by equatingcoefficients,
l + m-k2

whence

we

{k3

obtain

k(m-l)

-2,

8)(A;3 2k

2k +

This equation is
sufficient to consider

m+l

clearlysatisfied when
of the values of k ;

2,

7n-l

as* 2.r2+ 8.r

Thus

hence

a;2+ 2.r-l

therefore the roots

584.

The

+ 2x
(.r2

0, and

1"

J2,

0.

0,
putting k

4] that is, l

-l,

2, we
m

+ 3

k"

or
=

1 ){x2 2x +

x--2x
1"

-Z;

12"2,

It will be

"2.

have

3.

3);

0 ;

J^2.

solution
generalalgebraical
has not been
of such a
of the impossibility

degreehigherthan
demonstration

are

A;2-4

one

lm

8,

8)

fc6-4fc4 + 16fc2-64

or

and

obtained

Solve the equation

Example.

then

is
biquadratic

quadratics

two

x2

of the

the fourth

of

equationsof

obtained,and
solution is

Abel's

generally

the coefficients of an
equationare numerical,the value of any real root may be found
of apto any requireddegreeof accuracy
proxima
by Horner's Method
in
treatises
found
on
will
be
of
full
which
a
account

acceptedby Mathematicians.

the

Theoryof Equations.

If,however,

486

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

shall conclude

We

585.

the discussion of

with

neous
miscella-

some

equations.
Solve the equations:

Example 1.

0,

+ du

by +cz

ax

y +

0,
0,

a2x +

b2y+

c2z + d2u

a?x +

b3y+

c3z + d3u

p,

that

being quantitieswhich

q,

they are

(a3+pa2 +

a3

and

+pa2 +

the value

then

0.

(a-b){a-c){a-d);

h.

found, and the values of y,

is

vanish

(a-b)(a- c){a-d)x

therefore
Thus

qa +

spectively
re-

r) k,

qa +

t3+pt2+ qt+
Hence

present undetermined.

at

equation

the roots of the

are

are

such that the coefficients of y, z,

x

whilst b, c, d

the lowest, by 1, p, q,

from

Multiplythese equations,beginning
Assume

k.

z,

be written down

can

by symmetry.
Cor.

If the

equationsare
x
ax

.'.

l,

du

I;

c*-z+ d2u

k2,

A;3,

by +

b2y+

a3x +

bsy+ c3z+

is

qa +

r) k3 +pk2 + qk +

found, and

The solution of the above

Undetermined
Multipliers.

Shew

dhi

have

(a3+pa2 +

cz

(a-b)(a-c)(a-d)

Thus
the value of
down by symmetry.

Example 2.

a2x +

by proceedingas before,we
x

+ y +

r;

(k- b)(k-c)(k-d).

the values of y,

z,

be written

can

equations has been facilitated by the

that the roots of the

equation

{x-a){x- b)(x c)-f2 (x-a)-g2(x-b)- h2{x-c)+ 2fgh

are

all real.
From

the

given equation,we

have

+ h*(x-c)-2fgh}=0.
{x-a){(x-b)(x-c)-f*}-{g*{x-b)

Let p, q be the roots of the

quadratic

{x-b)(x-e)-f*=0,

use

of

BIQUADRATIC
^ to be not

and suppose

less than
2x

now
or

By solvingthe quadratic,we

q.

the value of the surd is greater than

c, and q is less than b or c.
In the

given equation substitute for

+ """

the results
+

v,

-fajp^b-h Jp

""
,

so

that p is greater than

-30;

c)2" +{"JJb-q-

Thus
the given equation has three
between _p and q, and one less than q.
q, then

from

q)~,

cc

real roots, one

4/2
=

greater than

0 and

lr}=0

(x-b){{x- a) (x-b)-g*thus the roots

Jc

(b q)(c q).

have (6-c)2+

(1)we

therefore

2',

one

c,f=0.

given equation becomes

the

case

c,

the values
successively

q"

{p -b)(p- c)=f*

(1);

respectively

are

since

If p
In this

have

+ tf:i
c"J(b-c)*

b+

487

EQUATIONS.

all real.

are

fails ; for it
root of the givenequation,the above investigation
that there is one
root between
namely p. But as
q and + oo
before,there is a second real root less than q ; bence the third root must also
If p

is

only shews
be real.
the roots

Similarlyif

q is a root

of the

given equation we

can

shew

that all

real.

are

equation here discussed is of considerable

frequentlyin Solid Geometry, and is there known
The

importance ; it occurs
the Discriminating
as

Cubic.

586.
branches

The
of

Example.

followingsystem
Applied Mathematics.

of

equationsoccurs

Solve the equations:

y

b+ \

+ \

-\-fji.b + /j,
y

J"+

"

b+

a+f

+ \

x
a

+ fx
z
=

-,
1.

c+v

Consider the followingequation in 6,

+

+
a

x,

y,

+ 0

b + d

+ 0

(0-X)(g-ft)(g-y).
(a+ e)(b+ 6){c + 0y

being for the present regarded as known

quantities.

in

many

488

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

This equation when cleared of fractions is of the second degree in 6, and

is satisfied by the three values 8 = \ 6 = p., d = v, in virtue of the given
equations; hence it must be an identity.[Art.310.]
To

multiply up by a+0, and then put

find the value of #,

thus

+ 0

0;

(--X)(-^)(-"-'0
(b a) (c a)
.

..

that

.=fe+"Lfe+i4!ttd.

is,

(a- b) (a-c)

By symmetry,

have

we

+ v)
(b+ \){b + fx)(b

y=

{b-c)(b-a)
+ v)
{c+ \){c+ fi)(c
(c-a) (c b)

and

XXXV.

EXAMPLES.

equations:
following

Solve the

is

e.

1.

a3-18a

3.

a3

5.

28^-9^+1=0.

7.

2a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1=0.

8.

Prove

316

63a-

35.
0.

real root

the

that

2.

a?+ 7207- 1720=0.

4.

ff3+ 21# + 342

6.

"s-15#8-33ar+

of

the

equation a3 +

10.

a4-

10a2- 20a-

14.

a*-23?-12afi+10x

0.

847=0.

12a -12

2^/2-^4.
Solve the
9.

:
following
equations

a4 -3a2 -42

-40

11.

a4 + 83? + 9a2 -8a

12.

a-4+ 2a3

13.

**- 3^-6^-2=0.

15.

4a4

16.

a6-6a4-17a3

17.

a4 + 9a3 + 1 2a2

18. Find
A3 + ^A + r=0
Hence

7a2

0.

-10

8a + 1 2

20a-3+ 33^2

0.

0.

20a + 4

+ 17a2 + 6a-1
-

80a

1 92

16

0.

+ 3=0.

0.
=

0.

0, which has equalroots.

the relation between

q and r in order that the
be
the
form
into
a4
(a2+ "a+")2.
put
may

solve the

equation
8a3 -36a

+ 27

0.

equation

BIQUADRATIC

have

jfi+3pafl+3qx+r

If

19.
a

factor,shew

common

and

have

they

two

If

shew

of them

Shew

that
if

quadratic

Solve

22.

is equal
1

the

equation

the

If

23.

roots

is

/3,y, 5

a,

1 SxA +

the

equation
In

24.
of two

that

the

other

unity

J6

if
two

equal roots,

two

+PX3

qx2 +

rx

0 may

be solved

whose

S2x

+ 8

0,

2.

"

the roots

are

of the

qx2 +

roots

r.t-

/3+y

are

equation
4-

0,

+ d +

"c.
(/3y")_1,

that if the

0, prove

other
is

p3

two

equal

to

sum

4pq + 8r
the product
=

0 ;

of

r2=p2s.
equation

x"

209." + 56

0 has

two

whose

roots

product

is

them.

determine

26.

Find

the

27.

If a,

b, c,...kare
Xn

shew

x4

has

equation x4" px3 + qx2- rx +

roots
is equal to the sum
of the
of the roots
the product of two

The

25.

rs?

(etc b2)

the

of the

and

".

1 6.1*3
+ 28x2

xA +
find

to

+ d=()

equation
-

of whose

q2-pr=0.

r2=p2s.

gfl
one

0.

that

axs + 3bx2 + 3cx

equation

each

that

21.
as

the

(pq-r)2

factors,shew

common

p2-q=0,
20.

x*+2px+q

that

4(p2-q) (q2"pr)
If

489

EQUATIONS.

two

roots

of ^

the

409^

"

+ 285

0 whose

sum

is 5.

of

roots

+p1Xn~1 +p2Xn~2 +

+Pn-l$

+Pn

""

that

{l+k2)

(l+a2)(l+b2)
28.

The

sum

of two

roots

of the

.-r4 8.r" + 21^2

-

is 4 ;

explain why

on

led^e of this fact the

attempting
method

+ (Pl-p,+p,...)2

(l-p,+p"-

to

fails.

...)2.

equation
-

20a- +

solve

the

equation

from

the

kuow-

EXAMPLES.

MISCELLANEOUS

1.

If sl, s2i *3

2.
are

to

Find

sums

"

that their

In what

4.

Solve the

and

sum
difference,

product,

1, 7, 24.

as

by reversingthe digits?

scale of notation is 25 doubled

3.

of an
respectively

of n, 2n, Sn terms
that s3 3 (s2 sj.

such

numbers

two

another

one

the

are

shew
progression,

arithmetical

equations:

(1) (#+2)(#+3)(a;-4)(#-5)=44.
(2) x(y + z)+
5.

In

A.

an

firstp terms

P., of

0, shew

0, y(z-2x) + 2l=Q,

z(2x-y)

b.

is the first term, if the

of the next q terms
that the sum
which

of the

sum

a{p + q)q^
p"l

[R.M.
6.

A.

Woolwich.]

Solve the

equations:
b)(ax+ b)(a- bx) (a2x b2)(a+ bx).

(1 ) (a+

11

(2)

(2x-Zf={l2(x-l)Y.

x* +

[India Civil Service.]

first term
arithmetical progressionwhose
form a
terms
such that the second,tenth and thirty-fourth
series.

7.

Find

an

8.

If a,

fi are

9.

If 2x

"

Find

unity
geometric

the roots of x-+px+q

0, find the values of
a2 + a/3+ /32,
a3 + /33,
a4 + a2/32
+ 04.
=

+ a~1 and

2y

xy +
10.

is

b+

b~1,find

the value of

*J(x2-\)(y21).

the value of
3

(4+

Vl5)"2
+ (4-Vi5)'2
3"

3
_

(6+

V35)"2-(6-\/35)'
[R.M.

11.

If

and

/3are

the

imaginary cube
a4 + ^4 + a-1^-1
=

roots

0.

of

A.

Woolwich.]

unity,shew

that

492

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of the productsof the integers

the sum
1,2,3, n taken
of the sum
of
two at a time,and shew that it is equal to half the excess
the sum
of their squares.
the cubes of the givenintegers
over
Find

23.

...

20 loaves of bread in a week.

and his familyconsume
24. A man
raised
raised 5 per cent.,and the priceof bread were
If his wages were
But
if
his
lowered
week.
would
gain 6d. a
wages were
2\ per cent.,he
he
would
lose \\d.
then
bread
fell
and
10
cent.,
cent.,
per
7^ per
and
of
the
loaf.
his
a
find
week
price
a
weekly wages
:

in arithmetical progression
is 48 and
of four numbers
sum
of
is
the
the
to
27 to 35 :
of
the
extremes
means
as
the product
product
find the numbers.

25.

The

26.

Solve the

equations:

(1) a{b-c)x2+ b(c-a)x+c(a-b)

fr%.

(2)
v
'

27.

If

(x-a)(x-b)
l
^
b
"

"

x-a

if ^a +

(x-c)(x-d)
1"
\
""

r,r
.

x-c-d

+ ^/b-x+\/c-x=0ishew
/s/a-x
c +

3x)(a+

4/6+4/c 0, shew

b+

that

c-x)
(a+

..

[Math. Tripos.]

"

"

(a+ b +
and

"

0.

b+

that

4(bc+

ca

ab)-,

c)3 27abc.
=

hour after starting,

meets with an accident which
an
28. A train,
detains it an hour,after which it proceedsat three-fifths of its former
rate and arrives 3 hours after time : but had the accident happened 50
it would have arrived l" hrs. sooner
miles farther on the line,
: find the

lengthof
29.

the

journey.

Solve the

equations:

2x+y

2z, 9z-7x=6y, x3+f

+ z3=2l6.

[R. M.
30.
in how
the two

Six papers are set in

different orders
many

mathematical

papers

are

the papers
not

Woolwich.]

in mathematics :
be given,
providedonlythat

two
examination,
can

A.

of them

successive ?

In how many
60
"5. 4s. 2d. be paid in exactly
can
ways
and fourpenny-pieces
of half-crowns,
?
shillings
consisting

31.

32. Find a and b so that x3 + ax2 + llx + 6 and x3

factor of the form x2 -\-px+ q.
may have a common

coins,

bxi + l4x

[London University.]
In what time would A,B,C together
do a work if A alone could
do it in six hours more, B alone in one hour more, and C alone in twice
the time 1

33.

MISCELLANEOUS

34.

If the equations
ax +
a2
b2
that
+-7
1, and x
.,

prove

of

(l-2x

onlyi "ne solution

___

-,

Binomial Theorem

",

[Math. Tiuros.]

the firstfive terms

in the expansion

2x2)~'2'
0 is the square

"

of the

other,

1 have

of the roots of x2 -fpx + q

0.
1
+
) q2
q (3p

If one
that p3

36.
shew

by the

Find

35.

by \, ex2 + dy%

"

493

EXAMPLES.

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

37.

Solve the

equation
xi-5x^-6x-b

0.

[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
38.

Find the value of

x3

for which

the fraction

ax2 + 19.27
-

"

x?-(a + l)x2 + 23x-a~7

Eeduce

of reduction.

admits

39.

If a,

b,c, x,

y,

z are

it to its lowest terms.

real

and
quantities,

(a+ b + c)2=3 (be+

shew

that

c, and

[Math. Tripos.]

ca

+ ab-

x2-y2

0, y

0,

z2),

0.

Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
i

40.

the value of

41.

is the greatestterm

What

is

when

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

If

numbers such that their sum

multiplied
by the sum
is 5500, and their difference multiplied
the
difference
by
is 352.
[Christ'sColl. Camb.]

\a, y

1 _|_b2 + 3c2
'

(k-l)b,

(\-3)c,

X=

"

"z

Qj

x2+y2+

Find two

of their squares
of their squares

42.

expansionof ( 1

in the

z2 in its simplest
form

in terms

of a,

"T"

0"

~p

express

b,c.

[SidneyColl. Camb.]
43.

Solve the

equations:

(1) xa + 3j*=16x
(2) y2+

44.

If x, y,

are

z2-x

+ 60.

z2 +

in harmonical

\.
x'i-y x2+y2-z
[CoRrus Coll. Ox.]
=

shew
progression,

log(x+ z)+ log{x-2y

z)
=

that

log(x z).
-

494

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

45.

Shew

that
1.3/1\

/lV

1.3.5

4
/oN

._

,_

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

3a-26~36-2c~3c-2a'
then will

b(x+y

46

z)(5c+

3a) (9x+ 83/+ 13^)(a+

=

b+

c).

Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's

and 5 vowels,how
With
17 consonants
letters can
be formed having 2 different vowels
at each end?
consonant
or different)
(repeated
47.

words of four
many
in the middle and 1

600 persons had voted ; the same

it was carried by twice
question,
persons
before
and
the
it
lost
as
was
new
as many
majoritywas to the former
by,
as 8 to 7 : how
changed their minds?
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
many

48.

questionwas lost on which

having voted againon the same

49.

Shew

that
l-x

5x*

(l+x)2

l+"?-^+

9^5 13^7
4.5+ 6.7+"'

+
2.3

Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
formed
into a hollow
50. A body of men
were
t
hat
when it was
with
the
addition
of 25
observed,
solid square might be formed, of which the number
would be greaterby 22 than the square root of the
each side of the hollow square : requiredthe number

51.

Solve the

equations:

(1) V (a+ x)2+

(2) (x
52.

Prove

square, three deep,

to their number
a
of men
in each side
in
of men
number
of men.

V(a^02

a)*
(x

6)2 {x

\/a2^2.

c)i
(6 d)K
(x d)% (a c)%
=

that
3/,
v/4
N

2-5

2
t

^6

2.5.8
v

6.12

"

"

6.12.18

[Sidney Coll. Camb.]

53.

Solve

$6(5a?
+ 6)-^5(6#-ll)=l.
[Queens'Coll. Camb.]

MISCELLANEOUS

405

EXAMPLES.

A vessel contains a gallonsof wine, and another vessel contains

b gallonsof water: c gallonsare taken out of eaeh vessel and
transferred to the other; this operationis repeated any number
of
times : shew that if c(a + b) ab, the quantityof wine in each vessel
will alwaysremain the same
after the first operation.

54.

arithmetic

The

55.

between

mean

and

between

mean

each

are

and

equal to

of

and

the
and

geometric
n

in terms

b.
If x, y,

56.

find

-:

and

are

such that their

is constant, and

sum

if

(z+x-2y)(x+y-2z)
varies

as

yz, prove that 2

(y+ z)

varies

as

yz.

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

57.

Prove

that,if n

is

greaterthan 3,

1.2.MCV2.3.'lC_1+ 3.4.""X_2-

(-l)'-(r+l)(/-+2)=2."-3Cr.

[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
53.

Solve the

equations:

(1) *J'2x1 + */"v

-

*J~4x3 + *Jbx^~i.

(2) 4{(sa-16)*+8}=#8+16(#a-16)*
[St John's Coll. Camb.]
be equal to one
59. Prove that two of the quantities
x, y, z must
.,

.j.

another,if

l+yz

"

"

"

l+zx

yn
2-

0.

l+xy

of p persons, a percent,can
60. In a certain community consisting
read and write ; of the males alone b per cent.,and of the females alone
read and write : find the number of males and females in
c per cent, can
the

community.
61.

If

!"=?"'-"
[Emm.

62.

Shew

that the coefficient of x4n in the

(1
"

63.

Solve the

+ x2

Coll.

Camb.]

expansionof

x3)'1is unity.

"

equation
x-b

x-a

"a

x-b'

[London University.]
Find (1)the arithmetical series,
(2) the harmonical series of
of which a and b are the first and last terms ; and shew that
n terms
term of
the productof the r* term of the firstseries and the {n r+ l)tb
the second scries is ab.

64.

"

496

HIGHER

If the roots of the

65.

are

equal,shew

equation

*2+p (1+q) x+q

q+^J

"

that

If a2 + b2

66.

ALGEBRA.

Woolwich.]

A.

that

(" V)}
jg

l"g

=0

[R. M.

p2 4q.

lab,shew

(q~ 1)+

(loSa

loSh)-

[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
If

67.

is

root of the

x-

and

if

harmonic
difference between
n

equation

(1 ac)
-

(a2+ c2) (1+ ac) 0,

=

and c, shew that

inserted between
a
the firstand last mean
is equalto ac {a c).

means

"

If

57

208: W"2P4
=

Ox.]

Coll.

[Wadham
68.

the

are

16, find n.

in a 6rr per cent. Government

69. A person invests a certain sum
loan : if the pricehad been "3 less he would have received \ per cent,
interest on his money ; at what pricewas
the loan issued ?
more

70.

Solve the
+ ^
{(^2

equation:
+ l)3-(^2+ l)3+^3}
l)3-(^2+ l)3-^3}{(^2-^
3

71.

If

x
by eliminating

x2 +

+ b

ax

between
0

an

+ x2 + 1)3 (#*+If a6}

{(^4
[Merton Coll. Ox.]
-

the

equations

xy + 1 (x+

y)+

quadraticin y is formed whose roots are the

original
quadraticin x, then either a =21, and 6

0,

same

m,

as
or

[R.M.
72.

Given

log2

'30103,and log3

(2)

(1) 6*=y-6-".
73. Find two numbers
their fourth powers 2417.

such

of the

those

b + m=al.
A.

Woolwich.]

:
-47712,solve the equations

V5M-V5-*=|q.

that their

sum

is 9, and

the

of

sum

[London University.]

74. A set out to walk at the rate of 4 miles an hour ; after he had
been walking 2| hours,B set out to overtake him and went
4" miles
and so gaininga quarter
the firsthour,4| miles the second,5 the third,
hours would he overtake A l
In how many
of a mile every hour.

75. Prove
factor.

that the

integernext above (^3+ l)2mcontains

2m

as

MISCELLANEOUS

76.

The

5, 6, 7, 8, 9
?ithgroup

77.

is

series of natural numbers is divided into groups 1 ; 2,3,4 ;

that the sum
of the numbers
in the
so
on : prove
; and

(?i-l)3+ n3.

Shew

that the

|2_W+

407

EXAMPLES.

of

sum

of the series

terms

[3 \2/
is

|4

,,
to
equal
1

\2J

1.3.5.7

,
1

(2n-l)
="

:
"

2'*\n

[R.M.
78.

that the coefficient of xn in the

Shew

(-l)S 3(-l)3,
accordingas
79.

is of the form

Solve the

3m,

3m

Woolwich.]

expansionof

1 + 2x

j"2is

w-2

n-1

A.

2(-l)3,
1, 3"i

+ 2.

equations:

(1) " =^_2_

b
a

.".

yyz

x+y

ii

[Univ.Coll. Ox.]
The value of xyz is 7" or 3f accordingas the series a, x, y, z,
b is arithmetic or harmonic : find the values of a and b assuming them
to be positive
[Merton Coll. Ox.]
integers.

80.

If ay-bx=c
the
and y will satisfy

81.

If (#+l)2 is
value of x.
integral

82.

\/(x
-a)2+ (y- b)2,shew
equationunless c2 "
greaterthan

of
83. If P is the number
characteristicp, and Q the number
have
reciprocals

the characteristic

5x

a2

t lat

"

no

person

85. A man
rilen they came

real values of

b2.

7#-3,

find the

have the
integerswhose logarithms
of whose
the logarithms
of integers
-

q, shew that
=

In how

no

1 and less than

log10P-log10#p-2
84.

that

ways may 20
many
less than
receive
may

+ l.

be given to
shillings
?
3 shillings

5 persons

so

wishing his two daughtersto receive equal portions

of age bequeathedto the elder the accumulated interest

invested at the time of his death in 4 per

of money
of a certain sum
the accumulated
cent, stock at 88 ; and to the younger he bequeathed
at the same
invested
less than the former by "3500
interest of a sum
time in the 3 per cents, at 63.
Supposingtheir ages at the time of
invested
the sum
their father's death to have been 17 and 14, what was
?
fortune
each daughter's
in each case, and what was
11. 11. A

32

498

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

expressedin scale 9

in scale 7 when
of three digits
reversed in order : find the number.
has its digits
number

86.

Coll.

[St John's
If the sum
of m
of the next
to the sum
terms

that

; prove

of

terms

87.

n)(

(m +

also to the

terms, and

is equal
progression

arithmetical

an

of the

sum

(wi+p)(

i=

7"4

is

7-".

{z-xf

(y-z?

If

vi

"

Coll.

\y-z

"

z-x

x-y)

[R. M.

A.

If each

pairof

x2-p1x +

that

(2n-l)m"nm

1.

ql

the three

Camb.]

Coll.

equations

0, aP-ptfC+q^Q, x2-p3x+q3=0,

root,prove that

common

Woolwich.]

than 1, shew
and greater
or
positive
negative,

[Emm.

have

Camb.]

1
7"

(x-y)2

lm + 3" + 5m +

90.

that

Prove

89.

next

[St John's
88.

Camb.]

Pi2+P-? + P32+

(?i+

ft)

ft +

(P2P2+P?,Pi +PiP"JColl.

[St John's

Camb.]

road and at the same

rate from
B travelled on the same
fioin
50th
milestone
the
At
took
London, A overHuntingdon to London.
of geese which were
a drove
proceedingat the rate of 3 miles in 2
which was
hours ; and two hours afterwards met a waggon,
moving at
drove of geese at
B overtook the same
the rate of 9 miles in 4 hours.
the 45th milestone,and met the waggon
exactly40 minutes before he
B when ^4 reached London
Where
?
to the 31st milestone.
was
came
John's
Coll.
[St
Camb.]
and

91.

92.

Ifa

+ 5+ c +

that

c?=0,prove

abc + bed + cda + dab

*J(bcad)(ca bd) {ah cd).

"

[R.M.
93.
terms

Woolwich.]

A.

An A. P.,a G. P.,and an H. P. have a and b for their first two

shew that their (?i
will be in G. P. if
terms
+ 2)th
1

"

77-0

[Math. Tripos.]
J

"tn

ba(b2n-a2n)

n
x

94.

Shew

that the coefficient of xn in the expansion of

(x
an

in

ascending
01 power

in the

of
expansion
r

of

is

bn

"

a-b

L
(l-#)3

-,,

"

a) (x

rv
-

0)

"

"

r-,

7-

anbn

and that the coefficient of x2n

'

is 2n_1 hi2 + 4w + 2l
'
"

__

r,

r,

-.

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

500

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

JL3 ^

1S

2?4'

If

106.

a,

x2+px
where

is

+ q

2~

1.3.5.7

a"

2. 4. 6.8*

10+

equations

0, x2n+pnxn+ qn

shew
integer,

even

an

of the

roots

/3are

/l-Vl-a;2"

expansionof V

that the

Shew

105.

that

(#+l)n

.r" + l +

b
a+-

^",-

the

2a+

2c +

2c +

d
c

the

of

squares

aD0-

"' j

"

^..

2a +

2a+

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

0.

b
-

"

between

107. Find the difference

continued fractions

roots of

are

"

0,

infinite

2c+

[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
of
is distributed amongst a certain number
of money
the third 2s.
than the first,
The second receives Is. more
persons.
the
than
3s.
fourth
the
than
the
more
third,and so on.
more
second,
If the first person gets Is. and the last person "3. 7s.,what is the
distributed 1
number of persons and the sum

108.

109.

Solve the

sum

'

(2)
110.

If

:
equations

b+

+ b

~2+x*+f=l3i"""+""=*""

and b

are

and unequal,prove
positive

a*-bn"

(" b)(ab)2

that

Coll.

[St Cath.
111.
values of

Express ^r^
x

as

and y which

continued

Camb.]

find the least

fraction; hence

the equation396.t'" 763y

satisfy

12.

take
A alone would
112. To completea certain work, a workman
would
alone
times as many
B
B
C
and
as
days
working together;
take n times as many
days as A and C together; C alone would take
days as A and B together: shew that the numbers of
p times as many
days in which each would do it alone are as m + 1 : "+l : jp+ 1.
m

Prove

also

m+l

+
n

+ l

-^"

p + l

2.

,,

[R.M.

A.

,_

Woolwich.]

MISCELLANEOUS

The

501

EXAMPLES.

of a hydropathicestablishment are partlyconstant

with the number
of boarders. Each
boarder
"9 a head when there are
are
pays "65 a year, and the annual profits
a
nd
when
there
4d.
"10. 13s.
50 boarders,
60: what is the profit
are
on
each boarder when there are 80 ?

113.

and

If

114.

expenses

partlyvary

x2y
=

2x

y, and x2 is not

"

greaterthan 1, shew

that

[Peterhouse,Camb.]
V

If

115.
are

"

-s-

"

"sr

"

a2-x2

and

Ti

If

(1+

and

that

x2fr

(1) \"kx + k2-

c^s*
"

and

Q.

c^'

that when

a2 + c2-b2

+
k\x+ l'2x2

1+

a*"
1 )3r
=

(x

prove

c2.shew

"

or

116.

xv
"

o
al-yunequal,
(a2-c2)2-b2c20,

.,

2
-

1,

!3r

(2) l-k^

hc.,

"

"

\r\2r

[R.M.
117.

Solve the

equations:

(1) {x y)2+ 2ab

"

z2

(2)x2-y2 +

If there are
n
roots of all their

118.
square
that

"

6, 2yz-zx

prove

productstwo

that

2xy

bx + ay.

13, x-y

the

"

of the

mean

"V=a26'i, and
Wx6 +

120.

Find the

sum

(1)

d2 + V

x2+y2

of the

roots

square

arithmetic

the

of the

mean

[R.M.
+

2.

+an);

("i+ "2+

""

arithmetic
is
together less than

If 6"

""

quantities.
119.

positivequantitiesalt a2,... an, and if the

products taken two togetherbe found,prove

Vaia2 + V"i"3+
hence

xy + ab

ax+by,

Woolwich.]

A.

A.

given
Woolwich.]

\, prove that

-f a2y4)2. [IndiaCivil Service.]

a*yG (b2xA
=

of the series whose

of the first n terms

rthterms

~r|~_,(2) (a+r*6)*-'
[St John's Coll. Camb.]

121.

Find

the

greatestvalue

x+

of
2iX"

t~

~a

*iX + 0
.

502

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

equations:

Solve the

122.

(1) l+^4

7(l+#)4.

(2) 3#y+20=ff0+6y=2^s+3d?=O.
f"ur

If "x, a2y a3" ai are any

expandedbinomial,prove that

123.

"

"

Separate

find the

term
general

\ /
,

3x

of

into

=r

"

coefficients of

an

[Queens' Coll. Camb.1

'

124.

"-

"

consecutive

partialfractions ;

and

"

is

when
2

expandedin ascendingpowers

X.

recurringseries

In the

125.

lx
+
2

2x* + lx3 + bx4 + 7x:"+

the unknown
the scale of relation is a quadraticexpression
; determine
and give the
and the scale of relation,
coefficient of the fourth term
M.
A.
the
series.
[R.
Woolwich.]
generalterm of

126.

If x, y,

unequal,and

are

2a-3v

2a-3z^^^
(-^2,and

(v

y
*)2

2a -3.?="

then will

if

and x+y

a.

[Math. Tripos.]

Ob

Solve the equations:

127.

(1)

xy + 6

2x-x2, xy-9

(2) {ax)^a
Find

128.

(1)
,

the

{by)^h,bXo"x

limitingvalues

\fx2
+ "2

"

"

\/Za+

x-

alo%y.

of

when

oc

rr

"

"

*JxA
+ a4,when

\fa+ 2x"\/3x
?""

(2)

2y-y2.

x"a.

tt

[London University.]

2sjx

whose productis 192, and the quotient

129. There are two numbers
of their greatest
common
of the arithmetical by the harmonical
mean
find
the
numbers.
is
and least common
measure
multiple 3f| :
[R. M. A. Woolwich.]

MISCELLANEOUS

Solve the

130.

following
equations:

(1) yiar +

37-

(2) 6Vl-22

\/l

#2 +

J/l3.r-37=
J/2.

c\/l-y2 ",
=

"

Vl

22=

6,

a*Jl-y2+ b*Jl-x2=c.
that the

Prove

131.

1.3

24)4

of the
infinity

to

sum

1.3.5
+

"

2^3

503

EXAMPLES.

.23

series

2
,n

~Wb

1S

"

[Math. Tripos.]

24

of three digitsis doubled by reversing

132. A number
consisting
that
will hold for the number
the digits;
the
same
formed
prove
by
and also that such a number
the firstand last digits,
be found in
can
only one scale of notation out of every three.
[Math. Tripos.]
Find

133.

the coefficients of x12 and

xr in the

productof

1+x3

135.

Prove

[R-M.

A.

Woolwich.]

purchaseris to take a plot of land frontinga street ; the

and three times its frontageadded to twice
plotis to be rectangular,
its depth is to be 96 yards. What
is the greatestnumber
of square
he
take
?
yards
[London University.]
may

134.

an(* 1 -*+*""

2ui_

n_

(a+ b +
(a+ b +

+
-

that

dy + (a+ b-c-dy + (a-b + c-dy

d)* (a + b c + d)A (a b+c+df
-

+
-

(a-b-c + d)*
(- a + b + c + d)*
=

192 abed.

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
Find the values of a, b, c which
will make
each of the expressions
xt + aaP + bx'Z+ cx+l
and xA + 2ax3 + 2bx2 + 2cx + 1 a perfect

136.

[London University.]

square.
Solve the

137.

(1)

equations:

4^S

(2) \j2x2+\+ \l"

^=65.

3(

V3
138.
less per

by the

farmer
head; the

same

two

sold 10
sum

sheep at

2 j--

certain

priceand 5 others at 10*.

was
expressedin pounds
sheep.

he received for each lot

: find
digits

the

priceper

504

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

139.

Sum

to

terms

(1) (2"~l)+2(2"-3)+3(2"-5)+....

140.
that

(2)

The

squares

(3)

The

odd terms

If
3

/3,y

a,

of the terms

of the series in

1,3,6, 10, 15

(2). [Trin.Coll. Camb.]

roots of the

the

are

of the series

+ y5)
(a2+ /32+ y2)(a5+ /35

equationx3 + qx + r=0
(a3+ /33+ y3)(a4+ "4+ y4).

[StJohn's
141.

Solve the

Coll.

prove

Camb.]

equations:

(1) a?(%-5)= 41
y(2A + 7) 27J'

(2)A3+y3 + z3 495)
ar+y+*=15V.
Ay2=105 )
=

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
If a,
equationwhose

b,c

142.

143.

the roots of the

are

roots

Sum

are

the series

b-c, b +

(2)

(3)

6 + 9 + 14 + 23 + 40 +

(n-l)x
x

2x2

"

a,

0,form the

+ a-b.

(1)

equationx3 + qx2+r

+ xn-1;
(?i-2)x2+...+2zn-2

28^4

1 6a-3
-

..

676a5 +

to

...

to

infinity
;

terms.

[Oxford Mods.]
144.

Eliminate

a, y,

from

x-i+y-i
.v2+
and shew that if a, y,
be equalto d.

z2

y2+

z-1

equations
a~1, x+y

+
c2, A3+3/3

all finite and

are

the

145. The roots of the

all unequal: find them.

"r3
=

+ z=b.

c?3,

numericallyunequal,b cannot
[R. M. A. Woolwich.]

equation3a2(a2+ 8)+ 16(a-3 1) 0 are not

[R. M. A. Woolwich.]
-

146. A traveller set out from a certain place,

and went
1 mile the
first day,3 the second,5 the next,and so on, goingevery day 2 miles
than he had gone the precedingday. After he had been gone
more
three days,a second sets out,and travels 12 miles the first day,13 the
In how many
second,and so on.
days will the second overtake the
first? Explainthe double answer.
147.

Find the value of

11111

1
""

3+

2+

1+

3+

2+

1+

MISCELLANEOUS

Solve the

148.

505

EXAMPLES.

equation

x3 + 3ax2 + 3

(a2 be)as +
-

a3 + b3 + c3

Zabc

0.

[India Civil Service.]

If

149.

+ by prove
multipleof

is
that

prime

an~2b

"

number
which
an~:ib2 + an~ib3

will divide
"

...+abn~2

the ?tthterm and the sum

to n terms
is (1 abx2){\ ax)~2(l bx)~2.
to infinity

sum

b,nor
exceeds by 1 a

[StJohn's

n.

Find

150.

neither

"

",

Coll.

Camb.]

of the series whose

"

[Oxford Mods.]
If a,

151.

b,c

whose
equation
1

the roots of the equationx3 + px + q

b2 + c2 c2 + a2 a2 + b2

are

roots

are

"

-,

"

0, find the

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
Prove

152.

(y+

that

2xY + (z+ x-2y)i+ (x+i/-2z)i

z-

(x2+ y2+

18

z2- yz

zx

[Clare Coll.
Solve the

153.

4t4

xy)2.

Camb.]

equations:

(1 ) x3- 20x 4-133

(2) x5

0, by Cardan's method.

KU-3 + 40.i'2
+ 9x -36

0,havingroots of the form

"b, c.

a,

It is found that the quantityof work done by a man

in an
his
hour
varies directly
and
the square
as
as
inversely
pay per
of hours he works per day. He can
root of the number
finish a piece
of work in six days when working 9 hours a day at Is. per hour.
How
will
he
take
finish
to
the
work
when
same
days
pieceof
working
many
16 hours a day at Is. 6d. per hour ?

154.

hour

If sn denote the

155.

to

sum

1.2 + 2.3

and

that to

o^-!

"

3.4+...,

of the series

1 terms
1

that

2.3.4.5

1.2.3.4

shew

of the series

terms

1 8sncrnx
_

3.4.5.6
sn + 2

-"'

0.

[Magd. Coll. Ox.]

156.

Solve the

equations:

(1) (12a?-l)("p-l)(4a?-l)("e-l)=5.
(2)
^
;

I fo+^fo-S)
5

(x+ 2)(x 4)
-

1
+

(x+3)(x-5)
(x+ 4)(x- 6)

_2_(a?+5)(a?-7) 92
""

13

{x+ 6)(*

[StJohn's

8)

Coll.

585

Camb.]

506

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

worth "250, but it

A cottage at the beginningof a year was
end
of
each
the
at
that
found
was
by dilapidations
year it lost ten per
of
each
the
it
had
at
value
beginning
cent, of the
year : after what
be
reduced below "25 ?
number of years would the value of the cottage
Given log103 -4771213.
[R.M. A. Woolwich.]

157.

158.

that the infinite series

Shew

1.4.7.10

1.4.7

1.4

4.8

ll?
i+?_l
+
+
6

4.8.12

4.8.12.16

+
6

12

12

11

2.5.8.

2.5.8
+

18

12

18

159.

24+

'""

'

[Peterhouse, Camb.]

equal.

are

'"'

the

Prove

x(x

identity
a)

x{x

a)(x /3)
-

~aPy~

a/3

x(x+ a)

[
a

a(5

x(x + a)(x+ p)
a/3-y

\
J

_x" x2(x2-a2) x2(x2-a2)(x2-^)+""""

_

"2/92"2

"2R2

a2(32y

a2^2

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
160.

If

is a

integergreaterthan 1,shew that

positive
n*-57i3 + 60n2-56n

is

multipleof

[Wadham

120.

Coll.

Ox.]

of persons were
engaged to do a pieceof work
at
which
occupiedthem 24 hours if they had commenced
at equal
the same
time; but instead of doing so, they commenced
the
whole
tillthe
work
was
to
finished,
continued
intervals and then
first
the
each
comer
done
:
to the work
by
payment beingproportional
received eleven times as much as the last ; find the time occupied.
A number
would have

161.

162.

Solve the

equations:
-7

(1)

x2-S

y2-3

x3+f

(2) y2+ z2_x{]/+ z) a^

=

z2+ x2

"

x'2-t-y2z
-

(z+x) b2,
=

(x+3/)
=

c2.

[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]

508

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

is divisible

Shew
that ?t7-7n5+14?i3-8?i
integernot less than 3.
171.

2
+ 1 2y + *Jy+
(1) six1

,~x

(2)

-^

=a,

",

y(u

"

z)

"

x(u-z)J
c,

"

2-W

"

is

an

33, x+y=2S.

I2x=

z(y-x)'

u(y-x)
^
"

equations:

Solve the

172.

by 840, if

"

7
d.

-^-y

[Math. Tripos.]
If

173.

be the

of

sum

"

then
positive
unequalquantities
a, b,c...,

="

"

"

[Math. Tripos.]

...

174. A merchant
bought a quantityof cotton ; this he exchanged
that the number
of cwt. of cotton,
for oil which he sold. He observed
of gallonsof oil obtained for each cwt.,and the number
of
the number
for which he sold each gallonformed a descendinggeometrical
shillings
of
progression.He calculated that if he had obtained one cwt. more
of
oil
for
each
for
each
and
Is.
more
one
more
gallon
cotton,
cwt.,
gallon,he would have obtained "508. 9s. more ; whereas if he had
obtained one cwt. less of cotton,one gallonless of oil for each cwt.,and
he would have obtained ."483. 13s. less : how
Is. less for each gallon,
much
did he actually
receive ?
Prove that

175.
2

(b+

x)*(b c)(a-x)
-

16

(b-c)(c- a)(a-b)(x- a)(x b)(x c).

-

[JesusColl. Camp,.]
176.

If a, /3,y

equation whose

are

roots

the roots of the

are

^-~
"

"

If any number
shew
that the
together,

"

-.

177.

equationst?" paP+r =0,

find the

TR. M. A. Woolwich.]

of factors of the form a2 + b2 are

product can be expressedas the

multiplied
sum

of two

squares.

Given that (a2+ b2)(c2

+ d2)(e2+f2)(c/2
+ h'2)=p2
+ q2,find p and q in
terms
of a, 6,c, d, e,f,
[London University.]
g, h.
178.

Solve the

equations
x2+y2=6l, a*-y*=91.

179.
papers

number

[R. M.

A.

A man
in which
goes in for an Examination
with a maximum
of m
marks
for each paper;
of ways of getting2m marks
the whole is
on

(m +

1 )(2m2+ Am

3).

Woolwich.]

there are four

shew that the

[Math. Tripos.]

MISCELLANEOUS

509

EXAMPLES.

If a, j3 are the roots of "8+jw?+l=0, and y, S .are the roots

+ 8) J2 jo2.
qx+l=0; shew that (a y)(/3y)(a+ 8)(/3

180.
of x2 +

[R.M.
that if am be the coefficient of xm
Shew
whatever
then
n be,
(1+#)*,

in the

181.

(n~l)(n
A
".,-...+(-l)--1"m_1 ^

"

,s

"0-"1

Woolwich.]

A.

2)...(n-m

expansionof
+ l).

|w;_^ 2U(-i)--i.
[New

Coll.

"

Ox.]

the
is the product of three prime factors,
A certain number
There are
of whose
7560 numbers
sum
(including
squares is 2331.
than
the
number
and
The
of
which
less
to
sum
it.
are
prime
unity)
Find
the
the
is
and
number
its divisors (including
10560.
unity
itself)

182.

number.

two

[Corpus Coll. Camb.]

183. Form an equationwhose roots shall be the

of the roots of the equationx3
ax2 + hx + c
0.
Solve

productsof

every

the equation
completely

2afi+ xA +

+ 2

1 2x* + 1 2x2.

[R.M.
Prove that if n is

184.

-'(n-4)n-

+
and
185. If (6V6 + 14)2n
1=:jr,
+
=202"t
NF
1.
that
prove

Solve the

(1) x+y+z

Woolwich.]

positive
integer,

nn-n(n-2)n+

186.

A.

2B[w.

be the fractional part of N,

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

if F

equations:
=

2, x2+y2 + z2

0, x3+y3 + z3=

1.

(2) x*-(y-z)2 a2,y2-(z-x)2 b2,z2-{x-y)2=cK

=

Coll. Camb.]
[Christ's
187.
was

15

generalelection the whole number of Liberals returned

the number
of English Conservatives,the whole
more
of English
than twice the number
5 more
of Conservatives was
At

than

number
the
the same
as
of Scotch Conservatives was
Liberals. The number
and the Scotch Liberal majoritywas
equal
number of Welsh Liberals,
Irish
the
to
and
number
Welsh
was
the
of
twice
to
Conservatives,
10
was
Liberal majorityas 2 : 3. The English Conservative majority
number
of
The whole
of Irish members.
than the whole number
more
returned by Scotch constituencies.
60 were
members
was
652, of whom
land,
of each party returned by England, Scotland,IreFind the numbers
and

188.

Wales,respectively.
Shew

that a5 (c
-

[StJohn's

Coll.

Camb.]

b)+ b5(a c)+ " (b a)

(b- c){c a)(a b)(2a3+ 2a*b + abc).
-

510

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

189.

Prove that

a3

3c*2

3a

a2

a2 + 2a

2a+l

2a+l

"

+ 2

13

190.

If

"

unless
progression,

191.

a"b

Solve the

=0,

.r4 Ax2

8x -f 35

Two numbers
192.
by the relations 3a1
from alf bxin the same
b,and prove that when
x

+y +

"

+
so

root

ceeds
ex-

two

A. Woolwich.]

others av
more
a2,

2b;

two

on

find an,

root is

one

[R. M.

bn in

b"are

formed

b2 are

formed
of a and

terms

[R.M. A.

an"bn.
infinite,

is

given;

and

manner,

+ w

-+(w+ a;)2
yz (w

mr

one

2.

\/-~3.

are

2"x+6, 3bl

by

0, havinggiventhat

and

0, having given that

2 +

If

in harmonical

are

equations:
5x + 189
another root

193.

b,c

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]

(1) .r3- 13#2+1

(2)

that a,

prove

c"b

[Ball.Coll. Ox.]

+ c.

(a-l)"

Woolwich.]

0, shew that

x)2+ wy(w+y)2
zx(io yf + wz(w + z)2+

xy

(w

+ 4xyzw
z)2

0.

[Math. Tripos.]
be -a2

a
be not altered in value by interchanging
a2 + fc2
+ c2
pairof the letters a, b,c not equal to each other,it will not be altered
if a + b + c=\.
by interchanging
any other pair;and it will vanish

194.

If

[Math. Tripos.]
On a quadrupleline of rails between
two
195.
and
and
two
down
trains
start
two
at 6.0
6.45,
up
If the four trains (regardedas points)all
8.30.
find the following
equationsbetween
simultaneously,
rates in miles per hour,
Am

*53/i)
"VO

where

196.

is the number
Prove

^-4

Jb

-+-1 Ox,

-t

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]

of miles in AB.

terms
that,rejecting
*

Am

+ 5#o

termini A and By
trains at 7.15 and
another
pass one
xlt x2, x3i x4, their

(1~y)

i+V(i -#) (i-y)

l+

of the third and

higherorders,

3y2).
^+y) ^(3.*2
^
+

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]

MISCELLANEOUS

that the

Shew

197.

a,

"

productsof

b,a -2b,

two

togethervanishes
2)(m + 1)6.

taken two and

and 2a
(3m
=

of the

sum

511

EXAMPLES.

the series

{n-l)b,

"

when

is of the form

3m8"

1,

If n is even, and a + /3,a-/3 are the middle

pair of terms,
is
of the cubes of an arithmetical progression
that the sum

198.
shew

na{a2+ (w2-l)/32}.
If ",

199.

b,c

are

real

shew
positive
cpiantities,
g8 + 68+ C8

111
a

that

a3b3c3

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
time for a town a miles distant ;
200. A, B, and C start at the same
A walks at a uniform rate of u miles an hour,and B and C drive at a
After a certain time B dismounts
uniform
hour.
rate of v miles an
and walks forward at the same
pace as A, while C drives back to meet
with C and they drive after B enteringthe
A J A gets into the carriage
time that he does : shew that the whole time occupied
town at the same
3v +

was

rT.

'

3u+v

-.

r.

Camb.]
[Peterhouse,
L
J

hours.

board.
The streets of a cityare arranged like the lines of a chessThere are m streets running north and south, and n east and
travel from the
of ways in which
Find the number
can
a man
west.
shortest
distance.
the
S.E.
the
to
N.W.
possible
corner, going

201.

[Oxford Mods.]
Solve the

202.

equation*/x

+ 27 +

55

x"

4.

[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
ab +
the

that in the series

Shew

203.

(a+ x)(b+ x)+ (a+ 2x)(b+ 2x)+

of the sum
is to the excess

excess

terms

Find

204.

the nth

of the last n terms

of the last term over

to 2

terms,

of the first
the sum
1
the first as rilto 2n

over

"

convergent to

205.

{a-x)Hy-zy
=

{a-yf{z-xY

{a-zY{x-yY

2{{a-yf{a-zf{x-yf(x-zf+{a-z)'i{a-xf{y-zf{y-xY
^(a-xf{a-yf{z-xf{z-yf}.
[Peterhouse,Camb.]

512

HIGHER

206.

If a, #, y

the roots of x3

are

ma
ma

in terms

of m, n, q,

"

qx+r

m{3 +

my+n

m(3

my

0, find the value of

"

[Queens'Coll. Camb.]

r.

one
person out of 46 is said to die every year,
be
If there were
of
born.
33
out
to
in how
one
no
emigration,
would
the
double
this
at
Given
itself
?
rate
population
many
years

207.

In

ALGEBRA.

England

and

log2
208.

'3010300,log1531

If

(1+

x2)n

7i

unless

is

(n

a^c2+

'

0"
(-1)rr!
(n-r)\a"

"r-2-

-y72~

3-1812718.

prove that

1)

"

multipleof 3.

3-1849752,log1518

a0 + axx +

"P-war-i

What

is its value in this

case

[St John's

1
Coll.

Camb.]

209. In a mixed
consistingof Poles,Turks, Greeks,
company
Germans
and Italians,
the Poles are one
less than one-third of the
number
of Germans, and three less than half the number
of Italians.
The Turks
and Germans
outnumber
the Greeks and Italians by 3;
the Greeks and Germans
form one
less than half the company
; while
the Italians and Greeks form seven-sixteenths of the company
mine
: deterthe number
of each nation.
210.

Find the

of the
infinity

to

sum

series whose nth term

is

(n+ l)n-1(?i+2)-1(-x)n+1. [Oxford Mods.]

211.

If

is

integer,
positive
prove

n(n2-l)(n2-22)

n(n2-l)
+

that

|2J_3

[2

n{n2-l){n2-V)
;

*K

(n2-r2)
~k

\r \r + l

'

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

212.

Find

the

of the series :

sum

(1) 6,24, 60, 120,210, 336,

(2)

9x + 16x2

1.3

(3) -x
213.

Solve the

25^3 + 36^

3. 55.
+

^r

to
-

49^

7. 9

to inf.

tomf-

^3-+-^r +

equation

terms.

Ax

Qx + 2

8#+l

6x + 2

9.r + 3

12#

12.r

l6x + 2

8.r+l

=0.

[King'sColl. Camb.]

214.

Shew

513

EXAMPLES.

MISCELLANEOUS

that

+ c2(l+rt2)"6"6^
(1) a2(l+ ^2)+ ^2(l+c2)
+
+
+ "
+ 6',+ C"+...)(^+^
"+...)"(","
+ Z)P " + ^
(2) ?2(rtP

the number
215.

of

C^+...),

quantities
a, 6,c,... beingn.

Solve the

equations
a{y + z)+ a\
zx=a(z+x) +/3".

yz

a(x+y)

xi/

216.

If

be

y\

prime number, prove

[Trin. Coll.

Camb.]

that

2^-1+^+3f4"-^!U...+("-l)

l(2"-^l)

is divisible

by n.

[Queen'sColl. Ox.]

217.

In a shootingcompetitiona
each shot: find the number
for
points
30 in 7 shots.
can
score

man

5, 4, 3, 2, or 0

score

can

in which

of different ways

he

[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]

bx3 + ex2 + dx
Prove that the expression
x"
of
and
a
a
completecube if
completesquare
product
218.

will be

the

126_9^_5e_^
"

c2

A bag contains 6 black balls and an unknown

number, not
and not
greaterthan six,of white balls; three are drawn successively
replacedand are all found to be white; prove that the chance that

219.

ft*7*7
a

black ball will be drawn

220.
squares

Shew

that

the

next is

sum

jr"r

of the

of the firstn whole numbers

[JesusColl. Camb.]

productsof

is

"

pair

every

of the

+ G).
n(n2 l)(4?i2l)(5?i
"

"

[CaiusColl. Camb.]
221.

If

+
x

that

"

"

'4."_i

"

x-b

a(b-c) "/3 (c-a)"y (a- b)

=

222.

Prove

that when

^=o

has

equal roots, prove

x-c

is a

0.

integer,
positive

""-"X"-4)8..,
".2.-..^y-.+
(n-4)("-5)("-6)
",_,.

j3

"

,
+"-

[ClareColl. Camb.]
H. H.A.

33

514

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

equations:

Solve the

223.

(1) .r2+ 2yz

(2)

.v+y

?
+

by+

+ b+

7G.

S- 3

+
f
b

ax

%xy + 3

+ 2z.r =g"+

if-

c
cz

bc +

+ ab

ca

[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
to

line be joined
224. Prove that if each of m pointsin one straight
terminated
l
ines
the
another
in
of
then,
straight
points,
each
by
n
by

the lines will intersect -mn{m-\){n"\)

excludingthe given points,

[Math. Tripos.]

times.

Having giveny

225.

y +
and

shew

+ x1 + r",

in the form

ay2+ by3+ eyi+ dys+

3abc + 2b3=

that a2d-

expand

[Ball.Coll. Ox.]

1.

than

he bought
sheep; altogether

47 animals.

exceeded that of the calves by as many

sheep as
of animals of each kind.
for "9 : find the number

Expresslog2

227.

in the form
1

1+

1+

(1245
'

!" ;

Test

+
2

six papers are set,and to each are

Shew
that the number
of ways
fortyper cent, of the whole number

143)

1144
i

"

-,
[Oxford
Mods.]
L
J

,f

for convergency

x*_
1JJ x* 1.3.5.7
2.4"6"+2.4.6.8,10+

1.3.5.7.9.11

2.4.G.8.10.12*

Shew
also that the
for its rth term the sum

of

sum

of

4 (2*
-

terms

1)+

x*_
+
14

term, and

the nth
Find the scale of relation,
of the recurring
series 1 + 6 + 40 + 288 +

230.
terms

r~

[139+ll"-|38j

[5{[240
229.

[Euler.]

1+

'

r
6"

fraction

n2

32
1+

228. In a certain examination

assigned 100 marks as a maximum.
obtain
in which a candidate may
of marks is
II

of the infinitecontinued

22
1+

in

buying calves,
pig and "2 more
of pigs
The number
he could have bought

of money
226. A farmer spent three equal sums
than a
calf
cost
Each
"1
more
pigs,and sheep.

the

of the series formed

of this series is

terms

i (2*

1)
-

sum

of

by taking

[CaiusColl.

Camb.

516

HIGHER

240.

Shew

that the

equation

is]
ax +
reduces

to

ALGEBRA.

\]bx+ /3+ *Jex

+ y

simpleequationif fJa"s/b"fJc

0.

Solve the

equation

\f6x2
-

V4.r2

1 5.i- 7 +
-

8x

11

\/2x2

5#+ 5

2#

3.

contains 3 red and 3 green balls,

and a person draws
He then drops 3 blue balls into the bag,and again
that he may
Shew
out 3 at random.
draws
just lay 8 to 3 with
the
latter
balls being all of different
3
advantage to himself against

241.

out

bag

3 at random.

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

colours.
of the fifth powers

242. Find the sum

at lx2 + 4x
3
0.
243.

a,

Harmonica!

and

Geometrical

rth terms
ptYl,
qth,

equation

[London University.]

of the roots of the

b,c

Progressionhave the

a(b-c)\oga

(e-a) logb + c(a-b)\ogc

same

that

: shew
respectively

0.

[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
Find four numbers
such that the sum
of the first,
third and
of the squares of the
fourth exceeds that of the second by 8 ; the sum
of the squares of the third and fourth
firstand second exceeds the sum
the
of
the
sum
products of the first and second,and of the
by 36;
third and fourth is 42 ; the cube of the firstis equalto the sum
of the
and fourth.
cubes of the second,third,

244.

series
245. If Tw Tn + l, Tn+2 be 3 consecutive terms of a recurring
connected by the relation Tn + fi aTn + l bTn, prove that
=

1 {T\ 1-aTnTn
+

246.

Eliminate

x, y,

from

"

+ 1

bTn*}=a

the

constant.

equations:

1
"+-+-

=-,

Xs +

y3 +

z3

.r*+y2+

02

Z"2

d3.

a
=

c3,

xyz

[Emm.
247.

Shew

that the roots of the

x*

are

in

proportion. Hence

"

px3 + ox2

equation
-

solve .r4
"

Coll.

rx

"

"

1 2.r3+ 47.^2
"

72.r + 36

0.

Camb.]

MISCELLANEOUS

517

EXAMPLES.

hit a targetfour times in 5 shots; U three times in 1

A can
and
0 twice in 3 shots. They fire a volley:
what
is the proshots;
that two shots at least hit? And
if two hit what is the proliability
that it is C who has missed?
bility
[St Cath. Coll. Camb.]

248.

249.

followingseries

each of the

Sum

(1) 1+0-1+0

+ 7 + 28 + 70+

terms:

l-"

2-2

(2)

to

6-23

"""
,

.
.

I.2.3.4T2.3.4.5T3.4.5.6T4.5.6.7

(3)

3 +

9x* + x3 + 33x*

a* +

1 29^; +

Public

[Second
Solve the

250.

x2 +

If

251.

xy+y2

"

+ x* =

zx

ay,

vG + 5

and

"

a+b+cJ

is

odd

an

shew
integer,
"

bn

tt"("2 v2)+
-

an + bn + cn'

cn

4md

u*v *)

(1

0, prove that

(w2-v2)6=16^V(l-w8)(l" p8). [Pemb.Coll.

252.

If

x+y-\-z=3pJ

(y+
and

+2
(.'/

253.

Find

x)(z+

~"

yz +

zx

+ xy

y)(x+y

x)3+ (s+

the

that

1
7-"

aH

Ox.]

(2) x(g + z-x) a,

y(z + x -y) b,\
z (."/
z) c.
+y
[Peterhoisk, Camb.]

az.)

111
+

If u6

Exam.

equations:

(1) y2+yz + z2=ax,\

z2+

'

"

3q, xyz

z)
=

linear
factors,

..

that

r, prove

+ 36pg
27js3

y)3+ (#+#

Cai

8r,

*')327j93 24/-.
=

in x, y, z, of

+ by2+ cz2).
{a(b+ c)x2 + b(c+ a)y2+ c(a + b)z2}2 Aabc (x2+y2 + z2)(ax2
[Caius Coll. Camb.]
-

254.

Shew

that

"

\ x+y+z

255.

By

means

of the

".r*yy.s""(^
J
3
\
[St John's

\l
identity

'

Coll.

Camb.]

"

,"-

"

prove

that

r=n

*r=1"1;

"

r!(r-l)!("-r)!
[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

518

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

256.

Solve the

equations:

+ bj.+
(1) ax-\-by+z=zx-\-ay-\-b=yz

(2)

If

-fy +z

agree with

"

placeswill

this

~u

"=

unity as

0.

12,\

far

the rthdecimal

as

approximationin generalbe

place,to

correct ?

how

many

[Math. Tripos.]

258. A ladybought 54 lbs. of tea and coffee ; if she had bought

five-sixths of the quantity of tea and four-fifths of the quantity of
coffee she would have spent nine-elevenths
of what
she had actually
spent; and if she had bought as much tea as she did coffee and vicehave spent 5s. more
than she did. Tea is more
pensive
exversa, she would
and the priceof 6 lbs. of coffee exceeds that of
than coffee,
2 lbs. of tea by 5s. ; find the priceof each.
259.
numbers

If sn representthe sum
of the
taken two at a time,then

J2 +

11

3!

4!

productsof
11

v_i
+
n\

the first n natural

~2l6'
[CaiusColl. Camb.]

260.

If

pa2 + 2qab +
prove that P, p ;
the equalities.

261.
an

+ 3

If

j8n+

Q, q

rb2

; and

pac +

R,

"
q (be a2) rab

may

"

be

"

pc2 2qca+
"

ra2

'

interchangedwithout altering

[Math. Tripos.]

j8+

0, shew that

+ j8B+ 7n)+
yM+3 a/3y(an
=

^(a2
/32 "8)(aw1+/3"
+

+ 1

+
y" 1).

[CaiusColl. Camb.]
262.

If

a,

/3,y, 8 be the
x*

find in terms

roots

of the

+pa? + qx2+

rx

equation
+

of the coefficientsthe value of

0,

2(a-/3)2(y-S)2.
[London University.]

MISCELLANEOUS

519

EXAMPLES.

of turkeys,geese, and
263. A farmer bought a certain number
ducks, givingfor each bird as many
there were
birds of
as
shillings
he bought 23 birds and spent "10. 11*.;find
that kind; altogether
the number

264.

of each kind

that the

Prove

that he bought.
*o*

equation

"y)i+(#+y8^
(y+z-8xfi+(z+x
-

is equivalent
to the

0,

equation

[StJohn's
265.

If the

equation
1

equal roots,then
the quantities c

are

then

a,

"

H
+

either

of the

one

or

d, or else

a,'

:
'

b,

+
abed

b,0

"

Camb.]
pair of
L

b is

or

+ b

+ d

equal to

one

of

also that the roots

Prove

0,' 0,
'

or

a
quantities

have

x+b

Coll.

[Math. Tripos.]
266.

Solve the

(1)

(2)

ay

+ y +

equations
:

by+

ab, x-l
cz

bzx +

y-1 +
cz

ax

z-l
=

a-1b, xyz=az.

cxy +

a. ";+

by

[Second Public
267.

Find the

simplestform

of the

+ b+

Exam.

c.

Oxford.]

expression
*

+""

,+...

^"

""

(a-j8)(a-y)(a-*)(a-*) (0- a)((3

-y)(/3 S)(/3c)
-

^_

'

(*-".)("
8)
-/3)(e-7)(e-

[London University.]
of Clergymen, Doctors, and
268. In a company
Lawyers it is
fcund that the sum
of the ages of all present is 2160; their average
a;e is 36; the average
age of the Clergymen and Doctors is 39; of the
1 octors and Lawyers 32^; of the Clergymen and Lawyers 36f. If
each Clergyman had
been
1 year, each
Lawyer 7 years, and each
Doctor 6 years older,their average age would
have been greater by
of each profession
5 years : find the number
present and their average
ages.

269.

Find

the

condition,
among

that the
its coefficients,

expression

+ Aa^xhf
+ -i't...ry3
+ "4"y4
+ Ga.sv-yciyX*

should

be reducible

in
expressions

to the

and y.

sum

of the fourth

powers

of two

linear

[London University.]

520

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

the real roots of the

Find

270.

equations

x2 + v2

-\-w2=a2, vw-hu{y + z)=^bc,

y2-f w2

+ u2

z2 +u2 +v2

b2,

(z+x)=ca,

wu

uv

w(x+y)=ab.

=c2,

[Math. Tripos.]
consonant or group of consonants
stand immediatelybetween a strong and a weak vowel ; the strong
can
that the
vowels e and i. Shew
vowels being a, o, u ; and the weak
which
be
formed
whole number of Gaelic words of n + 3 letters each,
can
It is

271.

rule in Gaelic that

no

2 1ft + 3

of

and the vowels

consonants

is

aeo

"

where

"

"

no

letter is

ft
re-

+2

peatedin
272.

the

Shew
2x

where

r,

word.

same

that if

[Caius Coll. Camb.]

x2+y2

2z2,where

+ 2lk-k2), 2y
r{l2

I,and k

x, y,

Find

are

[Caius Coll. Camb.]

integers.

are

5+

7+

the value of

to

"

1+

then
integers,

r(k2+ 2lk-l2), 2z=r(l2+ k2)

112

273.

1+

3+

inf.

[Christ'sColl. Camb.]
274.

the series

Sum
"-2

(1)

2.1-3

3.^
.

2.3

"

a+l

"

B
to inf.

[2

[ft

(a+ l)(a+ 2)

Solve the

(1) 2^

4.5

3.4

|1

(2) -^
275.

+ 3

+
+ n)
(a+ l)(a+ 2)...(a

equations:
(2^-l)(3y+ l)(42-l)+ 12
+ l)+
(2x+l)(3y- l)(4g

(2)
276.

3ux

Shew

-2oy
that

vx

+ uy

a2

3u2 + 2v2

14 ; xy

ab

ac

ad

b2 + X

be

bd

ac

be

c2+ X

cd

ad

bd

cd

d2 + \

ab

is divisible by X3 and find the other factor.

80

0.

10"v.

[Corpus Coll. Camb.]

277.

find the

If c,

the roots of the

b,c,... are

equation

of os+6s+c8+..., and shew

sum

b'2

a"
""

a*

c2

I/2

(t

521

EXAMPLES.

MISCELLANEOUS

that

c2

Pn-iOr

-2/*.,)

2"n

[St John's
278.

the

Hy

expansionof

otherwise,
prove

or

j-g

-cVo.-(-l),

"

1.2.3.4
n

is

and
integer,

an

that

lT273
+

wlien

Camb.]

(3/t-2)(3/t-3)(3w-4)

(3m-1) (3m-2)

l-3"+

1 + 2a'
j ,

Coll.

the series stopsat the firstterm

that vanishes.

[Math. Tripos.]
and B went
out shooting and
brought
of the number
of the squares
of shots was
of shots fired by each was
48
2880, and the product of the numbers
birds
killed
of
the
of
had
numbers
times the product
by each. If A
fired as often as B and B as often as A, then B would have killed 5
of birds killed by each.
birds than A : find the number
more

279.

sportsmen A

Two

10 birds.

home

280.

The

Prove

sum

that 8

9 (a2+ be)
"
+ ab).
(b2+ ca)(e*
("3+ 6s + c3)2

[Pemb.Coll. Cams.]
281.

Shew

that the nlh

2
3-

What

convergent to

4-

5-

is the limit of this when

282.

If

"

2"+1

is

'"
...

2-

2"2r(n-r)\
is infinite?

'

[Kino'sColl. Camb.]

is the ?ithconvergent to the continued

fraction

111111

b+

a+

shew

that p3n

+ 3

b+

a+

c+

c-\-

[Queens' Coll. Camb.]

bp3n+ (bc+l)q3n.

Out

of n straight
lines whose lengthsare 1, 2, 3, ...n
the
four may be chosen
of
number
respectively,
ways in which
will form a quadrilateral
in which a circle may be inscribed is

283.

-L {2n(/i
-

2)(2* 5)
-

3 + 3

1 )"}
.

inches
which

[Math. Tripos.]

522

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

of the squares
it,prove that

the arithmetic means

If u2, u3 are respectively
less than n and
cubes of all numbers
prime to

284.
and
?i3
"

6nu2 + 4m3

If

285.

0, unitybeingcounted

is of the form

"m

is divisible by x2+y2 + z2-yz

shew that it is divisible by

1 shew

zx-xy;

"

2
y + z2 -yz

(x2+

as

Coll.

)2.

xy

"

of the
of the mth powers, P the sum
If S is the sum
togetherof the n quantities
an, shew that
alt a2, a3,

286.

Camb.]

that {y z)n+ (z- x)n+ (x y)n

and if n is of the form 6m +1,

zx

"

prime.
[St John's

products

...

\n-

!n

"

\jm P.

[Gaius Coll. Camb.]

that if the

Prove

287.

x3 + qx-r

and

equations
rx3

?'2=Q

2q2x2 5qrx 2q3

"

"

"

"

have a common
root,the first equationwill have a pairof equalroots ;
and if each of these is a, find all the roots of the second equation.

[IndiaCivil Service.]
If

288.
where

V2a2

a2 stands for

(x+y

*/2a2
-Sy2 +

Sx2 +y

z)(-x+y

z)(x-y + z)(x+y-z) Q.
[Thin.Coll. Camb.]

satisfythe following

Find the values of x{, x2, ...xn which

system of simultaneous equations:
289.

/C\)

til

ax

bx Oj

ax-bn~

b2

"

X.,

x\

a1

Xr,

+...+

^2

Cl2
~~

a2

an

bn

x,

OC-%
-

that

x2+y' + z2,prove
+

\/2a2 3z2 0,

bx

an

bo

+ ...+

an

[London University.]
Shew

290.

that

yz
zx

xy
where

r2

xl

y2

"

z2

zx

yL

xy -z2
x2
yz
zx

yzzx

"

x2+y2 + z2,and u2=yz +

xy

z-

x*

y2

xy.

[Trin. Coll.

Camb.]

524

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

if

that

Shew

298.

ax+yz

three

the

of

products

and

positive

are

unequal,

zx+by+z=Q,

0,

real

of

triads

distinct

three

give

b,

a,

for

and

equations

the

ratio

yz+zx+c=0,

values

of

values

the

x,

is

y,

(b

and

c)

{c

a).

[Oxford

If

299.

B=by-czC

that

prove

(a2

b2 +

c2) (ax

as

the

and

exercise

respectively,
the

that
on

the

the

time

exercise

daily

work

manuscript

first
he
and

day,
had

work.

first

day

contained

and

72000

counted

on

62000

his

with

the

last
words

usual

day
:

find

and
his

he

that

usual

worked
of

hour

he

by

daily

day

per

found

He

quantity.

that

words,

232000

counted
the
amount

had

jointly

varied

amount

and

mile

old

an

hours

the

increased
of

rate

of

z2).

he

kind

same

number

the

decipher

daily

read

could

gradually
the

at

the

beginning

and

walked

therefore

He

day.

the

during

he

miles

of

number

the

of

Oxford.]

Exam.

to

necessary

he

words

of

number

the

that

observed

cz) (x2 +y2

Public

experiences

previous

During

manuscript.

it

found

student

certain

by

[Second

300.

bx,

2DEF

az,

ay

Mods.]

cy,

ex

F=

by,

CF2

BE?

AD2

ABC-

ax

E=

ax,

cz-

D=bz

-by-cz,

ax

the

of

end

12000
of
of

half

daily

ANSWERS.

Paces

I.
1.

(1) 546

11,
*

: a.

(3) bx

7.

5.

10.

(2) 9

ay.

13.

ZQ.
*-,or^-"i
=

10"12.

-3,4,1.

(e2 a2), "

II.

385, 600.

3.

3 : 5.

7,3,2.

be(b-c)tca(c-a),ab(a-b).

5 : 6 or

22.

26.

6.

abc+2fgh-af*-bg*-cti"=0.

25.

21.

18.

17.

3,4,1.
" a (62 c2),"

20.

2.

3,4,1.

23.

(a2 ft2).

Pages

19,

20.
z3

'

45

2.

0
o,
u, 5-

13
li.

14.

"

(2) 300a36.

(1) 12.

3.
.

0, 3, 8.
j

15.

"

-.

"

g, 9, 10, 15.

21.

45

25.

64 per cent, copper

19.

gallons.

gallons from

17:3.

23.

and

20.

24.

36 per cent. zinc.

Tbe

parts of

parts of bronze.

18.

A ; 8

26.

7T"
-2aii

bm

cm-

18

",.

"

gallonsfrom

B.

"b.
brass
63

are

or

taken to

12 minutes.

regatta lasted 6 days; 4lh,5th,6th days.

20.

16,25

22.

The

years;

cost

per mile is

"200, "250.

is least when

and
":/ly,

for the

the rate

21.

is 12

journey is

"9.

day

miles

18 hours
an

7*. """'"

hour;

28

and

minutes.
then

the cost

526

IV.

1.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

277".

a.

Pages

3.

0.

153.

2.

31, 32.

n(10-*"
'
v

4.

30.

5.

6.

-42.

-185.

7.

8.

1325^/3.

75^/5.

9.

21
10.

820a -16806.

11.

{n + l)a-n2b.

"(11a -96).

12.

1
"13.
16.

--,...,

-j,

-9|.

1, -l",...,-39.

14.

z2-a:+l, a;2-2a; + 2, ...,

4, 9, 14.

20.

612.

25.

^(o+1Uff5.
2a

21.

4.

10

or

-8.

First term

5.

First term

6.

Instalments

1\, number

18.

3.

19.

5.

23.

495.

24.

160.

22.

1, 4, 7.

26.

n("+l)a--.
x

Pages

or

-13.

of terms

59.

2.

8, number

...,a%

IV. b.

1.

?i2.

17.

x.

-33a;,-31z,

15.

of terms

35, 36.
3.

2,5,8,...

8.

25.

54.

"51, "53, "55,...

7.

12.

fi

9"
13.
14.
20.
22.

+ rc~8"^r)"
2(l-.r)(2

3, 5, 7, 9.

[Assume for

15.
2,4,6,8.
10p-8.
3, 5, 7; 4,5,6.

10#

tbe numbers

p + q-vi.

V.

a.

%2*
a

M, a-d,

16.

12

21.

8 terms.

23.

ry

Pages

-te

12,

or

17.

d, a

17.

Series

(n+ l-r)x.

41, 42.

+
+

2)3d.]

6r-l.

1|,3, 4^,.

527

ANSWERS.

V. b.
1-g"
*

9-

mi"

n(n+l)

*-l

2 /

l'\

23

9f1-pJ.

2o

(i+.)i"y-d,
"c

li.

15.

11.

13.

Gaud

a.

(2) 3*. (3)3H-

2.

24.

5.

?i

l){n2+

3/t+

3).

l).

15.

4"+1-4-w(tt + l)(n2-"-l).

18.

The nth term

term

19.

Pages

is

fr+

+ b + c;

v\

22.

(2n

the other terms

I(2a

12,0.

0^, 79-

3.

4:9.

10.

|,J,I

gn(n+l)(2"+7).

14.

J(3,l+1+1)

2
11

(" 1 1).

"r

12.

2'1+1.

greater than

Tho

1.

first

the A. P. b + 3c, b -f 5c, fr+ 7c,....

form

n^ld) la*
+ (n 1) ad
-

Page

VI. b.
1.

52, 53,

all values of

1),for

"

+ 2.

S'":""1'-"!?"*- 1
1

1 (

B.2"+f-2*"

19.

^r.
"

+ l)(?i2
+
^w(?t

-n(n

16.

21.

VI.

(1)5.

^i'"

.r=(.r5"-l)a7/ (x"//" 1 )
x--l
xy-1

4/2a+

4.

(i

10'2ft'10-

14.

1.

1H
3-

3'

10"

(l-r)fl-H'
s(.r"-l)

46, 40.

8
Zl

1-a'

(l-a)2

Pages

1}
d* [
-("0
.

56.

2.

1140.

3.

16646.

4.

2170.

7.

11879.

8.

1840.

9.

11940.

21321.

5.

6.

52.

11.

300.

12.

18296.

15.

120.

16.

n-1.

Triangular364; Square4900.

14.

VII.

a.

Tack

59.

1.

333244.

2.

728G26.

3.

1710137.

4.

*7074.

6.

334345.

7.

1783212G.

8.

1625.

9.

2012.

10.

13.

1456.

14.

7071.

15.

11.

M90001.

12.

231.

16.

(1) 121.

(2) 122000.
VII. b.

1.
6.

20305.
34402.

190.

10.

Pages

112022.

5.

842.
-

65, 66.

2.

4444.

3.

11001110.

4.

2000000.

7.

6587.

8.

8978.

9.

26011.

5.
10.

i
87214.

528

HIGHER

11.

30034342.

12.

710^3.

16.

20-73.

17.

125-0125.

ALGEBRA.

2714687.

13.

14.

-2046.

15-1*6.

15.

5
18.

19.

20.

Nine.

21.

Four.

22.

Twelve.

25.

Twelve.

26.

Ten.

30.

2n + 27 + 26.

31.

39-38-37-36-35

Pages

a.

3 +

^6

\/a6
(" +

6)

1+

y/a2 1 + N/2a(a

1)

"'

~~2^

12

8.

56

10^/2

2^+3

23+ 56

2 + 33

22 +

^/3+ "/5
.

3:1 22 + 22.
.

541322

145

56

g
2

^2
6.

"

33 + 33

a-1

3^/30+ 5^/15
^

7.

19

10

11

56

23-

2 + 56

110

23

23".

11

21

a6-a66*+a%2"-...+a"6*-64.
23-22.74+2.72"-74~.

12.

53+53

11

10

1
.

14.

17-33.22

15.

32

22-

10

33

2 + 33

|S"4

33

21

1-33
17

22-

22 + 33

22-

33

1\

32 +
18.

23.
31262116

11

25+26+26+26+26+26
gj

17#

+ 33

22 + 33.23-33.22.

3
.

11

i(36_36
+ 36_36+36_1\
2 \
3

3*+3"+l.

+3*.

33.22-3.

15
.

34 + 53. 34+. ..+53.34

10.

13

11.

16.

~~

9.

^15

6
-

5.

z.

a*/6+ "\/a

Eleven.

24.

72, 73.

^/2+ ^/6

l.

3*

33 + 32 + l.

VIII.
2 +

Eight.

23.

l
.

+
86.
8Q6

v/5+ ^7-2.

19.

20.

V5-\/7

2^3.

21.

1+^/3-^/2.

22.

23.

2 +

Ja-JSb.

24.

26.

2 +

^/5.

27.

^2
3-2^/2.

29.

2^/3+ ^/5.

30.

3^/3-^/6.

31.

35.

ll +

36.

289.

37.

56x/3.

^7

"J3.

25.
28.

*+

aA

"

4/^
"

^/3.
JU-2J2.
1 +

a/^^+a/|-

5v/3-

ANSWERS.

5.

38.

3^3

41.

3 +

43.

Sa+Jlr^^r.

^/5

1.

0-2^/6.

4.

.i-

+ 1

3.

39.

8^3.
l+^+a
x^/2
40.

5-23007.

529

a^ +

42.

2.

_8_

7-

29*
3a2

10.

2a
13.
16.

3N/3l).
"2(1- "/^T).

"(2 +

-1S
-^

"(" +

2"-

35x2

3.

+ 4pga -p* +
(;"2
-fl2).r2

5.

.r2+ 10.r+ 13

7.

.r2+ G.r+ 34

9.

x" + a2-

13.r-12

2axs +

Pages

Q.

0.
0.
=

'"

*"

0.

{4-a-)x2-2ax

21'

0.

,ab + b- =

{("+

"

0.

88"90.

2.

MiH.r'J
+

4.

xa- 14.r+ 29

6.

x-

8.

.r-

+ 2(ix +

(u2-wr).c

a-

3,0.

15.

fr2 2ac

12.

.rJ 8.r2+ 17.r

-

~^"

21.

7.

26.

28.

aW

29.

x--

H.

19-

"

6c" (3ac

16.

-15.

(2)

...,-.

23.

(6" 2ae)(aa+
-

x*

-L.
.

c-).c + (/,29ac)8
=

~aV

"

(p* 2q)x +p* (p* l"/)=0.

-

27.

0.

".
20-

24.

0.

"*("*-4ac)

6")
"

0.

"

o7
22.

0.

0.

19r + 0

0.r!+ 11.c-

--.

18,

2,

0.

+ b- =

10.

mn

0.

2px+p--8"j

10
14.

(3a2-6s).

a.

q-

J^Z).
^"j.
/;)-(,/fc)

"(1

15.

aziTTT+ b-

1.

11.

^0

23.

IX.
+

V^T).
^"=T). 18-

7-14''
26

3.
EJ.
5

17rtrt

111-

1
22.

"(5-6
4

19

9
19-

14.

""-=

1+

n)*ac.

"".

hinix-{m--n-)- 0.
=

Ji. A.

34

530

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

IX.
2.

-2.

1.

Page

c.

(ln'-l'nf=(lm'-l'm)(mn'-m'n).

5.

"7.

96.

+ Ji'a)0.
(Jib'
(ha'+ Jib)
2ac' 2a' c)2 (b2 4ac)(b'2 4a'c')
; which
\bb'
10.
(ac' a'c)2=(ab' a'b)(be' b'c).

(aa' bb'f+

7.

reduces

to

X.

13.

a.

Pages

101, 102.

4.

17.

9, -7,

20.

4,

1"N/:I24- 18-

-J,y^".

2i.

2- ~4"

-1"*/71.

19-

3" "g'

2, -8,

-3"3x/5.

22.

3,

"

X"

-",2-^".

532

40.

HIGHER

""x/7, ift^/13,"3a,

0,

ALGEBRA.

"";

0, ^bs/7, "6^/13, T", T36.

2a2
41.

"

#=

1,

a
"

"

; ?/

-a8
,716a4

"3;

3.

af=5, -1;

5.

.x

6.

8.

4, 3,
"3;

"5;

?/=

"=2.

2"Vi5i

t2;

?/=

8, -8; y

S, 4,

109, 110.
2.

5;

4.

8, -3;

2=7151

i5.

2=

5, -5;

; y

3,

Pages

c.

5;

"

V16*4-"2-1

"4.

z"

lf

2a,

-1

X.
1.

"

-3.

?/=

1;

7.

3;

?/=

3,

11
;

7.

jr=

9.

.c

2,

"

"5; y= "1;
3;

4;

?/=

"==

-;

"1.

*=1;

12.

.t=1, -2;

?/= 2;

3.

11.

.r

5, -7; y

a,

3, -5;

-.

10.

8.

6,

-8.

11

13.

4,

?/=

; */

"

7, -3;

6, ";

3,

'

2, -6.

14.

.r

0, 0;

0, a, 0;

^-^3'
16.

-2a,

"=a,

a;

"a, a,

X. d.
1.
2.

3.

Page

29, 21, 13, 5; y 2, 5, 8, 11.

a?=l,3, 5, 7, 9; 2/ 24, 19, 14, 9, 4.
4.
ar-20, 8; y l, 8.
z

0, 0, a.

'a-

"

a;
=

2a, -4a,

(l"v/-15)
a.

113.

30, 5; ?/=9, 32.

5.

7.

x=7p-5, 2; y=5p-4, 1.

9.

6.
8.

a?=9, 20, 31; y 27, 14, 1.

.t
50, 3; y 3, 44.
s=l$p-2, 11; y=6p-l, 5.
-"
17; ?/ 13^, 13.
17/),
x
llp- 74, 3; y 30p-25, 5.
=

.t

21^-9, 12; y

11.

19p-W, 3;

13.

11

16.

To pay 3

guineasand

17.

1147

infinite number

18.

To pay 17 florins and receive 3 half-crowns.

horses,15
; an

?/=

8p-5,
23^-19, 4.
3.

14.

cows.

12.

101.

15.

56, 25

or

receive 21 half-crowns.

19.

37,99; 77,59; 117,19.

20.

28 rams,

21.

10.

of the form

1147 + 39

pig,11 oxen; or 13 rams, 14 pigs,13

11 half-crowns,
13 shillings.
sovereigns,

56p.

oxen.

16, 65.

533

ANSWERS.

XI.

Tacks

a.

221.

122"12-4.

3.

40320, 0375600, 10626, 11628.

6.

40320; 720.

1.

12.

4.

6720.

5.

15.

8.

6.

9.

120.

10.

720.

11.

10626, 1771.

2.

15, 860.

7.

12.

1440.

13.

6375G00.

14.

360, 144.

15.

230300.

16.

1140, 231.

17.

144.

18.

224, 896.

19.

848.

20.

56.

21.

360000.

22.

2052000.

23.

3(19600.

24.

21000.

25.

yJ^-p.

28.

9466.

29.

2903040.

33.

1956.

34.

7.

b.

XL

26.

2520.

27.

5700.

30.

25920.

32.

41.

Pages

131,

132.

2.

4084080.

72.

6.

125.

Vn.

10.

(3) 3326400.

1.

(1) 1663200.

(2) 129729000.

3.

151351200.

4.

360.

5.

7.

nr.

8.

531441.

9.

11.

1260.

12.

3374.

13.

455.

15.

4095.

16.

57760000.

17.

1023.

19.

127.

30.

14.

'

yunrwr
18.

720; 3628800.

inn

315.

20.

21.

64;

22.

'

325.

23.

{\m)n
\ii
'

24.

(1)

P(p-l){p-e"
*Ji"l"-i""zi"
+ l; (2)
6

3"(g-l)(p-2)

g(g-l)(g-2)

!
,
hi.

6
27.

113; 2190.

2454.

28.

XIII.
15a;4+ 90a;3

270.r2 + 405a;

2.

81a:4 +

3.

32.c5

4.

5.

a;10+ 5a;9+ 10a;8+ 10a;7+ 5a;6+ a;5.

6.

+ 216.r-//2
+ 96.r?/3
+ 16//4.
216a;3//
+ lO.r//4if.
80x*y+ 80.r3y"40.r-y3
-

18rt2+ 135a4

540"G + 1215a8

1458a10 + 729aM.

+ 2 la;2*/2
+ 35a; V
35a;3*/3
7.iv/
~

tlxhf

7"V

16-48a;2

54arl-27.c6 +
16

8.

729o"

972a5 + 540a4

21x2

Ix
9

1+T

30.

143.

142,

81a;8
7.

(p+ l)*-l.

243.

""

6666600.

Pages

1.

26.

29.

a.

~T~

35a;3

~8_

160a3 +
35a;4

^
21xn

^
7xG

x7

l"T+ ~32~+64 +128"

x7'f'

5199960.

42.

534

HIGHER

64a;6
10*

32a;4

729~~2~r
1

11.

12.

+ ytv + t?
2ob
lb
lb

10

1-

45
+

"

+"

+^T4
120

-Z
X'

5-

35750a:10.

r
a;1

14.

7ft5 + 7ft6 + 4ft7 +

n

210

252

x*

'

64a;6

8a;4
_

5~
8

"

729
+

4a;2

210
+

243
_

35ft4

7ft3

7ft2

135
+

^~

^T^

a'

13.

20a-

ALGEBRA.

45

120

"

8.

ft

xv

:8

112640a9.

10

15.

1120

40ft763.
17.
J~(5a;)3(8?/)-7.

MK

18.

81

;27|3_

70x6y10

10500
20.

19.

21.

2x4 + 24a;2+ 8.

23.

140^2.

26.

-^a;14

29.

1365, -1365.

32.

18564.

34.

( 1)"

a:3
+ 5ft4).
(16a;420a;2ft2

22.

2x

24.

27.

110565ft4.

(365

363a; + 63a;2 -a;3).

189ft17

19

30.

31.

'"I6a

252.

25.

84ft3"6.

28.
21

312a;2.

130
16.

x,.io

iC9

18*

In
33.

Bn
-

|i("-r)!4(H+ r)'
XIII. b.
9th.

1.

The

5.

The3rd

The

2.

6|.

Pages

12th.

147, 148.
6th.

4.

The

=Jrj"

9.

The

3.

The 4th and 5th

6.

11.

27a;6 54"a;5 + 117ft2a;4 116"3.c3 + 117ft4a;2 54ft5a;+ 27ft6.

-

I2n+1

xr-ian-r+l.

12.

14.

(- l)p

13.

n-r+1

14.

2r

15.

XIV.

Page

a.

".,

2n -p

p + 1

n.

155.
3

3
1
"
+ _a;-__a:-.

2.

i +

4.

l-2a;2 + 3a;4-4a;6.

6.

l+

2a-

-2
_

3"

5*

2__8_
25* 125

x-

14
5.

a;2
-

a;3.

a;

+ 2a;2+

a;3.

"

7.

l-aj+ga^-g^3-

9-

1+X+6-U-

8.

10.

"

a;

;r a;-

l-2ft +

-ft-

"

"

ar

"r

11*.

3, n=5.

r-1

8.r5+ 20a;6 8a;7+ x\

1 + 8.r+ 20a;2+ 8a;3

26a;4

10th and

2, ?/

10.

2/i*
|"|

z*"-*"+\

535

ANSWERS.

U.

4(l+.-|..+|..).
i(l "*"+|"").
!4.

2a-i\
1040
18.

21-

a-

"/""/

lb

250

10//

._

-lra"

19.

a?-.

(r+ 1)**

20.

2-43rt,.

(r+ l)(r+2)(r+ 3)
x

23
"'

22.

(-1)

(2r-3)

...

_r

lr_,11.8.5.2.1.4,..(3r-14)
*J

(
I

*"

3r|r

10719

24.

-1848.113.

-i^-z"\

25.

XIV.

Pages

b.

1.3.5.7...(2r-l)
*"

x"

^y

+ !)(r+ 2)(r + 3)(r

+ 4)
(""
"

2.5.8...(8r-l)xr.

4"

3'- r

t
5

/_nrfe"llt"2)r-r
*~.
^_

*"{-*)

2.5.8...

13.

The 3**.

17.

The

20.

9-99333.

(3r-l)
14.

21.

The
18.

5th.
The

10 00999.

XIV.
1.

-197.

4.

(-l)"(n"+2n+2).

(2,-1)

\r

(n+ l)(2n+ l)...

(r-l."

4th and 5*h.

1.3.5...
U"

V"--'

3'lr

xr.

2.1.4...(3r-5) ^

(2r+ l)

3.5.7...
fi
6.

br

9"

"

"

(3r-4)^,
^1.2.5...

161, 162.

2.

c.

15.

The

13th.

3r"1.
22.

19.

G- 99927.

Patqeb 1G7"

142.

The

l)
7,h.

989949.
23.

-19842.

1G9.
3.

6.

16.

(-1)"-1.

v/8=(l-|)
.

.rr

53G

HIGHER

2\-'v

|2n

1VH

14.

Deduced

18.

(1) Equate coefficientsof

from

(1 a;3) (1 #)3
-

(2) Equate absolute

20.

Series

21.

22"-1

the left+

on

xr in

in

terms

(1) 45. (2)

(1+ x)n(1+ re)-1 (1+ x)9^1.
3:r

3.r2.

'

{l+ x)n f1 +

c2+

..

.c

J2

x-n in

Pages

XVI.

8,6.

2.

_4_4
5*

2,-1.

w(l-^x* ^x"~x?
^xA.

157.42

5'

2'

~2*

91ogb.

7-

9.

12.

-"log

-^,-i.

11.

-|.

-4,

4.

"

"3'

'

3'

3'

-loga

-logb.

-logfc.

178, 179.

--loga

3x* +

3.

8-

10.

173, 174.

Pages

a.

b-

18.

61oga

(1 .t2)-*

15-

8.

=z2(l+ o;)n-2.

+ clCs + ...) c02

+ Cl2
+.
(Coc,
+ c22
.cn2].

XV.

3'

( 1)"qn2 coefficientof
-

6561.

In ire

[Use (c0
+c1

1.

16.

|2w

ALGEBRA.

-gloga--log".

7
a

-log

logc
loga log b

b.

13.

2^"8fl19.
2

.
'

loga + log b
21ogc-loga + log6*

22.

loga;

51"^
loga + 3 log "

X~

g(a

logw
log 6

\oga'J

log (a ")

1
+

36),log?7 g(a-26).
=

16.

41ogm
'

1
=

-51ogc.

14-

24.

+ by
log(fl

'

log 3.

537

answers.

Pages

b.

XVI.

185, 186.

1.

4,1,2,2,1,1,1.

2.

-8821259, 2-8821259,3-8821259, 5-8821259, 6-8821259.

3.

5, 2, 4, 1.

4.

Second decimal place; units' place; fifth decimal

5.

1-8061800.

9.

place.

1-1072100.

6.

1-9242793.

1-1583626.

10.

-6690067.

11.

-3597271.

12.

-0503520.

13.

f-5052973.

14.

-44092388.

15.

1-948445.

16.

1915631.

17.

1-1998692.

18.

1-0039238.

19.

9-076226.

20.

178-141516.

21.

9.

25.

4-29.

28.

4-562.

301.

23.

7.

3-46.

24.

frJ

32.

log3 -log 2'

,

log,2.

9.

e*~-cy~.

Pages

50 in

log,3 -log,2.

2.

(2);

?*

(1);and

?i

(1)respectively.
+
"-1"r"'3r
2r^.

13.

(2.r)2(2x)4

(2x)-r

2ji+^.+i_X+...+i_^+...{.
"

/)"4

/""-

/y"6

/y"*-7*

H"1"
1L~1124.

In Art. 225 put

1000 in

(.lr..r"i".
L

-0020000000666670.

6.

-8450980; 1-0413927; 1-1139434.

10.

10 in

195"197.

14.

.,"*,

1.

12.

,*"

1^+iog.a-*).

-69314718; 1-09861229; 1-60943792;

b

log,(1

A^

-040821995

XVIII.

Page

a.

(l M

-log,

a=

log,f1

iA

=-105360516;
-012422520.

202.

1.

"1146.

14s. 10J.

2.

"720.

3.

14-2 years.

4.

"6768. 7s. 10hd.

5.

9-6 years.

8.

"496.

9.

A littleless than 7 years.

10.

XVIII.

b.

"3137. 2s.

6 percent.

4.

3 per cent.

5.

28J years.

6.

8.

"6755. 13s.

9.

"183.

18s.

10.

"1308.

2.

12s. 4 U.

15.

"4200.

"119.

Pack

1.

13.

14-200.

XVII.

27.

5-614.
?,l0gJ
""-"",
log 7
log
2

7i

1-206.

26.

log3

31og3-21og2

2*0969100.

loS2

.-_""".
log -log 2'

29.

8.

19*.

4frf.

16s. 4^7.

207.

2U.

3.

"1275.

3} per cent.

"110.
7.

11.

"920.

2s.

"616. 9s. l"d

538

HIGHER

XIX.
8.

a3 + 2"3 is the

14.

The

22.

44

greater.

greatestvalue of
55 ; when

33.55

xs "

12.

or

is 1.

213, 214.
#2 +

"

15.

4 ; 8.

23.

9, when

2,accordingas

XXI.

b.

Pages

218, 219.

a.

Pages

241, 242.

11.
12.

SameresultasEx.il.

14.

17.

x"l, or x
1, convergent; .t"1, divergent.
16.
Convergent.
Divergent.
(1) Divergent. (2) Convergent.

18.

(1) Divergent. (2) Convergent.

4.
5.

8.
9.
10.

15.

or

"

2.

Convergent.

Divergent.

13.

except when ^"1.

Divergent,

"

XXI.
1.

x"l,

or

2.

Same

result

4.

"

x"e,

Page

b.

252.

x=l, convergent; x"l, divergent.

Ex.

as

1.

3.

11

5.

"

#=1.

3.
2.
Convergent.
Convergent.
#"1, or#
l, convergent; x"\" divergent.
6.
7.
Same result as Ex. 4.
Convergent.
l, divergent.
#"1, convergent;x"l, or x
Divergentexceptwhen p " 2.
#"1, or x=l, convergent; x"l, divergent.
If x " 1, convergent ; x " 1, or x
1, divergent.

1.

3/2

/3

Pages

a.

3.

XIX.
,n

ALGEBRA.

1
or

convergent ;

x"-

convergent;

divergent.

x"e,

or#=e,

divergent.

Same

result

as

Ex.

1.

540

HIGHER

X-l

{x+ l)2 {X+ 1)3 {X+l)*'

+ l

ALGEBRA.

BiiWsoW "Pn-r-4n*.

12'

_il

13
ld"

1flll(-1"'-V
+

"

3(2 + *)' 3\

3(1-*)
+

3(* + 5)
15.

-L.

-1_
-

""

'

,-4{1+
1-2*
5

1+

l-#

2)'1

3(x +

a;

'

V~*

3V5'-+12^+V

(- l)r-1-2r+2}^.
'

'

!{9r+8+(-l)'2~}V.
(r^y8(I^j-3(I^)
llr)a:'4lI^)4(l1^p;4M(12
Tfx(TT^-2T3i' (-V ("+"-"?)*
+

""

18-

31
19'

2la^I)
(l-sc)d

j(a
-

(l-x)2

1-sc
*"-+2

b)(a c)

_JL J_l_

1 + ax)

'

x*

(l-.r)2(l-3

Page

(4r+1)^
(TT^25

xn+l

l-^

i_xn+i

272.

{1+(-1)r2r^r-

2-

l + x-2x*"

12* + Use2

5'

l=^flE?r"5^

7.

(2.3-1 -3. 2-1)^-1'

v

1+
"

XXIV.

.-r(l-a")(l-.'c2)"

5r + 9)

l + aP+tx

anx

25

'

f+"-W

(I^-)2 r^;

*'

(1-a)2 \l+

11)

f9\

"

(6 c)(6^o) (c-a)(c-b)1
+

-(2^p-2^

c^"2
+

1
23

^r+2

j
22'

1-

-h1 {-1)2 }XT'

2(rT^);?'eVen'2{{-1)2-3}a;r;r0dd'

3a;

"

'

l-4x

tr-+1)"r-6'

2(1-3^")
1-3*

1-Sx

3-

2n-l;-(3"-l)+

3(1-2^*)
1-2*

2n-l.

541

ANSWERS.
l-3".r"

l-.r"

l-2'l.r"

?/n-3"n_1+ 3"u_o-j/n_3=:0; M"-4"n_1+6Mw_a-4tito_a+""_4=0.

to infinitybeginningwith (n+ l)thterm.
12.
Sn=5aD-S, where 2 smn
This may
easilybe shewn to agree with the result in Art. 325.
11.

13.

(2n+

2
L

(2**+i+l).
1)3+|

15

13

1'

6'

12
2'

'

*"

074

150'

313*

2 +

2 +

'

95

JU3

105'

232'

1497'

85

121

43

'

11

Pages

'

26

37

"359

3+

2+

1+

1 +

2+

1+

2 +

157

3;

"30"

3+

3+

Ill

_1_JLJ^JL_!
3T

3+~ 2+

IT 1+

5+

"

12

109"

3+3'

3+

'

'

JL _L JL JL J_ JL *"
3+

'

1117

277, 278.

1174
'

3+
7'

323

13'

36

13
'

4+
6.

28

f7' 22'

10

a.

2' 5'

'

XXV.

11

5;

1+

35"

J__l_ J_ J_ _1_1. _7
1+

2+

1 +

3; 19"

1+

2+

2+

11111111

?5i

J_J^AJl_X
7+

5+

6+

1+

35

223'

G3

10.

3+

3+
n'

o+

1 +

"

jt

//

7i

+ l

and

n2

~T~'

b.

?j3 n2 +
-

11

Packs

1
"'

281"283.

151

1
"

"2(1250)**

("+ !)+ (a+2) +

115'

a*+3a+3

11

4.
a+

29'

~n*~

and

(203)2

33'

3'

39

161'

47

194*

the firstthree convergents

n+~l'

XXV.

i'

(n-l)+

(n + l)+

208*

10'

1+

GO*

3'
r-

2+

1+
259

J__l_l

4 +

3+
16.

6+

3+

aa + 3a- + la + 2

'

are

542

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

XXVI.
7m

290, 291.

100, 2/ 775f + 109; a=100,

519t-73, ?/ 455t-64; a=446, y

1.

2.

3.

4.

Four.

3934 + 320, ?/= 436t +

"r

8*'12' 8;

12'

4, y=2, z l.
3, 7, 2, 6, 1; y

S91.

?/

8'

12

9.

1_

8'

12*

9, y

S,

S.

"c =

14.

aj=l, 3, 2;

15.

280" + 93.

17.

Denary 248, Septenary503, Nonary

18.

a=ll,

19.

The

20.

50, 41, 35 times,excludingthe first time.

21.

425.

12.

ll, 4, 8, 1, 5;
5, 1, 3; z 2, 4, 3.

4
-.

5,

6,

7.

9, s=7.

?/ =

1, 1, 2, 2, 3.

181,412.

16.

107th and

5
-,

10,9, 8, 6,4, 3; 6
104th

305.

66,30, 18, 12, 6,3, 2.

divisions,reckoning from either
=

899.

22.

XXVII.

Pages

a.

end.

1829 and

23.

1363.

294, 295.

26

10.

as=2,

11.

355.
6.

13.

109.

Seven.

"6. 13s.

355; x=320,

5.

^3117
8.

Pages

2889

"

n4+"",1292"

"""15*

1+2+
"

1
3'

J +

2T4T'-;
11

5-

d +

198

9-

d +

1+

""'

6+

2+

_1_J_
6+

4+

1+

2+

8+

2+

"390"'

1+

2+

2+

12+

1+

'

1+

1+

5+

2+

_1_Jj_J_ _1
1+

2+

1+

1+

1+

24+

1+

1+

1+

1_
10+

8+
.

'""'

""

'

'

20

55*

_1

47_
270'

10+

1111111111

280

ie

"D'

1+

3+

1+

35

12

'

5+

10+

21

111111

1+

1+

-;

253

13.

4+

1+

1+

198

1_

JL_J_ JL
161

12 +

1+

33

42

11111111
12.

6+"-;

197

1351
'"";

1+

1+

119

J_

"'"'

111111
11.

1+

31

_L J_ JL J_ JL J_

2+

1+

35"

116

2+

1+

IT4+

+1+

1197

3-f
1+

99
-;

J. J_

6'

'

1111
7.

2 +

4-

3970

3+"6+";

485

16+

1+

3+

2+

3+

1+

16+

"'"'

351*

5291

1_
2+

"

'"'

4830*

""4.*"

ANSWERS

4030

1(577

9'

20-

401

483

2 +

1111
22.

""

24'

4( +

2+2

""

111

"

r"

21,

1+

1+

"

"

...
'

1+

1+

23.

"

4+

2 +

"

3+

1+

25'

11111

4+3+3T-;rT2+8+3+3+-

26.

Positive root of

28.

4^/2.

3" -3

x-

0.

"

27.

Positive root of 3x2

30.

-.

lOx -4

0.

XXVII.
1

1
1.

2a+

2a +

2*

8a:,+ 4a

a-l

1+

8a2 + 8a + l
2a +

2+

"'

2+

'

'

b+

'

8a2 + 4a

2a262 + 4a"

1111
+

2a

2a+
6.

2a +

b +

+ l
'

2a"*+26

2a +

1111
6.

2a- -1
""'

2(a-l)+

1111
4.

8a-4

1+

2(a-l)+

8a2-8a
*,;

2(a-l)+

2+

1+

1_

+2T 2(a-l)T
1

3.

""'

2a+

J.

301, 302.

8a4 + 8a2 + l

Pages

b.

2a/i-l

a-l-t

"

""

1+

2(n-l)

1+

'

2(a-l)+

2/i

432a5 + 180a3 + 15a

7.

141a4 + 36a2 +1

Page

XXVIII.
l.

1, 2/ 4; s=7 or 5, y=6.
x=3, y=l, 11; *=7, y=9, 19j x
s=7

or

311.
2.

6.

10, y
5.
x
3, 2; y=l, 4.
11;
4,3.
x=2, 3, 6,
y=12, 7,
x
79, 27, 17, 13, 11, 9; y=157, 61,29, 19, 13, 3.

7.

3.
4.

9.
12.

2, y

l.

18, 22.

15, ?/

4.

x=32, y=5.
2.r =

8.
10.

lG4, y

2V'3
(2+x/3)n+(2-v/3)";

21.

170, y

39.

x=4,

11.

l.

{2+ s/3)n-(2 v/3)";/t being any

-

integer.
13.

2x

even

14.

2x

(2+ v/5)n+(2-^/5)'1;
2^/5 ^ (2+ ^5)"- (2 v/5)";n being uny
integer.
positive
(4+ v/17)n+(4-v/17)n;
2V/17.?/ (4+ x/17)" (4-v/17)";n being
.

odd

positiveinteger.
any
The form of the answers
to 15
17, 19, 20 will vary
mode of factorising
the two sides of the equation.
"

according to the

544

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

11fi

15.

17.

x=2mn,

19.

m--n-\

3/t2,y

m?

2mn.

5m?-n*.

m2 + 2mn

m2

?i2.

16.

18.

53, 52; 19, 16; 13, 8; 11, 4.

+ n~;

20.
2mn; m2 + w2.
m2-n2j 2mn + n'2.
Anna
Hendriek,
Geertruij.
; Claas,Catriin;Cornelius,

21.

XXIX.

Pages

a.

321, 322.

1
1.

+ S).
l)(n+ 2)(ti

^n(n+

3.

2.

+ 4)(3n+ 7)+
(3"i 2)(3n+ 1)(3/i
-

"

-(n

+ 7).
l)(n+ 6)(/i

5.

; 1.

t-t^

^r

=^^

+ 3)'
4(2/1+ 1) (2/7

2/1 + 5

'4

+ l)(??
+ 2)
(7i

S-nT2a(n
+

9.
'

,~.

12"

1
3*
1

11

4*

+ 2);i'
l)(i"

+ 4)
6(3/i+ l) (3//

'

24*

2
h

3+(u+

3)(h

4);6*

""'

"H"
j^+l"""

15.

+
+
j ("-l)(w l)(n 2)(2n+l).

""(*

-?i2(n2-l).
"

^T

24

(n+ 1)(n+ 2)(3/r+

36n2 + 151n+

(n-l)"(n+l)(n+2)
6(2n+l)
n(/t+ 3) 3
~^~

+,

3"2 + 7i;

240)

32.

ig

"(n+l)(n+2)

n+1"
1

1
20-

2~^2~

(n+l)(n + Z)'
XXIX.

1.

50)

l)(n+ 8)(n+9).

l
-

19,

90/i2+ 45u

"

t^

12

1?

3;i+l'

1
o
8.

16.

-(n

7.

'

n+1'

14.

{21n* +

n
fc

6.

12'

11

71

4.

+ 4).
(n+ 1)(n +2) ("+ 3)(/t

b.

Pages

332, 333.

2.

5/t2+ 3/7;

+ l)2.
?i(7i

1-7l+~r

+ 7).
(n+ 1)(5/7

3.

+ l);
7t2(/i

4.

-4raa(n-3);-77 (/7+1)(n2

5.

rc("+l)(n+2)(n+4);^n(n+l)(n+2)(n+3)(4"+21).

"

"(n+l)(n+2)(3n+l).
-

3u

2).

l-a; + 6.x-2-2.r3

l + .r2
7-

(l-.r)3*
1-aJ
_

(1+.t)12.

gj.

2-.r + .r2
8-

'

(I-*;3

(l-a;)3
1 + lLc + lla^+g3

(l-z)0
13.

3.2"

+ /7 +

2; 6(2"-l) +

W^

5^.

545

ANSWERS.

14.

S*-i +
15.
n"-(n+l)s;^(Sn"+2n*-15n-26).

16.

2"+"-ns-2tt; 2"+2-4-

17.

3--1

"("+l)(.+ 5)

(3"+1 8)+

(1 a;)2
-

n+1

2)

58n +

+
k(k + 1)(9h2

13k +

25.

2"t+i

(n-l)3"+1+3.

|k + 2'

1-3-5

2.4.6

2(k+1)(k + 2) *3"'
k

'

(K + l)(K+2) 2n+1'

2""^T2

(ex e~x)

338"340.

1+

2.

x.

Pages

c.

+ 4

1-

33.

XXIX.

+ 1

(2/t+l)
(2k+ 2)"

+ 1

31.

2".

(2k+ 1)'

2'1.3.5.7

29

30.

8)

(k2-k+ 4)2"-4.

27.

28.

1-

37n

8)

60

12

26.

1.

+ 33na
(k+ 1)(12k3

23.

15

24.

32"

7TT2-~^~+3

2n'

(n+ 1)(3k3+ 27k2 +

4n+1

(n+ 1) xn

2(1-a?)

(1-*)"

21'
'

)i
"

(1 xf

1
20.

22.

"i.rn

xn

"

"

19.

18.

t"(u+1)(2"+7).

nx11

xn

(n+g)

3*+n~+"
n;

-log(l-ar).

"

(ex
5.

8.

ieix+

c~x

ie~ix).

(l+ x)ex.

k(2"-1).

9.

log"2-",

14'

"X"

15.

7.

1.

0.

10.

4.

3("3-l).

13.

e*-log(l + .r).

n3
71*

n8

(1 +
20.

W
H.

?i7

2--6+42' (J)
(1)

17.

lot'.

22-

{p + q)r

12.

?i5
?f

n6
71"

?l'

(r-2)|r-T
II

11.

...

4.

2 \

1 +

n2J

'

-')2lo-a+.T)-3^.
21.
4.r
3

H.

7k4

12

24

ir

+12

+ 1.

+ 1

"(n-fl)2"~".

+
"-)
I1+ 2"+i + (-!)"+'}"
5l2

A.

7kb

(_1)

(n+l)(n+2)/'
35

54G

HIGHER

XXX.
1.

3, G, 15, 42.

7.

23.

Pages

a.

is

1 h

"

a.

356"358.

Pages

18.

XXXII.

5.

Pages

integer.

an

XXXI.
2.

18.

6.

8987.

33.

139t + (jl,where

348, 349.

1617, 180, 1859.

2.

:. b.
20.

ALGEBRA.

a.

367"369.
1 ; it

Pages

can

be shewn

that

qn=l +j"n-

376, 377.

2 to 3.

2197
10.

'

20825

11
16.

4165*

(m

7i)
(m+n-1)'

XXXII.

b.

Pages

383, 384.

XXXII.

c.

Pages

389, 390
1
.

4.

"
Florins.

9.

me
11
to

5.

-.

1
o.

10.

b.
o

548
26.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

The

determinant

27.

is

w'

v'

v'

v!

10

equal to

=0.

Pages

XXXIII.

b.

0 ; add

first and

427,

second rows,

428.
third and

fourth

1.

1.

3.

(a + 3)(a-l)3.

6.

subtract three times the third,from the second

6 ; from the firstcolumn
the fourth subtract four times
subtract twice the third, and from
the third.

6.

abcd(l+

2.

_/,

z)(y+

7.

-(x

8.

(ax-by+cz)''

+ y +

2ca

2ab.

-).

a)

2bc

1\

+ T+

a2 + b2 + c2

4.

rows.

x) (z+

y) (x +

a'.

9.

z).

.""-"""-"")
; "c.

12.

(a b)(a- c)
"

13-

k(k-b)(k-c)
('"cTVT
(a b) (a c)
B

""

x=",

X-{a-b){a-c)(a-d)'

XXXIV.

a.

Pages

439, 440.

1.

-102.

3.

x3-2x2

5.

x-4 + 5x~5 + 18x~6 + 54:X-7; U7x-i-B56x-5

6.

(b-c){c-a){a-b) (a+ b + c).

7.
8.

l; -loz+11.

2.

3a + 6

4.

3.

(b c)(c a) (a-b)(b + c)(c+ a) (a+ b).

2iabc.

+ c)(c+ a)(a+ b).

(""

9.

+ 62 +
("-c)(c-a)(a-")(a2

11.

3a6c("+ c)(c+ a) (a+ b).

80a"c(a2+ J2 + c2).
3 (b c)(c a)(a b) (as a)(x-b) (x-c).

14.

27.

+ 90x-" + 4S2x-7.

10.

13.

c2 + "c +

ca

12.

aZ").
(a+

12a6c

6 +

c).

28.

29.

2.

31.-

1.

(x-a) (x- b)(x-c)'

(p-x)(q- x)

30.

(a+ x) (b+ x) (c+ x)

'

XXXIV.
5.
28

0.

(a2+ bc)(b2
+ ca)(c2
+ ab).

b.

Pages
7.

32.

+ b +

+ d.

442, 443.
A

ax+by

+ ay,

bx-ay.

549

ANSWERS

XXXIV.
1.

x3 +

xy2+

4.

y-

a(x-Sa).

7.

64e4+ c4a4 + a464 = cf-b-c-J2.

9.

a4-4"/c3 + 364 =

ay-

0.

Pages

c.

449, 450.

0.

2.

5.

a*-a*=l.

+ rt =

6.

8.

0.

aB3+y"=o*
""+ys=2as.
loa;=fc2(a:+a)".
3.

?/--

10.

"4-2a2"2-"4

12.

5a263

+ 2c4 =

0.

abed
11.

-3=1.

l+

1 + 6

1 +

6c5.

1 + d
1+"Z

13.

ab

14.

a3 + 63 + c3+abc

15.

(a+6)*-(a-5)$=4c$. 16.

a" + b2 + c2"2abc

17.

abc

20.

c2 (o+ b

l +

c.

(i- a-b

c)2.

1)-

"2-4a"c

18.

{a+ b

2a6 + "2-

1)(a-

l.

+ ac3 + 463-"V

b)+

ab

0.

0.

22

0.

1
+

(a-b)cr+(a- c)bq

(b c) ap

(b a) cr

(c

a) bq+ (c b)ap

bcqr+
ab'

23.

ac'
ad'

ac'

a'b
a'c

ad'

a'd

bd'

1.

6x4-13x3-12x2

3.

x6

4.

re4

ox*
2

8x4 + 40x3 + 1 G.r2

0.

b'c

b'd

a'd

bd!

x* + 2xri- lis*-

2'

2'

p
~"-

6, 2, g

8.

16.

XXXV.
2

ldb^-3

~3'

~2~

d'

3.

-1=^/2, -l^V^7!-

5.

-1, "v/3,

7.

x4-8x2

+ 3G

~"

1*2^/^1.
=

0.

0.

"n/3, j,

14.

|,|,W2.

4' 3"

f,|,2,3.
19.

(1) -62J (2)

21.

2(/2.

2.

3'

2'

3'

"1

460, 461.

-g,

-3,2"N/3.

4.

"7^1, _2"VTT.

6.

.t4-2x2

8.

ar"+ 1G

+ 25
=

0.

2*

17.

Pages

/o

11-

2' 4*

b.

113

12.r3+ 3Gx2

1,3, 5, 7.

5.

2'

c'd

0.

(a2+ b2)x2 + {a2 b2)2.

_3

b'd

cd'

abpq

0.

456, 457.

2.

80r

Pages

a.

+ 39.r-18

ad'

a'c

a'd + be'

XXXV.

carp +

0.

.)

9.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

50
s4- 10^+

1=0.

10.

re4

12.

a;8- 1 6.r6+ 88a;4+192.t2 + 144

10a;3-19.r2 + 480a; -1392

11.

ar"

6a;3+ 18x2-

13.

One

15.

One

positive,
one
positive,

16.

Six.

17.

(1)pq

21.

pq-r.

22.

^-3.

24.

pr-ls.

25.

pi-4p2q + 2q2+ 4:pr-4LS.

26a; + 21

0.

imaginary.[CompareArt.

negative,two

one

pq-Sr,

23.

Pages

c.

470, 471.

1.

a,-4-6a;3+ 15a:2-12a; + l.

2.

a:4- 37a;2- 123a:

3.

2a;4+ 8a;3-a;2 -8a; -20.

4.

a;4-24a;2-l.

5.

16aa;7i(.r6
+ h6)+ 2bh
+ 7a;4/*2
+ 7a;2/t4

+ 10.r2/r+ 7i4)
+ 2ch.
(5.T4

10.

2, 2,
1

1,

3.

1, 1, 1, 3.

11.

1
14.

15.

1, 1, 1, -1, -1,

17.

a, a, -a,

0, 1,

22.

(1) -2;

1
'

'

"x/3,i^/3,1
/3 l"J-7

2.

16.

6.

18.

^Wg'"

n"j*-*

20.

(2) -1.
XXXV.

l",7r23

/3

4p"{n-2)"-*.
99,795.

28.

Pages

d.

5.

27.

^/^1.

;"\/2'

"

-|,-| 0, 1, -|,-|.

19.

1
"

110.

3, 3, 3, 2, 2.

12.

^/^3 1"J~Z

13.-2,

554.]

imaginary.[Compare Art. 554.]

20.
(2)ph'=q*.
q2-2pr.

r;

XXXV.

0.

least four

negative,at
=

0.

478, 479.

2.

+27=0.
+ Sy'2-9y
?/4-5?/3

4.

6-

2,2l,L(l"Jl3).
2'2'

"2^/2,2

^/3.

in
1U*

11.
14.
15.

y*-2y + l 0.
2/6 60i/4 320r

12.

"

+ l
?/4-4?/2

717?/2 773?/
-

t/3-^|2+^-^
0.

42

0.

13.

4'

'

2'

y5-7y3 + 12y2-7y=0.

+ ll2/4
+ 57y2-132/-GO
+ 422/3
2/5

16.

18.

+ 4y2+ 37/
+ 3?/3
+
?/4

19.

20.

ri/+ kqi/2+k*

21.

y'i-q2y2-2qr2y-r40.

22.

23.

+ (l-r)3
?-^+ "/(l-r)2/3
0.
+
+ r3
+
2/3 3?^2 (53+ 3r2)2/
+ r(r2+ 223)
;V + 3?^2+(3r2+ "/3)?v/

0.
r\f
?/3-2^2 + 92y+ r2=0.

25.

26.

0.

~5*

0.

+ 19j/-15=0.
?/3-8?/2
0.
+ 8
+ 33?/2
+ 12*/
?/3

17.

24.

qif-1

0.

0.

0.

0.

28.

"1, "2,

5-

551

ANSWERS.

XXXV.

1.

d*""Lll.

5,

Pages

e.

488, 489.

2-

10,-5"7V^8,

3.

4,

5.

--.-iVJ?.

6.

11,11,7.

-2"5j~^S.

4.

10.
13.

7^~3.

-6, 3"4

-ld=7^1.
1"72, -1"7^1.

1,-4*^/6.

U.

4, -2,

14.

1, -3,2"75.
1, 4

15.

2,2,|,
|.

16.

17.

-4, -4, -4,

18.

22.

-2"76, "72,

25.

2"73.

28.

3.
2

"72.

sV

23.

12.

-3-^.
g"+8r*=0;?,
I-3-^-5
"715,

+ (l-44
+ r(l-s)3j/
2s(l-*)2?/2

.t4 8.r3+ 21a;3 20a;+ 5 = (x2 5x + 5)(a;2 3a; + 1); on

the
expressions a;2 5a;+ 5 and a;- 3a;+ 1 become
the
so that we
merely reproduce
y2 5//+ 5 respectively,
-

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

2.

6, 8.

4.

(1) 1"75; 1"275.

(2) 35=1, y S, z=
a

6.

8.

9.

(1) 1,

+ 2b
-,

5 ;

x=

490"524.

1,

y=

3;

5.

(2) 3.

-(oft+ a-^"1).

1 ; common

First term

7.

difference

a4 + "4 + c4 =

15.

x-

y1=
J

+ b + c

; or

A, 7 minutes; ZJ,8 minutes.

13.

a-b

c-a

Jc-a(a+ b- + c2

where

^.

10.

62c2+ c2a2+ a262"

14.

be

,-=";
ab) d.

-ca-

mile per hour.

16.

One

17.

(1){b+e)(e+a){a+b).(2)

13.

(1)

^/-g- ^
+

"

'

2~.

18.

; 22G8.

^105

(2)x
22.

Pages

putting x 4 y,
y2 3//+ 1 and
original
equation.

-pCp8-^); (p2-q)(p"-3q).

^-3;

or

0.

Eight.

3.

^?.

""

26.

1,2,-2,-3.

y="7^;

1"*5; nine.

a^6=-(J+26)="\/y+a623.

i {(1+

2 + 3+

..

(l2+
/")--

2-*+ 32 +

...

+n-)\.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

552

24.

Wages 15s.; loaf 6d.

29.

31.

Either
or

5fc; where

40 minutes.

33.

6, ft 7.

32.

35.

1 +

37.

-l^y-3^1^/gj[a,.4_.r_5(a;2 l)

^x2--xi

x\

"

pr

38.

8;^"

480.

30.

l, so that fc=l,w, or or.

8 fourpenny pieces;
33 half-crowns, 19 shillings,
17 fourpenny pieces.
37 half-crowns, 6 shillings,

3fc,?/ 4fc,z

6, 10, 14, 18.

25.

The

40.

-.

a;

0.]

firstterm.

.r-

l + 4ft2c2+ 9c2a2+ a2ft2

42.

13, 9.

41.

"

(1) 3,

43.

2,

^^"

"

ssl,
2=1,

-\, 0,

l,

[Add a-2+

-1,
-|,
-|,0,

(2) x

",

a2.,,.,,
-|-o- +

'

0,

0;

-1,

0;

4 to each

c-

side.]

0,-1.

5780.

17.

150

48.

changed their mind;

persons

majority350.
7J'2m+l

[Put (a
6,

53.

(2)

rrt.

'

a-b-c+d

{(x c) (x a)}{(x d) (x ft)}

; then square.]

c)(6- d)

60.

^"

males;

"

"

b-c

"

-r"

"

a;2- 16

,-

y4,we

find

females.

difference of the A. P. is
is the reciprocal of the

H.P.

a(n-r)'-+ -^
b(r-l)
-

"

n-1
68.

...

the in

19.

U'

0,

,...

69.

is

"

b,

"

a+b

difference of the A.P.

"

-=-"

term
l)th
'

[The rth

term

(n 1)
aft(n-l)
e rr
rv -1
a(n-r) + b (r 1)
-

-.

"

"

l"V-3
*

y*-16 -4y(?/2-4) 0.]

; common

is

-^St.

"

v/a+ ^/6

63.

ab

"

"=-,

b-c

n-1
which

^/a+ ^/6

Common

64.

30

"

",

55.

--577-.

(1)1. (2)"4 ^[putting

58.

men.

ad -be

".

0,
C1)
i*

51-

936

50.

2m-l

250, the

minoritywas

first the

at

"78.

-1*^-3
*

'

and
+ ft),
[(a+ ft)3-a3-ft33aft(a
=

a3 +
(a- ft)3-

63 =

-3aft(a ft).]
-

is

553

ANSWERS.

72.
73.

-.

79.

*4U
.,*]""
log

(1)
v

'

7,

2.
*

!f
o

3, 6

1.

85.

Sums

86.

503 in scale

95

T_5
*-6'

_"

100.

invested

[Put x-a
"7700

were

109.

(1) x

111.

1+

JL

25

-z

82.

ar

3.

the fortune of each

25 miles from

126.

84.

"1100.

was

London.

10^

/5
96"

'

\/3'

2y

"21'

2(l-2'\r") l-(-l)".r"

-"

1-x-

,
l.

v.]

l + 4x

is

2i-

-^

suru=

.,

"

"

'

--

2.c

1 +

d.

b,

(2)x

c.

-i--L

-=-

a,

3 or

12 persons, "14.

108.

1;

,"

b;

1, y

3,

y =
2, 2=1

948,

2a\

a,

or

1;

|f=l,or

y
*

492.

2b, y

18s.

3.
15*.

"12.

113.

b.

3;

or

l~^TWd

a(J"'1)

(2)
121.

b=

"3500:

?/_3
"*"-d'5'

1+12+1+1+1+9

12"-

a,

(1) x
(2) x

and

."c=

{2"+ ( l)n}xn~K

c-

and

seven.

..

+ 6

2)

91.

,.
Generating ,function

a-

...

29

r,

107.

hours.

ItthE}.

!
*"

nih term=

117.

a6c

81.

'

or

80.

+ 6 +

(1) -=*f=-=sO,
'

*=*2(^?l0S2)~*l-189
log

74.

*"*
v

(2)

+ **+"
{*"+"-

(2) x

0, y

13.c

0,

0; x="2,

124

^-

or

y="lt

lO.r-1

23

y-

(1)

122.

+
(n+ 1)2*2 + (2*"

2=

2li

1)x

n-

1
.

"3.

(.r23x
-

1)

(**+*+ 1)

1; scale of relation is 1

125.

1=

127.

(1) .r=-6, 2; y

128.

(2)^.
(1)^".

130.

(1) x=
(2)

2^+1

'

2x- ;

'

term
general

(2) *=-;

9, -3.

12, 16;

129.

or

is {2'1~3 +

(- l)n_1}.r"-'.

y=y
48, 4.

"7.
=

I
b

"

JL

where

"2 =

262c2+ 2c2a2 + 2a262

a4

64

c4.

2abc

133.

11,r-1.

137.

(1)*="-^,
y"
V2' y="^.

138.

"3. 2s. at the firstsale and

134.

384sq.yds.

v/2

(2)

"^;

136.

a=

"2,

*^/^-

"2. 12*. at the second sale.

3,

"2.

554

139.

141.

(1)

i"("+l)(2"
+ l). (2) ~n(n

(3)

|n("+l)(4w-l).

(1) x

(2) x,
142.

or

have

may

y,
-

(xn 1)

or

the

8r

0.

3 + Ua; -157a:2

'

1 + 5x -50a;2

(3) 2'l+i+ -u(/t+ 7)-2.

145.

-2, -2, -2,

146.

A walks

that

subsequentlygainson

^6-1
147.

(an

150.

-(a +

a(l-nanxn)
y"
'-

"

a2x
H

spondingfunction

b+

c), -(a +

on

B's 9th day.

wb +

u)2c), (a+
-

(o'2b
+

wc).

qif 2p2y2 5pqy

153.

(1)

-7,7"8y~8(2) ^

156.

(1)

| ^ 0"^4

B,

an-1xn~i)
(1
*_
-

and

denotes

corre-

of B.

151.

("2 c2)(b a).

(1-aa;)2

ax

him

overtakes

a;"-1; Sum

"

a-b
A

bn)

"

is -*

nth term

where

and

148.

(63 d3)

days 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 11,13,15,17,19,21,23, miles,

12, 13, 14,15,16,17,18,19,20,
A in 2 days and passes him on the third day ; A

overtakes

144.

-8a;3'

3*

in successive

B walks
so

l).

the values 3, 5, 7.

permutations of

x-l'

(x-iy

6n +

l)(n+ 2)(Bn2+

y.

(1)

?/=

y;

y3+ "jy2 g2y/ q's

x

143.

ALGEBRA.

HIGHER

2p3 q2

0.

"8"

4"

154.

days.

89

22 years

162.

(1)x

nearly.

r*-

-=r=

(2)x
[Itis

h (64
+ c4

a262

easy to shew

a2y+ b2z +
(a+

b +

c2x

c)x (be+
=

(1) ~n(n

44 hours.

.-

s="i,

a?e2)"c.

that a2x

ca

[Equation reduces to
164.

"I

161.

-7"V217

,""

157.

163.

11

T92

".

[(12a; 1)(12a; 2)(12s 3)(12* 4) 120.]

a;3+

"2;
,

y==F2, Tl;ar=-y="V3

where

2/i;2
(a6+ bG + c6

b2y+ c2z 0, and

a2z +
+ z'i- Sxyz
y'i
+

ab)"

(a+ b +

3a262c2)1
=

J (be+
c)x2-

b2x +

c2y.]

ab)2 4abc (a+

(be+ ca + ab)x + abc
ca

l)(n+ 2)(Sn+ 13). (2)2e-5.

b+
=

c).

0.]

556

223.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

1("15W^);
(l)^=l("15"V33)j
,=

or*

4, 6, -4, -6;
6, 4, -6, -4;
5, 5, -5, -5.

V~b

a;~fl

(2)

g-c
_

6(C-rt)~c^rT6)-X'

a(6-c)

a2 + 62 +
("-c)(C-a)("-")x

where

226.

20 sheep. 229. Lim

12calves,
I5pigs,

230.

Scale

of

2*"-i
^n

23"-i
T

ar

232.

233.

a3 + V +

235.

(1)

Xtenn-1{""

"

cS=aZ(b+ c)+ bZ(c+ a)+ c*(a+ b).

(l-*)^=l+4o;+^-.(n+l)3a.n+(3B8+6|l
"%"+"
(3m3 3n2 3k 1)"*M
+

J
(2)
'
8

+ 2)3(n+ l)2(7i

236.

1 + a*x* + a*x* + fl"x" + ""*!" +

237.

3hours51min.

244.

3,4,5,6.

246.

247.

2, 6, 1, 3.

248.

a*V"

2 or

240.

aux*

+ a20;r,6"

"^28 + ^

242.

140.

(ab*-"f.
a*(c*-Sd?)*=:(ab*+2")

"
.

13

l)(2,tl).
2*-H-2-jU(n

(1)

(2) -_^!L_
(n+ l)(n+ 3)

T^

"3"

when
250.

+ 6"-ca, "c.
N/a=*

249.

+ 8"

"21

2T3-

convergent.

+ 32.-

1-12.,

11
231-

=|;
f(^-l)}

"

is

relation

c2_"c_ca_^

(l)*
*

(2)",

S'

*""P

-he-

even

'Jiz*^)

If*^
+

odd.

is

2/=

2/+

a(-a

2
_

0or|.If
-a,

and

however X" + y"+ z* + yz+zx

the solution is

c)

xy

0) then

indeterminate.
z

V
+ b +

b(a-b

c)-^(^b^c)
1
'

"

flM
253.

(i

-"+BE1C,H-A, +
A

y/a (6 c),"c.
-

B,

s/l- +
a

*"+

cjja-b

+
c.)"4,-B, + 0,)(Alf

c)(a + b~^~c)

"+ Xre

55?

ANSWERS.

(1) .""

256.

1,

z=-(a
(2)x

to-

w,

b), -(rtw+ W),

S,

or

7,

or

y
257.

To

262.

2ga-6pr+24".

at least 3r-2

(1)x,

266.

0,

or

-4

4,

or

-6

places.

have

y,

(i j_

l;

Clergymen of

24 Doctors

20

Lawyers of

average

average

"

(1)

274.

0.

267.

30 years.

age

"C.

"

Va2 +

age 45 years ;

age 35 years ;

X=

3 ducks.

; "c.

="

of average

270.

Go".;Coffee,1*. 6d.

b -f-c

(a0a2 afl(a.2a4a32) (afy a22)2

;
or
+
a0a32
afaA a23
a0a.2ai 2axa.2a3

269.

2s.

turkeys,9 geese,
permutations of the values
263.

the

(2) as=f/="
16

Tea,

258.

11

la(b-l+sJb*-2b-3),
\ (b JJfi^W^3).

a,

268.

+ /yu).
-(i/w'-

"

0.

"

V"2 +

62 + c2

"c

273.

fl-?Viog(l-a;)-2.
(2)-^ jl- ,w'^"
a-1
(

v'\

c~$.

^2 + c2

xj

"

+ n))
(a+ l)(a+ 2)...(a

(1)*=?,?, 2;

275.

?/=-l,
2

-g,

4'

4'

'

(2)z="4,

-1;

"5, t"="2,

2/=

*="3 Vi"

w="l.

^t2v!'u=4v-3'u="\^-

276.

a2 + ft2+ c2 + d2 + \.

277.

-p18+ 3^0-

279.

^, 6 birds; B, 4 birds.

281.

2.

287.

a,

289.

S1=

291.

.4 worked

294.

+ c2
(ft2

300.

Walked
or

CAMBRIDGE

-5a, -5a.

walked

Bp3.

"*
-ft"?^'fl'-fr"??,

days ; i",24 days; C, 10 days.

a2)(a2 ft2+ c2)(a2+ ft- c2).
3 miles, worked
4 hours a day ;
45

miles,worked

PRINTED

BY

C.

J.

3 hours

CLAY,

M.A.

day.

AND

SONS,

AT

THE

UNIVERSITY

TRESS.