[sunting]

Daftar mineral
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Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]
1 Definisi
o 1.1 Mineral
o 1.2 Kristal
2 Garis
3 Skala Kekerasan MOH's
4 Belahan
5 Warna
6 Berat Jenis (BD)
7 Nama-nama Batu Permata berdasarkan urutan abjad
o 7.1 A
o 7.2 B
o 7.3 C
o 7.4 D
o 7.5 E
o 7.6 F
o 7.7 G
o 7.8 H
o 7.9 I
o 7.10 J
o 7.11 K
o 7.12 L
o 7.13 M
o 7.14 N
o 7.15 O
o 7.16 P
o 7.17 Q
o 7.18 R

7.19 S
7.20 T
7.21 V
7.22 Y
7.23 Z
8 Nama-nama Batu Permata berdasarkan urutan Kekerasan menurut Skala Mohs

9 RUBY

o
o
o
o
o

[sunting] Definisi
[sunting] Mineral
(krauset.al 1959)
Mineral adalah suatu zat yang terdapat dalam alam dengan komposisi kimia yang khas
dan biasanya mempunyai struktur kristal yang jelas, yang kadang-kadang dapat menjelma
dalam bentuk geometris tertentu.
Istilah mineral dapat mempunyai bermacam-macam makna; sukar untuk mendefinisikan
mineral dan oleh karena itu kebanyakan orang mengatakan, bahwa mineral ialah satu
frase yang terdapat dalam alam. Sebagaimana kita ketahui ada mineral yang berbentuk :

Lempeng
Tiang
Limas
Kubus

Batu permata kalau ditelaah adalah merupakan campuran dari unsur-unsur mineral.
Setiap mineral yang dapat membesar tanpa gangguan akan memperkembangkan bentuk
kristalnya yang khas, yaitu suatu wajah lahiriah yang dihasilkan struktur kristalen (bentuk
kristal). Ada mineral dalam keadaan Amorf, yang artinya tak mempunyai bangunan dan
susunan kristal sendiri (mis kaca & opal). Tiap-tiap pengkristalan akan makin bagus
hasilnya jika berlangsungnya proses itu makin tenang dan lambat.

[sunting] Kristal
Kristal adalah sebuah benda yang homogen, berbentuk sangat geometris dan atomatomnya tersusun dalam sebuah kisi-kisi kristal,karena bangunan kisi-kisi kristal tersebut
berbeda-beda maka sifatnya juga berlainan. Kristal dapat terbentuk dalam alam (mineral)
atau di laboratorium. Kristal artinya mempunyai bentuk yang agak setangkup (symetris)
dan yang pada banyak sisinya terbatas oleh bidang datar, sehingga memberi bangin yang
tersendiri sifatnya kepada mineral yang bersangkutan.
Benda padat yang terdiri dari atom-atom yang tersusun rapi dikatakan mempunyai
struktur kristalen. Dalam suasana yang baik benda kristalen dapat mempunyai batas

bidang rata-rata & benda itu dinamakan kristal (HABLUR) & bidang rata itu disebut
muka krsital.
Ada 32 macam gelas kristal yang dipersatukan dalam 6 sistem kristal, yaitu:
1. REGULER, Kubus atau ISOMETRIK ketiga poros sama panjang dan
berpotongan tegak lurus satu sama lain (contoh : intan, pirit, garam batu)
2. TETRAGONAL (berbintang empat) ketiga poros tegak lurus satu sama lain, dua
poros sama panjang sedangkan poros ketiga berbeda (contoh chalkopirit, rutil,
zircon).
3. HEKSAGONAL (berbintang enam) Hablur ini mempunyai empat poros, tiga
poros sama panjang dan terletak dalam satu bidang, bersilangdengan sudut 120
derajat (60 derajat), tetapi poros ke-empat tegak lurus atas bidang itu dan
panjangnya berbeda (contoh apalit, beryl, korundum).
4. ORTOROMBIS (irisan wajik) ketiga poros tidak sama panjang du poros
berpotongan siku-siku dan poros ketiga memotong miring bidang kedua poros
tadi (berit, belerang, topaz)
5. MONOKLIN (miring sebelah) ketiga poros tidak sama panjang, dua dari
porosnya berpotongan sorong & poros ketiga tegak lurus atas kedua poros tadi
(gips, muskovit, augit)
6. TRIKLIN (miring, ketiga arah) ketiga poros tidak sama panjang dan berpotongan
serong satu sama lain(albit, anortit, distin)
Bentuk kristal dibagi dalam 6 tata hablur yang didasarkan:

perbandingan panjang poros poros hablur

besarnya sudut persilangan poros poros hablur

[sunting] Garis
kristal / mineral yang mempunyai kekerasan < 7 jika digosokkan pada lempengan
porselin yang kasar biasanya meninggalkan ditempat penggosokan tsb suatu garis yang
karakteristik dan seringkali berwarna lain dari mineral itu sendiri.

Pirit yang warnanya kuning emas meninggalkan garis hitam.

Hematit (Fe2O3) yang berkilap kelogam logaman atau memberigaris merah
darah
Fluisvat memberikan garis putih (mineral yang berwarna terang tetapi memberi
garis putih)

[sunting] Skala Kekerasan MOH's

Kekerasan adalah sebuah sifat fisik lain, yang dipengaruhi oleh tata letak intern dari
atom. Untuk mengukur kekerasan mineral dipakai Skala Kekerasan MOHS (1773-1839).

1. Talk, mudah digores dengan kuku ibu jari

2. GIPS, mudah digores dengan kuku ibu jari
3. Kalsit, mudah digores dengan pisau
4. Fluorit, mudah digores dengan pisau
5. Apatit, dapat dipotong dengan pisau (agak sukar)
6. Ortoklas, dapat dicuwil tipis-tipis dengan pisau dibagian pinggir
7. Kwarsa, dapat menggores kaca
8. Topaz, dapat menggores kaca
9. Korundum, dapat mengores topaz
10. Intan, dapat menggores korundum
Bentuk Kristal Intan ialah benda padat besisi delapan (OKTAHEDRON)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

K = 1 : Talk/Silikat magnesia yang mengandung air

K = 2 : Gips (CaSO4), batu tahu
K = 3 : Kalsit (CaCo3)
K = 4 : Vluispat (CaF2)
K = 5 : Apatit mengandung chloor
K = 6 : Veldspat, kaca tingkap
K = 7 : Kwarsa, pisau dari baja
K = 8 : Topas; Silikat alumunium yang mengandung borium, batu permata
K = 9 : Korondum (Al2O3 dalam corak merah, batu permata delima, corak biru
batu nilam/safir)
10. K = 10 : intan batu permata
Masing-masing mineral tersebut diatas dapat menggores mineral lain yang bernomor
lebih kecil dan dapat digores oleh mineral lain yang bernonor lebih besar. Dengan lain
perkataan SKALA MOHS adalah Skala relative. Dari segi kekerasan mutlak skala ini
masih dapat dipakai sampai yang ke 9, artinya no. 9 kira-kira 9 kali sekeras no. 1, tetapi
bagi no. 10 adalah 42 kali sekeras no. 1
K.E. Kinge (1860) dalam Han Sam Kay mengelompokkan batu permata yang dijadikan
perhiasan dalam lima belas kelas sebagai berikut :
1. Batu permata Kelas I, Nilai Keras antara 8 s/d 10
2. Batu Permata kelas II, Nilai Keras antara 7 s/d 8
3. Batu permata Kelas III
Batu permata kelas ini tergolong jenis batu mulia dan batu mulia tanggung, nilai
kerasnya kira-kira 7, sebagian besar terdiri dari asam kersik (kiezelzuur), keculai
pirus (tuquois)
4. Batu-Batu mulia Tanggung yaitu batu kelas IV, nilai keras antara 4 7
5. Batu kelas V
Batu kelas V nilai kerasnya dan kadar berat jenisnya sangat berbeda-beda.
Warnanya gelap (kusam) dan kebanyakan agak keruh, tidak tembus cahaya,
batunya sedikit mengkilap, dan harganyapun amat murah bila dibandingkan
dengan harga batu mulia.

Dalam kelas ini termasuk batu marmer dan batu kelas V tidak tergolong batu
mulia.

Belahan
Belah adalah kecenderungan batu permata untuk membelah kearah tertentu menyusur
permukaan bidang rata, lebih spesifik lagi ia menunjukkan kearah mana ikatan-ikatan
diantara atom relative lemah dan biasanya reta-retak menunjukan arah belah.
Belahan ialah sifat untuk menjadi belah menurut bidang yang agak sama licinnya

belahan baik sekali

baik
sedang
buruk
tidak ada belahan sama sekali

Warna
Kenapa kita dapat melihat berbagai warna ?
Warna dapat dilihat ketika terjadi beberapa proses pemindahan panjang gelombang,
beberapa menyerap panjang gelombang spesifik dari spektrum yang dapat dilihat.
Spektrum yang dapat dilihat terdiri dari warna merah, oranye, kuning, hijau, biru, nila
dan violet.
Ketika terjadi pemindahan panjang gelombang akan mempengaruhi energi dan akan
terjadi perubahan warna dan jika permata itu mengandung besi biasanya akan terlihat
berwarna kelam, sedangkan yang mengandung alumunium biasanya terlihat berwarna
cerah, tetapi juga ada mineral yang berwarna tetap seperti air (berkristal) dan dinamakan
Idhiochromatic
Disini warna merupakan sifat pembawaan disebabkan karena ada sesuatu zat dalam
permata sebagai biang warna (pigment agent) yang merupakan mineral-mineral yaitu :
belerang warnanya kuning; malakit warnanya hijau; azurite warnanya biru; pirit
warnanya kuning; magatit warnanya hitam; augit warnanya hijau; gutit warnanya kuning
hingga coklat; hematite warnanya merah dsbnya.
Ada juga mineral yang mempunyai warna bermacam-macam dan diistilahkan
allokhromatik, hal ini disebabkan kehadiran zat warna (pigmen), terkurungnya sesuatu
benda (inclusion) atau kehadiran zat campuran (Impurities). Impurities adalah unsurunsur yang antara lain terdiri dari Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, dan biasanya tidak hadir
dalam campuran murni, unsur-unsur yang terkonsentrasi dalam batu permata rendah.
Aneka warna batu permata ini sangat mempersona manusia sehingga manusia memberi
gelar mulia pada batu-batu itu, contoh intan yang hanya terdiri dari satu unsur mineral
yakni zat arang merupakan benda yang padat yang bersisi delapan karena adanya zat

campuran yang berbeda akan menyebabkan warna yang berbeda : tidak berwarna,
kuning, kuning muda, agak kebiru-biruan, merah, biru agak hijau, merah jambu, merah
muda, agak kuning coklat, hitam yang dinamakan carbonado, hijau daun. Banyak mineral
hanya memperlihatkam warna yang terang pada bagian-bagian yang tipis sekali. Mineral
yang lebih besar dan tebal selalu memberi kesan yang hitam, tanda demikian antara lain
diperlihatkan oleh banyak mineral.
Warna hijau muda; jika warna tersebut makin tua berarti makin bertambah Kadar Fe
didalam molekulnya.

Berat Jenis (BD)

Untuk mengetahui mineral yang belum diketahui Bdnya dipakai alat yang disebut cairan
berat :

Pertama : Bromoform (ChBr)

Kedua : Joodmethylin (Ch2 J2)
Ketiga : Cclerici yaitu larutan Thallium malonat formiat

Mineral dengan BD < 2,68 mineral ringan

kwarsa: 2,57
albit: 2,62
oligoklas: 2,64

Mineral dengan BD > 2,68 mineral berat

Labradorit: 2,70
Anortit: 2,76
Augit hornblende: 3,20
Maskotit: 2,90
Biotitit: 3,00
Korundum: 3,20
Turmalin

Mineral dengan BD 3,3 4 mineral amat berat

olifin
starolit
granat / garnet

Mineral dengan BD > 4 dan kekerasan = 7

Zirkon

BD = 2,65 Mineral tergolong dalam fraksi enteng dan bias rangkapnya Kuarsa kristalen;
bergkristaltergolong rendah yaitu terdiri dari opal = sebetulnya gel asam(tidak
berwarna); amathis atau kecubung chalsedon; jenis kristalnya jenis kripto (kwarsa
kriptokersik kristalen); k = 7; struktur kristalnya baru tampak jika dilihat dengan agat;
jenis kristalnya jenis kripto (kwarsamenggunakan mikroskop. kripto kristalen) = k = 7;
struktur kristalnya baru tampak jika dilihat Oniks, jenis kristalnya jenis kriptodengan
menggunakan mikroskop (kwarsa kripto kristalen) = k = 7; struktur kristalnya baru
tampak jika opal besi kersik jaspis dilihat dengan menggunakan mikroskop
tanggung (half opal) = sifat membelah tidak ada pecahannya berupa kerang.
Nefrit = Jade = Giok {Ca2 (Mg, Fe)5 (OH)2Si8O22}BD = 2,9 3,3 aktinolit atau
Amfibol kalsium magnesium besi; bentuk menyerabut atau asbes tiform; warna kelabu,
kehijau-hijauan atau kekuning-kuningan; adanya garis kembar; warna plagioklas putih,
kadang kadang kehijau-hijauan, hijau tua, coklat, hitam, kadang-kadang tembus
pandang (transparan), tembus cahaya (Translucent) atau opal; bidang belah berpotongan
dengan sudut 550 dan 1250 ; K = 5 6; apabila dipanaskan mengeluarkan air yang
menunjukkan bahwa ia terbentuk dalam suasana hidro (perhatikan adanya gugusan OH)
atau dikenal sebagai AMFIBOL.
Epidot ( H2 M4 M6 Si6O26, M); dari batu-batuanBD = 3,3 3,6 endapan atau
sedimen yang lebih tua; k = 6,5; Hijau- hijau kekuning-kuningan, terdapat jenis yang
berwarna merah; belahan baik; mengristal monoklin, prisma; bias cahaya dan bias
rangkap kuat.
Granat/Garnet (M3 M2 SiO3O12); dari batuanBD = 3,5 5,3 sedimen tua; kristal
reguler; bias cahaya keras, tidak berbias rangkap (Isotrop); K = 7; belahan baik; warna
merah, merah coklat, kuning dan hijau jarang, tidak berwarna sama sekali.
Korundum (Al2O3) tersusun sangat padat; tak berwarnaBD = 4 bermacam-macam
warna; K = 9; Oktahedron/Hexagonal; Bias tinggi; Bias Spinel (M = Mg, Zr, Fe; M =
Cr, Al,rangkapnya rendah. (3,9 4,1) Mn); hijau tua; K = 7,5 8; Biasnya tinggi,
Mengkristal secara reguler; bersifat isotrop dalam optiknya; belahannya seringkali buruk
Ortit termasuk golongan Epidot hanya dalamBD = 4,2 persenyawaannya berbeda
disebabkan kadar Ce yang tinggi; K= 5,6; merah coklat, coklat merah tua kuning atau
coklat kuning; kristal gemuk Turmalin {H9Al3(B.OH)2Si4O19}; K= 7;
Heksagonal,seperti prisma; belahan buruk, Bias sedang; Pleokroisnya sangat kuat;
jernis seperti air, Coklat biru sampai hitam, turmalin biru agak jarang diketemukan.
Tiap-tiap batu permata yang sudah dikenal berat jenisnya dapat diketahui nilai keras batu,
dari berat batu dapatlah dihitung kari dari permata tersebut. Karat adalah satuan berat
yang setimbang dengan seperlima gram. Satuan ini disebut karat metric. Jika kita timbang
berat intan, tidak dikatakan berat intan 1 gram tetapi berat intan adalah 5 karat, demikian
yang lain batu rubi beratnya 17,8 karat, batu sapphire 7 karat dsbnya.

[sunting] Nama-nama Batu Permata berdasarkan

urutan abjad
[sunting] A
Agate (akik) Alexandrite Amazonite Amber Amethyst (kecubung) Ametrine Ammolite
Andalusite Apatite Aquamarine Aventurine Axinite

[sunting] B
Beryl Bloodstone (batu darah) Bone

[sunting] C
Carnelian Chrysoberyl (mata kucing) Chrysocolla Chrysoprase Citrine Coral Cordierite
Cubic Zirconia

[sunting] D
Danburite Diamonds (berlian) Dinasosaur Bone Dravite (tourmaline) Drusy

[sunting] E
Emerald (jamrud) Euclase

[sunting] F
Fluorite

[sunting] G
Garnet

[sunting] H
Heliodore (Beryl) Hematite

[sunting] I
Iolite

[sunting] J
Jade (giok) Jasper

[sunting] K
Kono Dolomite Kunzite

[sunting] L
Labradorite Lapis Lazuli Larimar

[sunting] M
Malachite Montana Agate Moonstone (batu bulan) Morgan Hill

[sunting] N
Nephrite (jade)

[sunting] O
Onyx Opal (kalimaya) Opalite

[sunting] P
Padparadscha Palmwood Pearl (mutiara) Pectolite Peridot Pyrope

[sunting] Q
Quartz

[sunting] R
Rhodolite garnet Rubelite (tourmaline) Rubicelle (spinel) Ruby (Batu merah delima, Batu
nilem)

[sunting] S
Sapphire Spinel Sunstone Spectrolite (labradorite) Sugilite

[sunting] T
Tanzanite TigerS Eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise (pirus)

[sunting] V
Verdelite Violan

[sunting] Y
Yag

[sunting] Z
Zircone

[sunting] Nama-nama Batu Permata berdasarkan

urutan Kekerasan menurut Skala Mohs
Skala 10
Diamond

Skala 9
Padparadscha

Ruby Sapphire
Skala 8,5 Chrysoberyl Cubic Zirconia
Skala 8,25 Yag
Skala 8 Topaz Spinel
Skala 7,5- 8 Beryl Phenakite
Skala 7,5 Euclase Zircon
Skala 7 7,5 Andalusite Cordierite Iolite Pyrope Rhodolite garnet
Skala 7 Quarz Tourmaline Danburite
Skala 6,5 - 7,5 Grossular garnet Spessartite garnet
Skala 6,5 - 7 Axinite Jadeite Peridot Hessonite garnet Demantoid garnet
Skala 6,5 Chalcedony GGG Hematite Idocrase Scapolite (yellow) Zoisite

Skala 6 7,5 Almandine garnet

Skala 6 - 7 Cassiterite Spodumene Olivine
Skala 6 6,5 Adularia moonstone Albite moonstone Benitoite Labradorite
Skala 6 Amazonite Orthoclase Rutile Zircon
Skala 5,5 - 6 Anatase rutile Opal Rhodonite
Skala 5 - 6 Turquoise (pirus) Nephrite jade Diopside Lapis Apatite Enstatie Strontium
titanate Sphene

[sunting] RUBY
Di Indonesia kalau kita berbicara tentang batu permata umumnya yang terbayang adalah
dua hal yakni batu yang diyakini mempunyai tuah (misal kebal terhadap bacokan golok)
atau berlian. Sebetulnya kalau kita berbicara tentang batu permata adalah ketika batu
tersebut bisa diuji dengan beberapa metoda yang sudah diakui secara international antara
lain dengan mengukur kekerasannya dengan menggunakan suatu alat tertentu yang bisa
menunjukkan nilai keras suatu permata dalam Skala kekerasan Mohz. semakin tinggi
nilai kekerasannya semakin baik batu tersebut. Jumlah batu permata mencapai ribuan
jenis yang dibentuk dari unsur kimia tertentu berdasarkan ilmu geologi, tetapi diyakini
adapula batu yang disebut batu mustika yang konon berasal dari vegetasi, binatang dll.
Bahkan sebagian besar orang didunia ini masih meyakini bahwa batu permata dapat
mempengaruhi pemakainya yang didasarkan hari kelahiran yang diimplementasikan pada
bintang kelahiran, seperti ruby diyakini bagus bagi orang yang lahir pada bulan juli
(Leo).. Disini akan kita ulas sedikit batu permata yang dikatakan sebagai rajanya dunia
batu permata yaitu Ruby atau orang Indonesia ada yang menamakannya Batu Merah
Delima. Untuk menentukan keaslian Batu mirah delima diyakini oleh sebagian orang
adalah jika batu tersebut direndam dalam air, maka airnya akan berwarna merah darah
bahkan air disekitarnya bisa menjadi merah pula (walahu alam).
Pada masa lampau Ruby digunakan sebagai pengobatan alternatif untuk penawar racun
atau untuk meracuni, untuk menghindarkan orang dari wabah, untuk membuang duka
cita, untuk menindas sikap sombong, dan untuk mengalihkan pikiran dari berfikir untuk
berbuat jahat bahkan dapat mengubah logam jadi emas. (Sumber: Kamus Brewer'S).
Bahkan sebagian orang mengatakan ruby dapat dipakai sebagai perantara akan cita-cita
yang diinginkan, meramalkan kamu atau keberuntungan dalam spekulasi bisnis atau cinta
terhadap seorang perempuan atau untuk menghilangkan sikap acuh tak acuh kekasihnya.
(Sumber: Tafsir.Sepuluh Ribu Bermimpi) Menurut istilah kimia ruby adalah suatu variasi
merah tua aluminium oksida yang jernih dan bersih, dihargai sebagai batu mulia: juga
disebut merah delima murni, ruby oriental (European union ) Ruby Adalah suatu variasi
merah aluminium oksida batu-permata, warna yang disebabkan oleh sebagian besar unsur

logam pelapis chrom. Yang sangat berharga untuk aluminium oksida yang alami adalah
ruby ( dari bahasa Latin yang berarti Rubrum atau, ' merah'). warna suatu ruby sangat
bervariasi dari yang merah jambu sampai ke suatu merah yang sangat lembayung RUBY
mempunyai warna merah terang anggur bebas dari warna coklat atau warna warna ungu
atau warna yang kuat atau terang yang mengingatkan kepada warna darah atau buah
kersen atau buah tomat atau merah delima. Warna merah ini terdiri atas alumunium yang
tercampur dengan chrominium (Cr); akan tetapi kalau tercampur dengan sedikit Titanium
(Ti) warnanya berubah menjadi biru dan namanya safir, jika tercampur dengan zat besi
warnanya berubah menjadi kuning yaitu safir kuning. Ruby adalah batu yang tergolong
pada mineral korundum, dan meraupakan batu-permata paling keras pada urutan kedua
dalam suatu skala MOHS dengan nilai 9. artinya jika dibandingkan dengan intan; hanya
intan yang lebih keras daripada ruby. Ingat-Ingat bahwa ini skala adalah berdasarkan atas
kekerasan berdasar pada tekanan karena goresan dalam satu system nilai skala MOHS
dan bukan terhadap benturan dengan benda lainnya (palu misalnya); berat jenisnya 3,99
4. Ruby ditemukan Asia, Afrika, Myanmar, Sri Lanka dan Thailand. dan
Australia,meskipun demikian mereka telah pula ditemukan diMontana dan Selatan
Carolina. Ruby yang paling terkenal didunia adalah dari Birma, yang mana sekarang
disebut Myanmar. Dimana ruby dari tambang Myanmar adalah lebih tua dari sejarah
yaitu jaman batu dan pada pekerjaan tambang untuk perkakas di zaman perunggu mereka
telah menemukan pertambangan di area Mogok. Legenda merah ruby dari tambang yang
ada di dalam area Mogok sering mempunyai suatu warna merah murni, yang mana
diuraikan seperti " pigeon's-blood" dimana istilah itu adalah sangat fantastis dibanding
suatu standard praktis yang nyata di dalam dunia perdagangan hari ini. Myanmar juga
menghasilkan ruby yang memancarkan gemerlap kemerah merahan yang sangat keras
dan adalah juga sangat indah kemilaunya dan hidup. Banyak dari ruby dari Myanmar
mempunyai suatu pijaran (fluorescence) kuat ketika disoroti oleh sinar ultraviolet seperti
mereka disorot oleh cahaya matahari, yang akan memberikan berkas lapisan warna
ekstra. Ruby Myanmar mempunyai suatu reputasi pada warnanya yang hidup berkemilau
ketika mereka di bawah sorotan cahaya yang menerangi semuanya. Thailand adalah juga
dikenal memproduksi ruby, namun mereka kelasnya masih dibawah Myanmar dan
nilainya ,masih lebih rendah dan warna ruby dari Thailan adalah merah pink keteduhan
kadang-kadang tersirat warna keunguan.
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Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 11:38, 11 April 2007.

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Penyangkalan

Halaman Utama | Pengantar | Benua Australia | Iklim Australia |

Flora dan Fauna Khas Australia | Orang Aborijin Australia | Pertanian di Australia |
Sumber Mineral di Australia | Pabrik di Australia | Penduduk dan Permukiman |
Australia: Negeri dengan Banyak Kebudayaan | Perdagangan dan Kepariwisataan |
Hubungan antara Australia dan Indonesia
Halaman Utama > Sumber Mineral di Australia

BAB 6
Sumber Mineral di Australia | Latihan untuk Siswa | Untuk Guru

Sumber Mineral di Australia

Pengantar
Peradaban modern banyak bergantung pada logam dan bahan bakar. Logam dan bahan
bakar ini berasal dari mineral yang dijumpai di dalam bumi dan merupakan bahan yang
penting bagi kehidupan modern. (Lihat Gambar 6.1)

Minerals Council of Australia

Gambar 6.1: Produk-produk yang dibuat dengan menggunakan mineral
Sumber-sumber mineral mencakup benda padat seperti bijih logam dan batubara, benda
cair seperti minyak mentah dan gas seperti gas alam.
Adakalanya endapan mineral yang dimiliki suatu negara lebih banyak daripada yang
diperlukan, maka ia mempunyai kelebihan cadangan yang bisa diekspornya. Australia
kaya akan berbagai mineral yang dapat diekspor. Ia juga mempunyai banyak sekali
batubara, bijih besi, gas alam, emas, berlian, perak, tembaga, nikel, bauksit, timah hitam
dan seng. Sumber-sumber yang berharga ini ditambang di beberapa tempat. Ada beberapa
pertambangan yang sangat besar dan dimiliki oleh perusahaan-perusahaan besar. Ada
pula pertambangan yang kecil dan dimiliki oleh keluarga.

Australia juga mempunyai endapan minyak tetapi tidak cukup untuk memenuhi
kebutuhannya sendiri. Oleh karena itu, Australia mengimpor bahan bakar ini dalam
jumlah besar, dan banyak yang diimpor dari Indonesia.
Beberapa sumber mineral digunakan di Australia untuk menghasilkan produk seperti
baja, lembar alumunium, dan kawat. Bahan-bahan ini kemudian dapat digunakan untuk
membuat produk-produk seperti misalnya mobil dan kapal laut.
Mineral yang ditambang di Australia pada tahun 1993-1994 senilai 25.702 juta dolar
Australia. Mineral ini terdiri dari bijih logam 58%, minyak dan gas sebanyak 29% dan
batubara sebanyak 29%.
Pada tahun 1994-1995 Australia mengekspor kebanyakan mineral yang ditambang. 36%
dari semua nilai ekspor Australia berasal dari mineral. Oleh karena itu, pendapatan dari
pertambangan merupakan pendapatan yang sangat penting bagi Australia.
Pada tahun itu Australia menghasilkan 11% dari produksi pasir mineral dunia, 42% intan
dunia dan 35% bauksit dunia.
Emas adalah bahan mineral pertama yang menarik minat orang ke Australia. Emas
ditemukan di negara bagian Victoria dan New South Wales. Sesudah ditemukannya emas
di Australia, lebih dari setengah juta orang bermigrasi ke Australia antara tahun 1850 dan
1860 untuk mencari emas. Mereka datang dari Eropa, Amerika Serikat, dan Cina. Emas
waktu itu gratis dan beberapa orang ada yang cepat menjadi kaya. Namun, banyak juga
yang gagal. Akhirnya pemerintah memungut pajak untuk emas, dan menggunakan uang
pajak tersebut untuk membangun pelabuhan, jalan-jalan, dan rel kereta api. Arus imigrasi
yang terjadi karena "rebutan emas" tersebut telah membantu terbentuknya kota-kota besar
dan kecil di Australia.
Sekarang digunakan metode ilmiah untuk mencari mineral. Metode-metode ini mahal.
Pencariannya biasanya dimulai dengan cara mempelajari gambar yang dibuat melalui
satelit atau pesawat terbang. Gambar ini memberikan informasi mengenai ciri-ciri
gravitasi, radiometri, dan ciri magnetis suatu kawasan. Hal ini akan membantu
menentukan apakah suatu kawasan perlu dijelajahi lebih lanjut atau tidak.
Beberapa metode ilmiah untuk mencari mineral dapat dilihat pada Gambar 6.2.

Gambar 6.2: Tiga metode ilmiah untuk mencari mineral

Kegiatan pertambangan yang utama

Sekarang kita akan mempelajari beberapa mineral yang penting. Mineral ini ditambang
dan diekspor dari Australia (Lihat Gambar 6.3).

Gambar 6.3: Peta pertambangan yang utama di Australia.

Emas
Pada tahun 1994-1995 Australia adalah produsen emas terbesar ke tiga di dunia. Ia
menghasilkan 11% dari produksi emas dunia. Kebanyakan dari pertambangan emas
Australia terletak di Australia barat. Pertambangan tersebut terletak di bawah tanah.
Mesin-mesin menghancurkan ratusan ton batu karang setiap hari untuk mendulang
butiran emas kecil-kecil. Kebanyakan emas ini diekspor. Pembeli-pembeli yang penting

berasal dari Singapura, Jepang, dan Hong Kong. Di sana emas tersebut kebanyakan
digunakan untuk perhiasan.
Sebagian kecil emas itu digunakan dalam alat elektronik. Alat setrom elektronik semacam
ini sangat andal dan digunakan dalam satelit.

Bijih besi
Selama lebih seabad Australia telah memanfaatkan bijih besi untuk membuat besi dan
baja. Sekarang produksi bijih besi yang utama adalah di daerah Gunung Tom Price di
Australia Barat. Kebanyakan dari produksi tersebut untuk diekspor. Australia mengekspor
lebih dari 115 juta ton bijih besi setiap tahun. Kebanyakan bijih besi tersebut dikirim ke
Jepang untuk dibuat baja. Ada juga yang dikirim ke Korea, Cina, Taiwan, dan Jerman.

Robe River Iron Associates

Gambar 6.4: Bijih besi dimuat ke dalam truk-truk raksasa

Bauksit
Bauksit adalah tanah merah yang kaya dengan alumunium logam. Bauksit dijumpai di
daerah-daerah tropis seperti Australia Utara. Bauksit dilelehkan menjadi alumina yang
kemudian diolah menjadi alumunium. Kedua proses olahan ini menggunakan banyak
sekali tenaga lsitrik. Australia merupakan produsen bauksit dan alumina yang terbesar di
dunia. Alumunium digunakan untuk membuat panci karena merupakan penghantar panas
yang sangat efisien. Alumunium juga digunakan untuk membuat benda yang harus ringan
bebannya, seperti pesawat terbang atau bahan-bahan untuk atap. Jepang dan negara Asia
lainnya membeli sebagian besar alumunium yang diproduksi di Australia.

Uranium
Uranium adalah bahan yang bersifat radioaktif. Uranium telah digunakan untuk membuat
bom atom. Sekarang uranium digunakan untuk membangkitkan tenaga listrik dan
menjadi bahan bakar yang berharga. Kira-kira 30% dari bijih uranium dunia dimiliki oleh
Australia. (Lihat Gambar 6.5a dan 6.5b).

Energy Resources Australia

Gambar 6.5a: Foto udara dari tambang uranium Ranger yang diambil pada tahun 1991

Energy Resources Australia

Gambar 6.5b: Proses penyulingan uranium
Bijih uranium tersebut diolah menjadi bubuk kuning untuk diangkut. Kemudian bubuk
kuning itu diolah menjadi bentuk-bentuk yang berlainan sesuai dengan penggunaannya.
Uranium digunakan sebagai bahan bakar dalam reaktor nuklir dan digunakan sebagai
isotop radioaktif untuk mengobati orang yang sakit kanker. Indonesia merencanakan
untuk membangkitkan tenaga listrik dengan menggunakan uranium. Australia
merencanakan untuk menjual uranium ke Indonesia.
Australia menginginkan agar uraniumnya hanya digunakan untuk tujuan perdamaian.
Australia telah menandatangani perjanjian internasional untuk menghentikan uji-coba
bom nuklir. Oleh karena itu, uranium Australia tidak boleh digunakan untuk membuat
bom nuklir.

Mineral Titanium
Mineral-mineral titanium dijumpai dalam pasir hitam yang ada di pantai-pantai di dekat
kota Sydney, Brisbane, dan Perth. Titanium digunakan untuk logam pesawat, cat, plastik,
kertas, dan bagianbagian di dalam komputer. Australia merupakan produsen mineral titanium yang penting.
Mineral-mineral ini diekspor ke Amerika Serikat, Inggris, Jepang, Spanyol, dan negara
Belanda.
Pasir tersebut biasanya ditambang dengan menggunakan kapal keruk yang mengapung.
Pantai-pantai di Australia dimanfaatkan oleh banyak orang. Oleh karena itu, penting agar
pantai itu dipelihara dengan baik. Perusahaan yang menambang mineral titanium
berkewajiban memelihara pantai tersebut, termasuk menanam kembali semua tumbuhan
yang terganggu oleh penambangan itu (Lihat Gambar 6.13a dan Gambar 6.13b).

Australian Coal Association

Gambar 6.6: Pertambangan batubara dinding panjang: teknik pertambangan bawah
tanah yang maju

Batubara
Australia memiliki banyak sekali endapan batubara. Endapan ini terutama dijumpai di
negara bagian Queensland dan New South Wales. Setiap tahun tambang-tambang
batubara menghasilkan kira-kira 85 juta ton di masing-masing negara bagian ini.
Tambang batubara di New South Wales kebanyakan terdapat di bawah tanah (Lihat

Gambar 6.6) Tambang-tambang ini mengandung batubara hitam bermutu tinggi.

Batubara jenis ini sangat baik untuk membuat baja. Batubara dari Queensland mutunya
lebih rendah. Batubara ini ditambang di sumur-sumur yang terbuka. Batubara digunakan
untuk membangkitkan tenaga listrik di stasiun pembangkit tenaga listrik dan merupakan
sumber energi yang paling penting di Australia.
Pada tahun 199495 batubara merupakan 9% dari seluruh nilai ekspor Australia.
Batubara itu dikirim ke Jepang, Korea Selatan, dan Taiwan. Sejumlah kecil batubara
Australia juga diekspor ke Indonesia.

Minyak
Minyak adalah bahan bakar yang penting. Ia juga merupakan sumber dari beberapa bahan
kimia. Lebih separoh dari minyak Australia berasal dari bawah laut di Selat Bass. Selat
Bass terletak di antara daratan Australia dan Pulau Tasmania. North West Shelf adalah
sumber minyak dan gas yang terletak di Samudera Hindia di sebelah pantai Australia
Barat. (Lihat Gambar 6.7).

Gambar 6.7: Anjungan produksi Goodwym, 138 km di sebelah barat laut Dampier, yang
tingginya kira-kira 305 meter di atas dasar laut.

Minyak dipompa melalui saluran pipa ke kilang-kilang minyak di daratan Australia.

Kilang-kilang tersebut mengolah minyak dan menghasilkan ratusan produk yang
berlainan. Minyak mentah diolah menjadi bahan bakar, seperti diesel, bensin, dan minyak
tanah. Produk-produk ini sangat penting bagi industri modern. Beberapa bahan kimia
seperti plastik dan nilon berasal dari minyak mentah. Nilon digunakan untuk tekstil. Ada
banyak cekungan sedimen di Australia yang sedang diselidiki untuk dicari minyaknya.

Gas alam
Gas alam adalah suatu bahan bakar yang tidak mengotori udara apabila dibakar. Kotakota besar akan berkurang polusinya jika semua kendaraan menggunakan gas alam. Di
tempat beriklim dingin gas alam digunakan untuk menghangatkan rumah di musim
dingin. Australia memiliki beberapa endapan gas alam dan beberapa di antaranya terletak
di lautan yang mengelilinginya.
Cadangan gas dalam jumlah besar yang terletak di Australia tengah dihubungkan melalui
saluran pipa ke kota Sydney, Brisbane, Canberra, dan Adelaide, di mana digunakan orang
sebagai penghangat udara dan memasak. Di Australia Barat terdapat endapan gas dalam
jumlah besar yang letaknya di bawah laut. Gas ini disalurkan melalui pipa ke pantai. Di
sana gas tersebut diubah menjadi benda cair agar dapat diangkut dengan kapal ke Jepang.
Saluran pipa ini serupa dengan yang ada di Bontang (Kalimantan Timur) dan di
Lohkseumawe (Aceh) di Indonesia.
Baru-baru ini telah ditemukan gas alam di bawah Laut Timor yang terletak di antara
Australia dan Indonesia. Perusahaan pertambangan di Australia dan di Indonesia ingin
menambang gas ini. Kedua negara telah membuat perjanjian untuk melakukan
penambangan di daerah ini yang disebut Perjanjian Celah Timor sehingga keduanya
dapat mengambil manfaat dari penjualan gas tersebut.
Pengeboran minyak dan gas di paparan benua (laut dangkal) di celah tersebut telah
berlangsung selama tiga sampai empat tahun terakhir. Peralatan pengeboran secara terusmenerus telah dikembangkan sehingga semakin jauh kedalaman yang bisa dicapai. Pada
tahun 1947 pengeboran di air hanya sampai kedalaman enam meter. Pada tahun 1993
pengeboran dapat mencapai kedalaman 872 meter. Pada awalnya peralatan pengeboran
merupakan sistem yang menetap di satu tempat. Akan tetapi sekarang ada peralatan
sistem apung, yang dapat dipindahkan dari tempat satu ke tempat yang lain.

Bagaimana kegiatan suatu pertambangan

Pertambangan merupakan kegiatan yang rumit. Dibutuhkan ribuan orang-orang yang
sangat ahli dalam pertambangan. Berikut ini kita akan meneliti tambang besi Sungai
Robe di Australia Barat (Lihat Gambar 6.8).

Gambar 6.8: Daerah Pilbara

Pada tahun 1962, ketika dua orang ahli geologi naik pesawat helikopter, mereka
menemukan sebuah gunung merah dan besar yang mengandung bijih besi di hulu Sungai
Robe di daerah Pilbara. Gunung ini adalah gunung meja yang sekarang disebut Gunung
Tom Price. (Lihat Gambar 6.9)

Robe River Iron Associates

Gambar 6.9: Daerah khas bijih besi
Banyak gunung meja didapat di daerah ini. Gunung-gunung ini mengandung tiga sampai
empat miliar ton bijih besi. Kandungan bijih tersebut adalah 64% besi, yakni persentase
kandungan besi yang sangat tinggi sehingga sangat berharga.
Biaya untuk membuat tambang sangat mahal sehingga perusahaan meminjam uang yang
banyak sekali dari bank internasional. Uang ini digunakan untuk membayar insinyur yang
sangat ahli dan tenaga terampil untuk membangun tambang tersebut. Di samping itu,
dibangunlah kota untuk tempat tinggal para pegawai dan keluarganya. Demikian juga,
dibangunlah jalan kereta api untuk mengangkut bijih besi tersebut ke pelabuhan.
Tambang yang pertama dimulai tahun 1966. Tambang-tambang di daerah ini adalah
adalah tambang terbuka.
Tambang terbuka Gunung Meja J dimulai tahun 1992. Bahan peledak yang disebut
amonium nitrat digunakan untuk meledakkan sisi gunung. Setiap ledakan memecahkan
500.000 ton bijih besi.

Bijih besi ini dimuat ke dalam truk-truk raksasa (Lihat Gambar 6.4) dan diangkut ke
pabrik pengolah. Di sana bijih ini dihancurkan menjadi bagian-bagian kecil. Kemudian
bijih tersebut dimuat ke dalam kereta api dan diangkut ke pelabuhan.
Rel kereta api itu merentang sepanjang 200 kilometer dari Gunung Meja J ke Tanjung
Lambert. Setiap kereta api terdiri atas dua lokomotif diesel dan 200 gerbong. Setiap
gerbong memuat kira-kira 100 ton bijih besi. Panjang kereta api tersebut adalah dua
kilometer dan dapat dilihat dalam Gambar 6.10.

Robe River Iron Associates

Gambar 6.10: Kereta api bijih besi sepanjang 2 km ini meluncur sejauh 200 km dari
Meja J ke Pelabuhan Walcott di dekat Dampier. Di sini kereta api tersebut menyeberangi
sungai Fortescue dengan muatan 200.000 ton bijih.
Di Pelabuhan Walcott di Tanjung Lambert gerbong-gerbong tersebut dijungkirkan. Bijih
besi ditumpuk menjadi tumpukan-tumpukan yang sangat besar (Lihat Gambar 6.11a)
Kemudian bijih besi tersebut siap dimuat ke dalam kapal laut (Lihat Gambar 6.11b dan
6.11c).

Minerals Council of Australia

Gambar 6.11a: Tumpukan bijih besi di pelabuhan

Minerals Council of Australia

Gambar 6.11b: Memuati kapal angkut

Minerals Council of Australia

Gambar 6.11c: Mengkapalkan bijih besi
Lebih dari 500 kapal laut berlabuh di Pelabuhan Tanjung Lambert setiap tahun. Kapal ini
disebut alat angkut borongan. Setiap kapal mengangkut lebih dari 250.000 ton bijih besi.
Kapal-kapal angkut ini mengangkut bijih besi ke pelabuhan-pelabuhan industri di dekat
kota Sydney dan ke Jepang. Bijih besi itu digunakan untuk membuat baja.
Sejak tahun 1966, banyak gunung besi lain yang telah ditemukan dan tambang-tambang
baru telah dibangun.

Tambang berlian terbesar di dunia

Tambang intan Argyle terletak di Australia Barat bagian utara. Di sini intan ditemukan
pada tahun 1976 di sebuah sungai. Intan tersebut telah terkikis dari gunung api kuno yang
meletus 1.100.000 tahun yang lalu.
Ketika gunung api tersebut mendingin, tersisalah saluran batuan beku yang sangat dalam
dan panjang lintasanya adalah 2 kilometer. Intan itu terbentuk pada suhu yang sangat
tinggi dalam batu karang ini, dan sekarang gunung ini mengandung salah satu dari
endapan berlian terkaya di dunia.
Tambang tersebut merupakan tambang terbuka yang besar menganga di tanah. Setiap hari
digali kira-kira 25.000 ton batu karang. Ini menghasilkan kira-kira 23 kilogram berlian.
Setiap tahun kira-kira 8,5 ton intan telah terjual.
Argyle merupakan satu-satunya tambang berlian di Australia. Produksinya sangat tinggi
sehingga sekarang ini Australia menjadi pengekspor berlian terbesar kelima di dunia.
Urutannya adalah:
Rusia, Bostwana, Afrika Selatan, Zaire, dan Australia.
Intan tembus pandang yang berkualitas bagus digunakan untuk perhiasan. Intan jenis lain
dimanfaatkan untuk industri. Intan tersebut digunakan untuk memotong logam atau batu
karang yang sangat keras. Kebanyakan intan yang digunakan untuk perhiasan dipotong
dan dibentuk di Bombay, India.
Tambang Argyle mempekerjakan 700 orang untuk menambang berlian ini. Mereka
bekerja selama dua belas jam setiap hari. Pekerjaan ini sulit karena intan tersebut sangat
kecil dan sangat berharga. Kebanyakan pekerja tinggal di kota Perth yang jaraknya 1.600
kilometer ke arah selatan daerah pertambangan itu. Para pekerja tersebut naik pesawat
terbang dari Perth ke pertambangan. Mereka bekerja selama dua minggu. Kemudian
mereka pulang dengan pesawat terbang ke Perth selama dua minggu.

WMC Olympic Dam Corporation Pty Ltd

Gambar 6.12: Perkotaan Roxby Downs, Australia Selatan

Kehidupan di kota pertambangan

Pada tahun 199495 lebih dari 40.000 orang Australia hidup di kota-kota pertambangan
yang terpencil (Lihat Gambar 6.12). Sebagai contoh adalah kota Roxby Downs yang
letaknya 560 kilometer di sebelah utara kota
Adelaide, di tengah negara bagian Australia Selatan. Kota tersebut adalah tempat
tambang tembaga, emas, uranium, dan perak yang dihuni oleh tiga ribu orang. Kota ini
sangat terpencil.
Perusahaan Pertambangan Barat (Western Mining Corporation) membangun kota ini bagi
para pekerja tambang. Rumah-rumah di kota ini seperti kebanyakan rumah-rumah di
Australia. Ada kebun di sekitar rumah itu. Rumah-rumah tersebut mempunyai alat
pendingin udara atau AC karena suhu di musim panas sangat panas, yaitu sampai di atas
40oC. Orang-orang pergi bekerja dengan naik mobil ber-AC. Kantor-kantor juga ber-AC.
Untungnya, tambang tersebut berada 500 meter di bawah tanah. Hal ini menyebabkan
udaranya sejuk di musim panas. Namun, tambang tersebut juga ber-AC karena banyak
truk besar yang digunakan di dalam tambang itu. Asap knalpot dan panas yang
dikeluarkan oleh truk ini harus dipompa ke luar dari tambang. Itulah sebabnya ada alat
pendingin.
Kota-kota pertambangan merupakan tempat yang nyaman untuk tinggal, tetapi orangorang yang hidup di sana harus bekerja keras. Mereka sering bekerja selama dua belas
jam setiap hari. Kebanyakan orang pindah ke kota-kota ini untuk mencari gaji yang
sangat tinggi. Gaji mereka tinggi karena mereka adalah orang yang sangat ahli.

Diperlukan waktu beberapa tahun bagi seorang pekerja tambang atau insinyur untuk
mempelajari semua keterampilan yang diperlukan. Mereka harus mengikuti pelajaran
beberapa kali dalam setahun. Para pekerja mengikuti kursus dan mempelajari mesin dan
teknologi baru di sebuah akademi di kota Roxby Downs.
Semua pekerja diharuskan mengikuti kursus tentang keamanan. Di sana orang mudah
mengalami kecelakaan yang disebabkan oleh mesin-mesin besar dalam tambang. Para
pekerja mengenakan helm, kacamata, dan pakaian khusus. Ini akan melindungi mereka
dari debu dan api. Mesin-mesin dalam tambang sangat bising suaranya sehingga pekerja
harus menggunakan penyumbat telinga untuk melindungi pendengarannya dari suara
bising itu.

Mengelola lingkungan
Pertambangan dapat merusak lingkungan. Oleh karena itu, apabila dibuka suatu
pertambangan, lingkungan alamnya harus dipelihara. Sebelum pertambangan dimulai,
para ilmuwan mempelajari tumbuhan dan satwa yang hidup di kawasan itu. Beberapa
tumbuhan dan satwa mungkin sangat langka. Ilmuwan memberitahukan kepada para
pekerja tambang mengenai tempat-tempat yang mengandung jenis yang langka dan
berharga sehingga tumbuhan dan satwa
dapat dilindungi dan dipelihara (Lihat Gambar 6.13a & 6.13b).

Minerals Council of Australia

Gambar 6.13a: Pertambangan titanium sedang berlangsung pada tahun 1975

Minerals Council of Australia

Gambar 6.13b: Pertambangan sudah dipugar pada tahun 1990

Kesimpulan
Permukaan tanah yang maha luas di Australia sangat kaya akan mineral-mineral yang
berharga. Perusahaan pertambangan menambang mineral-mineral ini. Mereka
mempekerjakan ribuan orang. Perusahaan ini menghasilkan uang miliaran dolar bagi
ekonomi nasional. Kebanyakan mineral tersebut dijual ke luar negeri. Jadi, orang-orang
di negara lain juga memperoleh manfaat dari sumber-sumber mineral ini. Pertambangan
merupakan hal yang sangat penting bagi ekonomi Australia.
Kembali ke atas

Halaman Berikutnya: BAB 6: Latihan untuk Siswa

Halaman Sebelumnya: BAB 5: Untuk Guru
Halaman Utama | Pengantar | Benua Australia | Iklim Australia |
Flora dan Fauna Khas Australia | Orang Aborijin Australia | Pertanian di Australia |
Sumber Mineral di Australia | Pabrik di Australia | Penduduk dan Permukiman |
Australia: Negeri dengan Banyak Kebudayaan | Perdagangan dan Kepariwisataan |
Hubungan antara Australia dan Indonesia
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BEBERAPA PENGERTIAN PERMATA

Mineral ialah : ( krauset.al 1959) Suatu zat yang terdapat dalam alam dengan komposisi
kimia yang khas dan biasanya mempunyai struktur kristal yang jelas, yang kadangkadang dapat menjelma dalam bentuk geometris tertentu. Istilah mineral dapat
mempunyai bermacam-macam makna; sukar untuk mendefinisikan mineral dan oleh
karena itu kebanyakan orang mengatakan, bahwa mineral ialah satu frase yang terdapat
dalam alam. Sebagaimana kita ketahui ada mineral yang berbentuk : - Lempeng - Tiang Limas - Kubus
Batu permata kalau ditelaah adalah merupakan campuran dari unsur-unsur mineral.
Setiap mineral yang dapat membesar tanpa gangguan akan memperkembangkan bentuk
kristalnya yang khas, yaitu suatu wajah lahiriah yang dihasilkan struktur kristalen (bentuk
kristal). Ada mineral dalam keadaan AMORF artinya tak mempunyai bangunan dan
susunan kristal sendiri (mis kaca & opal). Tiap-tiap pengkristalan akan makin bagus
hasilnya jika berlangsungnya proses itu makin tenang dan lambat.
Kristal ialah : Sebuah benda yang homogin, berbentuk sangat geometris dan atomatomnya tersusun dalam sebuah kisi-kisi kristal,karena bangunan kisi-kisi kristal tersebut
berbeda-beda maka sifatnya juga berlainan. Kristal dapat terbentuk dalam alam (mineral)
atau di laboratorium. Kristal artinya mempunyai bentuk yang agak setangkup (symetris)
dan yang pada banyak sisinya terbatas oleh bidang datar, sehingga memberi bangin yang
tersendiri sifatnya kepada mineral yang bersangkutan. Benda padat yang terdiri dari
atom-atom yang tersusun rapi dikatakan mempunyai struktur kristalen. Dalam suasana
yang baik benda kristalen dapat mempunyai batas bidang rata-rata & benda itu
dinamakan kristal (HABLUR) & bidang rata itu disebut muka krsital. Ada 32 macam
gelas kristal yang dipersatukan dalam 6 sistem krsital: Bentuk kristal dibagi dalam 6 tata
hablur yang didasarkan: - perbandingan panjang poros poros hablur - besarnya sudut
persilangan poros poros hablur 1) REGULER, Kubus atau ISOMETRIK ketiga poros
sama panjang dan berpotongan tegak lurus satu sama lain (contoh : intan, pirit, garam
batu) 2) TETRAGONAL (berbintang empat) ketiga poros tegak lurus satu sama lain, dua
poros sama panjang sedangkan poros ketiga berbeda (contoh chalkopirit, rutil, zircon). 3)
HEKSAGONAL (berbintang enam) Hablur ini mempunyai empat poros, tiga poros sama
panjang dan terletak dalam satu bidang, bersilangdengan sudut 120 derajat (60 derajat),
tetapi poros ke-empat tegak lurus atas bidang itu dan panjangnya berbeda (contoh apalit,
beryl, korundum). 4) ORTOROMBIS (irisan wajik) ketiga poros tidak sama panjang du
poros berpotongan siku-siku dan poros ketiga memotong miring bidang kedua poros tadi
(berit, belerang, topaz) 5) MONOKLIN (miring sebelah) ketiga poros tidak sama
panjang, dua dari porosnya berpotongan sorong & poros ketiga tegak lurus atas kedua
poros tadi (gips, muskovit, augit) 6) TRIKLIN (miring, ketiga arah) ketiga poros tidak
sama panjang dan berpotongan serong satu sama lain(albit, anortit, distin)

GARIS: kristal / mineral yang mempunyai kekerasan < 7 jika digosokkan pada
lempengan porselin yang kasar biasanya meninggalkan ditempat penggosokan tsb suatu
garis yang karakteristik dan seringkali berwarna lain dari mineral itu sendiri. - Pirit yang
warnanya kuning emas meninggalkan garis hitam. - Hematit (Fe2O3) yang berkilap

kelogam logaman atau memberigaris merah darah - Fluisvat memberikan garis putih
(mineral yang berwarna terang tetapi memberi garis putih)
SKALA KEKERASAN MOHs Kekerasan adalah sebuah sifat fisik lain, yang
dipengaruhi oleh tata letak intern dari atom. Untuk mengukur kekerasan mineral dipakai
Skala Kekerasan MOHS (1773-1839) 1. Talk, mudah digores dengan kuku ibu jari 2.
GIPS, mudah digores dengan kuku ibu jari 3. Kalsit, mudah digores dengan pisau 4.
Fluorit, mudah digores dengan pisau 5. Apatit, dapat dipotong dengan pisau (agak sukar)
6. Ortoklas, dapat dicuwil tipis-tipis dengan pisau dibagian pinggir 7. Kwarsa, dapat
menggores kaca 8. Topaz, dapat menggores kaca 9. Korundum, dapat mengores topaz 10.
Intan, dapat menggores korundum Bentuk Kristal Intan ialah benda padat besisi delapan
(OKTAHEDRON)
K = 1 : Talk/Silikat magnesia yang mengandung air K = 2 :Gips (CaSO4 ), batu tahu K =
3 : Kalsit (CaCo3) K = 4 : Vluispat (CaF2) K = 5 : Apatit mengandung chloor K = 6 :
Veldspat, kaca tingkap K = 7 : Kwarsa, pisau dari baja K = 8 : Topas; Silikat alumunium
yang mengandung borium, batu permata K = 9 : Korsum (Al2O3 dalam corak merah,
batu permata delima, corak biru batu nilam/safir K = 10 : intan batu permata
Masing-masing mineral tersebut diatas dapat menggores mineral lain yang bernomor
lebih kecil dan dapat digores oleh mineral lain yang bernonor lebih besar. Dengan lain
perkataan SKALA MOHS adalah Skala relative. Dari segi kekerasan mutlak skala ini
masih dapat dipakai sampai yang ke 9, artinya no. 9 kira-kira 9 kali sekeras no. 1, tetapi
bagi n0. 10 adalah 42 kali sekeras no. 1
K.E. Kinge (1860) dalam Han Sam Kay mengelompokkan batu permata yang dijadikan
perhiasan dalam lima belas kelas sebagai berikut : 1. Batu permata Kelas I, Nilai Keras
antara 8 s/d 10 2. Batu Permata kelas II, Nilai Keras antara 7 s/d 8 3. Batu permata Kelas
III Batu permata kelas ini tergolong jenis batu mulia dan batu mulia tanggung, nilai
kerasnya kira-kira 7, sebagian besar terdiri dari asam kersik (kiezelzuur), keculai pirus
(tuquois) 4. Batu- Batu mulia Tanggung yaitu batu kelas IV, nilai keas antara 4 7 5.
Batu kelas V Batu kelas V nilai kerasnya dan kadar berat jenisnya sangat berbeda-beda.
Warnanya gelap (kusam) dan kebanyakan agak keruh, tidak tembus cahaya, batunya
sedikit mengkilap, dan harganyapun amat murah bila dibandingkan dengan harga batu
mulia. Dalam kelas ini termasuk batu marmer dan batu kelas V tidak tergolong batu
mulia.
BELAHAN Belah adalah kecenderungan batu permata untuk membelah kearah tertentu
menyusur permukaan bidang rata, lebih spesifik lagi ia menunjukkan kearah mana ikatanikatan diantara atom relative lemah dan biasanya reta-retak menunjukan arah belah.
Belahan: ialah sifat untuk menjadi belah menurut bidang yang agak sama licinnya belahan baik sekali - baik - sedang - buruk - tidak ada belahn sama sekali
WARNA

Kenapa kita dapat melihat berbagai warna ? Warna dapat dilihat ketika terjadi beberapa
proses pemindahan panjang gelombang, beberapa menyerap panjang gelombang spesifik
dari spektrum yang dapat dilihat. Spektrum yang dapat dilihat teridiri dari warna merah,
oranye, kuning, hijau, biru, nila dan violet. Ketika terjadi pemindahan panjang
gelombang akan mempengaruhi energi dan akan terjadi perubahan warna dan jika
permata itu mengandung besi biasanya akan terlihat berwarna kelam, sedangkan yang
mengandung alumunium biasanya terlihat berwarna cerah, tetapi juga ada mineral yang
berwarna tetap seperti air (berkristal) dan dinamakan Idhiochromatic
Disini warna merupakan sifat pembawaan disebabkan karena ada sesuatu zat dalam
permata sebagai biang warna (pigment agent) yang merupakan mineral-mineral yaitu :
belerang warnanya kuning; malakit warnanya hijau; azurite warnanya biru; pirit
warnanya kuning; magatit warnanya hitam; augit warnanya hijau; gutit warnanya kuning
hingga coklat; hematite warnanya merah dsbnya. Ada juga mineral yang mempunyai
warna bermacam-macam dan diistilahkan allokhromatik, hal ini disebabkan kehadiran zat
warna (pigmen), terkurungnya sesuatu benda (inclusion) atau kehadiran zat campuran
(Impurities). Impurities adalah unsur-unsur yang antara lain terdiri dari Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe,
Co, Ni, Cu, dan biasanya tidak hadir dalam campuran murni, unsur-unsur yang
terkonsentrasi dalam batu permata rendah. Aneka warna batu permata ini sangat
mempersona manusia sehingga manusia memberi gelar mulia pada batu-batu itu,
contoh intan yang hanya terdiri dari satu unsur mineral yakni zat arang merupakan benda
yang padat yang bersisi delapan karena adanya zat campuran yang berbeda akan
menyebabkan warna yang berbeda : tidak berwarna, kuning, kuning muda, agak kebirubiruan, merah, biru agak hijau, merah jambu, merah muda, agak kuning coklat, hitam
yang dinamakan carbonado, hijau daun. Banyak mineral hanya memperlihatkam warna
yang terang pada bagian-bagian yang tipis sekali. Mineral yang lebih besar dan tebal
selalu memberi kesan yang hitam, tanda demikian antara lain diperlihatkan oleh banyak
mineral. Warna hijau muda; jika warna tersebut makin tua berarti makin bertambah Kadar
Fe didalam molekulnya.
BERAT JENIS (BD) Untuk mengetahui mineral yang belum diketahui Bdnya dipakai alat
yang disebut cairan berat : - Pertama : Bromoform (ChBr) - Kedua : Joodmethylin (Ch2
J2) - Ketiga : Cclerici yaitu larutan Thallium malonat formiat
Mineral dengan BD < 2,68 mineral ringan - kwarsa: 2,57 - albit: 2,62 - oligoklas: 2,64
Mineral dengan BD > 2,68 mineral berat - Labradorit: 2,70 - Anortit: 2,76 - Augit
hornblende: 3,20 - Maskotit: 2,90 - Biotitit: 3,00 - Korundum: 3,20 - Turmalin
Mineral dengan BD 3,3 4 mineral amat berat - olifin - starolit - granat / garnet
ineral dengan BD > 4 dan kekerasan = 7 - Zirkon
BD = 2,65 Mineral tergolong dalam fraksi enteng dan bias rangkapnya Kuarsa kristalen;
bergkristaltergolong rendah yaitu terdiri dari opal = sebetulnya gel asam(tidak

berwarna); amathis atau kecubung chalsedon; jenis kristalnya jenis kripto (kwarsa
kriptokersik kristalen); k = 7; struktur kristalnya baru tampak jika dilihat dengan agat;
jenis kristalnya jenis kripto (kwarsamenggunakan mikroskop. kripto kristalen) = k = 7;
struktur kristalnya baru tampak jika dilihat Oniks, jenis kristalnya jenis kriptodengan
menggunakan mikroskop (kwarsa kripto kristalen) = k = 7; struktur kristalnya baru
tampak jika opal besi kersik jaspis dilihat dengan menggunakan mikroskop
tanggung (half opal) = sifat membelah tidak ada pecahannya berupa kerang.
Nefrit = Jade = Giok {Ca2 (Mg, Fe)5 (OH)2Si8O22}BD = 2,9 3,3 aktinolit atau
Amfibol kalsium magnesium besi; bentuk menyerabut atau asbes tiform; warna kelabu,
kehijau-hijauan atau kekuning-kuningan; adanya garis kembar; warna plagioklas putih,
kadang kadang kehijau-hijauan, hijau tua, coklat, hitam, kadang-kadang tembus
pandang (transparan), tembus cahaya (Translucent) atau opal; bidang belah berpotongan
dengan sudut 550 dan 1250 ; K = 5 6; apabila dipanaskan mengeluarkan air yang
menunjukkan bahwa ia terbentuk dalam suasana hidro (perhatikan adanya gugusan OH)
atau dikenal sebagai AMFIBOL.
Epidot ( H2 M4 M6 Si6O26, M); dari batu-batuanBD = 3,3 3,6 endapan atau
sedimen yang lebih tua; k = 6,5; Hijau- hijau kekuning-kuningan, terdapat jenis yang
berwarna merah; belahan baik; mengristal monoklin, prisma; bias cahaya dan bias
rangkap kuat.
Granat/Garnet (M3 M2 SiO3O12); dari batuanBD = 3,5 5,3 sedimen tua; kristal
reguler; bias cahaya keras, tidak berbias rangkap (Isotrop); K = 7; belahan baik; warna
merah, merah coklat, kuning dan hijau jarang, tidak berwarna sama sekali.
Korundum (Al2O3) tersusun sangat padat; tak berwarnaBD = 4 bermacam-macam
warna; K = 9; Oktahedron/Hexagonal; Bias tinggi; Bias Spinel (M = Mg, Zr, Fe; M =
Cr, Al,rangkapnya rendah. (3,9 4,1) Mn); hijau tua; K = 7,5 8; Biasnya tinggi,
Mengkristal secara reguler; bersifat isotrop dalam optiknya; belahannya seringkali buruk
Ortit termasuk golongan Epidot hanya dalamBD = 4,2 persenyawaannya berbeda
disebabkan kadar Ce yang tinggi; K= 5,6; merah coklat, coklat merah tua kuning atau
coklat kuning; kristal gemuk Turmalin {H9Al3(B.OH)2Si4O19}; K= 7;
Heksagonal,seperti prisma; belahan buruk, Bias sedang; Pleokroisnya sangat kuat;
jernis seperti air, Coklat biru sampai hitam, turmalin biru agak jarang diketemukan.
Tiap-tiap batu permata yang sudah dikenal berat jenisnya dapat diketahui nilai keras batu,
dari berat batu dapatlah dihitung kari dari permata tersebut. Karat adalah satuan berat
yang setimbang dengan seperlima gram. Satuan ini disebut karat metric. Jika kita timbang
berat intan, tidak dikatakan berat intan 1 gram tetapi berat intan adalah 5 karat, demikian
yang lain batu rubi beratnya 17,8 karat, batu sapphire 7 karat dsbnya.
Nama-nama Batu Permata berdasarkan urutan abjad :

A Agate (akik) Alexandrite Amazonite Amber Amethyst (kecubung) Ametrine Ammolite

Andalusite Apatite Aquamarine Aventurine Axinite
B Beryl Bloodstone (batu darah) Bone
C Carnelian Chrysoberyl (mata kucing) Chrysocolla Chrysoprase Citrine Coral Cordierite
Cubic Zirconia
D Danburite Diamonds (berlian) Dinasosaur Bone Dravite (tourmaline) Drusy
E Emerald (jamrud) Euclase
F Fluorite
G Garnet
H Heliodore (Beryl) Hematite
I Iolite
J Jade (giok) Jasper
K Kono Dolomite Kunzite
L Labradorite Lapis Lazuli Larimar
M Malachite Montana Agate Moonstone (batu bulan) Morgan Hill
N Nephrite (jade)

Element A
Elemen B
Elemen C

O Onyx Opal (kalimaya) Opalite

P Padparadscha Palmwood Pearl (mutiara) Pectolite Peridot Pyrope
Q Quartz
R Rhodolite garnet Rubelite (tourmaline) Rubicelle (spinel) Ruby (Batu merah delima,
Batu nilem)

S Sapphire Spinel Sunstone Spectrolite (labradorite) Sugilite

T Tanzanite TigerS Eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise (pirus)
U
V Verdelite Violan
WX
Y Yag
Z zircone
Nama-nama Batu Permata berdasarkan urutan Kekerasan menurut Skala Mohs :
Skala 10
Diamond

Skala 9
Padparadscha

Ruby Sapphire
Skala 8,5 Chrysoberyl Cubic Zirconia
Skala 8,25 Yag
Skala 8 Topaz Spinel
Skala 7,5- 8 Beryl Phenakite
Skala 7,5 Euclase Zircon
Skala 7 7,5 Andalusite Cordierite Iolite Pyrope Rhodolite garnet
Skala 7 Quarz Tourmaline Danburite
Skala 6,5 - 7,5 Grossular garnet Spessartite garnet
Skala 6,5 - 7 Axinite Jadeite Peridot Hessonite garnet Demantoid garnet

Skala 6,5 Chalcedony GGG Hematite Idocrase Scapolite (yellow) Zoisite

Skala 6 7,5 Almandine garnet
Skala 6 - 7 Cassiterite Spodumene Olivine
Skala 6 6,5 Adularia moonstone Albite moonstone Benitoite Labradorite
Skala 6 Amazonite Orthoclase Rutile Zircon
Skala 5,5 - 6 Anatase rutile Opal Rhodonite
Skala 5 - 6 Turquoise (pirus) Nephrite jade Diopside Lapis Apatite Enstatie Strontium
titanate Sphene

RUBY Di Indonesia kalau kita berbicara tentang batu permata umumnya yang terbayang
adalah dua hal yakni batu yang diyakini mempunyai tuah (misal kebal terhadap bacokan
golok) atau berlian. Sebetulnya kalau kita berbicara tentang batu permata adalah ketika
batu tersebut bisa diuji dengan beberapa metoda yang sudah diakui secara international
antara lain dengan mengukur kekerasannya dengan menggunakan suatu alat tertentu yang
bisa menunjukkan nilai keras suatu permata dalam Skala kekerasan Mohz. semakin
tinggi nilai kekerasannya semakin baik batu tersebut. Jumlah batu permata mencapai
ribuan jenis yang dibentuk dari unsur kimia tertentu berdasarkan ilmu geologi, tetapi
diyakini adapula batu yang disebut batu mustika yang konon berasal dari vegetasi,
binatang dll. Bahkan sebagian besar orang didunia ini masih meyakini bahwa batu
permata dapat mempengaruhi pemakainya yang didasarkan hari kelahiran yang
diimplementasikan pada bintang kelahiran, seperti ruby diyakini bagus bagi orang yang
lahir pada bulan juli (Leo).. Disini akan kita ulas sedikit batu permata yang dikatakan
sebagai rajanya dunia batu permata yaitu Ruby atau orang Indonesia ada yang
menamakannya Batu Merah Delima. Untuk menentukan keaslian Batu mirah delima
diyakini oleh sebagian orang adalah jika batu tersebut direndam dalam air, maka airnya
akan berwarna merah darah bahkan air disekitarnya bisa menjadi merah pula (walahu
alam).
Pada masa lampau Ruby digunakan sebagai pengobatan alternatif untuk penawar racun
atau untuk meracuni, untuk menghindarkan orang dari wabah, untuk membuang duka
cita, untuk menindas sikap sombong, dan untuk mengalihkan pikiran dari berfikir untuk
berbuat jahat bahkan dapat mengubah logam jadi emas. (Sumber: Kamus Brewer'S).
Bahkan sebagian orang mengatakan ruby dapat dipakai sebagai perantara akan cita-cita
yang diinginkan, meramalkan kamu atau keberuntungan dalam spekulasi bisnis atau cinta
terhadap seorang perempuan atau untuk menghilangkan sikap acuh tak acuh kekasihnya.
(Sumber: Tafsir.Sepuluh Ribu Bermimpi) Menurut istilah kimia ruby adalah suatu variasi
merah tua aluminium oksida yang jernih dan bersih, dihargai sebagai batu mulia: juga

disebut merah delima murni, ruby oriental (European union ) Ruby Adalah suatu variasi
merah aluminium oksida batu-permata, warna yang disebabkan oleh sebagian besar unsur
logam pelapis chrom. Yang sangat berharga untuk aluminium oksida yang alami adalah
ruby ( dari bahasa Latin yang berarti Rubrum atau, ' merah'). warna suatu ruby sangat
bervariasi dari yang merah jambu sampai ke suatu merah yang sangat lembayung RUBY
mempunyai warna merah terang anggur bebas dari warna coklat atau warna warna ungu
atau warna yang kuat atau terang yang mengingatkan kepada warna darah atau buah
kersen atau buah tomat atau merah delima. Warna merah ini terdiri atas alumunium yang
tercampur dengan chrominium (Cr); akan tetapi kalau tercampur dengan sedikit Titanium
(Ti) warnanya berubah menjadi biru dan namanya safir, jika tercampur dengan zat besi
warnanya berubah menjadi kuning yaitu safir kuning. Ruby adalah batu yang tergolong
pada mineral korundum, dan meraupakan batu-permata paling keras pada urutan kedua
dalam suatu skala MOHS dengan nilai 9. artinya jika dibandingkan dengan intan; hanya
intan yang lebih keras daripada ruby. Ingat-Ingat bahwa ini skala adalah berdasarkan atas
kekerasan berdasar pada tekanan karena goresan dalam satu system nilai skala MOHS
dan bukan terhadap benturan dengan benda lainnya (palu misalnya); berat jenisnya 3,99
4. Ruby ditemukan Asia, Afrika, Myanmar, Sri Lanka dan Thailand. dan
Australia,meskipun demikian mereka telah pula ditemukan diMontana dan Selatan
Carolina. Ruby yang paling terkenal didunia adalah dari Birma, yang mana sekarang
disebut Myanmar. Dimana ruby dari tambang Myanmar adalah lebih tua dari sejarah
yaitu jaman batu dan pada pekerjaan tambang untuk perkakas di zaman perunggu mereka
telah menemukan pertambangan di area Mogok. Legenda merah ruby dari tambang yang
ada di dalam area Mogok sering mempunyai suatu warna merah murni, yang mana
diuraikan seperti " pigeon's-blood" dimana istilah itu adalah sangat fantastis dibanding
suatu standard praktis yang nyata di dalam dunia perdagangan hari ini. Myanmar juga
menghasilkan ruby yang memancarkan gemerlap kemerah merahan yang sangat keras
dan adalah juga sangat indah kemilaunya dan hidup. Banyak dari ruby dari Myanmar
mempunyai suatu pijaran (fluorescence) kuat ketika disoroti oleh sinar ultraviolet seperti
mereka disorot oleh cahaya matahari, yang akan memberikan berkas lapisan warna
ekstra. Ruby Myanmar mempunyai suatu reputasi pada warnanya yang hidup berkemilau
ketika mereka di bawah sorotan cahaya yang menerangi semuanya. Thailand adalah juga
dikenal memproduksi ruby, namun mereka kelasnya masih dibawah Myanmar dan
nilainya ,masih lebih rendah dan warna ruby dari Thailan adalah merah pink keteduhan
kadang-kadang tersirat warna keunguan.
Diperoleh dari "http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembicaraan:Batu_permata"
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Halaman ini terakhir diubah pada 20:04, 22 Februari 2007.

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Diamond
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the gemstone. For other uses, including the shape , see Diamond
(disambiguation).
Diamond

A scattering of round-brilliant cut

diamonds shows off the many reflecting
facets.
General
Category

Native Minerals

Chemical
formula

C
Identification

Molecular
Weight

12.01 u

Color

Typically yellow, brown or

gray to colorless. Less
often in blue, green, black,
translucent white, pink,
violet, orange, purple and
red.[1]

Crystal habit

Octahedral

Crystal system

Isometric-Hexoctahedral
(Cubic)

Cleavage

111 (perfect in four

directions)

Fracture

Conchoidal - step like

Mohs Scale
hardness

10[1]

Luster

Adamantine[1]

Polish luster

Adamantine[1]

Refractive
index

2.4175-2.4178

Optical
Properties

Singly Refractive[1]

Birefringence none[1]
Dispersion

.044[1]

Pleochroism

none[1]

Ultraviolet
fluorescence

colorless to yellowish
stones - inert to strong in
long wave, and typically
blue. Weaker in short
wave.[1]

Absorption
spectra

In pale yellow stones a

415.5 nm line is typical.
Irradiated and annealed
diamonds often show a line
around 594 nm when
cooled to low temperatures.
[1]

Streak

Colorless

Specific
gravity

3.52 (+/- .01)[1]

Density

3.5-3.53

Diaphaneity

Transparent to
subtransparent to
translucent

Diamond is the hardest natural material known to humans and the third-hardest known
material after aggregated diamond nanorods and ultrahard fullerite. Its hardness and high
dispersion of light make it useful for industrial applications and jewelry.
Diamonds are specifically renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities
they make excellent abrasives because they can be scratched only by other diamonds,
Borazon, ultrahard fullerite, or aggregated diamond nanorods, which also means they
hold a polish extremely well and retain their lustre. About 130 million carats (26,000 kg)

are mined annually, with a total value of nearly USD $9 billion.[citation needed] About 100,000
kg are synthesized annually.[2]
The name diamond derives from the ancient Greek adamas (; invincible). They
have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India and
usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history.[3][4] Popularity of diamonds
has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and
polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful
advertising campaigns. They are commonly judged by the four Cs: carat, clarity, color,
and cut.
Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from central and southern Africa, although
significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil,
and Australia. They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which
brought to the surface the diamond crystals from deep in the Earth where the high
pressure and temperature enables the formation of the crystals. The mining and
distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as with
concerns over the sale of conflict diamonds by African paramilitary groups. There are
also allegations that the De Beers Group misuses its dominance in the industry to control
supply and manipulate price via monopolistic practices, although in recent years the
company's market share has dropped to below 50%.[citation needed]

Contents
[hide]

1 Material properties
o 1.1 Hardness
o 1.2 Electrical conductivity
o 1.3 Toughness
o 1.4 Color
2 Natural history
o 2.1 Formation
2.1.1 Diamonds formed in cratons
2.1.2 Diamonds and meteorite strikes
o 2.2 Surfacing

3 Gemological characteristics

3.1 Carat
3.2 Clarity
3.3 Color
3.4 Cut

3.4.1 Shape
3.4.2 Quality

3.4.3 Process
3.4.4 Light performance

3.5 Fluorescence
3.6 Cleaning

4 History

4.1 Record-holding diamonds

5 The diamond industry

5.1 Gem diamond industry

5.2 Industrial diamond industry
5.3 Diamond supply chain

5.3.1 Sources
5.3.2 Blood diamonds
5.3.3 Mining
5.3.4 Distribution

5.4 Synthetics, Simulants, and enhancements

6 Symbolism
7 References

8 External links

[edit] Material properties

Main article: Material properties of diamond
See also: Crystallographic defects in diamond
A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms. Diamonds have
been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics.
Most notable are its extreme hardness, its high dispersion index, and high thermal
conductivity, with a melting point of 3820 K and a boiling point of 5100K[5], which
convert to 6420 F and 3550 C and 8720 F and 4830 C respectively.

[edit] Hardness

The atomic connectivity of the carbon atoms gives the gem its hardness.
Diamond is the hardest natural material that is known, its hardness set to 10, i.e. hardest,
on Mohs scale of mineral hardness[6] and having an absolute hardness value of between
90, 167, and 231 gigapascals in various tests. Diamond's hardness has been known since
antiquity, and is the source of its name. However, aggregated diamond nanorods, an
allotrope of carbon first synthesized in 2005, are even harder than diamond.[7]
The hardest diamonds in the world are from the New England area in New South Wales,
Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are
used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is considered to be a product of the crystal
growth form, which is single stage growth crystal. Most other diamonds show more
evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in
the crystal lattice all of which affect their hardness.[8]
The hardness of diamonds contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only
be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well, keeping its luster
over long periods of time. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear
because of its resistance to scratchingperhaps contributing to its popularity as the
preferred gem in an engagement ring or wedding ring, which are often worn every day.
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness; this
property makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest
known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away
any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability
include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, or use of diamond powder as an abrasive.
Industrial-grade diamonds are either unsuitable for use as gems or synthetically produced,
which lowers their value and makes their use economically feasible. Industrial
applications, especially as drill bits and engraving tools, also date to ancient times.[citation
needed]

[edit] Electrical conductivity

Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as
semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most
other diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators.[6]

[edit] Toughness
Toughness relates to a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The
toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 3.4 MN m-3/2,[9] which is good
compared to other gemstones, but poor compared to most engineering materials. As with
any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to
breakage. Diamond is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others.

[edit] Color
Diamonds can occur in nearly any color, though yellow and brown are by far the most
common.[6] "Black" diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark
inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. When the color is saturated enough
in yellow or brown diamonds, a stone may be referred to as a fancy colored diamond by
the gem trade, otherwise they are graded for color in the normal color range of white
diamonds.[citation needed] Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause
the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most
diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw.
The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration
depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present.[6] The Gemological
Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as
diamonds in the normal color range, and applies a grading scale from 'D' (colorless) to 'Z'
(light yellow). The GIA labels diamonds that have more color than a 'Z' diamond fancy,
along with those that are any color other than yellow or brown.[citation needed]

[edit] Natural history

[edit] Formation
The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions. Diamond formation
requires exposure of carbon-bearing materials to high pressure, ranging approximately
between 45 and 60 kilobars,[10] but at a comparatively low temperature range between
approximately 1652 - 2372F (900-1300C).[10] These conditions are known to be met in
two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates,
and at the site of a meteorite strike.

[edit] Diamonds formed in cratons

The conditions required for diamond formation in the lithospheric mantle require
considerable depth. The range of depth required for diamond formation is calculated to be
between 90-120 miles (140-190 kilometers)[10][6] The rate at which temperature changes
with increasing depth into the Earth varies greatly in different parts of the Earth. In
particular, under oceanic plates the temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond
the range required for diamond formation at the depth required.[10] The correct
combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stable

parts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratons exist.[10] Long
residence in the cratonic lithosphere allows diamond crystals to grow larger.

The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough diamond crystal in matrix is
typical of the mineral. Its lustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a primary
deposit.
Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon
dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13), it has been shown that the carbon
found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds,
known as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the
Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain organic carbon from organic
detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust through
subduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond.[6] These two different
source carbons have measurably different 13C:12C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the
Earth's surface are generally very old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years
old.
Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra
known as macles or maccles. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of
the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron,
rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals
can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are
found grown together or form double "twinned" crystals grown together at the surfaces of
the octahedron. This is all due to the conditions in which they form. Diamonds
(especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an
opaque gum-like skin.[11]

[edit] Diamonds and meteorite strikes

Diamonds can also form in other natural high-pressure, relatively low-temperature
events. Very small diamonds, known as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds, have been
found in impact craters where meteors strike the Earth and create shock zones of high
pressure and temperature where diamond formation can occur. Microdiamonds are now
used as one indicator of ancient meteorite impact sites.[6]

[edit] Surfacing

Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipe

Diamond-bearing rock is brought close to the surface through deep-origin volcanic
eruptions. The magma for such a volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can
be formed,[6] 150 km (90 miles) deep or more (three times or more the depth of source
magma for most volcanoes); this is a relatively rare occurrence. These typically small
surface volcanic craters extend downward in formations known as volcanic pipes.[6] The
pipes contain material that was transported toward the surface by volcanic action, but was
not ejected before the volcanic activity ceased. During eruption these pipes are open to
the surface, resulting in open circulation; many xenoliths of surface rock and even wood
and/or fossils are found in volcanic pipes. Diamond-bearing volcanic pipes are closely
related to the oldest, coolest regions of continental crust (cratons). This is because cratons
are very thick, and their lithospheric mantle extends to great enough depth that diamonds
are stable. Not all pipes contain diamonds, and even fewer contain enough diamonds to
make mining economically viable.
The magma in volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into
igneous rock known as either kimberlite or lamproite.[6] The magma itself does not
contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep-formed rocks (xenoliths),
minerals (xenocrysts), and fluids upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in
magnesium-bearing olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole minerals[6] which are often altered
to serpentine by heat and fluids during and after eruption. Certain indicator minerals
typically occur within diamondiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogic tracers by
prospectors, who follow the indicator trail back to the volcanic pipe which may contain
diamonds. These minerals are rich in chromium (Cr) or titanium (Ti), elements which
impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromian
garnets (usually bright red Cr-pyrope, and occasionally green ugrandite-series garnets),
eclogitic garnets, orange Ti-pyrope, red high-Cr spinels, dark chromite, bright green Crdiopside, glassy green olivine, black picroilmenite, and magnetite.[6] Kimberlite deposits
are known as blue ground for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as yellow
ground for the near surface smectite clay and carbonate weathered and oxidized portion.

Once diamonds have been transported to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they
may erode out and be distributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds
is known as a primary source of diamonds. Secondary sources of diamonds include all
areas where a significant number of diamonds, eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite
matrix, accumulate because of water or wind action. These include alluvial deposits and
deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate
because of their approximate size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in
deposits left behind by glaciers (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana); however, in contrast
to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are not known to be of significant concentration and
are therefore not viable commercial sources of diamond.
Diamonds can also be brought to the surface through certain processes which may occur
when two continental plates collide and deeply formed rock is thrust to the surface,[citation
needed]
although this phenomenon is less understood and currently assumed to be
uncommon.

[edit] Gemological characteristics

The most familiar usage of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment. This
usage dates back into antiquity and predates other uses.[citation needed] The dispersion of white
light into spectral colors, is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In
the twentieth century, experts in the field of gemology have developed methods of
grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to
their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now
commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are carat, cut, color, and
clarity.
Most gem diamonds are traded on the wholesale market based on single values for each
of the four Cs; for example knowing that a diamond is rated as 1.5 carats, VS2 clarity, F
color, excellent cut round brilliant, is enough to reasonably establish an expected price
range. More detailed information from within each characteristic is used to determine
actual market value for individual stones. Consumers who purchase individual diamonds
are often advised to use the four Cs to pick the diamond that is "right" for them.
Other characteristics not described by the four Cs influence the value or appearance of a
gem diamond. These characteristics include physical characteristics such as the presence
of fluorescence, as well as data on a diamond's history including its source and which
gemological institute performed evaluation services on the diamond. Cleanliness also
dramatically affects a diamond's beauty.
There are three[citation needed] major non-profit gemological associations which grade and
provide reports on diamonds. While carat weight and cut angles are mathematically
defined, the clarity and color are judged by the trained human eye and are therefore open
to slight variance in interpretation.

Gemological Institute of America (GIA) was the first laboratory in America to

issue modern diamond reports,[12] and is held in high regard amongst gemologists
for its consistent, conservative grading.
American Gemological Society (AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as
the GIA but garners a high reputation. The AGS employs a number system for
grading cut quality, color grade, and clarity. The highest grade being '0', and the
lowest being '10'.
Diamond High Council (HRD) Official certification laboratory of the Belgian
diamond industry, located in Antwerp. Antwerp World Diamond Center
Diamond Certification Laboratory of Australia The DCLA is one of only five
laboratories worldwide recognised as an International Diamond Council (IDC)
laboratory. DCLA is the official CIBJO laboratory for Australia and holds the
official registered National Diamond Masterset for Australia.The DCLA is the
laboratory endorsed by the Jewellers Association of Australia.

[edit] Carat
The carat weight measures the mass of a diamond. One carat is defined as a fifth of a
gram, or exactly 200 milligrams (about 0.007 ounce avoirdupois). The point unitequal
to one one-hundredth of a carat (0.01 carat, or 2 mg)is commonly used for diamonds of
less than one carat. All else being equal, the value of a diamond increases exponentially
in relation to carat weight, since larger diamonds are both rarer and more desirable for
use as gemstones. A review of comparable diamonds available for purchase in September
2005 demonstrates this effect (approximate prices for round cut, G color, VS2 diamonds
with "1A" cut grade, as listed on http://www.pricescope.com):
Carat size

Cost per carat (US$) Total cost (US$)

0.5 carat (50 points)

3,000

1,500

1.0 carat

6,500

6,500

1.5 carats

8,500

12,750

2.0 carats

13,000

26,000

3.0 carats

17,000

51,000

5.0 carats

23,000

115,000

The price per carat does not increase smoothly with increasing size. Instead, there are
sharp jumps around milestone carat weights, as demand is much higher for diamonds
weighing just more than a milestone than for those weighing just less. As an example, a
0.95 carat diamond may have a significantly lower price per carat than a comparable 1.05
carat diamond, because of differences in demand.
A weekly diamond price list, the Rapaport Diamond Report is published by Martin
Rapaport, CEO of Rapaport Group of New York, for different diamond cuts, clarity and
weights.[13] It is currently considered the de-facto retail price baseline. Jewelers often
trade diamonds at negotiated discounts off the Rapaport price (e.g., "R -3%").

In the wholesale trade of gem diamonds, carat is often used in denominating lots of
diamonds for sale. For example, a buyer may place an order for 100 carats of 0.5 carat,
DF, VS2-SI1, excellent cut diamonds, indicating he wishes to purchase 200 diamonds
(100 carats total mass) of those approximate characteristics. Because of this, diamond
prices (particularly among wholesalers and other industry professionals) are often quoted
per carat, rather than per stone.
Total carat weight (t.c.w.) is a phrase used to describe the total mass of diamonds or other
gemstone in a piece of jewelry, when more than one gemstone is used. Diamond solitaire
earrings, for example, are usually quoted in t.c.w. when placed for sale, indicating the
mass of the diamonds in both earrings and not each individual diamond. T.c.w. is also
widely used for diamond necklaces, bracelets and other similar jewelry pieces.

[edit] Clarity
Main article: Diamond clarity
Clarity is a measure of internal defects of a diamond called inclusions. Inclusions may be
crystals of a foreign material or another diamond crystal, or structural imperfections such
as tiny cracks that can appear whitish or cloudy. The number, size, color, relative
location, orientation, and visibility of inclusions can all affect the relative clarity of a
diamond. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) and other organizations have
developed systems to grade clarity, which are based on those inclusions which are visible
to a trained professional when a diamond is viewed under 10x magnification.
Diamonds become increasingly rare when considering higher clarity gradings. Only
about 20 percent of all diamonds mined have a clarity rating high enough for the diamond
to be considered appropriate for use as a gemstone; the other 80 percent are relegated to
industrial use. Of that top 20 percent, a significant portion contains one or more visible
inclusions. Those that do not have a visible inclusion are known as "eye-clean" and are
preferred by most buyers, although visible inclusions can sometimes be hidden under the
setting in a piece of jewelry.
Most inclusions present in gem-quality diamonds do not affect the diamonds'
performance or structural integrity. However, large clouds can affect a diamond's ability
to transmit and scatter light. Large cracks close to or breaking the surface may reduce a
diamond's resistance to fracture.
Diamonds are graded by the major societies on a scale ranging from flawless to
imperfect.

[edit] Color
Main article: Diamond color

Jewelers sometimes set diamonds in groups of similar colors

The Hope Diamond. Its deep blue coloration is caused by trace amounts of boron in the
diamond
A chemically pure and structurally perfect diamond is perfectly transparent with no hue,
or color. However, in reality almost no gem-sized natural diamonds are absolutely
perfect. The color of a diamond may be affected by chemical impurities and/or structural
defects in the crystal lattice. Depending on the hue and intensity of a diamond's
coloration, a diamond's color can either detract from or enhance its value. For example,
most white diamonds are discounted in price as more yellow hue is detectable, while
intense pink or blue diamonds (such as the Hope Diamond) can be dramatically more
valuable. The Aurora Diamond Collection displays a spectacular array of naturally
colored diamonds, and is a good source of information on the topic of colored diamonds.

Most diamonds used as gemstones are basically transparent with little tint, or white
diamonds. The most common impurity, nitrogen, replaces a small proportion of carbon
atoms in a diamond's structure and causes a yellowish to brownish tint. This effect is
present in almost all white diamonds; in only the rarest diamonds is the coloration due to
this effect undetectable. The GIA has developed a rating system for color in white
diamonds, from "D" to "Z" (with D being "colorless" and Z having a bright yellow
coloration), which has been widely adopted in the industry and is universally recognized,
superseding several older systems once used in different countries. The GIA system uses
a benchmark set of natural diamonds of known color grade, along with standardized and
carefully controlled lighting conditions. Precision-crafted cubic zirconia master sets are
sometimes used in the trade, however the GIA has found these sets to be inaccurate.[citation
needed]
Diamonds with higher color grades are rarer, in higher demand, and therefore more
expensive, than lower color grades. Oddly enough, diamonds graded Z are also rare, and
the bright yellow color is also highly valued. Diamonds graded D-F are considered
"colorless", G-J are considered "near-colorless", K-M are "slightly colored". N-Y usually
appear light yellow or brown.
In contrast to yellow or brown hues, diamonds of other colors are more rare and valuable.
While even a pale pink or blue hue may increase the value of a diamond, more intense
coloration is usually considered more desirable and commands the highest prices. A
variety of impurities and structural imperfections cause different colors in diamonds,
including yellow, pink, blue, red, green, brown, and other hues. Diamonds with unusual
or intense coloration are sometimes labeled "fancy" by the diamond industry. Intense
yellow coloration is considered one of the fancy colors, and is separate from the color
grades of white diamonds. Gemologists have developed rating systems for fancy colored
diamonds, but they are not in common use because of the relative rarity of colored
diamonds.

[edit] Cut
Main article: Diamond cut
Diamond cutting is the art and science of creating a gem-quality diamond out of mined
rough. The cut of a diamond describes the manner in which a diamond has been shaped
and polished from its beginning form as a rough stone to its final gem proportions. The
cut of a diamond describes the quality of workmanship and the angles to which a
diamond is cut. Often diamond cut is confused with "shape".
There are mathematical guidelines for the angles and length ratios at which the diamond
is supposed to be cut in order to reflect the maximum amount of light. Round brilliant
diamonds, the most common, are guided by these specific guidelines, though fancy cut
stones are not able to be as accurately guided by mathematical specifics.
The techniques for cutting diamonds have been developed over hundreds of years, with
perhaps the greatest achievements made in 1919 by mathematician and gem enthusiast
Marcel Tolkowsky. He developed the round brilliant cut by calculating the ideal shape to

return and scatter light when a diamond is viewed from above. The modern round
brilliant has 57 facets (polished faces), counting 33 on the crown (the top half), and 24 on
the pavilion (the lower half). The girdle is the thin middle part. The function of the crown
is to diffuse light into various colors and the pavilion's function to reflect light back
through the top of the diamond.
Tolkowsky defines the ideal dimensions to have:

Table percentage (table diameter divided by overall diameter) = 53%

Depth percentage (Overall depth divided by the overall diameter) = 59.3%
Pavilion Angle (Angle between the girdle and the pavilion) = 40.75
Crown Angle (Angle between the girdle and the crown) = 34.5
Pavilion Depth (Depth of pavilion divided by overall diameter) = 43.1%
Crown Depth (Depth of crown divided by crown diameter) = 16.2%

The culet is the tiny point or facet at the bottom of the diamond. This should be a
negligible diameter, otherwise light leaks out of the bottom. Tolkowsky's ideal
dimensions did not include a girdle. However, a thin girdle is required in reality in order
to prevent the diamond from easily chipping in the setting. A normal girdle should be
about 1%2% of the overall diameter.
The further the diamond's characteristics are from Tolkowsky's ideal, the less light will be
reflected. However, there is a small range in which the diamond can be considered
"ideal." Today, because of the relative importance of carat weight in society, many
diamonds are often intentionally cut poorly to increase carat weight. There is a financial
premium for a diamond that weighs the magical 1.0 carat, so often the girdle is made
thicker or the depth is increased. Neither of these tactics make the diamond appear any
bigger, and they greatly reduce the sparkle of the diamond. So a poorly cut 1.0 carat
diamond may have the same diameter and appear as large as a 0.85 carat diamond. The
depth percentage is the overall quickest indication of the quality of the cut of a round
brilliant. "Ideal" round brilliant diamonds should not have a depth percentage greater than
62.5%. Another quick indication is the overall diameter. Typically a round brilliant 1.0
carat diamond should have a diameter of about 6.5 mm. Mathematically, the diameter in
millimeters of a round brilliant should approximately equal 6.5 times the cube root of
carat weight, or 11.1 times the cube root of gram weight, or 1.4 times the cube root of
point weight.
Ideal cuts can be controversial as the definitions of brilliance and beauty are very
subjective.
Tolkowsky's mathematical model is now superseded by the GIA Facetware software that
is the culmination of 20 years of studies on diamond cuts.
New diamond cuts are now all the rage in the diamond industry as for example a design
invented in 2003 and called the Genesis cut. This cut differs in shape from the more
traditional cuts in its concave surfaces and angles and resembles a 4-pointed star.

[edit] Shape
Diamonds do not show all of their beauty as rough stones; instead, they must be cut and
polished to exhibit the characteristic fire and brilliance that diamond gemstones are
known for. Diamonds are cut into a variety of shapes that are generally designed to
accentuate these features.
Diamonds which are not cut to the specifications of Tolkowsky's round brilliant shape (or
subsequent variations) are known as "fancy cuts." Popular fancy cuts include the
baguette (from the French, meaning rod or loaf of bread), marquise, princess cut (square
outline), heart, briolette (a form of the rose cut), and pear cuts. Newer cuts that have
been introduced into the jewelry industry are the "cushion" "radiant"(similar to princess
cuts, but with rounded edges instead of square edges) and "Asscher" cuts. Many fancy
colored diamonds are now being cut according to these new styles. Generally speaking,
these "fancy cuts" are not held to the same strict standards as Tolkowsky-derived round
brilliants and there are less specific mathematical guidelines of angles which determine a
well-cut stone. Cuts are influenced heavily by fashion: the baguette cutwhich
accentuates a diamond's luster and downplays its firewas all the rage during the Art
Deco period, whereas the princess cut cutwhich accentuates a diamond's fire rather
than its lusteris currently gaining popularity. The princess cut is also popular amongst
diamond cutters: of all the cuts, it wastes the least of the original crystal. The past
decades have seen the development of new diamond cuts, often based on a modification
of an existing cut. Some of these include extra facets. These newly developed cuts are
viewed by many as more of an attempt at brand differentiation by diamond sellers, than
actual improvements to the state of the art.

[edit] Quality

Bottom side view of an excellently cut diamond in a gemscope showing a hearts and
arrows pattern.
The quality of a diamond's cut is widely considered the most important of the four Cs in
determining the beauty of a diamond; indeed, it is commonly acknowledged that a wellcut diamond can appear to be of greater carat weight, and have clarity and color appear to

be of better grade than they actually are. The skill with which a diamond is cut
determines its ability to reflect and refract light.
In addition to carrying the most importance to a diamond's quality as a gemstone, the cut
is also the most difficult to quantitatively judge. A number of factors, including
proportion, polish, symmetry, and the relative angles of various facets, are determined by
the quality of the cut and can affect the performance of a diamond. A poorly cut diamond
with facets cut only a few degrees out of alignment can result in a poorly performing
stone. For a round brilliant cut, there is a balance between "brilliance" and "fire." When a
diamond is cut for too much "fire," it looks like a cubic zirconia, which gives off much
more "fire" than real diamond. A well-executed round brilliant cut should reflect light
upwards and make the diamond appear white when viewed from the top. An inferior cut
will produce a stone that appears dark at the center and in some extreme cases the ring
settings may show through the top of the diamond as shadows.
Several different theories on the "ideal" proportions of a diamond have been and continue
to be advocated by various owners of patents on machines to view how well a diamond is
cut. These advocate a shift away from grading cut by the use of various angles and
proportions toward measuring the performance of a cut stone. A number of specially
modified viewers and machines have been developed toward this end. Hearts and Arrows
viewers test for the "hearts and arrows" characteristic pattern observable in stones
exhibiting high symmetry and particular cut angles. Closely related to Hearts and Arrows
viewers are the FireScope (also known as the SymmetriScope), the Ideal-Scope, and the
ASET. The Ideal-Scope and the ASET test for light leakage, light return, and proportions.
The ASET (and computer simulations of the ASET) are used to test for AGS cut grade.
The GemEx BrillianceScope is a machine that measures a diamond's white light
(brilliance), color light (fire) and scintillation (sparkle). These viewers and machines
often help sellers demonstrate the light performance results of the diamond in addition to
the traditional 4 Cs. Detractors see these machines as marketing tools rather than as
scientific tools.
The GIA has developed a set of criteria for grading the cut of round brilliant stones that is
now the standard in the diamond industry and is called Facetware.

[edit] Process
Main article: Diamond cutting

An uncut diamond does not show its prized optical properties

The process of shaping a rough diamond into a polished gemstone is both an art and a
science. The choice of cut is often decided by the original shape of the rough stone,
location of the inclusions and flaws to be eliminated, the preservation of the weight,
popularity of certain shapes amongst consumers and many other considerations. The
round brilliant cut is preferred when the crystal is an octahedron, as often two stones may
be cut from one such crystal. Oddly shaped crystals such as macles are more likely to be
cut in a fancy cutthat is, a cut other than the round brilliantwhich the particular
crystal shape lends itself to.
Even with modern techniques, the cutting and polishing of a diamond crystal always
results in a dramatic loss of weight; rarely is it less than 50%. Sometimes the cutters
compromise and accept lesser proportions and symmetry in order to avoid inclusions or
to preserve the carat rating. Since the per carat price of diamond shifts around key
milestones (such as 1.00 carat), many one-carat diamonds are the result of compromising
"Cut" for "Carat." Some jewelry experts advise consumers to buy a 0.99 carat diamond
for its better price or buy a 1.10 carat diamond for its better cut, avoiding a 1.00 carat
diamond which is more likely to be a poorly cut stone.

[edit] Light performance

In the gem trade the term light performance is used to describe how well a polished
diamond will return light to the viewer. There are three light properties which are
described in relation to light performance; brilliance, fire, and scintillation. Brilliance
refers to the white light reflections from the external and internal facet surfaces. Fire
refers to the spectral colors which are produced as a result of the diamond dispersing the
white light. Scintillation refers to the small flashes of light that are seen when the
diamond, light source or the viewer is moved. A diamond that is cut and polished to
produce a high level of these qualities is said to be high in light performance.
The setting diamonds are placed in also affect the performance of light through a
diamond. The 3 most commonly used settings are: Prong, Bezel, and Channel. Prong
settings are the most popular setting for diamond jewelry. The prong setting consists of
four or six 'claws' that cradle the diamond, allowing the maximum amount of light to
enter from all angles, allowing the diamonds to appear larger and more brilliant. In bezel
settings the diamond or gemstone is completely surrounded by a rim of metal, which can
be molded into any shape to accommodate the stone. Used to set earrings, necklaces,
bracelets, and rings, bezel settings can have open or closed backs, and generally can be
molded to allow a lot of light to pass through. Channel settings set the stones right next to
each other with no metal separating them. This setting is mostly used in wedding and
anniversary bands. The outer ridge is then worked over the edges of the stones to create a
smooth exterior surface. This also protects the girdle area of the stone. [1]

[edit] Fluorescence

About a third of all diamonds will glow under ultraviolet light, usually a blue color which
may be noticeable under a black light or strong sunlight. According to the GIA, who
reviewed a random sample of 26,010 natural diamonds, 65% of the diamonds in the
sample had no fluorescence. Of the 35% that did have fluorescence, 97% had blue
fluorescence of which 38% had faint blue fluorescence and 62% had fluorescence that
ranged from medium to very strong blue. Other colors diamonds can fluoresce are green,
yellow, and red but are very rare and are sometimes a combination of the colors such as
blue-green or orange. Some diamonds with "very strong" fluorescence can have a
"milky" or "oily" look to them, but they are also very rare and are termed "overblues."
Their study concluded that with the exception of "overblues" and yellow fluorescent
diamonds, fluorescence had little effect on transparency and that the strong and very
strong blue fluorescent diamonds on average had better color appearance than nonfluorescent stones. Since blue is a complementary color to yellow and can appear to
cancel it out, strong blue fluorescence had especially better color appearance with lower
color graded diamonds that have a slight yellowish tint such as "I" color or "J" color but
had little effect on the more colorless "D" through "F" color grades.[14]

[edit] Cleaning
Main article: Jewellery cleaning
Cleanliness heavily affects a diamond's beauty. A clean diamond is more brilliant and
fiery than the same diamond when it is "dirty". Dirt or grease on the top of a diamond
reduces its luster. Water, dirt, or grease on the bottom of a diamond interferes with the
diamond's brilliance and fire. Even a thin film absorbs some light that could have been
reflected to the person looking at the diamond. Colored dye or smudges can affect the
perceived color of a diamond. Historically, some jewelers' stones were misgraded
because of smudges on the girdle, or dye on the culet. Current practice is to clean a
diamond thoroughly before grading its color.
Maintaining a clean diamond can sometimes be difficult as jewelry settings can obstruct
cleaning efforts and oils, grease, and other hydrophobic materials adhere well to a
diamond's surface. Many jewelers use steam cleaners. Some jewelers provide their
customers with ammonia-based cleaning kits; ultrasonic cleaners are also popular.

[edit] History
Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant
alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found. The earliest written reference can be
found in the Buddhist text, the Anguttara Nikaya another sanskrit text, the Arthashastra,
which was completed around 296 BCE and describes diamond's hardness, luster, and
dispersion. Diamonds quickly became associated with divinity, being used to decorate
religious icons, and were believed to bring good fortune to those who carried them.
Ownership was restricted among various castes by color, with only kings being allowed
to own all colors of diamond.

In February 2005, a joint Chinese-U.S. team of archaeologists reported the discovery of

four corundum-rich stone ceremonial burial axes originating from China's Liangzhu and
Sanxingcun cultures (4000 BCE2500 BCE) which, because of the axes' specular
surfaces, the scientists believe were polished using diamond powder.[4][15] Although there
are diamond deposits now known to exist close to the burial sites, no direct evidence of
coeval diamond mining has been found: the researchers came to this conclusion by
polishing corundum using various lapidary abrasives and modern techniques then
comparing the results using an atomic force microscope. At that scale, the surface of the
modern diamond-polished corundum closely resembled that of the axes; however, the
polishes of the latter were superior.
Diamonds were traded to both the east and west of India and were recognized by various
cultures for their gemological or industrial uses. In his work Naturalis Historia, the
Roman writer Pliny the Elder noted diamond's ornamental uses, as well as its usefulness
to engravers because of its hardness. In China, diamonds seem to have been used
primarily as diamond tools for engraving jade and drilling holes in beads. Archaeological
evidence from Yemen suggests that diamonds were used as drill tips as early as the 4th
century BCE. In Europe, however, diamonds disappeared for almost 1,000 years
following the rise of Christianity because of two effects: early Christians rejected
diamonds because of their earlier use in amulets, and Arabic traders restricted the flow of
trade between Europe and India.

Diagram of old diamond cuts showing the evolution from the most primitive (point cut)
to the most advanced pre-Tolkowsky cut (old European)
Until the late Middle Ages, diamonds were most prized in their natural octahedral state,
perhaps with the crystal surfaces polished to increase luster and remove foreign material.
Around 1300, the flow of diamonds into Europe increased via Venice's trade network,
with most flowing through the low country ports of Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam.
During this time, the taboo against cutting diamonds into gem shapes, which was
established over 1,000 years earlier in the traditions of India, ended allowing the
development of diamond cutting technology to begin in earnest. By 1375, a guild of
diamond polishers had been established at Nuremberg. Over the following centuries,
various diamond cuts were introduced which increasingly demonstrated the fire and

brilliance that makes diamonds treasured today: the table cut, the briolette (around 1476),
the rose cut (mid-16th century), and by the mid-17th century, the Mazarin, the first
brilliant cut diamond design. In 1919, Marcel Tolkowsky developed an ideal round
brilliant cut design that has set the standard for comparison of modern gems; however,
diamond cuts have continued to be refined.
The rise in popularity of diamonds as gems seems to have paralleled increasing
availability through European history. In the 13th century, King Louis IX of France
established a law that only the king could own diamonds. However, within a century
diamonds were popular gems among the moneyed aristocratic and merchant classes, and
by 1477 had begun to be used rarely in wedding rings. Diamond wedding rings didn't
gain widespread social significance until the De Beers company started marketing the
idea through cinema beginning in the 1940s. A number of large diamonds have become
historically significant objects, as their inclusion in various sets of crown jewels and the
purchase, sale, and sometimes theft of notable diamonds, have sometimes become
politicized.

[edit] Record-holding diamonds

See also: List of famous diamonds
The Cullinan Diamond, part of the British crown jewels, was the largest gem-quality
rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats. One of the diamonds cut from it,
Cullinan I or the Great Star of Africa, was formerly the largest gem-quality cut diamond
at 530.2 carats, but now that title has been taken by the Golden Jubilee (1985), a 545.67
carat, yellow-brown diamond. The largest flawless and colorless (grade D) diamond is
the Centenary Diamond which weighs 273.85 carats. The Millennium Star is the second
largest (1990) at 203.04 carats.
Travis Metcalfe, an astronomer at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics,
believes that the galaxy's largest diamond is the core of the white dwarf star BPM 37093.
Observations indicate that the core is a diamond crystal 4000 km in diameter.[16]

[edit] The diamond industry

See also: Diamonds as an investment

A round brilliant cut diamond set in a ring

The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one
dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a
large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different
ways.

[edit] Gem diamond industry

A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike precious metals such as gold or
platinum, gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in
the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds. One
hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale
trade and diamond cutting is limited to a few locations (most importantly Antwerp,
London, New York, Tel Aviv, Amsterdam and Surat), and a single companyDe Beers
controls a significant proportion of the trade in diamonds. They are based in
Johannesburg, South Africa and London, England.
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few
key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers. The most important
being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more
than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled. This makes
Antwerp the de facto 'world diamond capital'. The De Beers company, as the world's
largest diamond miner holds a clearly dominant position in the industry, and has done so
since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers
owns or controls a significant portion of the world's rough diamond production facilities
(mines) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds. The company and its
subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40 percent of annual world diamond
production. At one time it was thought over 80 percent of the world's rough diamonds
passed through the Diamond Trading Company (DTC, a subsidiary of De Beers) in
London, but presently the figure is estimated at less than 50 percent. De Beers used its
monopoly position to establish strict price controls, and market diamonds directly to
consumers in world markets.[citation needed]

The De Beers diamond advertising campaign is acknowledged as one of the most

successful and innovative campaigns in history. N.W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm
retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American
diamond market and opened up new markets, even in countries where no diamond
tradition had existed before. N.W. Ayer's multifaceted marketing campaign included
product placement, advertising the diamond itself rather than the De Beers brand, and
building associations with celebrities and royalty. This coordinated campaign has lasted
decades and continues today; it is perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is
forever". The De Beers account is now handled by the firm JWT, formerly known as J.
Walter Thompson.[citation needed]
Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses
(WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and
rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting
centres such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europe
and Asia.
In 2000, the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association
established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund
war and inhumane acts.
WFDB's additional activities also include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every
two years, as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to
oversee diamond grading.

[edit] Industrial diamond industry

The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade
counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat
conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including
clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds
(equal to about 100 million carats or 20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones
and known as bort, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds,
synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention
in the 1950s; another 3 billion carats (600 metric tons) of synthetic diamond is produced
annually for industrial usenearly 25 times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the
same period.[citation needed]
The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing.
Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most
diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use.
Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in
grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories
as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil), high-performance
bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.

With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future
applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible
use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of
diamond as a heat sink in electronics. Significant research efforts in Japan, Europe, and
the United States are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique
material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to
become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers.[citation needed] Since the quality of
the best synthetic diamonds is now equal to or better than that of the most perfect natural
diamonds, significant changes in the gem-diamond industry may also be forthcoming.

[edit] Diamond supply chain

See also: List of diamond mines
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and
is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world. In fact, the
amount of power which De Beers has consolidated historically prevented it from direct
trade with the United States, as its trade practices led to an indictment for violating
antitrust regulations (the case was settled in 2004).[citation needed] The concentration of power
only loosens at the retail level, where diamonds are sold by a limited number of
distributors, known as sightholders, to jewelers around the world.

Alluvial mining by traditional methods continues, as seen here in Sierra Leone.

[edit] Sources
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India;
India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in
approximately the 9th century BCE to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial
potential of these sources has been exhausted. The first non-Indian diamond source was
found in Brazil in 1725. While no commercial diamond production exists in the US,
Arkansas and Colorado are the only states to have a verifiable source of diamonds. Today,
most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa,
Namibia, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Tanzania and Sierra
Leone.[17] There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest
Territories of Canada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory, for example Mir pipe and

Udachnaya pipe), Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamond prospectors
continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.

[edit] Blood diamonds

Main article: Blood diamond
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries,
revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond
sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as
conflict diamonds or blood diamonds. In response to public concerns that their diamond
purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central Africa and west
Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced
the Kimberley Process in 2002, which is aimed at ensuring that conflict diamonds do not
become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups.[citation needed] The
Kimberley Process provides documentation and certification of diamond exports from
producing countries to ensure that the proceeds of sale are not being used to fund
criminal or revolutionary activities.[citation needed] Although the Kimberley Process has been
moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market,
conflict diamonds smuggled to market continue to persist to some degree (approx. 2-3%
of diamonds traded today are possible conflict diamonds[18]). According to the 2006 book
The Heartless Stone, two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley
Process: the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders and giving
phony histories, and the violent nature of diamond mining in nations which are not in a
technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean."[19]
The Canadian Government has setup a body known as Canadian Diamond Code of
Conduct: ([2]) to help authenticate Canadian Diamonds. This is a very stringent tracking
system of diamonds and helps protect the 'conflict free' label of Canadian diamonds.
Currently, gem production totals nearly 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of cut and polished
stones annually, and over 100 million carats (20,000 kg) of mined diamonds are sold for
industrial use each year, as are about 100,000 kg of synthesized diamond. In 2003, this
constituted total production of nearly US$9 billion in value.[citation needed]

[edit] Mining
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is
crushed, during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from
being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density.
Nowadays, the diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of
X-ray fluorescence,[citation needed] after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before
the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts;[citation
needed]
diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the
ore.

[edit] Distribution
The Diamond Trading Company, or DTC, is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough
diamonds produced both by De Beers mines and other mines from which it purchases
rough diamond production. DTC performs sophisticated sorting of rough diamonds into
over 16,000 categories,[citation needed] and then sells bulk lots of rough diamonds to a limited
number of sightholders a few times a year.
Once purchased by sightholders, diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as
gemstones. The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is
concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Traditional diamond cutting
centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York, and Tel Aviv. Traditionally,
diamond cutters in these cities are Orthodox Jews or Chasidim. Recently, diamond
cutting centers have been established in China, India, and Thailand. Cutting centers with
lower costs of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller
carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more
likely to be handled in Europe or North America. Demonstrating this, India produces
90% of all cut and polished diamonds by number, but only 55% by value.[citation needed] The
recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller
diamonds to be prepared as gems than was previously economically feasible.
Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called
bourses. There are 26 registered diamond bourses.[20] This is the final tightly controlled
step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively
small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the
consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or as is increasingly popular, sold
unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and
released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion
after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and retail sales
of US$57 billion. [3]

[edit] Synthetics, Simulants, and enhancements

Main articles: Synthetic diamond, Diamond simulants, and Diamond
enhancement
Nautural diamonds are true diamonds that have formed naturally within the earth.
Synthetic diamonds are also true diamonds, but they are created by a man-made process.
A diamond simulant is defined as a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the
appearance of a true diamond.
The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough
stones. The demand for industrial diamonds has long been satisfied in large part by
synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than
half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality
synthetic diamonds of significant size.[21]

A diamond's gem quality, which is not as dependent on material properties as industrial

applications, has invited both imitation and the invention of procedures to enhance the
gemological properties of natural diamonds. Materials which have similar gemological
characteristics to diamond but are not mined or synthetic diamond are known as diamond
simulants. The most familiar diamond simulant to most consumers is cubic zirconia
(commonly abbreviated as CZ); recently moissanite has also gained popularity and has
often been mischaracterized as a diamond simulant, although it is sold and retailed as a
replacement for diamond. Both CZ and moissanite are synthetically produced. However
CZ is a diamond simulant. Diamond enhancements are specific treatments, performed on
natural diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed
to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include
laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to
improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white
diamond.
Currently, trained gemologists with appropriate equipment are able to distinguish natural
diamonds from simulant diamonds, and they can identify all enhanced natural diamonds.
They can also distinguish between natural diamonds from most (but not all) synthetic
diamonds. The established natural diamond industry has a vested interest in creating a
distinction between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds, and has made significant
investments toward that end. However, as manufacturing technology has improved, the
best synthetic diamonds have become indistinguishable from natural diamonds, apart
from the fact that natural diamonds usually contain flaws, whereas the best synthetic
diamonds do not. New techniques for creating and treating simulants, such as coating
them with a very thin diamond-like carbon (DLC) layer, are making it increasingly
difficult to distinguish simulants from real diamonds as well.
The very low cost of producing large synthetic diamonds (which may ultimately drop to
as low as a few U.S. dollars per carat) made possible by recent technical advances
threatens the business model of the diamond industry, and the ultimate effect of the ready
availability of gem-quality diamonds at low cost in the future is hard to predict at this
time.

[edit] Symbolism
Historically, it has been claimed that diamonds possess several supernatural powers:

A diamond gives victory to him who carries it bound on his left arm, no matter the
number of enemies.[22]
Panics, pestilences, enchantments, all fly before it; hence, it is good for
sleepwalkers and the insane.[22]
It deprives lodestone and magnets of their virtue (i.e., ability to attract iron).[22]
Arabic diamonds are said to attract iron greater than a magnet.[22]
A diamond's hardiness can only be broken by smearing it with fresh goat's blood.
[22]

Mary of Burgundy is the first known recipient of a diamond engagement ring, in 1477.
Because of their extraordinary physical properties, diamonds have been used
symbolically since near the time of their first discovery. Perhaps the earliest symbolic use
of diamonds was as the eyes of Hindu devotional statues.[citation needed] In Hinduism Indra
uses Vajrayudham or the thunderbolt as his primary weapon.[citation needed] Vajra is the word
for diamond and ayudham means weapon in Sanskrit. The diamonds themselves were
thought to be endowments from the gods and were therefore cherished. The point at
which diamonds began to be associated with divinity is not known, but early texts
indicate that it was recognized in India since at least 400 BCE.[citation needed] It is said the
Greeks believed diamonds were tears of the gods;[citation needed] the Romans believed they
were splinters of fallen stars.[citation needed] Many long dead cultures have sought to explain
diamond's superlative properties through divine or mystical affiliations.[citation needed]
In Tibetan Buddhism, also known as Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle), diamonds are an
important symbol,[citation needed] and the Diamond Sutra is one of the most popular texts.
In Western culture, diamonds are the traditional emblem of fearlessness and virtue,[citation
needed]
but have also often associated with power, wealth, crime and misfortune. Today,
diamonds are used to symbolize eternity and love, being often seen adorning engagement
rings and sometimes wedding rings as well. The popularity of this modern tradition can
be traced directly to the marketing campaigns of De Beers, starting in 1938.[23] Prior to
the De Beers marketing campaign, engagement rings had no one particular stone
associated with them. The first diamond engagement ring can be traced to the marriage of
Maximilian I (then Archduke of Austria) to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.[citation needed] Other
early examples of betrothal jewels incorporating diamonds include the Bridal Crown of
Blanche (ca. 137080)[citation needed] and the Heftlein brooch of Vienna (ca. 143040),[citation
needed]
a pictorial piece depicting a wedding couple. Inaccessibility of diamonds to the vast
majority of the population limited the popularity of diamonds as betrothal jewels during
this period.

The diamond is the birthstone for people born in the month of April, and is also used as
the symbol of a sixty-year anniversary, such as a Diamond Jubilee (see hierarchy of
precious substances).[4] In a system of heraldry by gemstones occasionally used in the
past for the arms of nobles, diamond was used to represent the color sable, or black.[24]
Diamonds are a common focus of fiction. Notable pieces of fiction include Ian Fleming's
Diamonds Are Forever (1956), Arthur C. Clarke's 2061: Odyssey Three (1988), F. Scott
Fitzgerald's "The Diamond as Big As the Ritz" (1922), and Neal Stephenson's The
Diamond Age (1995). In addition, diamonds are the subject of various myths and legends.

[edit] References
Notes
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gemological Institute of America, GIA Gem Reference Guide
1995, ISBN 0-87311-019-6
2. ^ Yarnell, Amanda (2004). "The Many Facets of Man-Made Diamonds".
Chemical and Engineering News 82 (5): 26-31. ISSN 0009-2347. Retrieved on
2006-10-03.
3. ^ Pliny the Elder. Natural History: A Selection. Penguin Classics, p. 371. ISBN
0140444130.
4. ^ a b "Chinese made first use of diamond", BBC News, 17 May 2005. Retrieved on
2007-03-21.
5. ^ http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/point.html
6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l American Museum of Natural History. "The Nature of
Diamonds" Retrieved March 9, 2005
7. ^ Aggregated Diamond Nanorods, The Hardest Material Known to Man.
Nanotechnology News. AZoNano.com (14 September 2005). Retrieved on 200609-02.
8. ^ Taylor, W.R., Lynton A.J. & Ridd, M. (1990). "Nitrogen defect aggregation of
some Australasian diamonds: Time-temperature constraints on the source regions
of pipe and alluvial diamonds" (PDF). American Mineralogist 75: pp. 1290-1310.
9. ^ Field, J E (1981). "Strength and Fracture Properties of Diamond".
Philosophical Magazine A 43 (3): 595-618. Retrieved on 2006-02-11.
10. ^ a b c d e Diamonds and Diamond Grading: Lesson 4 How Diamonds Form.
Gemological Institute of America,, Carlsbad, California., 2002
11. ^ Webster, Robert, and Read, Peter G. (Ed.) (2000). Gems: Their sources,
descriptions and identification (5th ed.), p. 17. Butterworth-Heinemann, Great
Britain. ISBN 0-7506-1674-1.
12. ^ GIA History. Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
13. ^ Rapaport Diamond Report (March 2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-20.
14. ^ A Contribution to the Understanding of Blue Fluorescence on the Appearance
of Diamonds. GIA. GIA (Winter 1997). Retrieved on March 01, 2007.
15. ^ "Earliest use of diamonds by Chinese found", China Daily, 18 February 2005.
Retrieved on 2007-03-21.
16. ^ Whitehouse, David, Dr. "Diamond star thrills astronomers", BBC, 16 February
2004. Retrieved on 2007-03-20.

17. ^ Marshall, Stephen; Josh Shore (2004). The Diamond Life. Retrieved on 200703-21.
18. ^ Joint Resolution - World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) and
International Diamond Manufacturers Association. World Diamond Council (July
19, 2000). Retrieved on 2006-11-05.
19. ^ Zoellner, Tom (2006). The Heartless Stone: A Journey Through the World of
Diamonds, Deceit, and Desire. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312339690.
20. ^ Bourse listing. World Federation of Diamond Bourses. Retrieved on 2007-0404.
21. ^ The Nature of Diamonds: 5. Growing Diamonds. American Museum of Natural
History. Retrieved on 2007-03-21.
22. ^ a b c d e Spence, Lewis (1960). An Encyclopaedia of Occultism. University
Books, Inc..
23. ^ Epstein, E. J.: Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?, The Atlantic, February
1982
24. ^ Franklyn, Julian. Shield and Crest. London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1961. p. 379.
General references
Anderson, Arthur & Judith. "Fancy Color Diamonds". Retrieved September 12,
2005.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition (2003). "Diamond".
Retrieved March 9, 2005 at http://www.answers.com/topic/diamond.
David, Joshua (September 2003). "The New Diamond Age". Wired, issue 11.09.
De Beers Group. "De Beers Group". Retrieved March 14, 2005.
Epstein, Edward Jay (February 1982). "Have You Ever Tried To Sell a Diamond?"
(subscription required). The Atlantic Monthly.
Epstein, Edward Jay (1982). "THE DIAMOND INVENTION" (Complete book,
includes "Chapter 20: Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?")
Chaim Evevn-Zohar (2007). "From Mine to Mistress - Corporate Strategies and
Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry" (Second edition of
the book on the world diamond industry) Mining Journal Press.
Eppler, W.F. Praktische Gemmologie. Rhle-Diebner-Verlag, 1989
Government of Gujarat (2004). "Vibrant Gujarat: Sector Profiles". Retrieved
March 14, 2005.
Kjarsgaard, B.A. and Levinson, A. A. (2002). Diamonds in Canada. Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 208238.
Pagel - Theisen, Verena. Diamond Grading ABC: the Manual Rubin & Son,
Antwerp, Belgium, 2001. ISBN 3-9800434-6-0
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Categories: Articles with unsourced statements since February 2007 | All articles with
unsourced statements | Diamond | Native element minerals | Economic geology |
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