CHAPTER 1

Mechanical Measurement

Presentation Prepared by
Prof. Naman M. Dave
Assistant Prof. (Mechanical Dept.)
Gandhinagar Institute of Technology

Please refer this file just as

reference material. More
concentration should on class
room work and text book
methodology.

Measurement and Metrology

Science of measurement

Depending on field of application

Today (in broader sense) with some

practical terms

Metrology
Practical terms related with
measurement:
o Errors in measurements
o Methods of measurements
o Measuring Instruments
o Units of measurement and their standards
o Industrial inspection and its different
techniques
o Measuring instruments and accuracy

Needs of Measurement and

Metrology

To ensure that the part to be measured conforms

to the established standard.
To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that
no faulty product reaches the customers.
To coordinate the functions of quality control,
production, procurement & other departments of
the organization.
To judge the possibility of making some of the
defective parts acceptable after minor repairs.

Objectives of Measurement and

Metrology
Although the basic objective of a measurement is to
provide the required accuracy at a minimum cost,
metrology has further objectives in a modem engineering
plant with different shapes which are:
To minimize the cost of inspection by efficient and
effective use of available facilities,
To minimize the cost of rejection and re-work through
application of statistical quality control techniques.
To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
To determine the process capabilities and ensure that
these are better than relevant component tolerances.
To do complete evaluation of newly developed products.

Modes of Measurement

Based upon the number of conversions, three

basic categories of measurements have been
developed.

They are;
1. Primary measurement
2. Secondary measurement
3. Tertiary measurement

Modes of Measurement
1. Primary measurement
Direct observation and comparison
Not involvement of any conversion
Ex. Length, Height, Depth or Width etc. measurement.

Modes of Measurement
2. Secondary measurement
>Indirect method
>Involvement of one conversion
Ex. Pressure or Temperature measurement

3. Tertiary measurement
>Indirect method
>Involvement of 2 conversion
Ex. Measurement of rotating shaft

Methods of Measurement

Methods of Measurement
Type of Method
With contact

Without contact
Absolute or
Fundamental

Technique to measure
Instrument is placed in contact
with the object. For ex. vernier
calliper
Instrument not placed in contact
with the object. (use of sensor)
Based on the measurements of
base quantities entering into the
definition of the quantity.

Methods of Measurement
Type of Method
Comparative

Null measurement

Technique to measure
Based on the comparison of the
value of a quantity to be
measured with a known value of
the same quantity.
Here, difference between
measurand value and known
value of same quantity with
which it is compared is brought to
zero.

Methods of Measurement
Type of Method

Technique to measure

Substitutional Method

Quantity to be measured is
replaced by a known value of the same
quantity, so selected that the effects
produced in the
indicating device by these two values
are the same (a type of direct
comparison).

Complementary Method

The value of quantity to be measured is

combined with known value of the same
quantity.
Ex: Volume determination by liquid
displacement.

Methods of Measurement
Type of Method
Transposition

Technique to measure
Value of quantity measured is
Quantity to be measured first balanced by an initial known
is first balanced by a
value A of same quantity, then
known value and then
measured by quantity is put in
balanced by an other
place of this known value. Then,
new known value.
it is balanced again by another
value B. If the position of
element in equilibrium.

Methods of Measurement
Type of Method
Coincidence

Technique to measure
Measurements coincide with
certain lines and signals. Ex.
Callipers

Deflection

The value of the quantity to be

measured is directly indicated by
the deflection of a pointer on a
calibrated scale

Generalized Measurement System

Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

1. Primary sensing element
Quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with primary sensing element.
Sense the condition, state or value of the process
variable by extracting a small part of energy
from the measurand,
and then produce an output which reflects this
condition, state or value of measurand.

Generalized Measurement System

Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

2. Variable conversion (transducer) element
Convert one physical form into another form without
changing the information content of the signal.

Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

3. Variable manipulation element
Modifies the signal by amplification, filtration or other
means so that desired output produced according to
some mathematical rule for Ex. i/p x constant = o/p

Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

Data transmission element
Transmits the signal from one location to another
without changing its information contents.
4.

Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

Data processing element
modifies the data before it displayed or finally
recorded
perform mathematical operation such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
to calculate average, statistical and logarithmic values
to convert data into desired form.
to separate undesired signal from output signal.
to provide correction on the output signal.
5.

Generalized Measurement System

Generalized Measurement System

Elements of measuring system

6. Data presentation elements

Provides a record or indication of the output

(i) Transmitting information (measured quantity) to
another location or devices.
(ii) Signaling : To give a signal that the pre-defined
value has been reached.
(iii) Recording : To produce a continuous record of
measured quantity in written form.
(iv) Indicating : To indicate the specific value on
calibrated scale.

Performance characteristics

Important to select most suitable instrument for specific

measurement.

Static Performance characteristics:

Desired input to the instrument not change w.r.t time.

Dynamic Performance characteristics:

Static Performance characteristics

Readability: This term indicates the

closeness with which the scale of
the instrument may be read.
Susceptibility of device to have its
indications
converted
into
meaningful number.
Least count: It is the smallest
difference between two indications
that can be detected on the
instrument scale.

Static Performance characteristics

Range: It represents the highest possible value that can be

measured by an instrument or limits within which
instrument is designed to operate.

Linearity: A measuring system is said to be linear if the

output is linearly proportional to the input.

Static Performance characteristics

Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of a measuring

system to repeat output readings when the same input is
applied to it consecutively, under the same conditions, and
in the same direction.

Reproducibility: It is defined as the degree of closeness

with which the same value of a variable may be measured
at different times.

System response: Response of a system may be defined as

the ability of the system to transmit & present all the
relevant information contained in the input signal.

Static Performance characteristics

Threshold: Min. value of i/p required to cause a
detectable change from 0(zero) o/p.
If i/p increased gradually from 0(zero), there will
be some min. value below which no o/p change
can be detected.

Static Performance characteristics

Hysteresis:

Hysteresis is the maximum

differences in two output
(indicated values) at same
input (measurand) value
within the specified range
when input is continuously
increased from zero and
when input is continuously
decrcased for maximum
value.
Maximum diff. between
increasing input value and
the decreasing input value at
the same output.

Static Performance characteristics

Calibration:
Procedure
of
making, adjusting or checking
a scale so that readings of an
instrument conforms to an
accepted standard.

Sensitivity: Ratio of o/p

response to a specific range in
i/p.

Dead zone: Largest change of

i/p
quantity
for
which
instrument does not indicate
output.

Static Performance characteristics

Drift: gradual variation or undesired change in o/p
during constant i/p.

Span: proportional change in the indication or change

along the upward scale

Zero Drift:
whole
calibration
gradually
shifts due to slippage

Zonal Drift: Combination

of both

Static Performance characteristics

Loading effect:
Any instrument, invariably extracts energy from
system, the original signal should remain
undistorted. This is incapability of system to
faithfully measure signal in undistorted form.

Static Performance characteristics

Accuracy: It is degree to which the measured

value agrees with true value. Max. amount by
which result differs from the true value.

Precision: It is repeatability or reproducibility of

the measurement. If instrument is not precise,
great difference in dimension measured again
and again.

Measurement Errors

What is Error ?

It is difference between indicated or

measured value and true value.

It is impossible to made measurement

with perfect accuracy

Measurement Errors

Types (Classification of Errors)

Measurement Errors

Gross errors

Human mistakes
Careless readings, mistake in recordings,
improper application of instrument
Can not treated mathematically
Can be avoided only by taking care in reading
and recording

Measurement Errors
Systematic

error

Have definite magnitude and direction.

Can be repeated consistently with repetition of
experiments.
To locate these errors: repeated measurements
under different conditions or with different
equipment or possible by an entirely different
methods.

Measurement Errors
Instrumental error

Due to design or construction /assembly of

instruments
Limiting accuracy
Improper selection of instrument
Poor maintenance
For Ex. Errors due to friction, wear, slips,
vibration
Errors due to incorrect fitting of scale at zero,
non-uniform division of scale, bent pointer.

Measurement Errors
Operational error

Misuse of instrument
Poor operational techniques
For Ex. Errors in flow measurement if flowmeter is placed immediately after a valve or
a bend.

Measurement Errors
Environmental errors

due to conditions external to the measuring

instrument, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument,
such as effects of change in temperature,
humidity, barometric pressure, or magnetic
or electrostatic fields.
For ex. Buoyant effect of the wind causes
errors on precise measurement of weights by
pan balance.

Measurement Errors
Environmental errors

These errors may be avoided by

(i) Use instrument under conditions for
which it was design and calibrated. This
atmospheric condition can be maintain by air
conditioning.
(ii) Provide sealing certain components in
the instrument.
(iiii) Make calibration of instrument under
the local atmospheric conditions

Measurement Errors

System interaction errors

Interaction between system (to be measured)
and instrument body. So it change the
condition of the system.
For Ex. A ruler pressed against a body
(system) resulting the deformation of the
body.

Measurement Errors

i.

Observation errors :
Due to poor capabilities and carelessness of
operators.
Parallax : These errors may arise when the
pointer and scale not in same plane or line of
vision of observer is not normal to the scale.

Measurement Errors

Observation errors :
Due to poor capabilities and carelessness of
operators.
ii. Personal bias: Observer tendency to read high
or low, anticipate a signal and read too
iii. Wrong reading,
wrong
calculations,
wrong recording
data, etc.

Measurement Errors

Random Error
Accidental in their incidence
Variable in magnitude and usually follow a
certain statistical (probability) law.
Friction and stickiness in instrument
Vibration in instrument frame or supports
Elastic deformation
Large dimensional tolerances between the
mating parts.
Supply power fluctuations
Backlash in the movement.

CHAPTER 1
Mechanical Measurement