Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Georges Dumezil
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Contents
EDITOR S PREFACE VU
EDITOR S INTRODUCTION IX
INTRODUCTION
I. Starkadr
1. T h e T e x t s 9
2 . T h e Birth, Fate, and First
C r i m e of S t a r k a 3 r 12
3 . O d i n , T h o r and S t a r k a 3 r in
the Gautrekssaga and in
Saxo 19
4 . T h e F a c i n o r a , Starcatherus
and the Kings 29
5 . T h e end of Starcatherus;
Starcatherus and Hatherus 38
6. H65r 44
II. Sisupala
1. C o m p a r i s o n of the Legends
of S t a r k a S r and Sisupala 71
Contents
2 . C o m m o n Inheritance? 74
3 . Rudra and Vi§nu 78
4 . O d i n and T h o r 85
5 . T h e Roles of the G o d s in
the T w o Legends 9 1
IV. Jarasandha
1 . O d i n , R u d r a - S i v a and the
Sacrificed Kings 9 7
2 . J a r a s a n d h a and
Sisupala 100
3 . T h e End of Jarasandha 104
4. Aporia 107
V . T h e W o m a n and the
Ancestors
V I . Herakles
1 . T h e Failings of
Herakles 123
2 . Hera, A t h e n a and
Herakles 124
3 . T h e End of Herakles;
Herakles and Hera 128
4 . Herakles, S t a r k a 3 r and
Sisupala 131
SUMMARY 135
APPENDIX 145
VI
Editors Preface
f IX
Editor's Introduction
the simple reason that one does not dwell on the s e a m y side of one's
object of celebration, has his antisocial proclivities fully aired in
B r a h m a n i c , Epic, and Puranic texts, especially B o o k Five of the
Markandeya-Purana where Indra's killing of his fellow god
Tva^tar's son Trisiras and of Vrtra (replacing N a m u c i ) , and sexual
possession of A h a l y a in the disguise of her husband G a u t a m a ,
cause him to be divested of his splendor, might, and looks {tejas,
balam, rupam) which are transferred to D h a r m a , M a r u t a ( =
V a y u ) , and the N a s a t y a ( = Asvin) twins respectively (and subse-
quently deposited in the w o m b s of the queens K u n t I and MadrT,
engendering the M a h a b h a r a t a heroes Yudhi?thira, B h l m a + Ar-
j u n a , and Nakula + S a h a d e v a ) . Dumezil saw a parallel in the
Avestan "first king" and culture hero Y i m a w h o w h e n sinning lost
his regal glory {x^aranah) in staggered p o r t i o n s which were suc-
cessively reinvested in M i t h r a , T h r a e t a o n a , and K r s a s p a . T h r e e
similar low points in the sagas of Starcatherus in S a x o G r a m -
maticus (regicidal h u m a n sacrifice inspired by O d i n , uncharacter-
istic c o w a r d i c e in battle, " c o n t r a c t " killing f o r gold of a king in his
bath) and of Herakles in D i o d o r u s Siculus (defiance of Zeus lead-
ing to madness resulting in the killing of his own children in
rage brought on by Hera, ruseful defenestration of Iphitus, adul-
tery with lole) supplied G e r m a n i c and G r e e k reinforcements of
the t y p o l o g y .
T h i s w o r k , attractively presented, closely reasoned, a n d full of
intriguing parallelisms, received further substantiation in Mythe et
epopee II (1971) and III (1973). T h e hero as the stakes in a game of
g o d s — s u c h is the title Dumezil bestowed on his treatment of the
"parallel lives" of Starcatherus, Sisupala, and Herakles in ME II,
pp. 1 3 - 1 3 2 = the present b o o k , a w o r k which m a k e s the earlier
study seem a superficial sketch. Y i m a and Indra h a v e been excluded
from the dossier, the former without explanation in loco. In Heur et
malheur p p . 9 4 - 9 5 = Destiny of the Warrior p p . 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 Yima's
n o n - w a r r i o r status was explained via the doctrinal "demilitariza-
t i o n " of the Zoroastrian r e f o r m , whereas n o w ( M E //, p p . 3 5 6 -
Editor's Introduction
XI
Editor's Introduction
xiU
Editor's Introduction
xiv
Editor's Introduction
XVl
Editor's Introduction
xvii
Introduction
I
Introduction
k
inates t w o ( m o r e o v e r interrelated) obstacles: before the c e r e m o n y ,
a rival king; at the beginning of the c e r e m o n y itself, w h a t might
Introduction
J
STARKADR
1. T H E TEXTS
T h e tale of S t a r k a S r is p r e s e r v e d in t w o i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t s ,
o n e o f w h i c h is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a small g r o u p of b r i e f a n d frag-
m e n t a r y r e c o r d s w h i c h add n o t h i n g c o n s e q u e n t i a l to it, b u t the
c o n t e n t s of these t w o d o c u m e n t s are v e r y u n e q u a l .
O n e was c o m p o s e d in O l d I c e l a n d i c , b y an a u t h o r well-versed
in ancient t r a d i t i o n , a n d preserves, interspersed with the p r o s e , a
p o e m in which the h e r o himself is supposed to be s p e a k i n g . ' U n f o r -
t u n a t e l y the p e r i o d of life c o v e r e d b y this p o e m a n d s t o r y is lim-
ited, extending o n l y f r o m the b i r t h of S t a r k a S r until s h o r t l y after
I
StarkaSr
10
StarkaSr
11
Starkadr
12
Starkadr
13
StarkaSr
' "Alfhildr, moSir fodur StarkaSs, kaus fodur at syni sinum hundvisan jotun
heldr enn Asapor ok skapa ek pat Starkadi, at hann skal hvdrki eiga son ne dottur,
ok enda svd cett sina.
' "pat skapa ek honum, at hann skal Ufa prja manzaldra."
'° "Hann skal vinna nidingsverk a hverjum mannzaldri." The theme of the
three nidingsverk was transferred to the sword Tyrfingr and its owner Svafrlami in
the Hervararsaga (2, p. 3 [see above, p. 9 n. I j ) .
14
Starka3r
" H e will appeal to the well-born and the great." T h o r : " H e will b e
despised b y the c o m m o n f o l k . "
T h e blueprint f o r the future ends here. T h e gods endorse with-
out discussion the propositions of the two debaters, the meeting is
a d j o u r n e d , and Hrossharsgrani brings S t a r k a S r b a c k towards the
ships. In p a y m e n t f o r the aid he has just provided h i m , he demands
of S t a r k a S r bluntly that he " s e n d " him the king, that is arrange f o r
the king to place himself in a position to b e sacrificed: he himself
will take care of the rest. S t a r k a S r , realizing that he must p a y ,
agrees. A n d the god turns o v e r to the m a n , hereafter his a c -
c o m p l i c e , a spear, telling h i m " t h a t it w o u l d appear as a stick of
reed" (reyrsprdti).
15
StarkaSr
Pp. 31-34.
16
StarkaSr
17
StarkaSr
18
Starka3r
19
StarkaSr
20
StarkaSr
21
StarkaSr
12
StarkaSr
23
StarkaSr
'* What follows is the revision of my earlier proposals (cf. above, pp. 5 - 6 ) , as
given in The Destiny of the Warrior, p. 83 n. 1 (cf. p. 95 n. 11).
24
StarkaSr
naturally extends his hatred to the grandson, even though the lat-
ter, apart f r o m the " m a r k s " of the extra a r m s which heredity has
imposed on h i m , is a m a n . T h e second cause is m o r e surprising, at
least in one of the t w o successive descriptions which the Gautreks-
saga provides. C h a p t e r III recounts nothing a b n o r m a l : the giant,
following the c u s t o m of his race, has abducted a young w o m a n , a p -
parently without her c o n s e n t . Her father requests the help of T h o r ,
w h o wipes out the a b d u c t o r and returns the victim to her family,
the victim w h o thereafter carries in her w o m b the father of the
saga's h e r o . W i t h g o o d reason this vengeful action of T h o r has been
c o m p a r e d with certain exploits attributed to him b y the m y t h o l -
o g y ; m o r e than o n e giant has succumbed under his h a m m e r f o r
having abducted o r threatened to abduct a fair goddess. But in
chapter V I I , w h e n T h o r states his grievances in the gods' assembly,
he speaks of something else: the girl has had to " c h o o s e , " kjdsa, as
in an Indian svayaryivara, and she has preferred [kaus . . . heldr
en . . . ) the giant to the g o d . A n d to what a g o d , to h i m , the " T h o r
of the . . ^ s i r " ! If T h o r has killed the giant, it w a s in punishment for
this presumptuousness; he has simply gone about it a little late,
w h e n the girl w a s already, so to speak, with the interpolation of a
son, pregnant with her grandson, the second S t a r k a S r . T h u s T h o r ,
to put a n end to this evil b r o o d , must a b o v e all c o n d e m n the y o u n g
S t a r k a S r , at the fixing of his fate, to have neither son n o r daughter,
hvorki eiga son ne dottur. T h i s r o m a n t i c rivalry between a giant
and T h o r , and generally the notion of "loves of T h o r , " are e x t r a o r -
dinary, even if pride rather than sentiment seems to m o t i v a t e the
god h e r e . Still we should a v o i d the t o o - h a s t y conclusion that this
r o m a n e s q u e element is the late invention of a sagamadr. In any case
let us n o t e that, thus imposed b y T h o r , the curse of the three ni-
dingsverk is comprehensible. Since O d i n has granted the hero three
lives, T h o r , with nothing really specific in mind, ordains three
crimes. T h i s w a s not the case, o n e should r e m e m b e r , in S a x o where
O t h i n u s , w h o needs only one facinus of S t a r c a t h e r u s , nevertheless
foretells and imposes three misdeeds.
T h e relationships between O d i n and S t a r k a S r in the saga are at
o n c e simpler and m o r e c o m p l e x than in S a x o . Simpler because, in
25
StarkaSr
26
StarkaSr
the gods: hence this ping, this general assembly of the highest
deities which is held, miraculously enough, exactly on an islet close
b y the immobilized fleet. But h o w c o m e s it that T h o r gives O d i n
precisely what O d i n has c o m e to seek? Shall we admit a complicity
between these t w o gods w h o seem s o antagonistic? T h e story as a
w h o l e excludes it. Should one suppose that, in his omniscience,
O d i n has foreseen that T h o r would fling the curse of the "three
villainies"? T h e idea is gratuitous. O r rather m o r e subtly, has the
c r a f t y . M a c h i a v e l l i a n O d i n manipulated T h o r , a c h a r a c t e r all of a
piece, a model of u n c o m p r o m i s i n g h o n o r , as the t o r e a d o r " w o r k s "
the bull, a n n o u n c i n g the gift of "three lives" o n l y to draw out the
response "with a dishonor in e a c h " ? But besides the fact that T h o r ' s
response could h a v e been different (three great misfortunes, three
physical setbacks, etc.), it is not in fact O d i n but T h o r w h o at this
point in the debate runs the show and leads the discussion. T h e gift
of the "three lives" b y O d i n is simply the c o m p e n s a t i o n or counter-
part f o r T h o r ' s first curse: T h o r has said that S t a r k a S r will h a v e n o
descendants; s o be it, s a y s O d i n , but he himself will live the span of
three generations. A n d it is only then, to rebut this rebuttal, that
T h o r m a k e s his second curse, that of the three villainies. In fact, n o
explanation is satisfactory, and however one attempts to unravel it,
the tangle is unresolved; perhaps the sagamadr has altered, c o m -
plicated the traditional material?
O n e might h o p e f o r some illumination f r o m the m o r e ancient
p o e m intercalated in the saga, on which the prose a c c o u n t is only a
c o m m e n t a r y . But the elliptical, rhetorical character of this Vikars-
balkr m a k e s even its m o s t precise expressions leave r o o m for d o u b t .
Indeed, in this confession or plea which he m a k e s after the crime
b e f o r e the hostile a n d derisive assembly of the Swedish n o b l e m e n ,
S t a r k a S r expressly imputes to T h o r the responsibility for the m u r -
der of V i k a r , alluding to the curse of the three nidingsverk:^''
Pess eyrindis
at Porr um skop
mer nidings nafn,
27
StarkaSr
hlaut ek ohrodigr
Hit at vinna.
Skyllda ek Vikar
i vidi hdfum
Geirpjofsbana
godum um signa;
lagda ek geiri
gram til hjarta
pat er mer harmazt
handaverka.
" V i k a r I had ^
in a high tree,
Geirthjof's b a n e ,
to consign to the gods;
I set the spear
to the hero's heart.
T h a t to me w a s the m o s t grievous
of m y hands' deeds."
28
StarkaSr
29
StarkaSr
30
StarkaSr
31
StarkaSr
32
StarkaSr
33
StarkaSr
34
4v
StarkaSr
35
StarkaSr
W h a t king b e f o r e c o u l d be so gluttonous as t o
r u m m a g e in rotten filth of b o w e l s ,
or with his hand pick and dig in
the foul anus of a bird?
36
StarkaSr
37
StarkaSr
38
StarkaSr
39
StarkaSr
40
StarkaSr
i
41
StarkaSr
42
StarkaSr
43
StarkaSr
6. HODR
44
StarkaSr
See my Legendes sur les Nartes (1930), no. 21, pp. 77-83 (six variants); Le
Livre des heros, pp. 8 9 - 9 4 .
45
StarkaSr
lessness, trapped and unable to escape death, the giant feigns a sud-
den b e n e v o l e n c e : after having beheaded h i m , he says, his c a p t o r
should draw out o f his neck a particular tendon a n d m a k e a belt of
it; thus he will inherit some of his strength. Justifiably suspicious,
S o s r y k o tries out the belt on a tree, which b r e a k s o r crumbles,
burned to ashes. In other versions, once the giant is decapitated, his
head leaps t o w a r d S o s r y k o a n d seizes the s w o r d tight in its j a w s .
S o s r y k o begins to run but the head does not let g o ; finally, though,
it slackens its hold, falls, and S o s r y k o is able to scalp it. In this
case, and in all the analogous cases, the giant or monster is faithful
to his nature, prolongii\g at the m o m e n t of his death a hostility a n d
treachery that have never been contradicted o r c o n c e a l e d . T h e cir-
cumstances of Starcatherus' death are entirely otherwise, and o n e
has the impression that S a x o has g o n e w r o n g in not c h o o s i n g the
" b e t t e r " interpretation, in not admitting that his hero is sincere and
simply reducing the scene to this c o m m o n p l a c e theme of the giant
wreaking p o s t h u m o u s vengeance.^^ Starcatherus has b e f o r e him a
m a n w h o m he admires, respects, loves; he asks of him a n e x c e p -
tional service w h i c h will be in n o w a y a fault, n o r require a n y v e n -
geance. He gives him at the outset (with a disagreeable touch of
venality) all that he possesses materially, but he wishes also to b e -
queath to him a m o r e valuable treasure, not the strength that he
carries within him, but the c o m p o u n d e d sum of this strength which
he himself has not drawn o n , n a m e l y invulnerability. T h i s he c a n
only do b y a sort of crossing of their bodies, an insertion of the
youth's entire b o d y between the still-twitching fragments of his
o w n , at the very m o m e n t when there w o u l d pass, f r o m head to
trunk or f r o m trunk to head, the last mysterious current of his life
f o r c e : a gift a n d also a fusing, a i m i o n .
But w h o exactly is Hatherus, this figure w h o m w e have already
seen to be incoherent even m o r e than c o m p l e x ? It has long been
And to another magical theme: the efficacy of passing between the severed
parts of a corpse (purification; acquiring of privileges); see Olivier Masson, "A pro-
pos d'un rituel hittite pour la lustration d'une arm^e: le rite de purification par le
passage entre les deux parties d'une victime," Revue de I'histoire des religions, CXXXVII
(1950), 1-25.
>4
46
StarkaSr
47
StarkaSr
48
StarkaSr
49
SISUPALA
' The episode of Sisupala occupies slokas 1307-1627 of the second book
(Sabhdparvan) in the Calcutta edition (matching van Buitenen pp. 91-104). The late
poem of Magha has nothing to offer for our purposes; see Balamagha, Mdgha's
Sisupalavadha im Auszuge, bearbeitet von Carl Cappeller (1915), and Magha's Siiu-
pdlavadha, ins Deutsche iibertragen von E. Hultzsch (1926). For the Puranic ac-
counts (particularly the Bhdgavata Purana) see V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, The
Purdrta Index, III (1955), 423, s.v. "Sisupala."
^ Edward W. Hopkins, Epic Mythology (1915), pp. 51, 211.
51
Sisupala
^ This phrase does not pretend to solve the large set of problems posed by the
character of Krjija in the Mahabharata. My feeling is certainly that much of what is
said of him is sufficiently explained as transposition of the mythology of an ancient
Vijiju, a transposition of the same sort and scope as that which has produced the
Paijdavas from an archaic list of the functional gods. But of course, Kf^ija is not
only that. Here, it suffices that the equivalence Kfjija-Visnu is explicitly stated in the
course of the episode.
52
Sisupala
53
Sisupala
54 •
Sisupala
" . . . N o sooner was he placed on his lap than the two extra
a r m s fell off a n d the eye in his forehead sank a w a y . "
Kr?ria answers ( 1 5 1 4 - 1 5 1 5 ) :
55
Sisupala
Thus the fate of Sisupala was sealed. We shall soon learn that
the account of these hundred offenses, the aparadhah to be tole-
rated, is exhausted and even overdrawn. Released from the promise
to his aunt, Kr$na will in the end be able to punish Sisupala.
56
Sisupala
57
Sisupala
58
Sisupala
3. THE OFFENSES ^
59
Sisupala
f
suppose also that the n u m b e r " o n e h u n d r e d " has been substituted,
for the s a m e reason, f o r the simple n u m b e r " t h r e e , " and that w h a t
is presented here as a sampling of the o f f e n s e s — o r rather w h a t this
sampling was b e f o r e the development of the three crimes into
five—originally constituted their c o m p l e t e i n v e n t o r y .
In any case, directly or indirectly, all these sins are directed
against the king. T h e first three, those of the second and first func-
tion, are direct, attacking the king in his capital, his servants, his
religion; the two sexual sins attack w o m e n belonging to the king's
family or placed under his p r o t e c t i o n . Rhetorically speaking, there-
f o r e , in this final quarrel where Sisupala claims to defend r o y a l
60
Sisupala
A n d the f l o o d is loosed ( 1 3 4 2 ) :
61
Sisupala
§1. 1384-1387 (van Buitenen p. 95). The Poona edition, which is quoted
here in translation, rightly omits the first line, which introduces the vaisyas and
sudras into the matter.
62
Sisupala
" . . . he desires with all his being to lead them all t o the
abode o f Y a m a . . . 1"
63
Sisupala
In the last speech which he will give, in the face of the fate that
awaits h i m , he will take up again the theme o f offended royal dig-
nity, a n d after a n o t h e r catalogue o f kings w h o deserve to be hon-
ored, he will conclude b y repeating the theme in the interrogative
(1540-1541): " W h y , " he will say to BhT?ma,
64
Sisupala
' ' The Poona edition rejects the end of Kr^ija's speech and the following line.
65
Sisupala
66
Sisupala
The Greek tragedians did not have to deal with this type of
drama, but it is on a par with the loftiest situations which they en-
countered: Prometheus standing up to Zeus, Oedipus obstinately
delving into his destiny. Sisupala is not a normal man; only thanks
to Kf§i:ia, to Vif^iu, has he been freed from the bodily monstrosity
that revealed him as a little Siva. But, from the instant of this boon,
the child's mother and Kf?na himself have foreseen the future:
from this humanized Siva to Vi5i;»u incarnate, there will be, by an
irresistible bent of nature—one might readily say, of t h e o l o g y -
nothing but a series of insults, aggressions, and crimes; and Kf^na
has determined, in his generous wisdom, to tolerate one hundred of
them. In fact, there is no other aspect to their relationship: Sisu-
pala—on his own behalf and undoubtedly on that of Jarasandha
whose armies he commands—persecutes Kf?ria and his family, and
Kfjna, the divine Krgpa, until the credit is exhausted, endures,
withdraws, retreats, even abandons his capital before this mad-
man. And, in the end, we see that underneath this evil-minded and
perverse conduct, Sisupala hoped in the depth of his being only to
be reunited with Kf$pa-Vi§nu, only to be one with him, like a Saint
Paul who would have awaited death and the hereafter to find his
road to Damascus.
More mystical than the epic, more willing to meditate on the
sublime absurdities of theology, the Puranas have repeated, ex-
ploited, and clarified its matter. In the Vi^nu Purdna, for example,
the belief in metempsychosis allows the conflict to be prolonged:
67
Sisupala
68
Sisupala
I?^ ?l
69
///
STARKADR A N D SISUPALA
1. COMPARISON OF THE LEGENDS OF STARKADR
AND SISUPALA
I I
71
StarkaSr and Sisupala
II 11
1 . T h e r e a f t e r , it is another 1 . A t that m o m e n t w h e n he
g o d , O t h i n u s , and he alone, makes the small monster
w h o concerns himself with into a m a n , K r ^ n a - V i j n u
h i m and determines his fate declares his destiny:
( S a x o ) ; or else this fate is
fixed, in an antagonistic de-
b a t e , by the two gods O d i n
and T h o r (saga);
2 . In either case, the essential 2 . since it is he, Kr?na, w h o is
terms are that the hero will called upon to slay him, he
live three h u m a n lifetimes, consents to let pass unpun-
but will c o m m i t a crime in ished one hundred offenses,
each. each of which w o u l d merit
death, thus acknowledging
as inevitable that the hu-
manized monster will c o m -
mit offenses; at the hundred
and first will c o m e the e n d .
Ill III
T h i s triple life is, accordingly: Sisupala:
72
StarkaSr and Sisupala
IV IV
1 . The plot of Starcatherus In the final scene of his life,
develops particularly in his where Sisupala is presented
relations with King Frotho at length:
and his descendants, and its 1 . he makes himself the
driving force is an uncom- theorist and the determined,
promising and aggressive aggressive defender of royal
reverence for royal majesty; majesty;
imposing his exacting ideal
of this majesty, he repri-
mands kings and their
offspring;
2 . and yet his three crimes, 2 . and yet, an allusion of
bad exceptions to a string of Bhl?ma and the animated
uniformly good deeds, are reaction of Sisupala himself
committed against kings, lead one to believe that this
his kings. attitude is destined only to
plunge to their deaths the
kings who are present;
moreover, the five offenses
enumerated by Kr§na injure,
in various ways, a king.
V
Having committed the third Having reached the number of
and last of the foreordained one hundred offenses exempted
crimes. from punishment because of
the promise,
73
Starkaar cind Sisupala
2. COMMON INHERITANCE?
74
StarkaSr a n d Sisupala
75
StarkaSr and Sisupala
76
StarkaSr and Sisupala
I
1 - 2 . A being, w h o will be a hero, is b o r n outside of h u m a n
f o r m , with monstrosities, superfluous organs, which relate him to
the most disquieting element in m y t h o l o g y ; but this deformity is
corrected, and the infant is restored to h u m a n shape either b y the
act or b y the touch of the god w h o is n o r m a l l y the adversary of
demonical beings. V a r i a n t : a being, w h o will be a h e r o , is b o r n as
the p o s t h u m o u s and h o m o n y m o u s grandson of such a m o n s t e r
w h o has been not " p r u n e d " but slain b y the god inimical to d e m o n s
(giants), and bears the hereditary m a r k s of the limbs cut f r o m his
grandfather.
II
1 . T w o gods explicitly ( T h o r and O d i n , Kr?na-Vi$nu, all in
h u m a n f o r m ) or implicitly (Rudra-Siva), f r o m without (through
decisions) o r within (through his own nature), vie f o r the hero or
c o n f r o n t each other over h i m : the one harboring a weakness f o r the
sort of m o n s t e r which, although c o r r e c t e d , the hero continues to
carry within h i m , and the other whose calling is to subdue or de-
stroy such monsters.
2 . T h e upshot for the hero is the a n n o u n c e m e n t of a fate link-
ing his longevity to the c o m p l e t i o n of a specific number of crimes,
either that he will be allowed to go on living as long as he does not
exceed this n u m b e r , or that he is granted a prolonged but limited
(thrice normal) life span, while being compelled to c o m m i t one
crime in each segment.
Ill
T h e life thus ordained—flexible or multiple—is (1) full of
exploits, (2) highlighted by the predestined crimes, and (3) these
77
StarkaSr and Sisupala
W
T h e w a r r i o r on w h o m this ambiguous destiny weighs (1) p r o -
fesses to h o n o r and defend the rights and the m a j e s t y of kings, and
(2) nevertheless offends a king b y each of his crimes.
V
T h e predestined n u m b e r of crimes having b e e n c o m m i t t e d , (1)
the w a r r i o r brings on his o w n death, and b y request or b y c o m m i t -
ting an additional offense, has himself beheaded b y a god w h o is
either identical with the one w h o determined the length of his life or
is theologically v e r y close to h i m . (2) A t the m o m e n t of decapita-
tion, he transfers (or desires to transfer) to his killer an essential
part of his inner being.
3. R U D R A A N D VISNU
78
StarkaSr and Sisupala
79
StarkaSr a n d Sisupala
First, let us consider the Indian tale from the point o f view o f
the ordinary m y t h o l o g y of the epic where it is f o u n d . R u d r a - S i v a ,
we have said, w o r k s implicity, f r o m within Sisupala. T h e child is
b o r n m o n s t r o u s , in the god's image, and he bears a n a m e that is like
the diminutive of pasupati, a distinctive epithet o f the g o d . B y this
affinity, almost possession, he is b o u n d to oppose Kr?na-Vi5nu a n d
to die at his hand, as the V o i c e heard at his birth, a n d the miracle
w o r k e d upon K r j n a ' s knees, interpreted consistently, declare f o r
h i m . T h i s is k n o w n well b y K f § n a , w h o with the b a b y still o n his
lap foresees that he will h a v e to receive a n d tolerate f r o m h i m a
total o f a hundred offenses. Besides these Rudraic traits, Sisupala
carries m o r e o v e r the heredity, o r at least the ancestry o f a d e m o n .
80
StarkaSr a n d Sisupala
81
StarkaSr and Sisupala
82
StarkaSr and Sisupala
= ME I, pp. 208-245.
83
StarkaSr a n d Sisupala
84
S t a r k a 6 r a n d Sisupala
85
StarkaSr and Sisupala
(1) Varuna
Odin (1) a n d (2)
f Indra )
(2)
1 Vayu ^
fThor (2) a n d (3)
(3) fertility g o d s ) \ fertility gods (3)
86
StarkaSr a n d Sisupala
87
Starkadr and Sisupala
A f a m o u s D a i n t s , n a m e d Basmagut [ = ? ] , w a s curious to
k n o w which of the three D e i o t a s [ B r a h m a , Vi^nu, Siva] sur-
passed him in greatness and strength. He consulted N a r d m a n
[ N a r a d a m u n i ] , w h o replied that it was M h a d a i o [ M a h a -
deva = R u d r a - S i v a ] . . . .
Basmagut, wishing to profit from the instructions of
N a r d m a n , began his sacrifice [to M h a d a i o , by mutilating him-
self]. T h e D e i o t a s , flattered b y the zeal and earnestness which
the D a i n t s showed in his service, appeared to him a c c o m -
panied b y P a r b u t t y [ParvatT]. A t the mere sight of M h a d a i o ,
not only was the mutilated b o d y of the D a i n t s returned to its
natural state, but he received also f r o m the D e i o t a s the p o w e r
of reducing to ashes any o b j e c t s on which he placed his hands
with the intention of consuming them. M e a n w h i l e the sight
and the charms of P a r b u t t y inspired in the D a i n t s the most
violent passion, and this being, as ungrateful as he was
wicked, s a w n o other m e a n s of ridding himself of an i n c o n v e -
nient spouse than to use against M h a d a i o himself the gift
which he had received f r o m h i m . T h e D e i o t a s , w h o perceives
the intentions of B a s m a g u t , evades him, but the D a i n t s pur-
sues h i m . B y n o w M h a d a i o , nearly being caught, k n o w s n o
m o r e h o w to escape h i m , and in the anguish w h i c h he feels sees
no other recourse than to repair to Vi^nu w h o , immediately
assuming the shape of P a r b u t t y , appears b e f o r e the D a i n t s ;
a n d , pretending to be susceptible to his advances, assures him
that she prefers him to her lout of a h u s b a n d , w h o is forever
88
StarkaSr and Sisupala
89
StarkaSr and Sisupala
90
StarkaSr and Sisupala
A f t e r the gigantic
and m o n s t r o u s
(with supernumer-
ary arms) birth
( S a x o ) or descent
(saga) of the h e r o ,
I. T h o r restores the
hero t o h u m a n
91
Starkadr arid Sisupala
f o r m either di-
rectly, b y a m p u t a -
tion ( S a x o ) , o r in-
directly, via the
killing of his
homonymous
grandfather (saga).
II. O d i n grants the
hero his three lives
and imposes on
him the three
crimes, with other,
g o o d lots ( S a x o ) ;
or:
O d i n grants the
hero three lives
with o t h e r , g o o d
lots (saga). and T h o r imposes
on the hero the
three crimes, along
with other evil lots
(saga).
III. T h r o u g h one of
his gifts, O d i n is
responsible f o r
the hero's m a n y
victories ( S a x o &
saga). a n d , through o n e
of his lots, T h o r is
responsible f o r the
hero's terrible
w o u n d s (saga).
O d i n is responsible
f o r the three
crimes (distributed
across the three
92
StarkaSr a n d Sisupala
93
StarkaSr and Sisupala
[Rudra-Siva, implicitly]:
94
StarkaSr and Sisupala
[ R u d r a - S i v a , implicitly]:
95
Starkadr a n d Sisupala
' ' T o mention only accordances between the Vedic rdjan and the Roman reg-,
see Archaic Roman Religion (1970), pp. 224-228 (the asvamedha and the October
Horse), pp. 583-585 (the rex, the Brahman, and the flamines maiores).
The Destiny of a King (1973).
96
• JARASANDHA
•- • v - '. ^ '•
97
Jarasandha
99
Jarasandha
A n d Kr§na concludes ( 6 5 9 ) :
T h e r e w a s a n erstwhile king of M a g a d h a , n a m e d B f h a d r a t h a ,
a great c h a m p i o n and w a r l o r d . He married twin sisters, the rich
and beautiful daughters of the king of Kasi, a n d in this double pas-
sion c o m m i t t e d a verbal blunder (693):
Yet in vain did the king take his abundant pleasure with his
two wives: he did not succeed in getting himself an heir. H e went
into the forest to find a hermit w h o , like the dervishes in oriental tales.
100
Jarasandha
101
Jarasandha
102
Jarasandha
103
Jarasandha
3. T H E END OF J A R A S A N D H A
I
a m o n g k j a t r i y a s is n o t their words but their deeds. Finally he e x -
plains their b e h a v i o r : if they got into the city b y the m o n u m e n t , it
is because o n e gets into a friend's house b y the n o r m a l entrance,
and into a n enemy's b y a deceptive o n e .
Jarasandha is surprised: he has n o recollection of having b e e n
at w a r o r having h a d "hostile relations" with t h e m . W h y d o they
regard h i m , innocent as he is, a s an e n e m y ? K r ? n a has a ready
I
^Mahabharata, pp. 67-75 (si. 768-982).
104
Jarasandha
105
I
Jarasandha
106
Jarasandha
4. APORIA
107
Jarasandha
108
Jarasandha
' "Le dieu scandinave Vifiarr," Revue de I'histoire des religions, CCXVIII
(1965), 1-13; ME I, 230-237.
110
Jarasandha
111
THE W O M A N
AND THE ANCESTORS
t
1. MASCULINE RIVALRIES
114
The Woman and the Ancestors
birth, were not imposed on, but granted to, or rather tolerated of him (p. 58), and of
which the five examples excerpted from the total by his accuser are well distributed
across the three functions; but, by the very fact that they have been forgiven in
advance, they call forth no sanctions. Consequently, in order to undo him, a sup-
plemental sin is necessary, outside the series and extra-functional, some act of high
treason directly attacking Kfjija-Visiju. This enrichment of the theme does not alter
its significance, but enhances it with all the mystical power inherent in the figure
of Krwa.
lis
The Woman and the Ancestors
116
T h e W o m a n a n d the A n c e s t o r s
118
T h e W o m a n and the A n c e s t o r s
6
The Destiny of the Warrior (1970), p. 9 3 .
119
T h e W o m a n a n d the A n c e s t o r s
120
T h e W o m a n a n d the A n c e s t o r s
121
T h e W o m a n and the A n c e s t o r s
122
HERAKLES
' The Destiny of the Warrior [1970], pp. 9 6 - 9 7 . For the systematization of the
Library of Apollodorus (II, 4,8-7,7), see ibid. p. 102 n. 6.
^ Cf. above, pp. 1 - 6 .
123
Herakles
are distributed thus: the first runs f r o m the hero's birth to his
hesitation before the c o m m a n d of Zeus, with madness as p e n a l t y ; '
the second extends f r o m his insubordination to the treacherous
murder of a surprised e n e m y , with physical disease as its penalty;
the third goes f r o m this murder to his scandalous adultery, w i t h
the consequence of an unhealable burn and his voluntary death.
Within the first of these three groups appears, as a sub-group, the
collection of ten o r twelve great L a b o r s , w h i c h has itself served to
lodge sub-labors, and which is the only partial structure that can be
discerned within the large framework. As for the sins, the
biography of Herakles presents m o r e than o n e deed which we
would be inclined, even in G r e e k terms, to classify as such, but the
fact is that only these three h a v e been fastened on b y the gods a n d
had a destructive effect on the guilty p a r t y .
T h e parallel with the three sins of Starcatherus is a c c o m p a n i e d
b y other a c c o r d a n c e s in the careers of the t w o heroes. T h e main
ones were pointed out in 1 9 5 6 , but the investigation of Sisupala
reveals their full importance. T h e y c o n c e r n , on the one h a n d , the
hero's birth and his resulting position in the trifunctional structure,
especially the c o n t r a r y relationships which it establishes between
him and t w o rival divinities; and on the other hand his death.
' [1982] Several writers who have referred to the book seem to have
understood the first fault of Herakles to be the killing of his children in his madness.
This is not quite right: his failing is having disobeyed the command of Zeus by
hesitating to go into Eurystheus' service, and thus compromising the agreement
reached between Zeus and Hera regarding a matter of kingship; the punis^jmefit con-
sisted in a madness whose result, calling for expiation, was the murder of his
children.
124
Herakles
125
Herakles
126
Herakles
127
Herakles
128
Herakles
129
Herakles
130
Herakles
131
Herakles
A t h e n a , 2nd
function 2nd function
132
Herakles
' "Heracles, heros pythagoricien," Revue de I'histoire des religions, 158 (1960),
2 1 - 5 3 , with extensive bibliography.
' [1982J Neither in this chapter, nor in The Destiny of the Warrior which it
summarizes, have I maintained that all of Herakles, with his complex character, his
adventures, his posthumous hero-god status, and his cults, fits into the framework
of the "three functional sins of the warrior"; Herakles is neither StarkaSr nor Sisu-
pala, and each of these heroes has his own personality. I wished only to make it
probable that this framework, although attested as such, in full, only in the sum-
maries of Diodorus and the Library, was ancient and Indo-European, and that the
Heraklean material, vast and open-ended, found it ready to be assimilated and in-
tegrated. Indeed I foresaw that there would be Greek specialists who would accuse
me of an imperialism which I do not practice. It was even a pleasant surprise for me
to have so long to wait (Aspects de la fonction guerriire, the first version of The
Destiny of the Warrior, dates from 1956). Finally, after 25 years, my wait is over. In
the article "H^racl^s" which Nicole Loraux compiled for the Dictionnaire des
mythologies (Flammarion, 1981), one reads (1: 497b) that "Herakles cannot be re-
duced either to the Dorian hero of Wilamowitz, or to the vegetation daimon dear to
133
Herakles
J. Harrison, or to the Dumezilian warrior with his three sins." Where did I make this
distressing "reduction"? Although several passages in her article suggest that she
would be of some help, no one requires Loraux to associate herself with comparative
studies for which she clearly has no taste, but since she feels obliged to pronounce
sentence, should she not keep up with current developments? In 1981 she was still
familiar only with The Destiny of the Warrior ("the book as a whole sheds more
light on the figure of Herakles than the pages explicitly devoted to his three sins,
which, by attempting to prove too much, are not very convincing"), and she was
unaware of Mythe et epopie //—including the present work—with the confirma-
tions and mediations, as well as new problems, added to the dossier by the legend of
Sisupala.
134
Summary
In the three w o r k s w e have c o m p a r e d , what might be called
the isothemes, or boundaries a m o n g congruences and divergences,
a r e not all drawn in the same w a y .
135
Summary
136
Summary
138
Summary
139
Summary
140
Summary
m
Summary
142
Summary
143
Summary
* ME I, pp. 208-240.
''Archaic Romarj Religion (1970), pp. 6 6 - 7 3 ; ME I, pp. 288-290.
"Loki (Paris, 1948), pp. 97-106 (German edition [1959], pp. 67-74).
' See "Frin Brivalla till Kurukshetra," Arkiv for Nordisk Filologi 74 (1960),
183-193; cf. ME I, pp. 255-257.
144
Appendix
1. JARASANDHA
145
Appendix
146
Appendix
147
Appendix
148
Appendix
149
Appendix
150
Appendix
V 2. SISUPXLA J '
151
Appendix
152
Appendix
154