Haley Robinson

Annotated Bibliography
Allendorf, F.W., England, P.R., Luikart, G., Ritchie, P.A., and Ryman, N. (2008). Genetic effects
of harvest on wild animal populations. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 23(6), 327-337.
Retrieved from http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S01695347(08)00129-8?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve
%2Fpii%2FS0169534708001298%3Fshowall%3Dtrue
This article details the negative effect of animal harvest on genetic variation in species,
and how artificial selection can lead to extinction. First and foremost, a poor understanding of
population size can lead to extinction by overharvest, or removing too many individuals from the
area. Additionally, populations can shrink because of a loss of diversity leading to weakened
animals who are easier prey. Even when species are not extirpated due to harvest, artificial
selection (the tendency for humans to select certain phenotypic members of populations whether
on purpose or not) can cause changes in the population, usually resulting in smaller animals with
shorter maturation periods. The authors consider ending all harvest practices to be ideal but not
possible in todays economic and political situation. Instead, they suggest assuming that all
harvest will result in genetic changes, and adjusting management protocol accordingly.
Angermeier, P. L. (1995). Ecological attributes of extinction-prone species: loss of freshwater
fishes of Virginia. Conservation Biology 9(1), 143-158. Retrieved from
http://vt.summon.serialssolutions.com/search?
keep_r=&s.cmd=&s.q=Ecological+attributes+of+extinction-prone+species
%3A+loss+of+freshwater+fishes+of+Virginia#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=Ecological
%20attributes%20of%20extinction-prone%20species:%20loss%20of%20freshwater
%20fishes%20of%20Virginia
In this article, the author seeks to find similarities between extirpated species to find if
extinction-prone species are ecologically distinct from other animals by examining Virginia fish.
The author argues that proactive conservation strategies will be more effective than traditional
reactive approaches, but that requires the ability to predict potential extirpation. Through
statistical analyses, he determines that fish with limited geographic range, limited range in
habitat size, diadromous (migrate from freshwater bodies of water to marine waters), and
ecologically specialized are most susceptible to extinction. Due to limited data on many
populations, the author argues that the best approach to conservation is maintaining the
ecological integrity of the habitats- monitoring water quality and habitat structures. Since this
article is over twenty years old, there is the potential for new information to have developed in
the past decades. This article is helpful because it suggests a course of legislation that does not
regulate specific populations, but rather suggests a course that can help the environment as a
whole. It also emphasizes that there could be similarities in endangered species, meaning
humans could more effectively target species in peril.

Collier, S. (2006). Breed-specific legislation and the pit bull terrier: are the laws justified?
Journal of Veterinary Behavior 1, 17-22. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787806000128
Australia has a major breed-specific legislation problem, stemming from the lack of
research done prior to implementation. The legislation was enacted because of a few highprofile, violent dog attacks against children, and the belief that certain breeds had high bite
frequencies and were innately dangerous. However, breed reports following dog bite attacks are
often inaccurate, and do not take into consideration that more common dogs are more likely to
bite. In fact, Australian legislation targets American Pit Bull Terriers, which only accounting for
4% of reported attacks, behind five other breeds. The authors note that the Australian legislation
is based in the reputation of pit bull-type dogs, rather than their actual actions. They then go on
to say that BSL is acceptance if it works to reduce significantly the number of dog attacks but
that it has never done so in any locality. This article is helpful because it rejects the idea of
punishing a whole breed of animals for the faults of a small percentage of them. The study is
another example of the ineffectiveness of animal policy based in emotion, not science.

Cornelissen, J.M.R., & Hopster, H. (2010). Dog bite in the Netherlands: a study of victims,
injuries, circumstances and aggressors to support evaluation of breed specific legislation.
The Veterinary Journal, 186, 292-298. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090023309003888
In this study, researchers worked to find correlations between dog bite incidents in order
to judge the effectiveness of breed specific legislation. The study emphasized that all dogs are
capable of biting and therefore the focus should not be on removing specific dog breeds, but
rather educating the public on dog body language. Additionally, their study found that eight of
the ten most popular dog breeds are the most common biters, so attempting to curb ownership
based on statistics would remove the most common pets. The article also places blame on both
dog owners and people in the public- dog owners for not being aware of their dogs abilities, and
people in the public for being ignorant of dog body language. This article is helpful because it
demonstrates the possible unintended side effects of breed specific legislation. First and
foremost, the data supports banning the most popular dog breeds which is impractical. Second, it
offers an alternative to breed banning, in educational programs from dog owners and non-owners
alike.

Olson, K.R., Levy, J.K., Norby, B., Crandall, M.M., Broadhurst, J.E., Jacks, S., Zimmerman,
M.S., (2015). Inconsistent identification of pit bull-type dogs by shelter staff. The

Veterinary Journal, 206, 197-202. Retrieved from http://ac.elscdn.com/S109002331500310X/1-s2.0-S109002331500310X-main.pdf?_tid=7f6fdcbedef5-11e5-9e6100000aacb35d&acdnat=1456758349_cd068d8888c08dc5c49e47870dfdefff

In this study, researchers found that animal shelter staff often misidentify dog breeds
based upon observation. This phenomenon is not restricted to shelter workers, as it was found
that visual observation is an inaccurate indicator of breed in large surveys. This misidentification
is vitally important in localities where it is illegal to own a pit bull-type dog because they are
viewed as dangerous. The authors suggest that instead of focusing on breed bans based on visual
observation, a more effective solution to preventing dog bites is increased education on dog
behavior and body language. This study is helpful because it notes that breed-specific legislation
is often difficult to execute because a visual assessment is not sufficient to determine a dogs true
breed. Additionally, the authors note variations with dogs of the same breed, indicating that
breed itself is not a good criteria to judge potential aggression. These facts support that
legislation is often arbitrary and legislators do not consider all factors of animal behavior in their
assessments.

Soul, M.E., Estes, J.A., Berger, J. and Martinez del Rio, C. (2003). Ecological effectiveness:
goals for interactive species. Conservation Biology 17(5), 1238-1250. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3588949?
Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=Ecological&searchText=Effectiveness:&
searchText=Conservation&searchText=Goals&searchText=for&searchText=Interactive&
searchText=Species&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery
%3DEcological%2BEffectiveness%253A%2BConservation%2BGoals%2Bfor
%2BInteractive%2BSpecies%26amp%3Bacc%3Doff%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp
%3Bfc%3Doff%26amp%3Bgroup%3Dnone&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
In this article, the authors argue that the key to preserving biodiversity and by
association endangered species is to protect ecological interactions that maintain an ecosystem.
To prove their argument, they examine the effects of sea otter and wolf populations on their
respective ecosystems. Sea otters eat sea urchins, which feast on kelp. In areas where sea otters
had been extirpated due to hunting, the kelp forests vanished, removing the habitat of dozens of
species. Similarly, wolves eat elk, which in turn consume willow leaves, also a favorite food of
beavers. In national parks where wolves were removed, elk populations blossomed and willow
populations (and by association, beaver populations) fell, altering the ecosystem. By removing
so-called highly interactive species species that have an impact on multiple other populations
in the ecosystem diversity decreases. Current laws do not account for interactions between
species in drafting laws, and are generally ineffective. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 has
weak recovery goals, declaring a species to be safe if there are three populations with enough
members to prevent disappearance in the next century. The policies do not aim for animal
populations to thrive, and neglect the importance of restoring extirpated species to their full
range in order to revamp the ecosystem for all populations. This article is helpful because it goes

beyond the importance of saving one species, the focus of much conservation. The emphasis on
case studies also supports the assertion that science, rather than human passions, should be the
focus of conservation arguments.

Soul, M.E. (1985). What is conservation biology?. Biosciences 35(11), 727-734. Retrieved from
http://www.michaelsoule.com/resource_files/85/85_resource_file1.pdf
In this article, the author defines the science of conservation biology, which was still
relatively new at the time. He lists major postulates and principles of the field, while
emphasizing the importance of considering the whole ecosystem, rather than focusing on one
species. In fact, the first two postulates many of the species that constitute natural communities
are the products of coevolutionary processes and species are interdependent deal with the idea
that species depend on each other to survive. He ends with noting that biotic diversity has
intrinsic value noting that all species are inherently valuable and should be treated as such.
Finally, he notes the difference between natural extinction and extinction caused by humans.
Natural extinction is rare in modern times, but viewed as necessary by biologists to replace weak
gene pools with stronger ones. However, most extinction is caused by men, and nations must
develop policies to counteract the processes leading to extirpation in their nation. This article is
helpful because it provides an overview of conservation biology a complex topic and
provides examples of the successes and failures of conservation biology.

Snyder, N.F., Derrickson, S.R., Beissinger, S.R., Wiley, J.W., Smith, T.B., Toone, W.D., & Miller,
B. (1996). Limitations of captive breeding in endangered species recovery. Conservation
Biology, 10(2), 338-348. Retrieved from
https://nature.berkeley.edu/beislab/BeissingerLab/publications/Snyder_etal_ConsBio_199
6.pdf
In this article, the authors argue that captive breeding as a method for endangered species
recovery should only be used when all other options have been exhausted. Issues for endangered
species in captivity include achieving self-sustaining populations, reintroduction, domestication,
disease, financial and physical resources, ensuring administrative continuity, and taking
resources away from other preservation techniques. While all of these issues are important, the
inability of captive bred animals to thrive in the wild is the most pressing. The goal of
conservation is to create sustainable populations in the wild, which is impossible if captive bred
species cannot survive in their natural environments. Additionally, extended time in captivity
can cause domesticated qualities to appear, preventing a whole subpopulation from ever
returning to the wild. As in many other sources, the authors emphasize the benefits of habitat
preservation as a first defense against extinction.

Terborgh, J. (1974). Preservation of natural diversity: the problem of extinction prone species.
Bioscience 24(12), 715-722. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1297090?
seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
In this article, the author stresses the difficulty in preserving diversity in nature and
possible paths for differing extinction prone species. Species become extinction prone for a
variety of species, including vulnerability to hunters, inability to disperse and colonize, and
migration patterns. Additionally, he warns against applying research from isolated areas such
as islands to mainland areas, because immigration of population members is more likely on
larger areas of land. In the end, the author advocates for international cooperation in
conservation efforts and for individual nations to continue research habitat preservation. This
article is helpful because it provides potential solutions rather than just stating a problem. It also
identified different types of extinction prone species, rather than grouping them all together.

Zipkin, E.F., Kraft, C.E., Cooch, E.G., & Sullivan, P.J. (2009). When can efforts to control
nuisance and invasive species backfire? Ecological Applications 19(6), 1585-1595.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.lib.vt.edu/stable/pdf/40346271.pdf?
acceptTC=true
The authors of this study operated a model to determine what causes certain species to
overcompensate, or experience an increase in population, after a harvest. Harvesting is the
removal of individuals from a population with the goal of decreasing nuisance species in a
certain area. The study concluded that overcompensation occurred most frequently in
populations with high fecundity, or reproductive rates. Before conducting a harvest, agencies
must consider density-dependent variables and fecundity to determine if a harvest will cause
population instability. The authors are unbiased, acknowledging that their model cannot account
for all of the variables in nature. However, they cite empirical studies that support the
observations from the model. It is also acknowledged that populations respond differently, so
harvests are more successful in mammal populations than invasive plants. This source is helpful
because it discusses how human efforts to curb animal populations can be failures. It also
supports the idea that humans cannot simply pass legislation regarding animal populations
without considering all possibly ramifications.