Running head: THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

The Great Vowel Shifts Consequences for the English Spelling System
Krista M. Boddy
Colorado State University

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

Abstract
The Great English Vowel Shift occurred from approximately 1450 to 1750 and drastically
effected the pronunciation and orthography of the English language. English language learners
struggle to comprehend and produce the many sounds of Modern English vowels, as well as the
difficult orthography of English, which often doesnt align with the sounds of English. This
paper researches some of the causes and effects of the GVS and how Old English changed in its
pronunciation and spelling into Modern English. This knowledge is helpful for English language
instructors in understanding the reasons for the vast differences between the pronunciation and
spelling of the English language.
Keywords: Great English Vowel Shift, pronunciation, orthography, Old English. Middle
English, Modern English

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

The Great Vowel Shifts Consequences for the English Spelling System
English etymology is a fascinating topic due to the diversity of Modern English which is
derived from its extremely complex history. As there are numerous aspects of English etymology
to research, Ive chosen to specifically study the Great Vowel Shift (GVS) and its effects on the
English spelling system in particular. This great Shift had significant consequences in that
Modern English spelling does not have a one to one relationship with Modern English
pronunciation. My main purpose in researching the GVS is to understand the ways in which it
influenced English orthography and how I can incorporate this information into my teaching of
pronunciation and spelling to English language learners.
From approximately 1450 to 1750, a lengthy gradual change took place in English,
known as the Great English Vowel Shift (GEVS/GVS). Tense and lax vowels were known as
long and short (respectively) in Old English. Long vowels meant that they were held for a longer
amount of time than short vowels (Lerer, 2007, p. 102). During this extensive period, the long
vowels changed upwardly, adding glides, while the short vowels changed in minor ways. CelceMurcia, Brinton and Goodwin (2010) explain, In fact, the two highest long vowels, /i/ and /u/,
moved down toward /a/ but retained their historical source in the form of their approximantglides by becoming the diphthongs /ay/ and /aw/. That is, the approximant /y/ phonologically
retains a trace of the vowel /i/, and the approximant /w/ retains a trace of the vowel /u/ (p.
427).
The GVS transformed the pronunciation of many vowels, especially in the variation of
sounds for [oo] in food, good and blood (Upward & Davidson, 2011, p. 177). Schmitt, N. &
Marsden, R. (2006) explain the vast difference in Old English (OE) vowels from Modern English
vowels in words like time, which was pronounced closer to Modern English team. The authors
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THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

relate that green was pronounced more like grain in OE, moon was pronounced like moan, and
boat sounded like bart in OE (p. 129). Thus Old English lm /li:m/ became Modern English
lime, ft /fe:t/ became feet, sna /so:na/ became soon, and ms /mu:s/ became mouse (Schmitt,
N. & Marsden, R. (2006, p. 129).
The table below, from Schmitt and Marsden (2006), is a helpful visual guide to
the timeline of vowel shifts from Middle English to Modern English.
Table 1
The Great Vowel Shift
The Great Main Vowel Shift
14th Century

Later Developments

17th Century

21st Century

tim

i:

>

time

grene

e:

>

i:

= i:

green

brek

>

e:

break

nam

>

name

boote

>

o:

boat

mone

o:

>

u:

= u:

moon

hus

u:

>

house

(Schmitt & Marsden, 2006. p. 130).

Schmitt and Marsden (2006) summarize the chart in noting that only five vowels /e:, :,
:, o:, and :/ were raised, but /i:/ and /u:/ were expressed as high as possible in the mouth and
were shifted into diphthongs // and /u/, respectively (p. 130).
According to Venezky (1999), <u> had three variable allophones in Middle English:
tense /u/, lax /u:/, and /u/, which is a long, high-front rounded vowel that did not exist in

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

English until the French borrowing (p. 119). During the GVS, <u> had developed into the two
allophones [U] and [], which are now separate phonemes (/u/ in bush and // in fun). Venezky
(1999) further explains that Modern English <u> originates from the early Middle English /u/,
but has three realizations in Modern English. The first realization is [u], which comes after
labial or labiodental consonants (bugle, fume, pure). The second, [ju], follows /h/ and /k/
phonemes and may occur in the first position of a word (humor, cube, use). The third realization
is when [u] follows /r/ (rude, rumor) (Venezky, 1999, p. 119). In addition, a small group of
words failed to shift sounds from /u/ to /au/ during the Great Vowel Shift (e.g., croup, ghoul,
route, through, uncouth and wound) (Venezky, 1999, 191).
A further effect of the GVS was the shortening of long vowels before consonant clusters
in Old English. This created pairs of similarly spelled words with different pronunciations, such
as the verb wind (/a/) and the noun wind (//], and fiend/friend. The GVS led to many spelling
and pronunciation irregularities of English vowels such as the differences in Christ/fist,
ghost/lost, and beast/breast (Upward & Davidson, 2011, p. 178-179).
Etymologists can predict a words pronunciation based upon when it was borrowed into
English, whether before, during or after the GVS. For example, words like elite /li:t/, which
was borrowed from French in the 18th century, still retains some of its original French
pronunciation, including the stress on the second syllable (Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 132).
Intriguingly, some words were borrowed into English at two separate times. Take for example
the two words chef and chief, which both derive from the French word chef. It was first borrowed
into English during the 12th century as an adjective to describe a leader. During the GVS, the
vowel in chef shifted from /:/ to /i:/, and its spelling was recorded as <chief>. The later
borrowing of chef, meaning head cook, occurred in the 19th century in which the French

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

pronunciation of [ch] had shifted from /t/ to //, which is how it is pronounced in both Modern
French and English (Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 132).
One possible trigger of such a major vowel change has to do with the social class system
of England during these centuries. Sociolinguists propose that because low class dialects were
stigmatized, people who desired to climb the social ladder purposely distanced themselves from
lower class speech patterns by embracing higher vowels to reflect their social distance. There
was a tendency of lower class Londoners to substitute higher, long mid-close vowels in words
where long mid-open vowels would be expected in London Middle English (i.e., /e:/ and /o:/
instead of /:/ and /:/) (Fennell, 2001, p. 160-161). Smith (1996) explains that the newly
emerging middle class of the Late Middle Ages, who had weak social ties, tended to
hypercorrect or overshoot their English pronunciation in order to fit into aristocratic society (p.
93-94). This hypothesis of social stratification being a potential trigger of the GVS exposes the
significant correlation of social relationships with language.
It is noteworthy that the GVS did not have the same effects in every region of Great
Britain. In northern England and Scotland, for example, the Shift occurred in the front-vowel
system, but not in the back. This explains the Modern Scottish forms coo, hoo, noo [ku:, hu:,
nu:] cow, how, now, from Old English c, h, n) (Smith, 1996, p. 88). The Shift,
according to Smith (1996), was most prominent in the Southern half of England (p. 88). This is
further evidence of the Shift having begun in South-East England, in the rapidly developing city
of London (p. 89-90).
Next, I will discuss the relationship the GVS had with English spelling. According to
Upward and Davidson (2011), there are three main ways in which the English language changed
with relationship to sound and spelling. These changes encompass: (1) spelling modifications
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THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

without regard to the accompanying sound, (2) the loss of sounds but the continued use of the
letters, and (3) changes in sounds but no change in original spellings (p. 174). As English
spelling became more fixed during this period of vowel change, it didnt reflect the current
pronunciations of the period. A divergence between the sounds of the language with its written
form was growing. Upward and Davidson (2011) explain further:
In general, if a letter or digraph was pronounced at the time it first came to be
printed, it is likely to have been preserved in Modern English even if it has since
fallen silent (hence gnat, know, ought, etc.), while letters that were no longer
pronounced and fell out of use before the form was fixed by printing cause no
such problems (e.g. Old English hlaford > Middle English loverd > Modern
English lord); and if a letter or digraph has changed in pronunciation since the
time it was first printed, it is likely to have been retained in English orthography
even if it might be confused with another letter or digraph (hence tale and tail, see
and sea, etc.) (p.174).
This quote explains the important connection of a words pronunciation to the time it was
first printed. Thus, the printing press significantly impacted the English language, not only in
standardizing the spelling of English, but in preserving Middle English orthography.
The GVS explains the gap between pronunciation and spelling patterns in English, as the
spelling system didnt correlate with the vowel changes. One could say that English ended up
with a Middle English orthography matched to an Early Modern English sound system
(Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 132). McMahon (2006) maintains that the GVS impacted English
spelling by creating at least two distinct values for each vowel graph. She illustrates the three
separate sounds of <a>: // (apple), /:/ (name), or /:/ (father) in Modern English, whereas in
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THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

Chaucers Middle English (up to 1400), there were only long or short <a> sounds: name /:/ and
cat //, respectively (p. 193).
English writings from the late Anglo-Norman and Middle English periods reveals that
double consonants were placed after short vowels and single consonants were placed after long
vowels. The following example from a 12th century writer translates to, This book is called the
Ormulum because Orm made it (Upward & Davidson, 2011, p. 74). The original shows the
double and single consonants, iss boc iss nemmnedd Orrmulum, Forri att Orrm itt wrohhte
(p. 74). Such gemination continued being used into the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly with
French origin words, such as <baggage>, <bonnet>, <cabbage>, <cotton>, <jolly>, and
<puppet/poppet> (p. 179). This spelling tradition continues in modern English spellings, for
example: <diner/dinner>, <later/latter>, <ruder/rudder> (p. 74).
During the Middle English period, spelling was inconsistent. Regional differences were a
significant factor in English spelling variations. The word merry (pleasant, cheerful, sweet), for
example, was spelled at least 20 different ways between 1200 1500, (e.g., <merrie>, <meri>,
<miri>, <miry>, etc.) (Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 158-159). By the 18th century, the digraphs
<ie> and <i> were being replaced by <y> for word endings as in already, necessarily, usually
and facility (Venezky, 1999, p. 114).
Miles (2005) notes that the earliest form of written Standard English began to be
recognized in the 15th century (p. 77). She explains that this form was based on Chancery
English, a London dialect with central Midland influence, which was used in church and
administrative documents (p. 78). The Royal Chancery was influential as it was the
administrative branch that sent official documents all over England, spreading the new standard
forms of written English (Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 160). According to Baron (2000), scribes

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

were obligated to live together at the Chancery and were strictly trained to overcome dialectal
differences. These facts all led to making the English spelling system more consistent (p. 107).
However, the GVS was not reflected in Chancery English, because the shift was still taking place
across the nation as the language was being written. This explains why Modern English has
vowel sounds which do not always reflect how words are spelled (Baron, 2000, p. 108).
The advent of the printing press was the critical element of standardizing the English
spelling system. By 1476, William Caxton had set up the first English printing press in
Westminster. In spite of this, printers were very much inconsistent in English spelling for the
first hundred years of printing. Even Caxton used different spellings in his own prologues,
including <boke>, <booke>, and <book> (Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 160-161). Baron (2000)
reveals the irregularities of Caxtons spelling in his prologue to his translation of The Recuyell of
the Histories of Troy, Iwas born & lerned myn Englissh in Kente in the Weeld, where I
doubte not is spoken as brode and rude Englissh as is in ony place of Englond (p. 97). Printers
had problems aligning words to the right-hand margins, especially in printing prose. A way
around this hindrance was to insert extra letters, therefore manipulating common spellings (e.g.
here could be spelled as <heere>) (Baron, 2000, p. 98).
Middle English documents reveal the way people changed the spelling of words to fit the
effects of the GVS. For example, the Modern English word our, was commonly spelled as
<aur>, out was written as <owt>, and house is spelled as <hows>. These illustrations reveal the
diphthongization of the high back vowel /u:/ to /au/ (Lerer, (2007, p.107). English orthographer,
Thomas Smith, published a spelling tract in 1568, and believed the current spelling practices of
his day were absurd, foolish, and stupid (Baron, 2000, p. 109). According to Baron (2000),
Smith blamed the Norman French for undoing the rationality of Old English spelling (p. 109).

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

Had Thomas Smith realized the impacts of the GVS on English spelling during his lifetime, he
may have changed his opinion.
Lerer (2007) discusses the mystery of the <ea> and <ee> spellings and how the GVS
transformed them from their original sounds. He explains that Modern English words using the
/i/ sound, such as <meat>, <beat>, <feat>, and <sea>, were originally pronounced in Middle
English as /:/ (long open e as in great). Words like <meet>, <beet>, <feet>, and <see>, which
are also pronounced as /i/, were originally pronounced as /e:/ (long closed e) (p. 113). Lerer
(2007) notes there are only five words, which had the long open e sound and were spelled as
<ea> that didnt change in pronunciation with the GVS. These are <great>, <break>, <steak>,
<yea>, and <Reagan> (p. 114). Authors Upward & Davidson (2011) explain how Shakespeare
(1564-1616), didnt rhyme words spelled with <ee> or <ea> (<see/sea>, <seek/speak>), because
<ee> words were pronounced as [i] and <ea> words as [e] (e.g., great) (p. 177).
During the Renaissance, there was a trend in English to adopt Latin spellings to Norman
French words that had been brought into English. Consonants, like the <b> in <debt> and
<doubt>, were brought back into use by the desire to reveal the words Latin origin. These odd
spellings in English, including the <p> in <receipt, further widen the gap between sound and
spelling, creating extensive problems for learners of English. Interestingly, the French discarded
the awkward addition of <b> and <p>, whereas the English did not (Miles, 2005, p. 94).
Remarkably, two men, John Hart and William Bullokar, attempted to rationalize English
spelling in the late-16th century. They were known as orthoepists, or people who study
pronunciation. Their goal was to create a rational English spelling system based upon the spoken
language. They argued that by simplifying the writing of English, learning to read and write
would only take six weeks and that foreigners would learn the language much more quickly. The

10

THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

dialect chosen to shape the spelling system was London and Court English. Unfortunately,
their attempts to simplify English orthography failed. Their challenge, they believed, was there
were too few letters in the English alphabet to master the variety of English distinctions (Baron,
2000, p. 109).
English spelling was not consistent until the middle of the 18th Century, as the Great
Vowel Shift was still occurring. In 1740, English orthographer, Thomas Dilworth, published a
spelling book called Aby-sel-pha. A fellow Englishman, Samuel Johnson, published a twovolume dictionary of English in 1755, which helped to standardize the spelling of English
(Celce-Murcia, Brinton & Goodwin, 2010, p. 420). Following the American Revolution, Noah
Webster was summoned to simplify American English spelling. Webster intentionally changed
American English spelling from its British counterpart by making it more consistent and
matching the orthography to its spoken form. His first Spelling-Book, published in 1783, sold
more than 80 million copies in its first hundred years (Celce-Murcia, Brinton & Goodwin, 2010,
p. 421). It was Webster who promoted the dropping of <k> from words like <musick> and
<traffick> (Schmitt & Marsden, 2006, p. 164). Further modifications Webster made to American
spelling included: <colour color>, <waggon wagon>, <physick physic>, <centre
center>, <defence defense>, <recognise recognize> and <foetus fetus> (Celce-Murcia,
Brinton & Goodwin, 2010, p. 421). However, Venezky (1999) believes that English orthography
has changed little since 1700 (p. 115).
In summary, Miles (2005) points out that many scholars believe the GVS was a larger
result of the vast irregularities of English regional dialects over time (p. 78). From my research, I
have discovered various other phenomena that inspired such a change in the English Language. I
especially found the hypothesis from sociolinguists fascinating. It is possible that the GVS was

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THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

instigated (in part) by lower class urbanites using high class pronunciations to fit into
aristocratic society. I have explored numerous factors that led to the diversity of English
orthography. These include: the advent of the printing press in the midst of the GVS, dialectal
differences, and borrowings from other languages. With regard to teaching, I hope to relate what
Ive learned through my study of the GVS and English spelling, specifically as to why Modern
English has vowel sounds far removed from how words are spelled.

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THE GVSS CONSEQUENCES FOR ENGLISH SPELLING

References
Baron, N. S. (2000). Alphabet to email: How written English evolved and where its heading.
London, UK: Routledge
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Goodwin, J. M. (2010). Teaching pronunciation: a course
book and reference guide (2nd Ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fennell, B.A. (2001). A history of English: A sociolinguistic approach. Oxford, UK: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.
Lerer, S. (2007). Inventing English: A portable history of the language. New York, NY:
Columbia University Press.
McMahon, A. (2006). Restructuring Renaissance English. In L. Mugglestone (Ed.). The Oxford
history of English (pp. 180-218). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Miles, E. (2005). English words and their spelling: A history of phonological conflicts. London,
UK: Whurr Publishers Ltd.
Schmitt, N. & Marsden, R. (2006). Why is English like that? Historical answers to hard ELT
questions. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Smith, J. (1996). An historical study of English. London, UK: Routledge.
Upward, C. & Davidson, G. (2011). The history of English Spelling. West Sussex, UK: WileyBlackwell.
Venezky, R. L. (1999). The American way of spelling: The structure and origins of American
English orthography. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

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