Paper No. CORROSIONOG 30 1 ‘The NACE International Annual Conference and Exposition CORROSION AND CATHODIC PROTECTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN THE MIDDLE EAST PETER NICHOLSON Passcorr Cathodic Systems 10 McEwan Drive Bolton, Ontario, Canada, L7E 1H1 ABSTRACT Corrosion of reinforced concrete structures, both underground and above ground are @ significant drain on the economy of most Middle East countries, High ambient temperatures combined with chlorides in the water, soil and air are causing premature failure of structures. Typically chloride levels are above the threshold for corrosion of reinforcement in structures under construction due to chloride contamination of the sand, aggregates, cement and water, Reinforcing steel is often shipped as deck cargo where il is subject to splash or immersion in sea water. Reinforcing steel is commonly stored outside, uncovered and subject to contamination by chloride laden dust. These factors result in accelerated corrosion of the reinforcement in concrete structures. Cathodic protection is gaining increased acceptance as a means of controlling corrosion of reinforcement, and is the only effective method of halting corrosion in existing chloride contaminated structures, Keywords: Reinforced Concrete, Corrosion, Cathodic Protection, Middle East, Hot Environment INTRODUCTION ‘The majority of reinforced concrete structures in the Arabian Peninsula are chloride contaminated with chloride levels generally above the 200 ppm'” threshold level for the initiation of corrosion at 20°C. As buildings and structures age, the chloride levels increase due to both chloride loading from atmospherically carried chlorides, and from capillary action which transports chloride laden ground water into concrete structures, where the water evaporates concentrating the salt above ground level. Allowing reinforced concrete structures to corrode freely results in buildings and structures that require repair or demolition due to structural failure. This is a significant drain on the economy of most Middle East countries. Copyright 1886 by NACE Intematonal. Requests fr perission te publish this manusciptin any form, n part orn whole must be made in wnting to NACE: ternational, Conferences Divison, P.O. Box 218340, Houston, Texas 77218-8340. The maternal presented and the vews expressed in this paper ere soiely trase ol the autvor(s) and are not necosearily ondorsod by the Associaton. Printed in the U.S.AReinforcing steel! is commonly transported to the Middle East as deck cargo where it is subject to splash or immersion in sea water. On arrival the reinforcing steel is usually stored outside, uncovered where it is subject to air-born chloride contamination. Reinforcing steel often shows evidence of atmospheric corrosion prior to being incorporated into the reinforced concrete structure. The raw materials used for concrete are generally chloride contaminated. The author has measured chloride levels >400 ppm in structures under construction in the Middle East (see Table 1) Due to the lack of precipitation, aggregates have not been washed clean of chlorides; thus, sand and gravel usod in construction of reinforced concrate structures is generally chloride contaminated, This combined with chloride loading from atmospherically carried chlorides and chloride from ground water soon results in chloride levels sufficient for corrosion to occur. Type 5 cement is commonly used in concrete in the Middle East. It is reported in the literature that Type 5 cement has excellent sulphate resistance but poor carbonation and chloride resistance”. Therefore the use of Type § cement may be accelerating corrosion of exposed reinforced concrete structures in the Middle East. High ambient temperatures in the Middle East combined with high humidities, a coastal environment, chloride contamination of reinforced concrete structures and the type of cement used are leading to accelerated corrosion of the reinforcement, resulting in cracks and delaminations. The literature suggests that the corrosion rate doubles for every ten degree centigrade increase in ambient temperature. The actual increase in corrosion rate may be higher due to the non liner behaviour of ion activity with temperature”. Further research is needed into the effect of temperature on corrosion rate of reinforcement. Barrier systems have been widely used in the Middle East, in an attempt to prevent water and chloride ions from penetrating reinforced concrete structures. These have proven to be ineffective. itis almost impossible to installa perfect waterproofing membrane or waterproofing system on the foundation of a reinforced concrete structure. Above ground, numerous barrier ‘systems have been used to limit ingress of chlorides, with little success. The application of chemical treatment or barrier systems to chloride contaminated structures has little or no effect on the corrosion rate. Plumbing leaks within buildings and construction techniques combined with chloride contaminated aggregates soon lead to corrosion damage. Conventional repair of reinforced concrete structures is ineffective and may lead to accelerated corrosion due to the ting effect around the repair area. THE CORROSION PROBLEM Due to the geology and climate of the Middle East the population is generally concentrated in coastal areas. The soil conditions generally require reinforced concrete structures to be built on pile or raft slab foundations for stability. These massive underground foundations that are generally below the water table become saturated with chloride contaminated ground water. The ‘ground water in the Middle East is generally brackish containing significant levels of sodium chloride and sewage. Although attempts are made to waterproof underground concrete foundations, it is almost impossible to install a leak free waterproofing system on a concrete structure underground). Thus chloride laden water can penetrate the concrete and be carried to above ground columns or to walls and floor slabs by capillary action. (see Diagram 1) Corrosion of reinforcement generally becomes evident within one meter of the ground's surface, or in basements, manholes and other underground structures as waler and chlorides are carried from the ground by capillary action within the concrete. The water evaporates from the concrete surface where it is atmosphierically exposed, concentrating chloride ions with resultant corrosion 30172of the reinforcing steel. Figure 1 shows the effect of corrosion in the first meter above ground on high rise buildings. Figure 2 shows bulging of a column due to corrosion of the reinforcement supporting the six story building Extensive corrosion occurs above ground after an initiation period, due to high chloride levels in the concrete, chloride loading from air born chlorides and water leakage in buildings. The exterior surfaces of concrete structures are subject to high temperatures (50°C) in the summer. high humidity (80-95%) in coastal areas and condensation during the night. These factors will accelerate corrosion of the reinforcement. Chloride loading occurs due to atmospherically carried chlorides, which permeates the concrete structure. These atmospherically carried chlorides have at least two sources; first from the ovean, second from the desert and Sabaka where chloride laden dust is picked up by the wind. Typical building construction in the Middle East results in water ponding on floor slabs. Commonly a sand layer 50 to 75 mm thick is placed on top of the floor slabs to support ceramic tiles. This sand filled cavity between the concrete siab and the reinforced concrete floor slab also houses electrical conduit, telephone cables and in some cases plumbing. Water spillage or leakage in bathrooms, toilets and kitchens results in water, and potentially grey water or sewage permeating the sand layer between the reinforced concrete floor slab and the tiles. This results in corrosion of floor slabs and soffits in buildings which are air conditioned and not subject to the high temperatures and humidity experienced by exterior concrete surfaces. Table 2 shows the chloride concentration in a ten year old building in Abu Dhabi". At every location sampled the chloride concentration exceeded the threshold of corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. The quality of construction in the Middle East also contributes to accelerated corrosion, with honeycombing and porosity and in some cases even cavities occurring in concrete structures due to inadequate consolidation. Depth of cover is often variable and numerous concrete structures are not property cured resulting in increased cracking, Often the water to cement ratio is high to make placement easier. Pouring concrete in hot weather leads to numerous problems, with accelerated set and high temperatures during hydration. These factors result in increased cracking and consequential chloride penetration to the reinforcement. Reinforced concrete structures in the Middle East often show extensive carbonation of the concrete. When carbonation of the concrete occurs to reinforcement depth, the passive protective hydroxide film on the reinforcement may be lost, resulting in corrosion. If chlorides are also present accelerated corrosion may occur. The extent of corrosion of buildings in the Middle East is often hidden by architectural finishes, such as marble, granite or tile finishes to the reinforced concrete structure. Often the building has been so badly damaged by corrosion before the problem is apparent that the cost of repair exceeds the cost of demolition and construction of a new structure Figure 3. Corrosion of reinforcement is not limited to buildings in the Middle East but is evident on bridges, docks, sea walls, off-shore structures, ete. Figures 4 and 5 show damage to a balustrade and sea wall. The extent and rate of corrosion of reinforced concrete structures can be measured using potential survey techniques and rate of corrosion instruments. Damage can be determined by delamination surveys. Minor corrosion of the reinforcement can cause significant damage to a structure in the form of cracking or delamination, with resultant weakening of the structure. Repair of chloride contaminated reinforced concrete structures can accelerate corrosion due to the ring effect around patches. When replacement concrete which is highly alkaline is used for 30113repair it passivates the steel resulting in the steel becoming cathodic. The surrounding steel! which is still embedded in chloride contaminated concrete generally becomes an anode, The rate of corrosion is determined by the resistivity of the electrolyte (concrete) and the difference in potential between the anodic and cathodic areas. CATHODIC PROTECTION Cathodic protection is the only method which will effectively control corrosion in a chloride contaminated structure. Although other protective systems may reduce the corrosion rate in new chloride free structures, corrosion within chloride contaminated structures can only be controlled by cathodic protection or total removal of the chlorides from the structure. Cathodic protection, by stopping or preventing corrosion of steel reinforcement, prevents damage to the structure, thus extending the life of the structure and reducing life cycle costs. Where corrosion due to chloride contamination or carbonation is known to occur, cathodic protection should be installed at the time of construction of the reinforced concrete structure to extend its life and to insure thet expensive repair is not required in the future. Cathodic protection is a cost effective technique that can be applied to any reinforced concrete structure, whether underground, underwater or atmospherically exposed. Unlike barrier systems which try'to exclude the environment from the concrete or reinforcing steel, cathodic protection uses the electrolyte in the concrete for transmission of electrical current from the anode system to the reinforcing steel. Since corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon, it can be controlled electrically, by flooding the surface of the reinforcing steel with electrons so that iron is prevented from going into solution as iron ions. There are other benefits to cathodic protection. It performs as a slow chloride removal system with chloride migration away from the reinforcing steel Cathodic protection also restores the alkalinity at the reinforcing steel/concrete interface, thus functioning as a re-alkalisation system restoring passivity of the reinforcement. Cathodic protection systems will generally work for >20 years with minimal maintenance, thus ensuring long life cycle benefit to the owners of reinforced concrete structures. Cathodic protection can be applied to underground/underwater reinforced concrete structures using conventional impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) anodes such as graphite, high silicon cast iron, platinum clad niobium or mixed metal oxide coated titanium. If the soil or water resistivity Is low enough, sacrificial anodes such as zinc or magnesium can be used for cathodic protection of reinforced concrete structures. When cathodic protection is to be applied to the substructure, the architect and structural engineer may need to modify the specification to exclude waterproofing and water barrier systems that could interfere with current flow to the reinforced concrete structure with ICCP systems, ICCP applied to the atmospherically exposed portion of the reinforced concrete structure can be applied utilising conductive coating, anode mesh, anode ribbon or arc sprayed zinc depending on the environmental conditions. If the reinforced conerete structure is subject to occasional immersion, then the anode system of choice would be anode mesh or anode ribbon. Where the anode system is subject to venicular traffic the anode system should be protected from wear by a concrete or asphaltic overlay. Anode mesh or ribbon is best suited to this purpose. Where the anode system is protected and not subject to traffic the anode system of choice is conductive coating for ease of application and low installed cost . ‘Conductive coating can be applied directly to the concrete surface and covered by plaster or tiles on the interior of buildings or under stucco or marble on the exterior of buildings”. Its ease of application allows it to be used on all types of construction including Hordey slabs, pan j« 30114systems, waffle slabs, etc. Figure 6 shows a twenty story building cathodically protected with a conduetive coating anode system. ‘An adequate number of reference electrodes should be installed to allow the corrosion engineer to monitor the effectiveness of the ICCP system and make any necessary adjustments to the system. This will maximise life of the anode without sacrificing the effectiveness of the cathodic protection system. Cathodic protections systems are only as good as the materials, equipment and installation provided with them. For a cathodic protection system to work effectively it must be short free and installed by competent tradesmen experienced in cathodic protection of reinforced concrete structures. In order to ensure that the system is short free, a thermograph survey must be undertaken by competent personnel and all shorts cleared. If this is not done, it is unlikely that the cathodic protection system will perform as designed and operate effectively for any length of time Zone sizes must be kept small to ensure effective short clearing. Monitoring of the cathodic protection system is necessary to ensure its continued operation. With modem electronic equipment and computers, monitoring of cathodic protection systems and adjustments can be undertaken from anywhere in the world over a telephone line. This allows monitoring, testing and adjustment of the ICCP system by the corrosion engineer from the comfort of his office with without the necessity of expensive travel to the site. The operating cost of a cathodic protection system is very low, with the power requirement for a twenty story building being in the order of 500 to 700 watts. When cathodic protection is installed at the time of construction of a reinforced concrete structure, the cost is a small percentage of the overall cost of the structure. In summary cathodic protection has been applied on; piles, pile capitals, neck columns and raft slabs supporting high rise buildings in the Middle East, as well as the reinforced concrete elements of high rise buildings. Cathodic protection has also been extensively applied to off shore structures, docks and wharves, dry docks, bridges, canals and manholes. TABLE No. 1 Chloride Content of New Concrete and Materials, Abu Dhabi U.A.E + Concrete 430 ppm cr * Cement 180 ppm Cr Sand 625 ppm cr 9015TABLE No. 2 CHLORIDE CONTENT OF CONCRETE BUILDING E-13, C-68, ABU DHABI CHLORIDE CONTENT PPM BY WEIGHT OF CONCRETE DEPTH OF SAMPLE MILLIMETRES LOCATION 0-25 25-60 50-75 1 741 480 473 2 823 624 542 3 837 494 720 4 858 981 679 5 713 885 1550 6 2614 597 693 7 1413 392 604 8 1173 912 737 9 645 a8 460 10 734 487 ne DIAGRAM No. 1 Chloride Concentration In Columns: HILL Hole— vyvvvywy | yp ye Het + cl oO + ct Hel + ct REFERENCES: 1 NAGE Intemational RP0390-90 Standard Recommended Practice Maintenance and Rehabilitation Considerations for Corrosion Control of Existing Steel Reinforced Conerete Structures. 2. Peter Schiessl, Chloride Induced Macrocell-Corrosion of Stee! in Concrete Mechanisms. and Influencing Factors, ACI Reinforced Concrete Materials in Hot Climates Volume #1 Pages 59 to 87 301163. _ RN. Swamy, Design-the Key to Concrete Material Durability and Structural Integrity, ACI Reinforced Concrete Materials in Hot Climates, Volume # 1 Pages 3 to 36 4. J. P. Nicholson, Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Atmospherically Exposed Structures in the Middle East, ACI Reinforced Concrete Materials in Hot Climates Volume # 2 Pages 731 to 744 5. J. P. Nicholson, Cathodic Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Atmosphericaily Exposed Structures in the Middle East, AC! Reinforced Concrete Materials in Hot Climates Volume # 2 Pages 745 to 760 6 Crown Engineering Consultants, Technical Evaluation of a Building, Abu Dhabi Figure No. 1 Figure No. 2 Corrosion Damage To Column Corrosion Damage To Column ‘Abu Dhabi, UAE. Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. 3017Figure No. 3 Figure No. 4 Corrosion Damage Balustrade Corrosion Damage To Sea Wall Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. Figure No.5 Corrosion Damage To Building ‘Abu Dhabi, U.A.E, 301/8Figure 6 Cathodically Protected 20 Story Building ‘Abu Dhabi 3018