Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Terms:
MATTER
WEIGHT
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties are qualities possessed by substances, which enable us to
distinguish them from one another.
1. Extrinsic properties
ex.
2. Intrinsic properties
ex.
ex.
2. Chemical Changes
ex.
of
Page 1 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. There are many forms of energy that
are interconvertible.
Kinds of Energy:
1. Potential Energy
According to composition
A. Pure Substances - homogenous materials that have fixed
compositions and invariable intrinsic properties
Types of Pure Substances
1. Elements
-simplest form of matter.
-a substance that cannot be decomposed,
synthesized or transformed into another element by
simple chemical change.
Types of Elements
1. Metals
2. Non-metals
Brittle
Not sonorous
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
* The composition of a compound into the component elements is called
ANALYSIS.
B. Impure Substances or Mixtures
-contains two or more
distinct substances that can be physically
separated from each other.
Types of Impure Substances or Mixtures
1. Homogeneous mixtures (or solutions)
-mixtures
whose
compositions are uniform throughout the entire region. Ex. sugar
and water, alcohol and water
2. Heterogeneous mixtures (or suspension)
-the
different
components occupy distinct regions within the sample. Ex. gravel
and sand, oil and water
M A T T E R
S u b s ta n c e s
E le m e n t s
C om pounds
M ix t u r e s
H om ogeneous
H e te ro g e n e o u s
C + D
reactants
products
mass A + B
=
mass C + D
First Compound
Second Compound
X
2.276 g
2.276 g
Y
0.792 g
1.584 g
Page 3 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Daltons Atomic Theory
Many years after this idea on atomism began, the concept did not
influence mans natural thinking. it was not until the latter part of the 17th
century that the birth of the so called modern chemistry focused
attention on the investigation of nature which led to the recognition of
basic differences between elementary and complex substances.
Modern atomic theory defines an atom as the smallest particle of an
element that can take part in a chemical change. This idea is embodied in
Daltons atomic theory, which first appeared in print in 1808, consisted of
the following assumptions:
1. Matter is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called
atoms. (It appears that Dalton pictured an atom as tiny indestructible
spheres)
2. All atoms of a given element are alike.
3. Atoms combine to form compounds but remain unchanged during
ordinary chemical reactions.
4. Atoms can combine in simple numerical ratios.
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
The charge of a single electron was determined by Robert Millikan in his
charged-drop experiment and was found to be -1.602 x 10-19.
Hence, combining the results of Millikans and Thomsons studies, it is
possible to calculate the mass of an electron.
-1.602 x 10 -19
coul m
THE NUCLEUS
Certain atoms are unstable combinations of the fundamental particles.
These atoms spontaneously emit rays and are thereby transmuted into
atoms of a different chemical identity. This process is known as
radioactivity and was discovered by Henri Becquerel, a French physicist,
in 1896.
Ernest Rutherford, a British physicist, completely unraveled the nature
of Becquerel rays. The three types of rays emitted occurring radioactive
materials were named alpha (), beta (), and gamma (). Table 3.1
gives the properties of the 3 types.
Table 1 Properties of Radiation
Radiating SymParticle
bol
Nature
Charge
Alpha
helium atom
+2
10,000
Beta
electron
-1
1/1840
100
100
Gamma
Electro
magnetic
radiation
10,000
RUTHERFORDS EXPERIMENT
Rutherford set up an experiment similar to figure 3.3, where alpha
particles were emitted from a radioactive element. The result of his
experiment showed that
(1) Most of the particles passed through undeflected.
(2) A few passed through with large angles of defection.
(2) A few bounced back is the direction from which they came.
Page 5 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
THE NEUTRON
Experimental evidence discussed earlier show that protons have more
mass than electrons. Extensive researches have shown that the nucleus
contains other particles aside from the protons. These particles, called
neutrons, add to the mass of the practically equal to that of a proton. It
was found to have a mass of 1.675 x 10-24 g.
James Chadwick, a British physicist, discovered the neutron in 1932.
Na
11
atomic no. = 11
mass no. = 23
Page 6 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
37
Cl
and
Cl
17
17
35
37
Cl has 20 neutrons.
17
214
83
which do not have the same properties because they are not atoms of the
same element, are called ISOBARS.
Symbol
mass (amu)
charge
Electron
e-
0.0005486
-1
Proton
1.0072766
+1
Neutron
1.0086654
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Precise mass spectrographic measurements provide the best means of
determining atomic weights of elements. The standard for atomic
weights has been established as the most common isotope of carbon.
The weight of this isotope is arbitrarily defined as exactly 12 atomic
weights units and. the masses all other atoms are compared with it.
Therefore:
Page 7 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
MODERN ELECTRONIC THEORY
Rutherfords concept of the nuclear atom suffered a major flaw. While
his model remains the basis for our contemporary belief that the atom
consists of a nucleus and one or more extranuclear electrons, it leaves
many questions about the electronic structure of the atom unanswered.
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY
THE NATURE OF LIGHT & EMISSION SPECTRA
The first scientific study on the nature of light was done by Christian
Huygens, a Dutch physicist. According to him, light, like a sound, is
a wave motion. Sir Isaac Newton who theorized that light is made
up of very fast and very small particles, which travel in straight lines,
opposed this idea.
Wave is a vibrating disturbance by which energy is transmitted.
In 1864, a Scottish physicist James Maxwell predicted that an
alternating current in a circuit would radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves traveling through a vacuum with a speed of
light. He wrote that if the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic
nature of light is the same as the velocity of light, then light is an
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Henrich Hertz, a German physicist, demonstrated the
electromagnetic nature of light thereby confirming Maxwells
interpretation.
If light is a wave, it is then characterized by wavelength (). The
wavelength is the distance from crest to crest with units of m cm, and
nm.
= c
For electromagnetic waves, c is constant; thus, the wavelength is
inversely proportional to its frequency, the greater the frequency the
shorter the wavelength.
Page 8 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Albert Einstein
He used the quantum theory of Planck to solve another mystery in physics,
which is the photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric Effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are
ejected from the surface of a certain metals exposed to light of at least
a certain minimum frequency called threshold effect.
The photoelectric effect could not be explained by the wave theory of
light that is why Einstein made extraordinary assumptions, which are
extensions of Plancks idea.
Assumption of Einstein:
Radiant energy is propagated through space in a beam of light
particles called photons.
Each photon has an energy that is determine by the frequency of
light which is E = h v.
A definite amount of energy equal to hvo is needed to eject a single
electron from a given metal surface, which he called work
function, Wo.
E = hv = Wo + KE
The term light is often used to mean ordinary visible light, the
electromagnetic radiation that strikes our retinas and allows us to see.
Electromagnetic Radiation may also be used to refer any
electromagnetic radiation indicated in figure 6.
Wavelength
bend,400
nm- 450
450 - 500
500 - 570
570 - 590
590 - 620
620 - 750
Page 9 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Bohrs theory, however, describes only the hydrogen - spectrum but not
the atoms with more than one electron. It would not even predict the
2. Absorption Spectra
When continuous electromagnetic radiation (ex. white light) passes through
a substance, certain wavelengths of radiation may be absorbed. These
wavelengths are characteristic of the substance that absorbs the radiation
and the patterns of these lines are referred to as an absorption spectrum.
Findings About atomic Spectra
Every element has its own unique line spectrum, therefore these
spectra are characteristic of an atoms electronic structure
Page 10 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
2
0
1
s
p type (principal)
dumbbell
0
1
2
s
p
d type (diffuse)
rosette
0
1
2
3
0,1,2,3
0,1,2
0,1
s
p
d
f type (fundamental)
s,p,d,f
s,p,d
s,p
l
0
spectral lines
s type (sharp)
shape
spherical
5
6
7
m
0
-1,0,+1
-2,-1,0,+1,+2
Page 11 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
4. Spin Quantum Number.(s)
It takes into account the spinning of the electron around its own axis
as it moves about the nucleus. The spin is either clockwise or
counterclockwise. The values are + or - .
*note s = + ( counterclockwise ); s= - ( clockwise )
NOTE: the total number of orbital in a:
Main energy level = n2
Sub level = 2l + 1
Total electrons:
2
8
18
Therefore, two electrons can have the same set of n, l & m values only if their
s values differ. Meaning, only two electrons may occupy the same orbital in
opposite direction.
Two electrons occupying the same space orbital must have opposite
spins.
Two electrons of opposite spin in the space orbital are called electron
pair.
The magnetic properties of substances can be explained based on their
electronic structure.
Paramagnetic
o Slightly attracted by or pulled into a magnetic field
o Paramagnetism indicates that one or more electrons per
atom, ion or molecule are not paired.
o The total spin contributed by the unpaired electrons gives
rise to the overall paramagnetism.
Diamagnetic
o Slightly repelled or pushed out of a magnetic field
o Diamagnetism indicates that all electrons per atom, ion or
molecule are paired so the electrons spin balance.
Ferromagnetic
o Strongly pulled into a magnetic field
o Ferromagnetism is an extreme manifestation of
paramagnetism. Iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys
exhibit it.
o Common magnets are made of ferromagnetic substances.
II. Aufbaus Principle of building up energy levels
Electrons will successively occupy the available orbital on order of increasing
energy.
Page 12 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
The diagram shows the relative energies of the various orbital in an atom.
The
order
is
listed
as
follows:
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p
Using a guide, the order can be designated as follows:
4. CORE METHOD
1s22s22p6
3s23p2
(Ne core)10
Electronic Configuration: (Ne core)10 3s23p2
Page 13 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
For the vacant spaces, Mendeleev gave the names ekaboron, ekaaluminum
and ekasilicon to elements which have atomic weights 44, 68 and 72,
respectively.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Johann Wolfgang DoBereiner
A German chemist who in 1829 arranged elements in triad. (Li-Na-K;
Ca-Sr-Ba; Cl-Br-I)
John Alexander Reina Newlands
An English chemist who arrange elements in increasing atomic mass.
He noticed that every eight element had similar properties.
He referred this relationship as the Law of Octaves.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev & Julius Lothar Meyer
A Russian and German chemist, respectively, who proposed a much
more intensive tabulation of elements based on the regular periodic
recurrence of properties.
The following statements were contained in the paper along with the
Periodic Table by Mendeleev in 1869:
1. The elements, if arranged according to their atomic weights show an
evident periodicity of elements.
2. Elements, which are similar as regards their chemical properties,
have atomic weights, which are either nearly the same value or
increase regularly.
3. Te arrangement of the elements or of groups of elements are in
order of their atomic weights corresponds to their so-called
valences.
4. The elements, which are widely distributed in nature, have small
atomic weights and sharply defined properties. They are therefore
typical elements.
5. The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of an
element.
6. The discovery of many yet unknown elements may be expected.
7. The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be corrected by the
aid of a knowledge of those of adjacent elements.
8. Certain characteristic properties of the elements can be foretold
from their atomic weights.
General Chemistry Lecture 1
Paul Emile discovered Gallium in 1875, which has an agreement with the
physical properties of predicted ekaaluminum of Mendeleev.
Fredrick Nilson discovered Scandium in 1879, which is a good agreement
to ekaborons physical properties.
Clemens Winkler discovered Germanium, which agrees of Mendeleevs
predictions for ekasilicon. However, he corrected Mendeleevs prediction
that the element would be melted or vaporized only with difficulty.
In 1913, English physicist, Henry Gwyn Jeffrey Moseley, discovered the
correlation between the atomic number and the frequency of x-rays
generated by bombarding an element with a high-energy electrons. He
found, with a few exceptions, that atomic number increases in the same
order as atomic mass.
ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
The elements in the periodic table are arranged according to increasing
atomic number and the similarity to their properties
1. According to Periods/Series
The modern periodic table consists of 7 periods. These are the horizontal
rows in the periodic table corresponding to the main energy level.
2. According to Families/Groups
IA
IIA
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VII
A
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals
Boron Family
Carbon Family
Nitrogen Family
Oxygen Family
Halogen Family
Page 14 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
VIII
A
Noble/Inert/Rare Gases
Tl
Si
Characteristics:
Na
Rb
Cs
Readily oxidized
Ca
Sr
Ba
Characteristics:
Al
Pb
Characteristics:
As
Sb
Bi
Sn
N
2
Mg
Ge
Fr
Be
Characteristics:
Ga
In
Se
Te
Po
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Characteristics:
Cl
Br
At
Ne
In the periodic table, the metals are to the left of the stepped line
starting to the left of boron (B) and continuing downward to the right,
ending to the left of astatine (At). Except for hydrogen, all the nonmetals are to the right of this line. Several of the elements near the
stepped line have some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals; they are called metalloids. (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)
Ar
Characteristics:
Kr
Xe
Noble Gases
With the exception of He, they all have a completely filled p
subshell (The electronic configurations are 1s 2 for He and ns2 np6
for the other noble gases, where n is the principal quantum
number for the outermost shell.)
Page 16 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
These are elements, which are sometimes called as the fblock transition elements because they have incompletely filled f
subshells.
K, Na, and Li atoms have a very low 1st ionization energy, this
indicates that each has 1e- that is knocked off easily, the 2nd most
loosely held e is strongly attracted and nearer the nucleus.
2. Be, Mg and Ca have low 1st and 2nd ionization energy., the 3rd I.E.
energy are very high.
3. He, Ne and Ar have very high 1st ionization energy.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the
electrons in a chemical bond.
IONIZATION ENERGY
General Chemistry Lecture 1
Page 17 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
ELECTRON AFFINITY
ELECTRON AFFINITY
Table 4.2
H
-0.77
Li
-0.6
Na
- 0.2
B
-0.2
Al
-0.3
C
-1.25
Si
-1.4
N
+0.3
P
-0.6
O
-1.47
S
-2.07
F
-3.4
Cl
-3.61
Br
-3.36
I
-3.06
He
+0.6
Ne
1.0
A(g) + 1e-
A-(g) + energy
With the release of energy, the ion formed A- is usually more
stable than the neutral atom.
A large positive electron affinity means that the negative ion is
very stable.
If the electron affinity is positive and very low, the additional
electron is weakly bound.
If the electron affinity is positive and high, the additional electron
is tightly bound and the anion formed is stable.
An increase in electron affinity increases non-metallic property
and decreases the atomic size.
Page 18 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together. These forces are
intimately related to the arrangement of electrons in the outermost
energy levels of atoms, which are in combination.
WHY DO ATOMS BOND?
Atoms bond in order to achieve or attain stability or to have a stable
configuration. Atoms are said to be stable if the outermost shell has a
maximum number of electrons.
HOW ATOMS COMBINE
The most important structural feature of atoms in determining
chemical behavior is the number of electrons in their outermost energy
levels or valence electrons.
Valence electrons are the electrons of the atoms in their
outermost main energy level.
When atoms of one element combine with those of another, there is
always some change in the distribution of electrons in the outermost energy
levels. Atoms of certain elements tend to gain electrons and others tend to
lose electrons. As a result of these tendencies, atoms may combine by:
a) transfer of valence electrons from the atoms of one element to
another, or
b) sharing of valence electrons by two or more atoms.
Either process may provide for a stable arrangement of electrons
that results in the formation of a compound.
At the end of each period in the periodic table are the Noble Gases
(groups VIIIA) that do not combine readily with other elements. These
families of elements whose members form compounds rarely, if at all, are
considered to have atoms that have stable electron arrangements. They have
little tendency to gain, lose or share electrons with other atoms.
Rule of Eight
To be stable, atoms of elements must have the eight electrons in
their highest main energy level. Structure of the highest main energy level
must be s2 p6 (p sublevel is complete).
Rule of Two
Other elements such as H1, Li3, or Be4 follow the so-called rule of
two wherein on y the s orbital is complete.
LEWIS DOT SYMBOLS
When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, only their outer regions are
in contact. For this reason, when we study chemical bonding, we are
concerned primarily with the valence electrons of atoms. To keep track of
valence electrons in compound formation and to make sure that the total
number of electrons does not change, chemist use a system of dots derived
by Gilbert Lewis, called Lewis dot symbols.
Examples:
A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one dot
for each valence electron in an atom of the element.
LEWIS STRUCTURE
A representation of covalent bonding using Lewis symbol. Shared
electron pairs are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two
atoms, and lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms.
Page 19 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS
In general, when a metallic element combines with a non-metallic
element, electrons are lost by atoms of the metal and gained by the
atoms of the non-metal.
Example: When lithium and fluorine atoms come in contact with each
other, the outer 2s' valence electron of lithium is transferred to the
fluorine atom. Using Lewis dot symbols, we represent the reaction like
this:
When electrons are transferred from one atom to another, ions are
formed. Positive ions are called cations while negative ions are called
anions. The cations and anions are held together by the electrostatic
attraction between the positively charged ion and the negatively charged
ion. This attraction is called an ionic bond.
Compounds in which particles are held together by ionic bonds are called
ionic compounds.
In general, when a non-metallic element combines with another nonmetallic element, electrons are neither gained nor lost by the atoms, but
are shared.
Example: An atom of fluorine combines with another fluorine atom, each
having seven electrons in its highest level, unite to form a molecule of
fluorine (F2), by sharing two of these fourteen electrons between them.
Note that some valence electrons are not involved in covalent bond
formation; these are called non-bonding pairs or lone pairs.
A shared pair of electrons is called a covalent bond. Compounds whose
atoms are joined by covalent bonds are called covalent compounds.
Page 20 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Multiple Bonds
Two atoms held together by one electron pair are said to be joined by a
single covalent bond.
Covalent bonds formed when two atoms share two or more pairs of
electrons are called multiple bonds.
Example:
(a) CO2
(b) C2H2
(c) C2H4
*In working out the Lewis structure for a comparatively simple
molecule, we can generally determine whether multiple bonds are
required by first joining together the atoms other than H or a group VIIA
element. If unpaired electrons remain, these are paired to produce the
multiple bond.
Example: formaldehyde, H2CO
Page 21 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
5.
Write the Lewis Structure for each of the following compounds and
identify which is the coordinate covalent bond.
a) H3PO4
b) H2SO3
c) HNO3
d) COBr2
Practice Exercises
1.
Show the formation of ionic bonds between each of the following pairs
of atoms, then give the formula of the resulting compound.
a) Na and Cl
b) Ca and O
c) Mg and Br
d) Li and O
e) Al and O
______ b) HONO
4. Write the Lewis Structure for the three compounds given in the
previous number.
Page 22 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
It is a representation, which is used to denote one molecule of pure
substance.
It indicates the relative amount of atoms of each element in a molecule,
which consists of symbols of the elements composing the pure substance
and subscripts denoting relative number of atoms of each element in a
unit particle or molecule of the element of compound.
OXIDATION NUMBERS
Oxidation number or oxidation state is an apparent charge of an atom in
a compound when electrons are transferred from one atom to another to
form ions.
This set of whole numbers (sometimes positive and in other cases,
negative) are very useful for predicting the formulas of the compounds,
classifying them, comparing the chemical properties of the elements and
describing chemical reactions.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers / States
1. The oxidation numbers of an element in the free or uncombined
state is always zero.
Example: Cu0, Si0, Mg0
2. The oxidation numbers of monoatomic ion is the same as the charge
on the ion.
GROUP
NO.
IA
OXIDATION
NUMBERS
+1
IIA
+2
IIIA
+3
Al3+, B3+
IVA
+4/-4
C4+
VA
-3
VIA
-2
O2-
VIIA
-1
F-, Cl-
2+
Cr3+
Mn
2+
Mn4+
manganese (IV)
Fe
ferrous/iron (II)
2+
EXAMPLES
Fe3+
Co
2+
ferric/iron (III)
cobaltous/cobalt (II)
Co3+
cobaltic/cobalt (III)
Cu
cuprous/copper (I)
Cu2+
cupric/copper (II)
Hg
mercurous/mercury (I)
Hg2+
mercuric/mercury (II)
Page 23 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Sn2+
stannous/tin(II)
Sn4+
stannic/tin (IV)
Pb2+
plumbous/lead (II)
Pb
plumbic/lead (IV)
4+
H+
hydrogen/hydronium
hydride
C2O42SO32SO42S2O32HPO42SiO32ZnO22PO33PO43-
P2O745.
Oxalate
Sulfite
Sulfate
Thiosulfate
Biphosphate
Silicate
Zincate
Trivalent ions
Phosphite
Phosphate
Polyvalent ions
Pyrophosphate
Metals, nonmetals and inert gases have their formulas the same as
their symbols.
Example: Calcium Ca.,
Magnesium Mg
Page 24 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
a.
c. K3N
d. CaO
Potassium nitride
Calcium Oxide
Rule : name the metal with suffixes ous or ic + name of nonmetal + IDE
Cu3B
SnS2
Cuprous boride
Stannic sulfide
EXAMPLES
Determine the formulas of the following compounds:
1. Sodium chloride
Na+ Cl- NaCl
2. Ferrous oxide
Fe2+ O2- FeO
3+ -3. Aluminum iodide
Al I
AlI3
4. Calcium phosphate
Ca2+ (PO4)3Ca3(PO4)2
5. Ammonium carbonate
(NH4)+ (CO3)2- (NH4)2CO3
PbBr2
AuCl3
II. BINARY ACIDS - binary compounds containing hydrogen and nonmetallic element.
Dry form (when acid is not dissolved in water)
Sodium iodide
Magnesium bromide
HCl
HBr
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen bromide
Page 25 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Numeric Prefixes
1 - mono
2 - di
3 - tri
4 - tetra
5 - penta
6 - hexa
7 - hepta
8 - octa
9 - nona
10 - deca
11 - undeca
12 - dodeca
Rule:
Name the more positive element first and followed by the name
of the more negative element
Use the Greek prefixes listed above, to indicate the number of
atoms of each type of element present in the formula of the
compound.
The prefix MONO is often omitted when it applies to the first
element in a compound.
Use the suffix _IDE to the second element.
N2 O
dinitrogen monoxide
CO
carbon monoxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
Dry form
Rule: Hydrogen + Oxy-ion in ATE form
H2CO3 Hydrogen carbonate
H3PO4 Hydrogen phosphate
Rule: Hydrogen + Oxy-ion in ITE form
H2SO3 Hydrogen sulfite
H3PO3 Hydrogen phosphite
Aqueous form
The negative ion is in the form of suffix ATE
Rule: name the root of the middle element + IC plus the word
acid
H2CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid
The negative ion is in the form of suffix ITE
Rule: name the root of the middle element + OUS plus the word
acid
H2SO3(aq)
Sulfurous acid
II. TERNARY SALTS salts of the oxy-acids.
- Metal + Oxy-ion
IV. HYDRIDES
Hydrogen reacts with many metals to form binary compounds
called hydrides. In these compounds, the hydrogen is more
electronegative than the metal and it is assigned an oxidation
number of 1.
Rule: name the metal + hydride
RbH
CsH
LiH
Rubidium hydride
Cesium hydride
Lithium hydride
Page 26 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING FOUR OR MORE ELEMENTS
Rule: name the positive ion + name the negative ion
NH4ClO
ammonium hypochlorite
Hydrates
These compounds contain water molecules as a part of its crystalline
structure. Hydrates are named by indicating the name of the compound
first exclusive of the water followed by the term HYDRATE with a prefix
mono, di, tri, etc. representing the number of water molecules present. A
number may be used also.
BaCl2 H2O Barium chloride dihydrate
or Barium chloride 2-hydrate
Page 27 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
reactants
D + E + heat
products
where (s), (l), (g) - signifies the physical states of the compound
- shows the compound is a gas
- shows the compound is a deposit
- symbolizes presence of heat
F - a catalyst
a. metal + oxygen
metallic oxide
Ex. barium + oxygen
step 1: Ba + O2
step 2: Ba+2 O-2
BaO
step 3: 2Ba + O2
2BaO
b. non-metal + oxygen
Ex. sulfur + oxygen
step 1: S + O2
step 3: S + O2
or 2S + 3O2
B. General Rule: A + O2
non-metallic oxide
SO2
2 SO3
C + D
CO2 + 2H2O
step 1:
step 2:
CO + 2H2O
step 3:
I. Combination/Synthesis/Metathesis
-a single substance is formed by union of two substances.
AB
Acid
NaI
Base
A. General Rule: A + B
Base + H2
2NaOH + H2
2NaI
Page 28 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
where: B and C are non-metals and C is more active than B. Use the
II. Decomposition:
A reaction that involves using of heat or electric current: It is
the opposite reaction of synthesis.
General Rule:
AB
A + B
General Rule:
B. Metal oxide
HgO Hg + O2
D. Metal bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O
E. Metal oxyhalide
KBrO3 KBr + O2
CuSO4 Cu0 + O2 + H2SO4
III. Single Displacement
the possibility of the positive part of a compound may interact
with the negative part of the second
compound.
CB + A
AB + CD
AD + CB
C. Metal nitrate
NaNO3 NaNO2 + O2
B. General Rule: AB + C
BaF2 + Cl2
IV. Double Decomposition
A. Metal carbonate
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
A General Rule: AB + C
Activity Series of the non-metals, (F, O, Cl, Br, I, S). If not, no reaction
will occur.
AC + B
3Ca(C2H3O2)2 +
2(NH4)3PO4
potassium dichromate + plumbous nitrate
K2Cr2O7 + Pb(NO3)2
2 KNO3 + PbCr2O7
To determine whether a reaction will take place, the activity series of
elements (metals) is used.
Activity Series of Metals
Metal Name
Symbo
Code Name
Potassium (most
l
K
Peter
active)
Sodium
Na
Saw
Calcium
Ca
Carl
Magnesium
Mg
Make
Aluminum
Al
Manganese
Mn
Mangy
Page 29 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Zinc
Zn
Zebra
Chromium
Cr
Carry
Iron
Fe
Iron
Nickel
Ni
Nails
Tin
Sn
To
Lead
Pb
Liverpool
Hydrogen
He
Copper
Cu
Caught
Bismuth
Bi
Ben
Antimony
Sb
Mercury
Hg
Mexican
Silver
Ag
Silver
Platinum
Pt
Plated
Au
Goat
Page 30 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
STOICHIOMETRY
Atomic Weight is the relative weight of an atom expressed in
amu (atomic mass unit).
Hydrogen, H, has a relative atomic weight of 1.0079 amu while
carbon, C, has 12.011 amu.
1 amu is equivalent to about 1.661 x 10-24 g.
1 g requires about 6.022 x 10 23 amu (Avogadros Number)
Molecular Weight
of a substance is the sum of the weights
of the atoms as shown in its formula.
Example:
Calculate the molecular weight of the following compound.
barium carbonate
calcium phosphate
sulfuric acid
ferric dichromate
Page 31 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
CALCULATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR
FORMULA
Empirical Formula is the simplest formula of a compound. It contains
the simplest ratio of atoms in the compound.
Molecular Formula is a whole-number multiple of its empirical formula.
This is the true formula of the compounds.
Guidelines to calculate the empirical and molecular formula.
1. Determine the weight of each element in a compound.
2. Calculate the number of moles of the elements.
3. Determine the smallest mole.
4. Calculate the number of atoms of each element by dividing each mole
of the element by the smallest mole to get the empirical formula.
5. Calculate the empirical formula weight
Molecular weight
6. Compute for n. n =
Empirical Formula Weight
7. Distribute n to the Empirical Formula to get the Molecular Formula
4CO2 + 2 H2O
4moles
2moles
Percent Composition
Molecular
Weights
73.8
294.2
the
Page 32 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Total weight of the substance = weight of the pure compound + weight
of the impurities
Recall that from the weight and MW of a compound, we can determine the
number of moles, n, [n = (W/MW)]. We could therefore establish a weightto-weight relationship of each compound involved a balanced chemical
reaction.
Weight-Weight Relationship
Based on the balanced equation:
4NH3(g) + 5O2
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
How many grams of NH3 will be required to produce 200g of H2O?
Previous stoichiometric calculations are done with the assumption that all
compounds are pure, i.e., no impurities are present. However, in reality, the
raw materials (no reactants) used are mixed with various useless contents.
It is vital to remember that only active or pure compounds participate in the
chemical reaction. The purity of a substance is expressed as percent
purity.
Weight of pure compound in a substance
Percent Purity =
x X 100
Page 33 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Percent yield =
actual yield
100
theoretical yield
Page 34 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
The type of gas behaving according to the kinetic molecular theory (KMT) is
called an ideal or perfect gas.
PRESSURE. Pressure is defined as a force that is exerted per unit of area.
This is obtained by dividing the force by the area on which the force acts.
The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth known as atmospheric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is approximately 1 atmosphere, but
varies with elevation or altitude. Conversion of pressure units is given in the
table below:
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
= 76 cm Hg
1 Torr = 1 mm Hg
1 Pa = 1 N/m
= 14.7 lbs/in
These three states of matter undergo certain phase transformation and
examples of such phase transformations are as follows: freezing, melting,
evaporation, condensation and sublimation.
Behavior of Gases
Any form of matter exists under suitable conditions of temperature, pressure
and volume. The effect of these three factors is quite obvious in gases and
under the same sets of conditions, behavior of gases can be explained by
the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT).
= 760 Torr
= 101,325 Pa
= 101.325 KPa
TEMPERATURE. Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or
coldness of a body. To measure, temperature, thermometers are used. Three
temperature scales are currently in use
The Kinetic Molecular Theory. The following are the basic assumption
of the theory.
1. All gases are made up of tiny particles called molecules.
2. These molecules are very small in relation to the distances between them.
Page 35 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
GAS LAWS
Molecules of matter when heated move faster but when cooled, the particles
move slower and slower until, theoretically all motion stops. The lowest
possible hypothetical T at which V is zero is -273.15C (all molecules will
stop moving.)
To convert temperatures from one scale to another, the following equations
maybe used:
100 C
F - 32
180 F
180 F
F
C + 32
100 C
or
or
K = C + 273.15
5 C
F - 32
9 F
9 F
F C + 32
5C
(eqn.2.2)
(eqn.2.1)
1
P
The heart of Boyles Law is the experimental fact that the product of
pressure and volume is constant.
This can be expressed in the following form, which is easier to use in
calculations. The subscripts 1 and 2 rearranging,
Page 36 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
P1V1=P2V2
A given mass of oxygen occupies 50 mL at 101.3 KPa at 30C. At what
pressure will it occupy 450 mL at the same temperature?
ANALYSIS: The conditions for using Boyles Law are satisfied; the mass
(or moles) and temperature are fixed and only P and V vary so eqn. 3.2 is
applicable. We have the following data:
P1 = 101.4 KPa
V1=500 mL
(eqn. 2.4)
V
K
T
(eqn. 2.5)
P2=?
V2=450 mL
P2
PV
1 1
V2
SOLUTION. We simply insert the data into this equation and to the
mathematics.
P2=(101 KPa)(500 mL)/(450 mL)
P2=112.6 Kpa
The Absolute Temperature (Kelvin) of the gas varies proportionally with
volume at constant pressure. Jacques Charles made a series of experiments
which resulted in this relationship of the volume of the gas and its
temperature.
TEMPERATURE-VOLUME LAW (CHARLES' LAW). The volume of a
given amount of gas held at constant pressure is directly proportional to the
absolute (Kelvin) temperature.
General Chemistry Lecture 1
V1
V
= 2
T1
T2
(eqn. 2.6)
T2 = 37 + 273 = 310 K
V2 = ?
Page 37 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
V1
T1
V2 T2
SOLUTION. Substituting the data into this equation, all that is left is the
arithmetic,
1.80 L
V2 310 K
293 K
V2 = 1. 90 L
Hence, the final volume becomes 1.90 L and as you can see, a gas when
heated at constant pressure expands.
French scientists Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay Lussac, through a series
of experiments, derived the relationship that exists between pressure and
temperature for a fixed amount of gas at constant volume. This relationship
is now known as Pressure-Temperature Law or Gay- Lussac's Law.
T2 P2
(eqn. 2.7)
Equation 2.8 maybe derived in the same manner that equations for Boyle's
and Charles were formulated.
P1
P
= 2
T1
T2
(eqn. 2.8)
T2
0.55 atm
273 K
1.35 atm
T2 = 111.2 K or -161.78 C
For the second question, the initial conditions are the same, so we have the
following data for (b)
P1 = 1.35 atm
T1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K
P2 = ?
T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K
Page 38 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
P1
T1
P2 T2
The gas present in electric light bulbs is argon. If a sample of this gas is at a
pressure of 101.325 KPa, when the volume is 0.1 L and the temperature is 32
C, what must its temperature be if its volume becomes 200 mL and its
pressure 96 KPa.
P2
373 K
1.35 atm
273 K
ANALYSIS. From the given data, only the amount of the gas remains fixed
and the three other factors (P, T and V) vary. The Combined Gas Law,
therefore applies. The following data were
P2 = 6.90 atm
Given:
A general gas law maybe derived from the combination of the three laws
previously stated. This maybe called the Combined Gas Law.
P1 = 101.325 KPa
P2 = 96 KPa
V1 = 0.1 L
V2 = 200 mL or 0.2 L
T1 = 32 + 273 = 305 K T2 = ?
We arranged eqn. 2.10 to solve for the final temperature
P2 V2
T1
P1 V1
T2 =
COMBINED GAS LAW. The volume of a fixed amount of a gas is directly
proportional to the ration of its absolute temperature and its pressure.
Mathematically, this could be written as
T
P
T2 =
(eqn. 2.9)
P1V1
PV
= 2 2
T1
T2
Substituting, we have
(eqn. 2.10)
96 KPa 0.2 L
305 K
101.325 KPa 0.1K
T2 = 577.94 K, or 304.9 C
Page 39 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
equation 2.13 and use standard conditions including the standard molar
volume.
(eqn. 2.11)
R =
Where n represents the number of moles of the gas and V its volume.
Applying Avogadro's Law, to chemical equations, it could be deduced that
the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation would represent the ratio of
the volumes of the gaseous substances.
There is a standard condition of temperature and pressure, or simply STP.
Under STP, pressure is fixed at 1 atm and temperature at 0 C or 273 K and
the volume of 1 mole of a gas is constant at 22.4 L called the standard molar
volume.
PV
nT
R = 0.08205
= 62.36
atm - L
mol - K
mmHg - L
mol - K
= 62,358.97
Boyle's Law
: V 1/P
(at constant n & T)
Charles' Law : V 1/T
(at constant n & P)
Avogadro's Law : V n
(at constant P & T)
= 82.05
torr - mL
mol - K
atm - mL
mol - K
nT
P
(eqn. 2.12)
V = R
nT
P
PV = nRT
(eqn. 2.3)
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
R = 0.08205
atm - L
mol - K
V =
nRT
P
0.08205
L atm
mol K
1 atm
V = 33.6 L
0.08205
9.5 atm
atm - L
mol - K
V = 20.88 L
Hence, the volume that sulfur hexafluoride would occupy is about 20.88 L.
Carbon dioxide gas, CO2, is the gas produced during the process of
respiration.
Calculate the volume, in liters (L), occupied by 1.50 moles of CO 2 at STP.
ANALYSIS. Since the gas is measured at STP conditions, the volume could
be calculated using the ideal gas equation, so we have the following data:
n = 1.50 moles
T = 273 K
P = 1 atm
R = 0.08205
nRT
P
atm - L
mol - k
22.4 L CO 2
1 mole CO 2
V 1.5 moles CO 2
m
MW
(eqn. 2.14)
Page 41 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Where m is the mass of the gas in grams and MW is its molecular weight
in g/mol.. Substituting in the ideal eqn.
PV
The calculated molecular mass of the unknowns inert gas is 83.8 g/mol.
With the aid of the periodic table, the gas with the same molar mass is
krypton.
mRT
MW
MW
mRT
PV
(eqn. 2.15)
= m/ V
( eqn. 2.16)
MW
mRT
PV
m mRT
V
PV
(eqn. 2.17)
ANALYSIS. To find the molecular mass of the unknown gas, eqn. 2.15
maybe used. Notice that all the variables are given so the problem could be
solved directly by simply substituting the values.
m = 0.933 g
P 690 mg
R = 6.36
mg - L
mol - K
V = 300 mL or 0.3 L
Solving,
MW
MW = 83.8 g/mol
General Chemistry Lecture 1
P 5 atm
R = 0.08205
atm - L
mol - K
Page 42 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
T = 25 C + 273 = 298 K
MW = 16 g/mol ( from periodic table)
Substituting,
5 atm 16 g / mol
298
K
mole
fraction
= 3.27 g/L
The density of methane gas at the specified conditions is therefore 3.27 g/L.
In 1801, John Dalton's formulated a law regarding gaseous mixture now
known as Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.
DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES The total pressure of a
gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the gases
present.
Stated mathematically,
PT = PA + PB + PC + .... PN
(eqn. 2.18)
Where PT is the total pressure and P A, PB, PC, ...PN are the partial
pressures of the individual gases.
Amagat complemented the work of John Dalton by formulating a law also
on gaseous mixture. The law came to be known as Amagat's Law of Partial
Volume.
AMAGAT'S LAW OF PARTIAL VOLUME The total volume of a gaseous
mixture is equal to the sum of the partial volumes of the gases present.
Just like total pressure, this could be written mathematically as
volume
fraction
pressure
fraction
XA
nA
;
nT
PA
nA
PT ;
nT
VA X APT
XB
nB
;
nT
PB
nB
PT ;
nT
VB X BPT
XC
nC
;
nT
PC
nC
PT ;
nT
VC X CPT
A mixture of gases contains C3H8, C2H6 and CH4. If the total pressure is 2
atm and the numbers of moles of the gases present are 0.6, 0.5 and 0.25
respectively, calculate the partial pressures of the gases. If the total volume
of the gas mixture is 300 mL, what are the partial volumes of the gases?
Page 43 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
ANALYSIS. The problem deals with a mixture of gases so to solve for the
individual partial pressures, equation 2.20 maybe used. To use this
equation, we must first solve for the mole fraction of each component. Let us
first assemble the data,
nC3H8 = 0.6
NC2H6 = 0.5
nCH4 = 0.25
n C3H8
and
V C2H6 =
V CH4 =
111.11 mL
55.55 mL
PT = 2.0 atm
X C 3H 8
= 133.33 mL
n C3H8
0.6 mol
Gases that do not dissolve in water are usually prepared in the laboratory by
a method known as water displacement. These gases once trapped are
considerably wet since they are saturated with water vapor. Hence to
calculate for the total pressure, the pressure exerted by water vapor must be
considered.
PTotal = Pgas + P water
(eqn 2.21)
X C3H8 = 0.444
To solve for the individual partial volumes, we can use eqn. 2.21,
V C3H8=X C3H8PT
= (0.444) (300 mL)
General Chemistry Lecture 1
Page 44 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
= 738. 24 torr
where r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion or effusion of gases 1 and 2, MW1
and MW2 are the molar masses and 1 and 2 are the densities respectively.
m CO2
The rate at which argon (Ar) effuses through a pinhole is 4.50 mL/min. At
what rate will hydrogen gas (H 2) effuse through the same hole under similar
conditions?
PO2V MW
RT
m O2
g
738.24torr 0.130L 32 mol
torr L
62.36
25 C 273 K
mol K
ANALYSIS. From the periodic table we find the molar masses of the two
gases. Setting up the data, we have:
r Ar = 4.50 mL/min.
MWAr = 39.95 g/mol
MWH2 = 2.02 g/mol
rH2 = ?
By rearranging eqn. 2.22, we now can solve for the rate of effusion of
hydrogen gas.
= 0.165 g
rH2 rAr
r1
r2
rH 2
mL
4.50
min
MW Ar
MW Ar
g
mol
g
2.02
mol
39.95
rH2 20 mL / min
Hence, from the calculated rate of effusion of H 2 which is 20 mL/min., we
can say that light gases effuse more rapidly.
2.4 STOICHOMETRY INVOLVING GASES
MW2
MW1
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
Molar Mass
mass A
From the balanced equation we know that 1 mole of glucose (C6H12O6) will
produce 6 moles of CO2. Hence,
Molar Mass
Coefficients
of
Moles A
Moles B
Ideal gas eqn
eqn.
P, V, T
PV=nRT
mass
Ideal gas eqn
P, V, T
PV=nRT
n CO2 n C6H12O 6
6 mole CO 2
1 mole C 6H12 O 6
PCO2VCO2 nCO2 RT
VCO2
Calculate the volume of CO2 produced at 40C and 760 torr when 6.50 g of
glucose is used up in the reaction.
ANALYSIS. Mass of glucose was given so we have to convert it first to
moles of glucose and moles of CO 2. Once the moles of CO 2 are known, by
using this ideal gas equation, its volume maybe calculated given the
condition. We have the following data:
m C6H12O6 = 6.5 g
P = 760 torr
coeff. of CO 2
coeff. of C 6H12 O 6
nCO2 RT
PCO2
62.36
760 torr
torr L
mol K
VCO2 5.56L
R = 62.36 torr-L/mol-K
Solving for mole glucose, (from. Periodic Table, MWglucose = 180 g/mol)
n C6 H12O6
m
6.50 g
g
MW
180
mol
= 0.036 moles
Page 46 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
how many liters of N2 are needed to react completely with 50.0 L of H 2, if the
volumes of both gases are measured at STP?
VN2 50.0L H2
1 L N2
3 L H2
VN2 16.67 L
1. Solid Solution
2. Liquid Solution
3. Gaseous Solution
1 Nature of Solutions
3.1 Definition
2. Solvent - the medium into which solutes are dissolved. The solvent is
usually present in greater amounts.
General Chemistry Lecture 1
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
2. Temperature
WA
100
WA + WB
(3.0a)
% WA =
% VA =
VA
100
VA + VB
(3.0b)
the solubility.
Solubility
1
T
3. Pressure
solubility.
For gases in liquids, the higher the pressure, the higher the
Solubility P
MOLE PERCENTAGE. The parts by mole of solute per 100 parts by mole of
solution.
The mole percentage can be expressed as
% nA =
nA
100
n A + nB
(3.0c)
Page 48 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
XA =
nA
n A + nB
3.1 DILUTION
(3.0d)
where XA is the representation for the mole fraction of the solute.
MOLARITY. The number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
moles of solute
liter of solution
After dilution
Amount of solute
= Amount of solute
Amount of solvent
< Amount of solvent
Amount of solution < Amount of solution
M =
(3.0e)
CAVA
(3.1a)
where CB and CA represents the concentration before and after dilution. The
symbol VB is the volume before dilution and VA is the volume after dilution
MOLALITY. The number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
EXAMPLE 3.1 Dilution Calculations
The concentration can be expressed as
m =
moles of solute
ki log ram of solvent
(3.0f)
EXERCISE
CAVA
CB = 0.6M
Page 49 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
VA = 400 mL
VB = ?
CHAPTER 4: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
VB =
C A VA
=
CB
0.06M 400 mL
0.6 M
(4.0a)
Page 50 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
PA = PA XA
(4.1 a)
(4.2 a)
(4.3 a)
Page 51 of 52
CHEMISTRY REVIEWER
process is called osmosis. The osmotic pressure is the pressure that must
be applied to prevent the process of osmosis.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE. The osmotic pressure is proportional to the solute
concentration in molarity.
The following relationship has been found to apply:
=CRT
(4.4a)
where R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and C is the solute
concentration in molarity.
EXAMPLE 4.4 Osmotic Pressure Calculations
A very dilute solution 0.0020M table salt in water , is separated by an
osmotic membrane. Determine the osmotic pressure in torr developed at
25C.
Page 52 of 52