Fundamentals of Chemistry Review

CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
FUNDAMENTALS OF DESCRIPTIVE CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY
It deals with the rational and empirical study of matter, its
composition, structure, properties, the changes it undergoes, the
factors that bring about this changes and the energy associated
during these changes.
It is the study of matter, its composition, its structure, its properties,
its transformation from one form to another and the energy that
accompanies its transformation.
(a) Physical Properties
can be expressed by using definite

numbers and senses.
ex. color, odor, taste, density, melting pt., boiling pt.
(b) Chemical Properties
properties associated with chemical
change or the tendency of
substance to change either alone or
by
interaction
with
other
substances.
ex. characteristic of iron to rust, alcohol to burn, wood to
decay
CHANGES IN MATTER
Everything that surrounds us is matter. The principles of chemistry are,

therefore, needed to understand the nature of matter so that we will be
able to deal with them and control them for the improvement of our
human lives.
All matters are continually undergoing changes either through the

efforts of nature or the influence of man.
1. Physical Changes
Basic Terms:
MATTER
WEIGHT
anything that occupies space and has mass.

often used synonymously with mass.
Defined as the force of the attraction of
gravity exerted on a body.
MASS OF A BODY
is a measure of the quantity of matter in
that body.
*mass is invariable whereas weight varies with force of gravity
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties are qualities possessed by substances, which enable us to
distinguish them from one another.
1. Extrinsic properties
ex.
properties which do not belong to the

nature of the material but which depend on
the amount of material present.
Size, length, shape, width, volume, mass
2. Intrinsic properties
ex.
properties that is characteristic of any

sample of a substance regardless of the
shape and size of the sample.
Color, taste, odor
General Chemistry Lecture 1
ex.
changes which take place without

modifying the chemical composition of
matter.
melting of ice, chopping wood, tearing of paper, etc.
2. Chemical Changes
ex.
changes which involve alteration

chemical composition of matter.
rusting of iron, digestion of food, lighting of a match
of
EVIDENCES OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

1. Evolution of gas
2. Formation of a precipitate
3. Change in chemical properties
4. Emission of light
5. Production of (chemical) energy
ex. When fuel burns, light is emitted and heat is released.
When explosives are ignited, mechanical energy as well as heat
and light are produced.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. There are many forms of energy that
are interconvertible.
Kinds of Energy:
1. Potential Energy
the energy that a body possesses because of

its position.
2. Kinetic Energy
the energy that a body possesses by virtue of
its motion.
3. Heat Energy
the measure of the internal energy of
substance that is due to its temperature.
4. Radiant Energy
energy associated with ordinary light, x-rays,
radio waves or infrared rays.
5. Chemical Energy
stored energy the energy possessed by a
substance that allows it to be changed into a
new substance.
6. Atomic or Nuclear Energy
energy associated with the manner
in which atoms are constructed or
formed.
ENERGY CHANGES IN MATTER
1. Endothermic change - involves the absorption of heat by the body
from the surroundings.
ex.
dissolving of sugar (cooling effect)
2. Exothermic change - involves the release of heat from the body to the
surroundings.
ex.
burning of wood (heating effect)
Matter and energy are so closely related that it is impossible to deal with
one without considering the other. It takes energy to move matter and it
takes to produce energy.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
According to Origin:
A. Organic Matter - substances found in living things
B. Inorganic Matter - substances found in non-living things.
According to composition
A. Pure Substances - homogenous materials that have fixed
compositions and invariable intrinsic properties
Types of Pure Substances
1. Elements
-simplest form of matter.
-a substance that cannot be decomposed,
synthesized or transformed into another element by
simple chemical change.
Types of Elements
1. Metals
2. Non-metals
ex. Fe, Na, Hg

ex. C, O2, He
Table 1.1 Properties of Metals and Non-metals

METALS
NON-METALS
Hard, dense, solid (except
mercury)
Shiny and can be polished
Some are gases, liquids, solids; less

dense; and softer (except diamond)
Dull (except diamond), cannot be
polished
Malleable and ductile
Brittle
Sonorous (ringing sound when

struck)
Not sonorous
Conducts heat and electricity
Insulators (except graphite)
Usually have high melting

point
Low melting point
Have high tensile strength
Low tensile strength
2. Compounds -pure substances of definite composition that could

be decomposed by simple chemical change into two
or more different pure substances.
ex.
water (composed of 11.19 %w H2 and 88.81 %w O2),
table salt
* The preparation of a compound from the constituent elements is
known as SYNTHESIS
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
* The composition of a compound into the component elements is called
ANALYSIS.
B. Impure Substances or Mixtures
-contains two or more
distinct substances that can be physically
separated from each other.
Types of Impure Substances or Mixtures
1. Homogeneous mixtures (or solutions)
-mixtures
whose
compositions are uniform throughout the entire region. Ex. sugar
and water, alcohol and water
2. Heterogeneous mixtures (or suspension)
-the
different
components occupy distinct regions within the sample. Ex. gravel
and sand, oil and water
M A T T E R
II. Law of Definite Composition A pure compound is always

composed of the same elements combined proportion by weight.
EXAMPLE: Law of Definite Composition
Analysis of two samples of pure salt, one obtained from a salt deposit in
Visayas region and the other from a deposit in Luzon, gave the following
analysis:
wt. of salt (g) wt. of sodium obtained fr.
sample
sample 1 0.2925
0.1150
sample 2
1.755
0.690
wt. of chlorine obtained

fr. sample
0.1775
1.065
III. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS When two elements

combine to form more than one compound, the different weights of one
that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in the ratio of small
whole numbers.
EXAMPLE: Law of Multiple Proportions
S u b s ta n c e s
E le m e n t s
C om pounds
M ix t u r e s
H om ogeneous
H e te ro g e n e o u s
LAWS GOVERNING MATTER AND ENERGY

I. Law of Conservation of Mass During the course of an ordinary
chemical reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed in any
transformation of matter.
thus, masses of the reactants before reaction = masses of the products
after reaction
example:
A + B
C + D
reactants
products
mass A + B
=
mass C + D
Two different compounds of elements x and y were found to have the

following composition:
First Compound
Second Compound
X
2.276 g
2.276 g
Y
0.792 g
1.584 g
Determine the formulas of the two compounds

IV. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY "Energy is neither
created nor destroyed in any transformation of matter, it can only be
converted from one form to another."
magnesium + oxygen
chemical energy of reactants =
magnesium oxide + heat & light

chemical energy of product +
energy emitted
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Daltons Atomic Theory
Many years after this idea on atomism began, the concept did not
influence mans natural thinking. it was not until the latter part of the 17th
century that the birth of the so called modern chemistry focused
attention on the investigation of nature which led to the recognition of
basic differences between elementary and complex substances.
Modern atomic theory defines an atom as the smallest particle of an
element that can take part in a chemical change. This idea is embodied in
Daltons atomic theory, which first appeared in print in 1808, consisted of
the following assumptions:
1. Matter is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called
atoms. (It appears that Dalton pictured an atom as tiny indestructible
spheres)
2. All atoms of a given element are alike.
3. Atoms combine to form compounds but remain unchanged during
ordinary chemical reactions.
4. Atoms can combine in simple numerical ratios.
A body, which acquires a certain amount of electricity, causing it to

attract or repel other bodies, is called a CHARGED BODY. Bodies
bearing the same charges repel each other; bodies of opposite charges
attract each other.
Ordinarily, matter is neutral. However, they become charged when
rubbed. Since matter is believed to consist of atoms, it follows that
atoms must be electrical in nature.
BEHAVIOR OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN VACUUM TUBE
Experience with vacuum tube discharges had shown that discharge
particles move between charged wires or plates called ELECTRODES.
The figure below shows how two kinds charged particles move in a
vacuum tube.
After Daltons time, science advanced rapidly. New discoveries were

made and the atomic theory of Dalton had to be modified.
Some of these are:
1. Atoms can be divided. They are made up of protons, neutrons and
electrons. Some atoms decompose spontaneously like those of
radioactive elements.
2. Atoms of the same element may have different mass but they have a
definite average mass characteristic of the element (discovery of
isotope).
GROSS STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
ELECTRICAL NATURE OF MATTER
The attraction of hair strands to a comb and of fibers to rubbed amber
occurs due to static electricity. The word electricity comes from the
Greek term for amber, meaning, electron.
Fig. 1 Movement of charged bodies in vacuum tube.

When a high voltage is imposed across the electrodes, rays emanate
from the cathode that is directed toward the anode. Fluorescence occurs
at anode end caused by the rays that passed through the holes in the
anode and strikes the glass.
THE ELECTRONS
The evidence accumulated with vacuum tubes indicated that cathode
rays consist of small, negatively charged particles called electrons.
In 1897, Joseph J. Thomson, an English physicist, determined the
electric charge-to-mass ratio of electron (e/m), by studying the
deflection of cathode rays in magnetic and electrical fields applied at
right angle to each other. Its value is -1.756 x 108 coulombs/g.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
The charge of a single electron was determined by Robert Millikan in his
charged-drop experiment and was found to be -1.602 x 10-19.
Hence, combining the results of Millikans and Thomsons studies, it is
possible to calculate the mass of an electron.
-1.602 x 10 -19
coul m
= -1.759 x 108 coul/g
Therefore, m = 9.110 x 10-28g

The electrons mass showed a particle so light that it weighs
approximately 1/1837 as much as the lightest atom, which is the
hydrogen.
THE POSITIVE PARTICLE OF THE ATOM: THE PROTON
Another scientist, Eugene Goldstein, a German physicist, in 1886
conducted experiments similar to those of J. J. Thomson, also using the
electric discharge tube. From the behavior of the rays in magnetic and
electric fields, Goldstein was convinced that there were also positively
charged particles in matter. Thus particles, called canal rays or ions, are
attracted to the cathode and pass through the hole or canals in the
cathode (see figure below). Goldstein hypothesized that these were left
out of the atoms or molecules after electrons had been pulled out. These
charged particles are now known as protons.
The mass of a proton was found to be 1.672 x 10 -24g which is estimated to
be 1836/1837 that of the lightest atom.
THE NUCLEUS
Certain atoms are unstable combinations of the fundamental particles.
These atoms spontaneously emit rays and are thereby transmuted into
atoms of a different chemical identity. This process is known as
radioactivity and was discovered by Henri Becquerel, a French physicist,
in 1896.
Ernest Rutherford, a British physicist, completely unraveled the nature
of Becquerel rays. The three types of rays emitted occurring radioactive
materials were named alpha (), beta (), and gamma (). Table 3.1
gives the properties of the 3 types.
Table 1 Properties of Radiation
Radiating SymParticle
bol
Nature
Charge
Mass Penetrating Ionizing

(amu)
Power
Power
Alpha
helium atom
+2
10,000
Beta
electron
-1
1/1840
100
100
Gamma
Electro
magnetic
radiation
10,000
RUTHERFORDS EXPERIMENT
Rutherford set up an experiment similar to figure 3.3, where alpha
particles were emitted from a radioactive element. The result of his
experiment showed that
(1) Most of the particles passed through undeflected.
(2) A few passed through with large angles of defection.
(2) A few bounced back is the direction from which they came.
Fig. 2 Canal Rays
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
THE NEUTRON
Experimental evidence discussed earlier show that protons have more
mass than electrons. Extensive researches have shown that the nucleus
contains other particles aside from the protons. These particles, called
neutrons, add to the mass of the practically equal to that of a proton. It
was found to have a mass of 1.675 x 10-24 g.
James Chadwick, a British physicist, discovered the neutron in 1932.
Fig. 3 Rutherfords alpha-scattering experiment

Figure 4 shows how a nuclear atom was visualized.
THE ATOMIC NUMBER

The ATOMIC NUMBER (nuclear charges) represents the number of
unit positive charges on the nucleus and is equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus since each proton carries a (+) charge. It is this
number, not the atomic mass that distinguishes one element from
another.
Since an atom is electrically neutral, it must have many electrons as it
has protons. Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the number of
electrons is the neutral atom under consideration.
THE MASS NUMBER
Fig. 4 The gold foil experiment

(1) Rutherford pictured an atom as mostly empty space to explain why
most alpha particles passed thru undeflected.
(2)There is the presence of a tiny, positive, central core called the
NUCLEUS where the mass of the atom is concentrated. When an
alpha particle occasionally runs into the nucleus, it is repelled. The
particle bounces back if head-on collision occurs.
(3)The electron in the atom revolves around the nucleus. They are so
light in weight that they have no appreciable effect on the path of the
particles.
The mass number of an atom is the total number of neutrons and

protons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom. It follows that the mass
number minus the number of protons equals the number of neutrons.
Mass number = number of neutrons + atomic number
NUCLIDE
A Nuclide, a specific type of atom, is designated by using the chemical
symbol for the element with atomic number placed at the lower left
corner of the symbol and the mass number placed at the upper left
corner.
23
Na
11
atomic no. = 11
mass no. = 23
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
1 amu (or atomic mass unit) is defined as one-twelfth the mass of

the nuclide 12
C.
THE MASS SPECTROGRAPH

The mass spectrograph is apparatus for measuring the weights of atoms
using the principle that charged particles are deflected from their
straight path by a magnetic field and the extent of deflection is
proportional to the mass.
The mass spectrograph is used to study isotopes. Instruments of this
type were first constructed by Francis W. Aston (1919) and Arthur J.
Dempster (1918).
ISOTOPES - atoms of a given element which differ in atomic mass but
which have the same nuclear charge (atomic number ).
Isotopes have very similar chemical properties. For example, chlorine
atoms are of two types:
35
37
Cl
and
Cl
17
17
35
Each has 17 protons and 17 electrons; however, Cl has 18 neutrons and

17
37
Cl has 20 neutrons.
17
Isotopes, therefore, differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Atoms may also have the same mass no. but different atomic
214
214
numbers, such as Pb and Bi.,

82
83
which do not have the same properties because they are not atoms of the
same element, are called ISOBARS.
To compute the relative atomic weight of elements:

Rel. At. Wt. = (% abundance x isotopic weight)
Consider the natural isotopes of chlorine:
Isotopic Weights
Isotopic Abundance
35.0 amu
75.4%
37.0 amu
24.6%
Ave. At. Wt. = 0.754(35.0) + 0246(37.0) = 35.5
SUMMARY
Atoms are small particles of matter with tiny, but massive, positive
nuclei, which are surrounded by electrons.
Fundamental particles of matter
Name
Symbol
mass (amu)
charge
Electron
e-
0.0005486
-1
Proton
1.0072766
+1
Neutron
1.0086654
The following rules serve to help predict the composition of individual

atoms:
(1) Atomic number is the number of protons
(2)Number of electrons equals the number of protons
(3)Mass number Is the total number of protons and neutrons
(4)The isotopes of an element differ from each other only in the
number of neutrons in their nuclei.
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Precise mass spectrographic measurements provide the best means of
determining atomic weights of elements. The standard for atomic
weights has been established as the most common isotope of carbon.
The weight of this isotope is arbitrarily defined as exactly 12 atomic
weights units and. the masses all other atoms are compared with it.
Therefore:
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
MODERN ELECTRONIC THEORY
Rutherfords concept of the nuclear atom suffered a major flaw. While
his model remains the basis for our contemporary belief that the atom
consists of a nucleus and one or more extranuclear electrons, it leaves
many questions about the electronic structure of the atom unanswered.
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY
THE NATURE OF LIGHT & EMISSION SPECTRA
The first scientific study on the nature of light was done by Christian
Huygens, a Dutch physicist. According to him, light, like a sound, is
a wave motion. Sir Isaac Newton who theorized that light is made
up of very fast and very small particles, which travel in straight lines,
opposed this idea.
Wave is a vibrating disturbance by which energy is transmitted.
In 1864, a Scottish physicist James Maxwell predicted that an
alternating current in a circuit would radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves traveling through a vacuum with a speed of
light. He wrote that if the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic
nature of light is the same as the velocity of light, then light is an
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Henrich Hertz, a German physicist, demonstrated the
electromagnetic nature of light thereby confirming Maxwells
interpretation.
If light is a wave, it is then characterized by wavelength (). The
wavelength is the distance from crest to crest with units of m cm, and
nm.
Fig . 5 Measurement of a Wavelength
The height of the wave, called its amplitude, a, is related to the

intensity of the radiation.
The frequency () is the number of crests per second that pass a given
point with a unit of hz or cycle/seconds.
Speed is a property of waves which depends on the type of waves and
the nature of the wave through which the wave is traveling.
Light was found to travel at a constant speed of 3.00x10 8m/sec, means
that on concentric wave could travel 186,000 miles in one second.
Relation between , and c(velocity of light):
= c
For electromagnetic waves, c is constant; thus, the wavelength is
inversely proportional to its frequency, the greater the frequency the
shorter the wavelength.
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck

He stated that atoms and molecules could emit or absorb energy only in
discrete amount or quantities like small package or bundles, which he
named quantum/quanta.
Quanta, also called photons, are the smallest quantity of energy that
can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
The energy of a single quantum is given by: E = hv where h = Plancks
constant (6.63 x 10-34 J-s) and v is the frequency of radiation.
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Albert Einstein
He used the quantum theory of Planck to solve another mystery in physics,
which is the photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric Effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are
ejected from the surface of a certain metals exposed to light of at least
a certain minimum frequency called threshold effect.
The photoelectric effect could not be explained by the wave theory of
light that is why Einstein made extraordinary assumptions, which are
extensions of Plancks idea.
Assumption of Einstein:
Radiant energy is propagated through space in a beam of light
particles called photons.
Each photon has an energy that is determine by the frequency of
light which is E = h v.
A definite amount of energy equal to hvo is needed to eject a single
electron from a given metal surface, which he called work
function, Wo.
E = hv = Wo + KE
The term light is often used to mean ordinary visible light, the
electromagnetic radiation that strikes our retinas and allows us to see.
Electromagnetic Radiation may also be used to refer any
electromagnetic radiation indicated in figure 6.
Table 2 gives the wavelength bends of the visible radiation (spectrum)

corresponding to the six major colors.
Table 2 Colors of Visible Spectrum
Color
violet
blue
green
yellow
orange
red
Wavelength
bend,400
nm- 450
450 - 500
500 - 570
570 - 590
590 - 620
620 - 750
TYPES OF SPECTRA (distribution of light intensity with respect

to & )
1. Emission Spectra
When an element absorbs sufficient energy (from a flame or electric arc), it
emits radiant energy in the form of light. When this radiation is passed
through a prism (spectroscope), it separates into a component wavelength
(the ray is bent). (Refer to figure 7).
Fig. 6 The Electromagnetic Radiation (spectra)

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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Fig. 7 Dispersion of white light: The visible spectrum
Bohrs theory, however, describes only the hydrogen - spectrum but not
the atoms with more than one electron. It would not even predict the
2. Absorption Spectra
When continuous electromagnetic radiation (ex. white light) passes through
a substance, certain wavelengths of radiation may be absorbed. These
wavelengths are characteristic of the substance that absorbs the radiation
and the patterns of these lines are referred to as an absorption spectrum.
Findings About atomic Spectra
Every element has its own unique line spectrum, therefore these
spectra are characteristic of an atoms electronic structure
splitting of lines observed when the atoms are excited in a magnetic

field.
THE HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
The principle states that the position and velocity of the electron cannot
both be known with certainty. (Werner Karl Heisenberg)
This theory made Bohrs Theory questionable since if the electron is
revolving in a stationary orbit, it. would be impossible to determine its
position and velocity at the same time (simultaneously).
THE WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

A. BOHRS MODEL
Based on the findings about atomic spectra, the theory for the electronic
structure of atoms was proposed by Niels Henrik David Bohr in
1913. He developed a model of the hydrogen atom in which the energy
of its single electron is quantized limited to certain, energy values
determined by an integer, the principal quantum number. Armed with
Plancks model he proposed the first workable theory of atomic
structure, postulates are:
1. As long as an electron stays in a given orbit, or stationary state, it
neither gains not losses energy.
2. Electrons normally remain in the orbit of the lowest energy which
is the nearest nucleus. The energy of the electron orbits increases
with the distance from the nucleus.
3. When an electron jumps from one orbit or stationary state to
another, such as transition is accompanied by the absorption or
emission of a definite amount of energy equal to the difference in
energy between the two stationary states.
Electrons normally exist in the lowest energy state called the ground
state. When an electron jumps into higher energy state, it is said to
be in an excited state. Excitation is achieved by supplying energy to
the atom from an external source.
QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRONS IN

ATOMS
From the observation in the behavior of light, the theory of light has two
models, one wave and one corpuscular.
Louis Victor Pierre Raymund Doc de Broglie, a French physicist,
proposed a dualistic nature of light. He extended the wave - particle
parallelism of light to electrons, atoms and molecules. He correlated the
motion of each particle to a certain wave that characterizes its wave
properties.
A wave mechanical model of the atom was therefore proposed. The
electron is balanced to move around the nucleus within a certain region as
a wave.
When the mathematics called wave mechanics was introduced, wave
equation was derived for the energy of the electrons. The most popular
was Erwin Schrdingers wave equation. He perfected de Broglies
mathematical formulation.
Schrdingers wave equation relates the energy of the electron to its
position in the atom. Solutions of these equations give rise to quantum
numbers that describe the electron and the region where a pair of
electrons is most probably to be found - the orbital.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
2
0
1
s
p type (principal)
dumbbell
0
1
2
s
p
d type (diffuse)
rosette
0
1
2
3
0,1,2,3
0,1,2
0,1
s
p
d
f type (fundamental)
s,p,d,f
s,p,d
s,p
very hard to illustrate
QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR ELECTRONS

Quantum numbers - set of numbers that describes an electron
orbital
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Indicates the main energy level occupied by the electron. It defines
the total energy of the electrons and has values from 1 to 7.
n
main energy
1
1st level
or K-shell
2
2nd or L-shell
3
3rd or M-shell
4
4th or N-shell
5
5th or O-shell
6
6th or P-shell
7
7th or Q-shell
The lowest energy level is closest to the nucleus with others at

increasing distances. Electrons in the first energy level have the
lowest energies; electrons in the higher energy level have
increasingly greater energies.
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

It describes the way the electron moves around the nucleus or the
shape of the probability distribution. The values range from 0 to n -1.
n
1
l
0
spectral lines
s type (sharp)
shape
spherical
5
6
7
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

It defines the possible orientations of the electrons in space. The
values are from - l through 0 to +l.
l
0
1
2
m
0
-1,0,+1
-2,-1,0,+1,+2
number of orbital (2l

+1)
1
3
5
For l = 0, there is only one possible orientation of orbital

l = 1, 3 orientations are possible
m = -1oriented along x - axis ( i.e. Px)
m = 0 oriented along y - axis Py
m = +1oriented along z - axis Pz
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4. Spin Quantum Number.(s)
It takes into account the spinning of the electron around its own axis
as it moves about the nucleus. The spin is either clockwise or
counterclockwise. The values are + or - .
*note s = + ( counterclockwise ); s= - ( clockwise )
NOTE: the total number of orbital in a:
Main energy level = n2
Sub level = 2l + 1
Total electrons:
2
8
18
ORDER OF FILLING OF ORBITALS

Rules Used in Filling of Orbitals :
I.
PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Each electron within a given atom must have a unique set of the four
quantum numbers.
In an orbital notation, an unoccupied space orbital is represented as

_____.
One electron occupying a space orbital is represented as _____.
Two electrons occupying a space orbital is represented as _____.
An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. If two electrons

occupy the same orbital, they must have different values of s.
Table 3 Example Sets of Quantum Numbers.
n
l
m
s
1
0
0
+, -
2
0
0
+, -
1
-1
+, -
0
+, -
1
+, -
3
0
0
+, -
1
-1
+, -
0
+, -
1
+, -
2
-2
+, -
-1
+, -
0
+, -
1
+, -
2
+, -
Therefore, two electrons can have the same set of n, l & m values only if their
s values differ. Meaning, only two electrons may occupy the same orbital in
opposite direction.
Two electrons occupying the same space orbital must have opposite
spins.
Two electrons of opposite spin in the space orbital are called electron
pair.
The magnetic properties of substances can be explained based on their
electronic structure.
Paramagnetic
o Slightly attracted by or pulled into a magnetic field
o Paramagnetism indicates that one or more electrons per
atom, ion or molecule are not paired.
o The total spin contributed by the unpaired electrons gives
rise to the overall paramagnetism.
Diamagnetic
o Slightly repelled or pushed out of a magnetic field
o Diamagnetism indicates that all electrons per atom, ion or
molecule are paired so the electrons spin balance.
Ferromagnetic
o Strongly pulled into a magnetic field
o Ferromagnetism is an extreme manifestation of
paramagnetism. Iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys
exhibit it.
o Common magnets are made of ferromagnetic substances.
II. Aufbaus Principle of building up energy levels
Electrons will successively occupy the available orbital on order of increasing
energy.
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The diagram shows the relative energies of the various orbital in an atom.
The
order
is
listed
as
follows:
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p
Using a guide, the order can be designated as follows:
4. CORE METHOD
1s22s22p6
3s23p2
(Ne core)10
Electronic Configuration: (Ne core)10 3s23p2
II. Hunds Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

When filling a set of degenerate energy levels, the electrons enter the
orbitals singly, with spins in the same direction (same s number), until
the set is half filled, before they pair up with opposite spins.
METHODS OF ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION refers to the arrangement of
electrons in energy levels.
1. Orbital Method
Ex. Si: Electronic Configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

2. Shell Method
3. Arrow Rectangular Method
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
For the vacant spaces, Mendeleev gave the names ekaboron, ekaaluminum
and ekasilicon to elements which have atomic weights 44, 68 and 72,
respectively.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Johann Wolfgang DoBereiner
A German chemist who in 1829 arranged elements in triad. (Li-Na-K;
Ca-Sr-Ba; Cl-Br-I)
John Alexander Reina Newlands
An English chemist who arrange elements in increasing atomic mass.
He noticed that every eight element had similar properties.
He referred this relationship as the Law of Octaves.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev & Julius Lothar Meyer
A Russian and German chemist, respectively, who proposed a much
more intensive tabulation of elements based on the regular periodic
recurrence of properties.
The following statements were contained in the paper along with the
Periodic Table by Mendeleev in 1869:
1. The elements, if arranged according to their atomic weights show an
evident periodicity of elements.
2. Elements, which are similar as regards their chemical properties,
have atomic weights, which are either nearly the same value or
increase regularly.
3. Te arrangement of the elements or of groups of elements are in
order of their atomic weights corresponds to their so-called
valences.
4. The elements, which are widely distributed in nature, have small
atomic weights and sharply defined properties. They are therefore
typical elements.
5. The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of an
element.
6. The discovery of many yet unknown elements may be expected.
7. The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be corrected by the
aid of a knowledge of those of adjacent elements.
8. Certain characteristic properties of the elements can be foretold
from their atomic weights.
Paul Emile discovered Gallium in 1875, which has an agreement with the
physical properties of predicted ekaaluminum of Mendeleev.
Fredrick Nilson discovered Scandium in 1879, which is a good agreement
to ekaborons physical properties.
Clemens Winkler discovered Germanium, which agrees of Mendeleevs
predictions for ekasilicon. However, he corrected Mendeleevs prediction
that the element would be melted or vaporized only with difficulty.
In 1913, English physicist, Henry Gwyn Jeffrey Moseley, discovered the
correlation between the atomic number and the frequency of x-rays
generated by bombarding an element with a high-energy electrons. He
found, with a few exceptions, that atomic number increases in the same
order as atomic mass.
ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
The elements in the periodic table are arranged according to increasing
atomic number and the similarity to their properties
1. According to Periods/Series
The modern periodic table consists of 7 periods. These are the horizontal
rows in the periodic table corresponding to the main energy level.
2. According to Families/Groups
IA
IIA
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VII
A
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals
Boron Family
Carbon Family
Nitrogen Family
Oxygen Family
Halogen Family
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
VIII
A
Noble/Inert/Rare Gases
Tl
Al readily forms oxide when exposed to air.
IVA Carbon Family (ns2 np2, n 2)

Characteristics:
C
IA Alkali Metals (ns1, n 2)
Li
Si
Characteristics:
Na
Low Ionization energies
Very reactive, never found in pure state in nature
Rb
Reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas
Cs
Readily oxidized
IIA Alkaline Earth Metals (ns , n 2)
Ca
Sr
Ba
Characteristics:
Al
Pb
Sn and Pb are metals, which do not react with

water but do react with acids to liberate H2 gas
Form compounds in both +2 & +4 oxidation nos.
Characteristics:
N & P are nonmetals, As & Sb are metalloids & Bi is

metal
As
Elemental N is diatomic which forms variety of oxides
Less reactive than alkali metals
Sb
Phosphorus exists as P4 molecule
1st & 2nd ionization energies decreases down a group ;

metallic character also increases
Bi
Ar Sb Bi have extensive 3-dimensional structure
Varying reactions with water
Ca, Sr and Ba reacts with aqueous acids to form

hydrogen gas
IIIA Boron Family (ns2 np1, n 2)

B
do not form ionic compounds
Sn
N
2
Mg
Ge
C is non-metal, Si & Ge are metalloids and they
VA Nitrogen Family (ns2 np3, n 2)
Fr
Be
Characteristics:
Boron is a metalloid, which does not form binary
Ga
ionic compounds and is unreactive toward oxygen
In
gas and water
VIA Oxygen Family (ns2 np2, n 2)

Characteristics:
O
First 3 are nonmetals and last 2 are metalloids
Oxygen is a diatomic gas, which form oxide in
Se
many ionic compounds
Te
S & Se have molecular formulas S8 & Se8, resp.
Po
Te Po have extensive 3-dimensional structure
VIIA Halogen Family (ns2 np5, n 2)

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Characteristics:
Cl
All halogens are nonmetal which are reactive,

thus; never found free in nature
Br
It is a radio active element
High ionization energy and high electron affinity
Anions derived from these elements are called halides,

which are isoelectronic with the noble gas
At
Ne
All noble gases exist as monoatomic specie
In the periodic table, the metals are to the left of the stepped line
starting to the left of boron (B) and continuing downward to the right,
ending to the left of astatine (At). Except for hydrogen, all the nonmetals are to the right of this line. Several of the elements near the
stepped line have some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals; they are called metalloids. (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)
Ar
They are stable
5. According to the Type of Sub-shell being Filled
VIIIA Rare/Inert/Noble Gases (ns2 np6, n 2)

He
Characteristics:
Kr
Xe
Representative Elements (Main Group Elements)

These are the elements in the Group IA to VIIA, all of which
have incompletely filled s 0r p subshells of highest principal
quantum number
Noble Gases
With the exception of He, they all have a completely filled p
subshell (The electronic configurations are 1s 2 for He and ns2 np6
for the other noble gases, where n is the principal quantum
number for the outermost shell.)
Transition Elements (Transition Metals)

These are the elements in groups 1B and 3B to 8B, which
have incompletely filled d sub shells. (These metals are sometimes
referred to as the d-block transition elements.
Lanthanides and Actinides
3. According to the occupied block (s, p, d, f)

s-block elements
p-block elements
d-block elements
f-block elements
groups IA and IIA

groups IIIA to VIIIA
Transition elements
Rare arth Metals
4. According to Metallic Property
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
These are elements, which are sometimes called as the fblock transition elements because they have incompletely filled f
subshells.
PERIODICITY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

ATOMIC RADIUS or SIZE
The size of an atom that is defined as one-half the distance between
the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms. The atomic radius is
determined largely by the strength of attraction between the outer-shell
electrons and the nucleus. The larger the effective nuclear charge, the
stronger the hold of the nucleus on these electrons, and the smaller the
atomic radius. In the periodic table, atomic size decreases from
left to right and increases from top to bottom. Atomic size
decreases from left to right because each element has a greater positive
nuclear charge than the one before it. This greater charge results in greater
total force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus. Atomic size
increases from top to bottom due to the increase in energy level. The
increased nuclear charge decreases the radii of the electron shells by
drawing them closer together but the addition of a shell more than
counteracts this effect.
IONIC RADIUS or SIZE
It is the radius of the cation and an anion. It can be measured by xray diffraction. It affects the physical and chemical properties of an ionic
compound.
If the atom forms an ANION, its radius INCREASES,
since the nuclear charge remains the same but the repulsion
resulting from the additional electron(s) enlarges the domain of
the electron cloud.
Removing one or more electrons from an atom reduces electronelectron repulsion but the nuclear charge remains the same, so
the electron cloud shrinks and the CATION is smaller than
the atom.
When atoms combine to form compounds, they sometimes lose one

or more electrons, becoming positively charged IONS. This process of
electron removal from the attractive influence of the positive nucleus
requires the input of energy. This amount of energy depends on particular
element.
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely held electrons from an isolated gaseous atom.
A(g) + energy
A+(g) + eIt is a measure of how tightly the electron is held in the atom. The
higher the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove the electron.
The first ionization energy is the energy required to remove one
electron from a neutral atom and is the lowest among ionization energies.
The second ionization energy is the amount of energy required to
remove the second electron from the gaseous atom; and so on.
As you go from left to right of the periodic table, ionization
energy increases. As you go from top to bottom, ionization
energy from top to bottom.
Low ionization energy is characteristic of a metal.
High ionization energy is characteristic of a non-metal.
Observation on the Ionization Energies of various elements
1.
K, Na, and Li atoms have a very low 1st ionization energy, this
indicates that each has 1e- that is knocked off easily, the 2nd most
loosely held e is strongly attracted and nearer the nucleus.
2. Be, Mg and Ca have low 1st and 2nd ionization energy., the 3rd I.E.
energy are very high.
3. He, Ne and Ar have very high 1st ionization energy.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the
electrons in a chemical bond.
IONIZATION ENERGY
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Linus Pauling devised a method for calculating the relative

electronegativities of most elements. In general, electronegativity
increases from left to right across a period in the periodic table
consistent with the decreasing metallic character of elements.
Within each group, electronegativity decreases with increasing metallic
character (except for transition metals). The lower the electronegaovity,
the more active the metal is. High electronegativity is a characteristic of
non-metals.
Atoms of elements with widely different electronegativities tend to form
ionic bonds.
Atoms of elements with similar electronegativities tend to form polar
covalent bonds.
Only atoms of the same element, which have the same electronegativity
can be joined by a pure covalent bond.
ELECTRON AFFINITY
ELECTRON AFFINITY
is the amount of energy released when a

gaseous atom gains an electron
Table 4.2
H
-0.77
Li
-0.6
Na
- 0.2
Electron Affinities (ev)

Be
+0.6
Mg
+0.3
B
-0.2
Al
-0.3
C
-1.25
Si
-1.4
N
+0.3
P
-0.6
O
-1.47
S
-2.07
F
-3.4
Cl
-3.61
Br
-3.36
I
-3.06
He
+0.6
Ne
1.0
Electron affinities appear to generally increase from left to right and

decreases from top to bottom, a trend which is parallel to ionization
energy. This is to be expected since the more difficult it is to remove an
electron from a given atom, the stronger is the attraction of that atom for
electrons and therefore the greater is the amount of energy given off when
the atom gains an electron. This property as well as other properties of
atoms (such as atomic radius, electron affinity, ionic size and
electronegativity) shows certain trend that is periodic (or is repeated at
regular intervals).
A(g) + 1e-
A-(g) + energy
With the release of energy, the ion formed A- is usually more
stable than the neutral atom.
A large positive electron affinity means that the negative ion is
very stable.
If the electron affinity is positive and very low, the additional
electron is weakly bound.
If the electron affinity is positive and high, the additional electron
is tightly bound and the anion formed is stable.
An increase in electron affinity increases non-metallic property
and decreases the atomic size.
The direct determination of the values of electron affinity is difficult and

has been accomplished for only a few elements.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together. These forces are
intimately related to the arrangement of electrons in the outermost
energy levels of atoms, which are in combination.
WHY DO ATOMS BOND?
Atoms bond in order to achieve or attain stability or to have a stable
configuration. Atoms are said to be stable if the outermost shell has a
maximum number of electrons.
HOW ATOMS COMBINE
The most important structural feature of atoms in determining
chemical behavior is the number of electrons in their outermost energy
levels or valence electrons.
Valence electrons are the electrons of the atoms in their
outermost main energy level.
When atoms of one element combine with those of another, there is
always some change in the distribution of electrons in the outermost energy
levels. Atoms of certain elements tend to gain electrons and others tend to
lose electrons. As a result of these tendencies, atoms may combine by:
a) transfer of valence electrons from the atoms of one element to
another, or
b) sharing of valence electrons by two or more atoms.
Either process may provide for a stable arrangement of electrons
that results in the formation of a compound.
At the end of each period in the periodic table are the Noble Gases
(groups VIIIA) that do not combine readily with other elements. These
families of elements whose members form compounds rarely, if at all, are
considered to have atoms that have stable electron arrangements. They have
little tendency to gain, lose or share electrons with other atoms.
Atoms of elements react in order to achieve a more stable electron

configuration. Maximum stability results when an atom is isoelectronic with
noble gases.
Isoelectronic
Ions, or atoms and ions, that have the same

number of electrons, and hence the same
ground state electron configuration.
Rule of Eight
To be stable, atoms of elements must have the eight electrons in
their highest main energy level. Structure of the highest main energy level
must be s2 p6 (p sublevel is complete).
Rule of Two
Other elements such as H1, Li3, or Be4 follow the so-called rule of
two wherein on y the s orbital is complete.
LEWIS DOT SYMBOLS
When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, only their outer regions are
in contact. For this reason, when we study chemical bonding, we are
concerned primarily with the valence electrons of atoms. To keep track of
valence electrons in compound formation and to make sure that the total
number of electrons does not change, chemist use a system of dots derived
by Gilbert Lewis, called Lewis dot symbols.
Examples:
A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one dot
for each valence electron in an atom of the element.
LEWIS STRUCTURE
A representation of covalent bonding using Lewis symbol. Shared
electron pairs are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two
atoms, and lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms.
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TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS
In general, when a metallic element combines with a non-metallic
element, electrons are lost by atoms of the metal and gained by the
atoms of the non-metal.
Example: When lithium and fluorine atoms come in contact with each
other, the outer 2s' valence electron of lithium is transferred to the
fluorine atom. Using Lewis dot symbols, we represent the reaction like
this:
Similarly, when Mg atoms combine with Cl atoms, Mg tends to lose

its two valence electrons and attain a highest main energy level with eight
electrons, while chlorine gains one electron in completing its highest level.
elements, especially for some transition metals and elements in family

IIIA except Al.
Examples:
1. Gallium :1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1
number of valence electrons: 3 (4s2 4p1)
ion formed: Ga+3 with the configuration:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
3d10
(not isoelectronic with any noble gas)
2. Iron:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

number of valence electrons: 2 (4s2)
ions formed: a) Fe+2 with the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 3d6
b) Fe+3 with the configuration 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 3d5
3. Arsenic:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3

number of valence electrons : 5 (4s2 4p3)
ions formed: a) As+3 with the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 4s2 3d10
b) As+5 with the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6 3d10
SHARING OF ELECTRONS
When electrons are transferred from one atom to another, ions are
formed. Positive ions are called cations while negative ions are called
anions. The cations and anions are held together by the electrostatic
attraction between the positively charged ion and the negatively charged
ion. This attraction is called an ionic bond.
Compounds in which particles are held together by ionic bonds are called
ionic compounds.
LIMITATIONS OF THE RULE OF EIGHT FOR IONS.

The idea that ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to
attain the structure of a noble gas does not always hold true for all
In general, when a non-metallic element combines with another nonmetallic element, electrons are neither gained nor lost by the atoms, but
are shared.
Example: An atom of fluorine combines with another fluorine atom, each
having seven electrons in its highest level, unite to form a molecule of
fluorine (F2), by sharing two of these fourteen electrons between them.
Note that some valence electrons are not involved in covalent bond
formation; these are called non-bonding pairs or lone pairs.
A shared pair of electrons is called a covalent bond. Compounds whose
atoms are joined by covalent bonds are called covalent compounds.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Multiple Bonds
Two atoms held together by one electron pair are said to be joined by a
single covalent bond.
Covalent bonds formed when two atoms share two or more pairs of
electrons are called multiple bonds.
Example:
(a) CO2
(b) C2H2
(c) C2H4
*In working out the Lewis structure for a comparatively simple
molecule, we can generally determine whether multiple bonds are
required by first joining together the atoms other than H or a group VIIA
element. If unpaired electrons remain, these are paired to produce the
multiple bond.
Example: formaldehyde, H2CO
If two non-metal atoms are different, the pair of electrons is attracted

more toward one of the atoms. Such a pair of electrons constitutes a
polar covalent bond, a covalent bond in which there is some
electrostatic attraction between the two atoms. This electrostatic
attraction is due to the fact that one of the atoms is partially negative
and the other, partially positive. It exerts electron attracting power or
electronegativity due to unequal distribution of electron density. The
greater the electronegativity the more polar it is.
It is a covalent bond in which the sharing of electrons is exactly equal (100

% covalent). Only atoms of the same element, which have the
same electronegativity, can be joined by a pure covalent bond.
Example of which are the diatomic molecules. There is an equal sharing
and distribution of electron density.
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond in which both electrons are donated by one of the atoms
is called a coordinate covalent bond.
Example: hydrogen nitrate or nitric acid : HNO3
(Eight electrons around C and O )
Polar Covalent Bonds / Non Polar Covalent Bonds

A bond that is 100% ionic is one in which the attractive force
between ions of opposite charge represents a complete transfer of an
electron from a metal atom to a non-metal atom.
A bond that is 100% covalent is one in which a pair of electrons is

shared equally between two non-metal atoms. This situation exists only
when the atoms are the same, as in the case of diatomic molecules of
elements.
Writing Lewis Structure

1. Write the skeletal structure of the compound, using the chemical
symbols and placing bonded atoms next to one another. For more
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
complex compounds, choose the central atom. Generally, this is the

least electronegative.
2. Count the total number of valence electron.
3. Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of
the surrounding atoms. Complete the octets of the atoms bonded to
the central atom. (Remember the valence shell of a hydrogen atom is
complete with only 2 electrons). Electrons belonging to the central
or surrounding atom must be shown as lone pairs if they are not
involved in bonding.
4. If the octet rule is not satisfied for the central atoms, using the lone
pairs from the surrounding atoms.
5.
Write the Lewis Structure for each of the following compounds and
identify which is the coordinate covalent bond.
a) H3PO4
b) H2SO3
c) HNO3
d) COBr2
Practice Exercises
1.
Show the formation of ionic bonds between each of the following pairs
of atoms, then give the formula of the resulting compound.
a) Na and Cl
b) Ca and O
c) Mg and Br
d) Li and O
e) Al and O
2. Show the formation of covalent bonds for each of the following

compounds, then identify if the covalent bond formed is polar or nonpolar.
a) H2
e) CO2
b) Br2
f) N2
c) H2O
g) C2H4
d) NF3
h) C2H2
3. Identify the most logical central atom for each of the following
compounds
______ a) H2NOH
_______ c) HOCl
______ b) HONO
4. Write the Lewis Structure for the three compounds given in the
previous number.
WRITING AND NAMING COMPOUNDS

CHEMICAL FORMULA
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It is a representation, which is used to denote one molecule of pure
substance.
It indicates the relative amount of atoms of each element in a molecule,
which consists of symbols of the elements composing the pure substance
and subscripts denoting relative number of atoms of each element in a
unit particle or molecule of the element of compound.
OXIDATION NUMBERS
Oxidation number or oxidation state is an apparent charge of an atom in
a compound when electrons are transferred from one atom to another to
form ions.
This set of whole numbers (sometimes positive and in other cases,
negative) are very useful for predicting the formulas of the compounds,
classifying them, comparing the chemical properties of the elements and
describing chemical reactions.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers / States
1. The oxidation numbers of an element in the free or uncombined
state is always zero.
Example: Cu0, Si0, Mg0
2. The oxidation numbers of monoatomic ion is the same as the charge
on the ion.
GROUP
NO.
IA
OXIDATION
NUMBERS
+1
IIA
+2
Mg2+, Ba2+, Zn2+
IIIA
+3
Al3+, B3+
IVA
+4/-4
C4+
VA
-3
N3-, C4-, Si4+
VIA
-2
O2-
VIIA
-1
F-, Cl-
1. A common oxidation number of all metals is positive and is

equal to its group number.
2. A common oxidation number of all nonmetals is negative
and is equal to the group number minus 8.
Common Oxidation States of Common Elements
Na+, Li+, Ag+1
An element with positive oxidation number is a positive ion called

cation and an element with negative oxidation number is a negative ion
called anion. There are elements that have more than one oxidation
numbers. Generally, they are the transition elements.
Common Oxidation Numbers of Common Transition Elements
OXIDATION NUMBERS
Cr
2+
Cr3+
Mn
2+
FORMULA NAME OF THE ION

chromous / chromium (II)
chromic/chromium (III)
manganous
Mn4+
manganese (IV)
Fe
ferrous/iron (II)
2+
The group of numbers in the periodic table will help us

remember the oxidation numbers. There are two important
general observations:
EXAMPLES
Fe3+
Co
2+
ferric/iron (III)
cobaltous/cobalt (II)
Co3+
cobaltic/cobalt (III)
Cu
cuprous/copper (I)
Cu2+
cupric/copper (II)
Hg
mercurous/mercury (I)
Hg2+
mercuric/mercury (II)
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Sn2+
stannous/tin(II)
Sn4+
stannic/tin (IV)
Pb2+
plumbous/lead (II)
Pb
plumbic/lead (IV)
4+
H+
hydrogen/hydronium
hydride
C2O42SO32SO42S2O32HPO42SiO32ZnO22PO33PO43-
*H is not a transition element.

3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers for all the atoms in the
formula of a compound is zero.
ex. Mg2+Br2+2 + (-1)(2) = 0
P2O745.
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a polyatomic ion

must equal the charge of the ion.
Polyatomic ions
Name
Monovalent ions
NH4+
Ammonium
C2H3O2Acetate
ClOHypochlorite
ClO2Chlorite
ClO3Chlorate
ClO4Perchlorate
CNCyanide
OHHydroxide
HCO3Bicarbonate
NO2Nitrite
NO3Nitrate
MnO4permanganate
HSO4Bisulfate
HSO3Bisulfite
CNOCyanate
CNSThiocyanate
Divalent ions
2CO3
Carbonate
CrO42Chromate
Cr2O72Dichromate
Oxalate
Sulfite
Sulfate
Thiosulfate
Biphosphate
Silicate
Zincate
Trivalent ions
Phosphite
Phosphate
Polyvalent ions
Pyrophosphate
Some common oxidation numbers:

a. Hydrogen has usually +1, except in hydrides (ionic compounds
with IA and IIA), it has 1.
b. Oxygen has usually 2, except in peroxides, such as H 2O2, and
Na2O2, it has 1.
c. Aluminum (Group IIIA) has +3: Zinc (Group IIB) has +2 and
Silver (Group IB) has +1.
RULES IN WRITING FORMULAS

General Rule:
The symbol of the cation is written first
followed by the symbol of the anion then apply the crisscross method.
1.
Metals, nonmetals and inert gases have their formulas the same as
their symbols.
Example: Calcium Ca.,
Magnesium Mg
2. Active gaseous elements are written correctly by taking two atoms of

the elements since these are diatomic molecules.
Examples: Oxygen O2, Hydrogen H2
3. Compounds: To write the molecular formula, write the symbol of the
positive element or positive radical with their oxidation number
first, then followed by the negative element or negative radical with
their oxidation number also. The algebraic sum of the oxidation
numbers must be equal zero so that the compound will be neutral.
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a.
When the positive oxidation numbers and the negative

oxidation numbers are the same, the formula is the same as it
stands.
Example: K+BrKBr
Sr+2O-2
SrO
b. When the positive oxidation number and the negative oxidation
numbers are not the same, apply the criss-cross rule so that the
algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers will be equal to zero.
Example: Al+3S-2
Al2S3
Ca+2ClCaCl2
c. Whenever a radical in a formula is taken more than once,
enclose the radical inside a parenthesis and write the correct
subscript after the parenthesis.
Example: K+(Cr2O7)2K2Cr2O7
Ba+2(OH)Ba(OH)2
c. K3N
d. CaO
Potassium nitride
Calcium Oxide
b. For metals with variable oxidation nos.

Method I:
Old or Classical Method
Rule : name the metal with suffixes ous or ic + name of nonmetal + IDE
Cu3B
SnS2
Cuprous boride
Stannic sulfide
Method II : Stock or Roman Numeral Method

Rule : name of metal + (Roman numeral of the oxid no) + Name of stem of
non-metal + IDE
EXAMPLES
Determine the formulas of the following compounds:
1. Sodium chloride
Na+ Cl- NaCl
2. Ferrous oxide
Fe2+ O2- FeO
3+ -3. Aluminum iodide
Al I
AlI3
4. Calcium phosphate
Ca2+ (PO4)3Ca3(PO4)2
5. Ammonium carbonate
(NH4)+ (CO3)2- (NH4)2CO3
PbBr2
AuCl3
Lead (II) bromide

Gold (III) chloride
II. BINARY ACIDS - binary compounds containing hydrogen and nonmetallic element.
Dry form (when acid is not dissolved in water)
SYSTEMATIC NAMING OF COMPOUNDS

Rule: Hydrogen + name of non-metallic element + IDE
Binary Compound - compound which is composed of two
elements
I. BINARY SALTS binary compound containing a metal and a nonmetal. (Metal + Non-Metal)
a. For metals with fixed oxidation no.
Rule: name the (+) ion + name the stem of (-) ion + IDE
a. NaI
b. MgBr2
Sodium iodide
Magnesium bromide
HCl
HBr
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen bromide
Aqueous Form (when acid is dissolved in water to form an acidic

solution)
Rule: Hydro + name of the non-metal with suffix ic + acid
HCl(aq) Hydrochloric acid
HBr(aq) Hydrobromic acid
III. NON-METAL + NON-METAL
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Binary compounds containing two non-metallic elements. Greek

prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms in each element
present in a molecule of a compound
I. TERNARY ACIDS OR OXY-ACIDS
Numeric Prefixes
1 - mono
2 - di
3 - tri
4 - tetra
5 - penta
6 - hexa
7 - hepta
8 - octa
9 - nona
10 - deca
11 - undeca
12 - dodeca
Rule:
Name the more positive element first and followed by the name
of the more negative element
Use the Greek prefixes listed above, to indicate the number of
atoms of each type of element present in the formula of the
compound.
The prefix MONO is often omitted when it applies to the first
element in a compound.
Use the suffix _IDE to the second element.
N2 O
dinitrogen monoxide
CO
carbon monoxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
Dry form
Rule: Hydrogen + Oxy-ion in ATE form
H2CO3 Hydrogen carbonate
H3PO4 Hydrogen phosphate
Rule: Hydrogen + Oxy-ion in ITE form
H2SO3 Hydrogen sulfite
H3PO3 Hydrogen phosphite
Aqueous form
The negative ion is in the form of suffix ATE
Rule: name the root of the middle element + IC plus the word
acid
H2CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid
The negative ion is in the form of suffix ITE
Rule: name the root of the middle element + OUS plus the word
acid
H2SO3(aq)
Sulfurous acid
II. TERNARY SALTS salts of the oxy-acids.
- Metal + Oxy-ion
IV. HYDRIDES
Hydrogen reacts with many metals to form binary compounds
called hydrides. In these compounds, the hydrogen is more
electronegative than the metal and it is assigned an oxidation
number of 1.
Rule: name the metal + hydride
RbH
CsH
LiH
Ternary Compound - compound which is composed of three or more

elements.
Rubidium hydride
Cesium hydride
Lithium hydride
Metals with fixed oxidation number.

Rule: name the metal or (+) ion + name of the negative (-) ion
NaNO3
Sodium nitrate
NaNO2
Sodium nitrite
Metals with variable oxidation numbers
Rule: name the metal or positive ion (Roman numeral) + name of
the negative ion.
FeCO3 Iron (II) carbonate
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING FOUR OR MORE ELEMENTS
Rule: name the positive ion + name the negative ion
NH4ClO
ammonium hypochlorite
Hydrates
These compounds contain water molecules as a part of its crystalline
structure. Hydrates are named by indicating the name of the compound
first exclusive of the water followed by the term HYDRATE with a prefix
mono, di, tri, etc. representing the number of water molecules present. A
number may be used also.
BaCl2 H2O Barium chloride dihydrate
or Barium chloride 2-hydrate
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
combustion - process of burning; requires oxygen, O2
Chemical equation - summarizes the molecular changes involved in a

chemical reaction.
Typical Illustration of a chemical equation:
A(s) + B(l) + C(g)
reactants
D + E + heat
products
where (s), (l), (g) - signifies the physical states of the compound
- shows the compound is a gas
- shows the compound is a deposit
- symbolizes presence of heat
F - a catalyst
a. metal + oxygen
metallic oxide
Ex. barium + oxygen
step 1: Ba + O2
step 2: Ba+2 O-2
BaO
step 3: 2Ba + O2
2BaO
b. non-metal + oxygen
Ex. sulfur + oxygen
step 1: S + O2
step 3: S + O2
or 2S + 3O2
B. General Rule: A + O2
non-metallic oxide
SO2
2 SO3
C + D
Steps in Writing Chemical Equation:
B.1. Complete combustion of hydrocarbons

Ex. CH4 + 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O
step 1:
step 2:
B.2. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons

Ex. CH4 + 2O2
CO + 2H2O
step 3:
Write the formulas of the reactants

Write the formulas of the products by writing the oxidation
numbers of the two combined elements and applying the
criss-cross.
It is very important to balance the equation, i.e., the number
of atoms of each element in the reactant side should be equal
to the number of atoms of the said element in the product
side.
I. Combination/Synthesis/Metathesis
-a single substance is formed by union of two substances.
Ex. sodium + iodine

step 1: Na + I2
step 2: Na+1 I-1
step 3: 2Na + I2
AB
Acid
Ex. Sulfur dioxide + water

SO2 + H2O H2SO3
E. General Rule: Active Metal + Water
Ex. sodium + water

2Na + 2H2O
NaI
Base
Ex. magnesium oxide + water

MgO + H2O
Mg(OH)2
D. General Rule: Non-metallic oxide + H2O
Types of Chemical Reactions:
A. General Rule: A + B
C. General Rule: Metallic Oxide + H2O
Base + H2
2NaOH + H2
2NaI
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
where: B and C are non-metals and C is more active than B. Use the
II. Decomposition:
A reaction that involves using of heat or electric current: It is
the opposite reaction of synthesis.
General Rule:
AB
A + B
General Rule:
B. Metal oxide
HgO Hg + O2
D. Metal bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O
E. Metal oxyhalide
KBrO3 KBr + O2
CuSO4 Cu0 + O2 + H2SO4
III. Single Displacement
the possibility of the positive part of a compound may interact
with the negative part of the second
compound.
CB + A
where: A and C are metals and C is more active than A. If not, no

reaction will occur. Use the Activity Series of Metals (See next
page).
Ex. Calcium chloride + sodium
CaCl2 + 2Na 2 NaCl + Ca
AB + CD
AD + CB
A. Neutralization - a reaction between an acid and a base that

produces a salt and water.
C. Metal nitrate
NaNO3 NaNO2 + O2
B. General Rule: AB + C
Ex. barium chloride + fluoride

BaCl2 + F2
BaF2 + Cl2
IV. Double Decomposition
A. Metal carbonate
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
A General Rule: AB + C
Activity Series of the non-metals, (F, O, Cl, Br, I, S). If not, no reaction
will occur.
AC + B
Ex. Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide

HCl + NaOH
NaCl + H2O
calcium phosphate + ammonium acetate
Ca3(PO4)2 + 6NH4C2H3O2
3Ca(C2H3O2)2 +
2(NH4)3PO4
potassium dichromate + plumbous nitrate
K2Cr2O7 + Pb(NO3)2
2 KNO3 + PbCr2O7
To determine whether a reaction will take place, the activity series of
elements (metals) is used.
Activity Series of Metals
Metal Name
Symbo
Code Name
Potassium (most
l
K
Peter
active)
Sodium
Na
Saw
Calcium
Ca
Carl
Magnesium
Mg
Make
Aluminum
Al
Manganese
Mn
Mangy
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Zinc
Zn
Zebra
Chromium
Cr
Carry
Iron
Fe
Iron
Nickel
Ni
Nails
Tin
Sn
To
Lead
Pb
Liverpool
Hydrogen
He
Copper
Cu
Caught
Bismuth
Bi
Ben
Antimony
Sb
Mercury
Hg
Mexican
Silver
Ag
Silver
Platinum
Pt
Plated
Gold (least active)
Au
Goat
The following elements are always considered containing 2 atoms in

forming a compound. They are called diatomic molecules. H 2, Cl2, Br2,
I2, F2, N2, O2.
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STOICHIOMETRY
Atomic Weight is the relative weight of an atom expressed in
amu (atomic mass unit).
Hydrogen, H, has a relative atomic weight of 1.0079 amu while
carbon, C, has 12.011 amu.
1 amu is equivalent to about 1.661 x 10-24 g.
1 g requires about 6.022 x 10 23 amu (Avogadros Number)
Molecular Weight
of a substance is the sum of the weights
of the atoms as shown in its formula.
Example:
Calculate the molecular weight of the following compound.
barium carbonate
calcium phosphate
sulfuric acid
ferric dichromate
EXAMPLE: Molar Weight Determination

In 1.2 moles of calcium sulfate, CaSO 4, calculate: a) number of moles of Ca,
S, and O atoms; b) number of atoms present in Ca, S, and O; c) weight of
CaSO4.
Calculate:
a) the number of O atoms in 15 molecules of SO3.

b) the mass in g of 0.58 mole of P4 molecule.
c) the no. of moles of O3 present in a sample containing 0.5
mole of O atoms.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION FROM FORMULAS

From the formula of the compound and the atomic weights of the
elements, the weight of each element making up one of a compound
can be determined.
Percentage Composition by weight
Weight of the element in the compound

Weight of one mole of the compound
EXAMPLE: Calculation of % Composition from Formulas

THE MOLE CONCEPT: AVOGADROS NUMBER
A mole of a substance is the amount of the substance containing the
same number of atoms as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of pure
12C isotope. This represents the amount of the substance that contains
6.022 x 1023 particles (atoms, ions, and molecule).
Calculate the percentage composition by weight of each element in acetic

acid, HC2H3O2.
Compute the percentage composition of each element present in:
a. stannic fluoride
b. ammonium sulfate
1 mole of C (element) contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon

1 mole of Na+ contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of Na+ ions
1 mole of H2O contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of H2O molecules
1 mole of AlCl3 contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of Al+3 ions
1 mole of AlCl3 contains 3 times 6.022 x 1023 Cl- ions
Recall that one molecule of BaCO3 is 157.34 amu (Molecular Weight).
Therefore, one mole of BaCO3 is 157.34g (Molar Weight).
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CALCULATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR
FORMULA
Empirical Formula is the simplest formula of a compound. It contains
the simplest ratio of atoms in the compound.
Molecular Formula is a whole-number multiple of its empirical formula.
This is the true formula of the compounds.
Guidelines to calculate the empirical and molecular formula.
1. Determine the weight of each element in a compound.
2. Calculate the number of moles of the elements.
3. Determine the smallest mole.
4. Calculate the number of atoms of each element by dividing each mole
of the element by the smallest mole to get the empirical formula.
5. Calculate the empirical formula weight
Molecular weight
6. Compute for n. n =
Empirical Formula Weight
7. Distribute n to the Empirical Formula to get the Molecular Formula
WEIGHT RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

STOICHIOMETRY of a reaction deals with the combining proportions
of the elements or compounds involved in chemical reactions. It tells us
the relationship of the moles and weights of the reactant to one another
and to the products.
Consider a reaction:
2C2H2 +
5O2
2moles
5moles
4CO2 + 2 H2O
4moles
2moles
This explains that for a reaction to undergo, 2 moles of C 2H2 should

react to 5 moles of O2 to produce 4 moles of CO2 and 2 moles of H2O.
This is mole relationship. It is very important that equation should be
balanced.
Mole-Mole Relationship
If we are given 10 moles of C2H2, how many moles of CO2 would be
produced?
EXAMPLE: Empirical & Molecular Formulas Determination

Compound X was found to contain 85.69% C and 14.31% H. The molecular
weight was determined to be 55.9 amu. Calculate the empirical and
molecular formulas of X.
Determine the molecular of the following compounds given
corresponding percent composition of each element.
Name the compounds.
Compound
Percent Composition
Molecular
Weights
Li, 18.8; C, 16.2; O, 65.0
73.8
K, 26.6; Cr, 35.3; O, 38.1
294.2
the
The reaction is given as:

potassium nitrate + sulfuric acid
potassium sulfate + nitric acid
a. Formulate the balanced equation.
b. How many moles of potassium sulfate are produced from 6 moles of
potassium nitrate?
c. How many moles of nitric acid will be produced from 50 moles of
sulfuric acid?
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Total weight of the substance = weight of the pure compound + weight
of the impurities
Recall that from the weight and MW of a compound, we can determine the
number of moles, n, [n = (W/MW)]. We could therefore establish a weightto-weight relationship of each compound involved a balanced chemical
reaction.
Weight-Weight Relationship
Based on the balanced equation:
4NH3(g) + 5O2
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
How many grams of NH3 will be required to produce 200g of H2O?
What is the weight in grams of H3PO4 is produced from 250g of P4O10?

P4O10 + 6H2O
4H3PO4
Step 1: 2PbS + 3O2
2PbO + 2SO2
Step 2: 3SO2 + 2HNO3 + 2H2O
3H2SO4 + 2NO
Using the above sequence of reactions, what weight in grams of H 2SO4 would
be produced from 2kg of PbS?
Calculation Involving Percent Purity

Limestone, a mineral containing CaCO3, is 75% pure. The 75% purity means
that the limestone only contains 75% CaCO 3 (the pure substance) and the
remaining 25% is the impurities. Given 135 grams of limestone, determine
the amount of pure CaCO3.
Given a balanced chemical equation:

Bi + 4HNO3 + 3H2O
Bi(NO3)35H2O + NO,
How much 30% nitric acid is required to react with 220g of Bi?
How many grams of sodium sulfate could be produced from 500 kgs. Of 95%
pure NaCl salt?
2NaCl + H2SO4
Na2SO4 + 2HCl
A 25-g sample of impure Zinc reacts with 130 ml of 20% HCl (density of the
acid is 1.18 g/ml). Calculate the %Zn in the sample?
Previous stoichiometric calculations are done with the assumption that all
compounds are pure, i.e., no impurities are present. However, in reality, the
raw materials (no reactants) used are mixed with various useless contents.
It is vital to remember that only active or pure compounds participate in the
chemical reaction. The purity of a substance is expressed as percent
purity.
Weight of pure compound in a substance
Percent Purity =
Total weight of the substance
x X 100
THEORETICAL VERSUS ACTUAL YIELDS

Previous stoichiometric calculations are assumed that all the reactants
involved in the reaction were converted to products. This seldom happens in
actual practice because many reactions do not go to completion. They end
up in an equilibrium state in which appreciable amounts of reactants and
products are left. At this state, the products are the actual yields.
Theoretical yield
is the amount of product obtained if the reaction
goes to completion, i.e., all reactants are converted to
products.
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Percent yield =
actual yield
100
theoretical yield
3. Compare the theoretical weight to the given actual weight of the

reactant. If the theoretical weight is greater than the actual weight,
the reactant is already the limiting reactant. If not, i.e., the
theoretical weight is less than the actual weight, the said reactant is
an excess reactant.
Percent Yield Determination

When 100 g of water is electrolyzed, 76 g of oxygen is obtained. Calculate
percent yield.
A sample of copper ore contains 10% Cu 2S. A metallurgical process for
recovering elemental copper from this ore gives 80% theoretical yield.
Calculate the weight of copper in grams from 5 metric tons of the ore.
Determination of Limiting & Excess Reactants

Fluorine reacts with iron to produce iron (III) fluoride. If 5 g of fluorine is
added to 10 g of iron:
a. Determine the limiting and excess reactants
b. Calculate weight of iron (III) fluoride obtained from reaction.
c. How much of the excess will be left unreacted?
The reaction of copper sulfate, and phosphine to form copper phosphide is

given by:
3CuSO4 + 2PH3 Cu3P2 + 3H2SO4
When enough amount of PH3 was added to 100 grams of CuSO 4, 40 grams of
Cu3P2 were obtained. Calculate the theoretical yield of Cu 3P2 and the
percentage yield (MW CuSO4, = 160; MW Cu3P2 =254)
LIMITING AND EXCESS REACTANTS
Generally, the reactants are not brought together in the ratio in which
they react. Almost always, one of the reactants is needed to follow all the
reactants to combine. This reactants reacts completely and the possible
extent of a reaction depends highly on the amount of this reactant. This
reactant is called limiting reactant. Other reactants are in excess
because a certain amount of them will be left unreacted after a complete
reaction.
Below are guidelines to calculate the amount of the limiting reactant.
1. Select a reactant to be used as initial basis for calculation.
2. Compute the theoretical weights of the other reactants using the
basis.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
3. These molecules are in constant random motion causing them to collide

with one another and the walls of the container
4. The collisions of molecules are perfectly elastic.
5. The average KE of molecules varies directly with temperatures.
The Three States of Matter

Matter may exist in one of these three physical forms: solid, liquid, or a gas.
The Solid State is characterized by having a definite volume and shape
since the attractive forces between particles are relatively strong giving it a
rigid structural arrangement
The Liquid State is characterized by having a definite volume but with no
definite shape. Here, the particles are not held as tightly and as rigidly as in
the solid.
The type of gas behaving according to the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) is
called an ideal or perfect gas.
PRESSURE. Pressure is defined as a force that is exerted per unit of area.
This is obtained by dividing the force by the area on which the force acts.
The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth known as atmospheric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is approximately 1 atmosphere, but
varies with elevation or altitude. Conversion of pressure units is given in the
table below:
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
The Gaseous State is characterized by having no definite shape or volume

hence molecules are assumed to be practically independent to one another.
= 76 cm Hg
1 Torr = 1 mm Hg
1 Pa = 1 N/m
= 14.7 lbs/in
These three states of matter undergo certain phase transformation and
examples of such phase transformations are as follows: freezing, melting,
evaporation, condensation and sublimation.
Behavior of Gases
Any form of matter exists under suitable conditions of temperature, pressure
and volume. The effect of these three factors is quite obvious in gases and
under the same sets of conditions, behavior of gases can be explained by
the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT).
= 760 Torr
= 101,325 Pa
= 101.325 KPa
TEMPERATURE. Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or
coldness of a body. To measure, temperature, thermometers are used. Three
temperature scales are currently in use
The Kinetic Molecular Theory. The following are the basic assumption
of the theory.
1. All gases are made up of tiny particles called molecules.
2. These molecules are very small in relation to the distances between them.
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
2. Gases have low densities.

3. Gases are able to exert pressure.
4. Gases diffuse rapidly.
5. Gases expand when heated.
6. Gases are the most compressible of the states of matter.
GAS LAWS
Molecules of matter when heated move faster but when cooled, the particles
move slower and slower until, theoretically all motion stops. The lowest
possible hypothetical T at which V is zero is -273.15C (all molecules will
stop moving.)
To convert temperatures from one scale to another, the following equations
maybe used:
100 C
F - 32
180 F
180 F
F
C + 32
100 C
or
or
K = C + 273.15
5 C
F - 32
9 F
9 F
F C + 32
5C
(eqn.2.2)
Properties of Gases. Matter in the gaseous state is characterized by

different familiar properties. All gases have the following physical
properties:
The Pressure of the gas Varies Inversely with Volume at Constant

Temperature. Robert Boyle discovered the following relationship between
gas pressure and volume, now called the pressure-volume law or
Boyles Law.
(eqn.2.1)
VOLUME. Volume maybe described as the space that a specific substance

occupies. Several units of volume maybe used such as liter (L), milliliters
(mL), cubic centimeter (cm), cubic meter (m), etc.
1. Gases assume the volume and shape of their containers.
The pressure, volume and temperature of one mole of a gas

interact with each other nearly identical for all gases.
PRESSURE-VOLUME LAW (BOYLES LAW) The volume of a fixed

amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure when its temperature
is kept constant.
Put into mathematical form, Boyles Law states that
1
P
The heart of Boyles Law is the experimental fact that the product of
pressure and volume is constant.
This can be expressed in the following form, which is easier to use in
calculations. The subscripts 1 and 2 rearranging,
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
P1V1=P2V2
A given mass of oxygen occupies 50 mL at 101.3 KPa at 30C. At what
pressure will it occupy 450 mL at the same temperature?
ANALYSIS: The conditions for using Boyles Law are satisfied; the mass
(or moles) and temperature are fixed and only P and V vary so eqn. 3.2 is
applicable. We have the following data:
P1 = 101.4 KPa
V1=500 mL
Mathematically, this could be written as

V T
(eqn. 2.4)
Where V is the volume and temperature is the absolute temperature.

After introducing a proportionally constant k and rearranging,
V
K
T
(eqn. 2.5)
Just as we did for pressure-volume relationships at constant temperature.

The subscript 1 and 2 represent the initial and final conditions, respectively.
P2=?
V2=450 mL
Because we want to calculate, P2 we rearrange eqn. 3.2 to
P2
PV
1 1
V2
SOLUTION. We simply insert the data into this equation and to the
mathematics.
P2=(101 KPa)(500 mL)/(450 mL)
P2=112.6 Kpa
The Absolute Temperature (Kelvin) of the gas varies proportionally with
volume at constant pressure. Jacques Charles made a series of experiments
which resulted in this relationship of the volume of the gas and its
temperature.
TEMPERATURE-VOLUME LAW (CHARLES' LAW). The volume of a
given amount of gas held at constant pressure is directly proportional to the
absolute (Kelvin) temperature.
V1
V
= 2
T1
T2
(eqn. 2.6)
EXAMPLE 2.4 Charles' Law Calculations

Anesthetic gas is normally given to a patient when the room temperature is
20.0 C and the patient's body temperature is at 37.0C. What would this
temperature change do to 1.80 L of gas if the pressure and mass stay
constant?
ANALYSIS. The amount of gas and the pressure remain the same, so the
temperature-volume law (or Charles' Law) applies and equation 2.6 may be
used. The given temperatures, however, must first be converted to the
absolute scale before any calculation is done. We have the following data:
T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K
V1 = 1.80 L
T2 = 37 + 273 = 310 K
V2 = ?
Because we want to determine the final volume, V 2, we rearrange equation

2.6 to
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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
V1
T1
V2 T2
SOLUTION. Substituting the data into this equation, all that is left is the
arithmetic,
1.80 L
V2 310 K
293 K
V2 = 1. 90 L
Hence, the final volume becomes 1.90 L and as you can see, a gas when
heated at constant pressure expands.
French scientists Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay Lussac, through a series
of experiments, derived the relationship that exists between pressure and
temperature for a fixed amount of gas at constant volume. This relationship
is now known as Pressure-Temperature Law or Gay- Lussac's Law.
Hydrogen gas is confined in a constant volume chamber. The gas pressure is

approximately 1.35 atm. When the chamber is immersed in a bath of melting
ice. (a) What is the temperature, in C, when the pressure manometer
indicates a reading of 0.55 atm? (b) What pressure will the pressure
manometer indicate after bringing the chamber to 100 C?
ANALYSIS. Since only temperatures and pressures are given, Gay Lussac's
Law applies and it is safe to assume that the mass and volume of H 2 gas
remains constant. The initial temperature is believed to be 0C since melting
ice implies zero degree Celsius. We have the following data:
for(a)
P1 = 1.35 atm
P2 = 0.55 atm
T1 = 0 + 273 K = 273 K
T2 = ?
To solve for T2, we first rearrange eqn. 2.8
T2 P2
PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE LAW (GAY LUSSAC'S LAW)

The pressure of a fixed amount of gas is directly relationship proportional to
the absolute temperature (Kelvin) only when its volume is held constant.
P T
(eqn. 2.7)
Equation 2.8 maybe derived in the same manner that equations for Boyle's
and Charles were formulated.
P1
P
= 2
T1
T2
(eqn. 2.8)
Substituting all values, we have
T2
0.55 atm
273 K
1.35 atm
T2 = 111.2 K or -161.78 C
For the second question, the initial conditions are the same, so we have the
following data for (b)
P1 = 1.35 atm
T1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K
P2 = ?
T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K
Example 2.5 Gay Lussacs Law Calculation

Again, using the same eqn., final pressure may be solved
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EXAMPLE 2.6 Combined Gas Law Calculation
P1
T1
P2 T2
The gas present in electric light bulbs is argon. If a sample of this gas is at a
pressure of 101.325 KPa, when the volume is 0.1 L and the temperature is 32
C, what must its temperature be if its volume becomes 200 mL and its
pressure 96 KPa.
Substituting all values, we have
P2
373 K
1.35 atm
273 K
ANALYSIS. From the given data, only the amount of the gas remains fixed
and the three other factors (P, T and V) vary. The Combined Gas Law,
therefore applies. The following data were
P2 = 6.90 atm
Given:
A general gas law maybe derived from the combination of the three laws
previously stated. This maybe called the Combined Gas Law.
P1 = 101.325 KPa
P2 = 96 KPa
V1 = 0.1 L
V2 = 200 mL or 0.2 L
T1 = 32 + 273 = 305 K T2 = ?
We arranged eqn. 2.10 to solve for the final temperature
P2 V2

T1
P1 V1
T2 =
COMBINED GAS LAW. The volume of a fixed amount of a gas is directly
proportional to the ration of its absolute temperature and its pressure.
Mathematically, this could be written as
T
P
T2 =
(eqn. 2.9)
By introducing a constant and comparing two sets of conditions for a given

sample of a gas, eqn. 2.10 maybe derived that would predict gas behavior
under various conditions of pressure, temperature and volume.
P1V1
PV
= 2 2
T1
T2
Substituting, we have
(eqn. 2.10)
96 KPa 0.2 L
305 K
101.325 KPa 0.1K
T2 = 577.94 K, or 304.9 C
Hence, the net effect is a large increase in temperature.

Amadeo Avogadro complemented the works of Boyle, Charles and GayLussac through his hypothesis now called Avogadro's Principle.
AVOGADRO'S PRINCIPLE. The volume of a gas is directly proportional
to the number of moles of the gas present at constant pressure and
temperature
Page 39 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
equation 2.13 and use standard conditions including the standard molar
volume.
Mathematically writing the law,

V n
(eqn. 2.11)
R =
Where n represents the number of moles of the gas and V its volume.
Applying Avogadro's Law, to chemical equations, it could be deduced that
the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation would represent the ratio of
the volumes of the gaseous substances.
There is a standard condition of temperature and pressure, or simply STP.
Under STP, pressure is fixed at 1 atm and temperature at 0 C or 273 K and
the volume of 1 mole of a gas is constant at 22.4 L called the standard molar
volume.
PV
nT
Table below shows the values of R
R = 0.08205
= 62.36
atm - L
mol - K
mmHg - L
mol - K
A summary of gas laws previously discussed is tabulated below:
= 62,358.97
Boyle's Law
: V 1/P
(at constant n & T)
Charles' Law : V 1/T
(at constant n & P)
Avogadro's Law : V n
(at constant P & T)
= 82.05
torr - mL
mol - K
atm - mL
mol - K
Combining all these expressions, we get
nT
P
(eqn. 2.12)
A single master equation could be derived by introducing a

constant, say R
V = R
nT
P
PV = nRT
(eqn. 2.3)
Here, R is the proportionality constant known as the universal gas

constant. Its unit and magnitude depend on the units of the four
experimental variables P, V, n and T. To solve for its value, rearrange
EXAMPLE 2.7 IDEAL GAS LAW CALCULATIONS

What volume would 6.0 moles of sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6) gas occupy if the
temperature and the pressure of the gas are 130C and 9.5 atm respectively?
(Sulfur hexafluoride is a colorless, odorless, very unreactive gas)
ANALYSIS. Notice that the amount of the gas, its pressure and its
temperature are all given; to solve for the volume, the ideal gas equation
(eqn. 2.13) maybe used. The numerical value of R is 0.08205 since pressure
is in atm, temperature in Kelvin (273 + 130 C) and the amount of the gas in
moles. The following data are taken :
n = 6.0 moles
T = 130 C + 273 = 403 K
P = 9.5 atm
Page 40 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
R = 0.08205
atm - L
mol - K
Substituting the values, we have

PV = nRT
V =
nRT
P
1.50 moles 273 K
0.08205
L atm
mol K
1 atm
V = 33.6 L
6.0 moles 403 K

V =
0.08205
9.5 atm
atm - L
mol - K
V = 20.88 L
Hence, the volume that sulfur hexafluoride would occupy is about 20.88 L.
Carbon dioxide gas, CO2, is the gas produced during the process of
respiration.
Calculate the volume, in liters (L), occupied by 1.50 moles of CO 2 at STP.
ANALYSIS. Since the gas is measured at STP conditions, the volume could
be calculated using the ideal gas equation, so we have the following data:
n = 1.50 moles
T = 273 K
P = 1 atm
R = 0.08205
nRT
P
atm - L
mol - k
Inserting these data into the ideal gas equation

PV = nRT
Thus, the volume of CO2 is 33.6 L

ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION. The problem could be solved in another
manner. By remembering that 1 mole of any gas at STP would occupy a
volume ( known as its molar volume) of 22.4 L, the volume could be
calculated without using the ideal gas equation.
22.4 L CO 2
1 mole CO 2
V 1.5 moles CO 2
The final answer is similar to the first method which is 33.6 L.

The ideal gas equation maybe rearranged in order to derive equations that
would solve or calculate for the density of gas or its molecular weight.
Consider first MW calculations.
PV = nRT
Remember that the number of moles of a gas, n, may be calculated by
getting the ratio of its mass with it's MW.
m
MW
(eqn. 2.14)
Page 41 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Where m is the mass of the gas in grams and MW is its molecular weight
in g/mol.. Substituting in the ideal eqn.
PV
The calculated molecular mass of the unknowns inert gas is 83.8 g/mol.
With the aid of the periodic table, the gas with the same molar mass is
krypton.
mRT
MW
For density calculations, by rearranging eqn. ( 2.15) ,and bearing in mind

that
Solving for MW,
MW
mRT
PV
(eqn. 2.15)
EXAMPLE 2.9 MOLECULAR MASS CALCULATION

The label on a cylinder of an inert gas became illegible, so a student of 121 L
allowed some of the gas to flow into a 300 mL gas bulb until the pressure
was 690 mm Hg. The sample upon weighing now becomes 0.933 g. What is
the molecular mass of the gas? Name the inert gas. (T = 25C)
= m/ V
( eqn. 2.16)
We could deduce equation 2.17
MW
mRT
PV
m mRT
V
PV
(eqn. 2.17)
where stands for the density of the gas.
ANALYSIS. To find the molecular mass of the unknown gas, eqn. 2.15
maybe used. Notice that all the variables are given so the problem could be
solved directly by simply substituting the values.
m = 0.933 g
P 690 mg
T = 25C + 273 = 298 K
R = 6.36
mg - L
mol - K
V = 300 mL or 0.3 L
Solving,
MW
0.933 298 K 63.36 mm Hg - L / mol - K

690 mg 0.3 L
MW = 83.8 g/mol
EXAMPLE 2.10 GAS DENSITY CALCULATIONS
Calculate the approximate density of methane, CH 4, in grams per liter (g/L),

at 25 C and at 5 atm.
ANALYSIS. The problem involves gas density calculations so eqn. 2.17
applies. The ffg. data are given
P 5 atm
R = 0.08205
atm - L
mol - K
Page 42 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
VT = VA + VB + VC + .... VN (eqn. 2.19)
T = 25 C + 273 = 298 K
MW = 16 g/mol ( from periodic table)
Substituting,
Where VT is the total volume of the gas mixture and subscript A, B, C

refers to the partial volumes of the constituent gases.
To simplify calculations involving Dalton's and Amagat's Laws, consider
the mole fractions are used. By getting pressure fractions and volume
fractions of the individual gases, we could relate this with the mole fraction,
X
5 atm 16 g / mol
298
K
0.08205 atm L / mol K
mole
fraction
= 3.27 g/L
The density of methane gas at the specified conditions is therefore 3.27 g/L.
In 1801, John Dalton's formulated a law regarding gaseous mixture now
known as Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.
DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES The total pressure of a
gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the gases
present.
Stated mathematically,
PT = PA + PB + PC + .... PN
(eqn. 2.18)
Where PT is the total pressure and P A, PB, PC, ...PN are the partial
pressures of the individual gases.
Amagat complemented the work of John Dalton by formulating a law also
on gaseous mixture. The law came to be known as Amagat's Law of Partial
Volume.
AMAGAT'S LAW OF PARTIAL VOLUME The total volume of a gaseous
mixture is equal to the sum of the partial volumes of the gases present.
Just like total pressure, this could be written mathematically as
volume
fraction
pressure
fraction
Consider a mixture of three gases containing A, B, C

PT = PA + PB + PC (If V is constant)
VT =VA + VB + VC (If P is constant)
XA
nA
;
nT
PA
nA
PT ;
nT
VA X APT
XB
nB
;
nT
PB
nB
PT ;
nT
VB X BPT
XC
nC
;
nT
PC
nC
PT ;
nT
VC X CPT
EXAMPLE 2.11 DALTON'S LAW CALCULATIONS
A mixture of gases contains C3H8, C2H6 and CH4. If the total pressure is 2
atm and the numbers of moles of the gases present are 0.6, 0.5 and 0.25
respectively, calculate the partial pressures of the gases. If the total volume
of the gas mixture is 300 mL, what are the partial volumes of the gases?
Page 43 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
ANALYSIS. The problem deals with a mixture of gases so to solve for the
individual partial pressures, equation 2.20 maybe used. To use this
equation, we must first solve for the mole fraction of each component. Let us
first assemble the data,
nC3H8 = 0.6
NC2H6 = 0.5
nCH4 = 0.25
n C3H8
and
V C2H6 =
V CH4 =
111.11 mL
55.55 mL
PT = 2.0 atm
The mole fraction of C3H8 is
X C 3H 8
= 133.33 mL
n C3H8
0.6 mol
n C2H6 n CH4 (0.6 mol) (0.5 mol) (0.25 mol)
Gases that do not dissolve in water are usually prepared in the laboratory by
a method known as water displacement. These gases once trapped are
considerably wet since they are saturated with water vapor. Hence to
calculate for the total pressure, the pressure exerted by water vapor must be
considered.
PTotal = Pgas + P water
(eqn 2.21)
X C3H8 = 0.444
From eqn. 2.20,

P C3H8 = X C3H8 P T
= (0.444) (2.0 atm)
= 0.89 atm
Similarly,
P C2H6 = (0.370) (2.0 atm)
= 0.74 atm
P CH4
= (0.185) (2.0 atm)

= 0.37 atm
To solve for the individual partial volumes, we can use eqn. 2.21,
V C3H8=X C3H8PT
= (0.444) (300 mL)
EXAMPLE GASES COLLECTED OVER H2O
A student generated oxygen by the decomposition of potassium chlorate.

The volume of gas collected at 25OC and at a pressure of 762 torr is 130 mL.
How many grams of oxygen gas, O2, are obtained?
The vapor pressure at 25C is 23.76 torr.
ANALYSIS. To solve for the mass of O 2, the partial pressure of oxygen must
first be calculated using eqn. 2.21
PO2 PTotal PH2O

= 762 torr - 23.76 torr
Page 44 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
= 738. 24 torr
where r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion or effusion of gases 1 and 2, MW1
and MW2 are the molar masses and 1 and 2 are the densities respectively.
To solve now for the mass, we can rearrange eqn.
m CO2
The rate at which argon (Ar) effuses through a pinhole is 4.50 mL/min. At
what rate will hydrogen gas (H 2) effuse through the same hole under similar
conditions?
PO2V MW
RT
m O2
g
738.24torr 0.130L 32 mol
torr L
62.36
25 C 273 K
mol K
ANALYSIS. From the periodic table we find the molar masses of the two
gases. Setting up the data, we have:
r Ar = 4.50 mL/min.
MWAr = 39.95 g/mol
MWH2 = 2.02 g/mol
rH2 = ?
By rearranging eqn. 2.22, we now can solve for the rate of effusion of
hydrogen gas.
= 0.165 g
rH2 rAr
Diffusion is the gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of

another. Effusion is a similar process but it involves the process by it
involves the process by which a gas under pressure escapes through an
extremely small opening. In 1832, Thomas Graham formulated his laws of
diffusion and effusion.
GRAHAM'S LAW. The rate of diffusion or effusion of gaseous substances
under the same temperature and pressure is inversely proportional to the
square roots of their molar masses or densities.
Expressed mathematically,
r1
r2
rH 2
mL
4.50
min
MW Ar
MW Ar
g
mol
g
2.02
mol
39.95
rH2 20 mL / min
Hence, from the calculated rate of effusion of H 2 which is 20 mL/min., we
can say that light gases effuse more rapidly.
2.4 STOICHOMETRY INVOLVING GASES
MW2
MW1
Stoichometry problems involving moles and masses were discussed in the

previous chapter. There is also a relationship between volumes and amounts
of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation. The flow chart
suggests the basic tools for solving problems involving gases.
Page 45 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Molar Mass
mass A
From the balanced equation we know that 1 mole of glucose (C6H12O6) will
produce 6 moles of CO2. Hence,
Molar Mass
Coefficients
of
Moles A
Moles B
Ideal gas eqn
eqn.
P, V, T
PV=nRT
mass
Ideal gas eqn
P, V, T
PV=nRT
n CO2 n C6H12O 6
= 0.036 moles C 6H12 O 6
EXAMPLE WEIGHT-VOLUME CALCULATIONS

The balanced equation for the metabolic breakdown of glucose (C 6H12O6) is
similar as that for the combustion of glucose in air. This equation maybe
written as:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2(g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l)
6 mole CO 2
1 mole C 6H12 O 6
= 0.217 moles CO2

Using the ideal gas equation, we can solve for V CO2
PCO2VCO2 nCO2 RT
VCO2
Calculate the volume of CO2 produced at 40C and 760 torr when 6.50 g of
glucose is used up in the reaction.
ANALYSIS. Mass of glucose was given so we have to convert it first to
moles of glucose and moles of CO 2. Once the moles of CO 2 are known, by
using this ideal gas equation, its volume maybe calculated given the
condition. We have the following data:
m C6H12O6 = 6.5 g
P = 760 torr
coeff. of CO 2
coeff. of C 6H12 O 6
nCO2 RT
PCO2
0.217 mol 313 K
62.36
760 torr
torr L
mol K
VCO2 5.56L
R = 62.36 torr-L/mol-K
Solving for mole glucose, (from. Periodic Table, MWglucose = 180 g/mol)
n C6 H12O6
m
6.50 g
g
MW
180
mol
= 0.036 moles
EXAMPLE VOLUME-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Ammonia gas, NH3, may be prepared by the Haber Process. In this process
for the synthesis of ammonia,
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Page 46 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
how many liters of N2 are needed to react completely with 50.0 L of H 2, if the
volumes of both gases are measured at STP?
3.13 Classification of Solutions

According to Final State of Mixture:
ANALYSIS. Since both N2 and H2 are measured at the same conditions of

pressure and temperature (at STP), according to Avogadro's Law their
volumes are related to their coefficients in the balanced equation, we can
say that 1 L of N2 will react with 3 L of H2. Hence,
VN2 50.0L H2
1 L N2
3 L H2
VN2 16.67 L
1. Solid Solution
2. Liquid Solution
3. Gaseous Solution
Solutes can be a gas, solid

or liquid.
According to the Amount of Solute Dissolved (Solubility):

1.
Unsaturated Solution - a solution containing less

amount of solute than the solvent can dissolve.
2. Saturated Solution - a solution containing the amount

of solute necessary for the existence of equilibrium
between dissolved and undissolved solute.
3. Supersaturated Solution - a solution containing a
greater amount of solute than the solvent can dissolve
at a certain temperature.
1 Nature of Solutions
3.1 Definition
If the ratio of the solute to solvent is high, the solution is called a

concentrated solution. If the ratio of the solute to solvent is low, the
solution is called a dilute solution.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of molecules, ions or atoms of two or

more different substances.
3.14 Why do substances dissolve?
Example: Sugar in water, naphthalene in benzene
There are intermolecular forces of attraction involved in forming a solution.
3.12 Components of a Solution

There are two components of a solution.
1.
Solute - the substance being dissolved. The solute is usually present in

smaller amounts.
2. Solvent - the medium into which solutes are dissolved. The solvent is
usually present in greater amounts.
1. solute-solute molecule attraction

2. solvent-solvent molecule attraction
3. solute-solvent molecule attraction
If the third molecule attraction is greater than the two, then the solute will certainly
dissolve.
3.15 Factors Affecting Solubility
Page 47 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
The expression of concentration as a weight percentage can be separated by
Polar or ionic solute will be dissolved in a polar solvent
Non-polar solute will be dissolved in a non-polar solvent.
2. Temperature
WA
100
WA + WB
(3.0a)
where WA and WB represent the solute and solvent respectively.
VOLUME PERCENTAGE. The parts by volume of solute per 100 parts by

volume of solution.
Generally for solids in liquids, the higher the temperature
The volume percentage can be expressed as
the lower the solubility.
% WA =
For gases in liquids, the higher the temperature the lower
% VA =
VA
100
VA + VB
(3.0b)
the solubility.
Solubility
1
T
3. Pressure
solubility.
For gases in liquids, the higher the pressure, the higher the
Solubility P
3.0 COMMON METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS

OF SOLUTIONS
Scientists have formulated various methods for expressing solution
concentrations quantitatively. Some of the more commonly used expressions
of concentrations are the following.
where VA and VB represent the volume of solute and volume of solvent

respectively.
MOLE PERCENTAGE. The parts by mole of solute per 100 parts by mole of
solution.
The mole percentage can be expressed as
% nA =
nA
100
n A + nB
(3.0c)
where nA and nB represents the number of moles of solute and solvent

respectively.
WEIGHT PERCENTAGE. The parts by weight of solute per 100 parts by

weight of solution
Page 48 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
MOLE FRACTION. The proportion or ratio of the number of moles of a

component to the total number of moles in the solution.
The concentration can be expressed as
XA =
nA
n A + nB
3.1 DILUTION
(3.0d)
where XA is the representation for the mole fraction of the solute.
MOLARITY. The number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
moles of solute
liter of solution
The process of lowering the concentration of a solution by adding additional

solvent with the amount of solute kept constant.
Before dilution
After dilution
Amount of solute
= Amount of solute
Amount of solvent
< Amount of solvent
Amount of solution < Amount of solution
M =
Mr. Uy and Mr. Borlongan both faculty members of School of ChE-Chm

prepared a solution of NaOH. Mr. Uy measured 500 g of NaOH, dissolved it
in water and then diluted to one liter. Mr. Borlongan found out that the
resulting solution made by Mr. Uy has a density of 1.35 g/mL. Express the
concentration of NaOH as (a) percentage by weight, (b) molarity, (c) mole
fraction, (d) molality, (e) normality.
(3.0e)
The equation used for the calculation is

CBVB =
where M will represent the concentration in molarity
CAVA
(3.1a)
where CB and CA represents the concentration before and after dilution. The
symbol VB is the volume before dilution and VA is the volume after dilution
MOLALITY. The number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
EXAMPLE 3.1 Dilution Calculations
m =
moles of solute
ki log ram of solvent
(3.0f)
where m is the representation for the concentration in molality
An analyst is required to produce 400 mL of 0.06 M KCl soln. The stock

solution is 0.6 M. How many mL of water must be added to the stock
solution to produce the required concentration?
SOLUTION. Using equation, 3.1a
CBVB =
EXERCISE
CAVA
Writing the given data,

CA = 0.06M
CB = 0.6M
Page 49 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
VA = 400 mL
VB = ?
CHAPTER 4: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
VB =
C A VA
=
CB
0.06M 400 mL
0.6 M
VB = 400 mL volume of water added = 400 mL - 40 mL

= 360 mL
Thus, the volume of water added is 360 mL
3.2 TITRATION
Titration is one of the most important procedures used in chemical analysis.
In a normal analysis, a solution containing an unknown quantity of the
substance to be analyzed is placed in the receiving flask. Accurately
measured volumes of a solution of known concentration are then added
from the buret.
The complete reaction of the unknown solution and the standard solution is
indicated by the change in the color of the indicator, indicating the end point
of titration.
TITRATION. The process of determining the concentration of a solution by

allowing it to react completely with a solution of known concentration.
At equivalent point
M AV A = M BV B
(3.2a)
EXAMPLE 3.2 Titration Calculations
How many milliliters (mL) of a 0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to
completely neutralize 30 mL of a 0.246 M H2SO4 solution?
A colligative property of a system is a characteristic that is influenced by

the number of particles present in the system but is independent of the
properties of the particles themselves.
4.0 RAOULT'S LAW
The quantitative relationship between vapor pressure lowering and
concentration is incorporated in Raoult's Law.
RAOULT'S LAW. The vapor pressure of a volatile constituent of a solution
is equal to the product of the mole fraction of that constituent and the
vapor pressure of the pure component at the same temperature.
Put in mathematical form, Raoult's Law states that
P =POX
(4.0a)
Where P is the vapor pressure of a volatile constituent of a solution, P is

the vapor pressure of the pure component, and X is the mole fraction of the
volatile constituent.
Example 4.0 Raoult's Law Calculations
A chemist prepared a 22 wt.% glucose (C 6H12O6) solution in water at 29C.
Determine the vapor pressure of the solution.
4.1 TWO VOLATILE LIQUIDS (Raoults Law)
In the case of a solution in which the solute has considerable vapor pressure,
the appropriateness of Raoult's Law becomes somewhat more complicated.
Each constituent has a certain vapor pressure, which is less than that of the
pure component at the same temperature, and the vapor pressure of the
solution is the sum of the vapor pressure of the constituents. Consider a
solution of two volatile liquids, A and B. From Raoult's Law, the vapor
pressure of constituent A can be expressed the as sum of the vapor pressure
of the constituents.
Page 50 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
PA = PA XA
(4.1 a)
Where PA is the vapor pressure of pure component A at a certain

temperature and XA is the mole fraction of A in the solution. The vapor
pressure of constituent B is given by
PB = PB XB
(4.1 b)
Thus, the vapor pressure of the solution is equal to PA+ PB.
EXAMPLE 4.1 Raoults Law Calculations (Two-volatile liquids)
A solution of two volatile liquids is prepared in the laboratory. The analyst
mixed 4.0 mole of benzene (C6H6) and 6.0 mole of carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) at 25C. At this temperature, the vapor pressure of pure benzene and
carbon tetrachloride are 95.5 torr and 115.6 torr, respectively. Determine the
vapor pressure of the solution at 25C.
4.2 BOILING-POINT ELEVATION
The boiling point of a liquid is described as the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the external atmospheric pressure.
Alteration in either atmospheric pressure or vapor pressure of the liquid
will cause a common change in its boiling point. If a non-electrolyte is
decomposed in the liquid , the vapor pressure of the liquid is decreased ,
provided the solute is a nonvolatile component.
BOILING-POINT ELEVATION. Dilute solutions of nonvolatile solutes.
The boiling -point elevation of the solvent is directly proportional to the
molecular concentration of the solute.
That is,
Tb m
Tb = Kbm
(4.2 a)
where Tb is the number of degrees the boiling point is raised, m is the

concentration in molality , and Kb is the molal boiling point elevation of the
solvent.
EXAMPLE 4.2 Boiling -point Elevation Calculations.
A student in Chemistry-2 laboratory measured 55.0g of a compound

(molecular weight, 92) and dissolved it in 100.0 g of water. What is the
expected normal boiling point of the solution?
4.3 FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION
Any solute component , volatile or nonvolatile, decreases the freezing point
of a solution. The solvent component freezes when its vapor pressure above
the solution equals or is the same as the vapor pressure of the pure solid
solvent. The depression of the vapor pressure of the liquid solvent brings
down the temperature of the solid-liquid equilibrium.
FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION. Dilute solutions of non-volatile
solutes. The freezing-point depression of the solvent is directly proportional
to the molecular concentration of the solute
That is,
Tf m
Tf = Kfm
(4.3 a)
where Tf is the freezing point depression, Kf is the molal freezing point

constant, and m is the concentration of the solute in molality.
EXAMPLE 4.3 Freezing-point Depression Calculations

Ethylene glycol, is used as an antifreeze in automobile radiators. Determine
the freezing point of 30 wt. % solution of ethylene glycol , C 2H4(OH)2,
supposing that ethylene glycol and water form an ideal solution.
4.4 OSMOTIC PRESSURE
The most delicate colligative property is osmotic pressure. Membranes of
certain materials allow the flow of water molecules or ions of solutes
decomposed in the water. Examples of include many materials and
artificial membranes. Apparently, there is a transfer of water molecules
from the pure solvent through the membrane into the solution. This
Page 51 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
process is called osmosis. The osmotic pressure is the pressure that must
be applied to prevent the process of osmosis.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE. The osmotic pressure is proportional to the solute
concentration in molarity.
The following relationship has been found to apply:
=CRT
(4.4a)
where R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and C is the solute
concentration in molarity.
EXAMPLE 4.4 Osmotic Pressure Calculations
A very dilute solution 0.0020M table salt in water , is separated by an
osmotic membrane. Determine the osmotic pressure in torr developed at
25C.
Page 52 of 52

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CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

FUNDAMENTALS OF DESCRIPTIVE CHEMISTRY

(a) Physical Properties

can be expressed by using definite

Everything that surrounds us is matter. The principles of chemistry are,

All matters are continually undergoing changes either through the

anything that occupies space and has mass.

properties which do not belong to the

properties that is characteristic of any

General Chemistry Lecture 1

changes which take place without

changes which involve alteration

EVIDENCES OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

the energy that a body possesses because of

ex. Fe, Na, Hg

Table 1.1 Properties of Metals and Non-metals

Some are gases, liquids, solids; less

Malleable and ductile

Sonorous (ringing sound when

Conducts heat and electricity

Insulators (except graphite)

Usually have high melting

Low melting point

Have high tensile strength

Low tensile strength

2. Compounds -pure substances of definite composition that could

II. Law of Definite Composition A pure compound is always

wt. of chlorine obtained

III. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS When two elements

LAWS GOVERNING MATTER AND ENERGY

General Chemistry Lecture 1

Two different compounds of elements x and y were found to have the

Determine the formulas of the two compounds

chemical energy of reactants =

magnesium oxide + heat & light

A body, which acquires a certain amount of electricity, causing it to

After Daltons time, science advanced rapidly. New discoveries were

General Chemistry Lecture 1

Fig. 1 Movement of charged bodies in vacuum tube.

= -1.759 x 108 coul/g

Therefore, m = 9.110 x 10-28g

Mass Penetrating Ionizing

Fig. 2 Canal Rays

General Chemistry Lecture 1

Fig. 3 Rutherfords alpha-scattering experiment

THE ATOMIC NUMBER

Fig. 4 The gold foil experiment

The mass number of an atom is the total number of neutrons and

General Chemistry Lecture 1

1 amu (or atomic mass unit) is defined as one-twelfth the mass of

THE MASS SPECTROGRAPH

Each has 17 protons and 17 electrons; however, Cl has 18 neutrons and

Isotopes, therefore, differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

numbers, such as Pb and Bi.,

To compute the relative atomic weight of elements:

The following rules serve to help predict the composition of individual

General Chemistry Lecture 1

General Chemistry Lecture 1

Fig . 5 Measurement of a Wavelength

The height of the wave, called its amplitude, a, is related to the

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck

Table 2 gives the wavelength bends of the visible radiation (spectrum)