Demidovich Problems in Mathematical Analysis

C.
T. C. BapaneHKoe. B. 77 AeMudoeuH, B. A
M. Koean, r Jl JJyHit, E
noptuneea,
C. B. <Ppo/io8> P. fl. UlocmaK, A. P.
H. Ctweea,
SAflAMM H VnPA)KHEHHfl
no
MATEMATM H ECKOMV
AHAJ1H3V
I7od
B.
H.
AE
rocydapcmeeHHoe
a
G. Baranenkov* B. Drmidovich V. Efimenko, S. Kogan,

G. Lunts>> E. Porshncva, E. bychfia, S. frolov, /?. bhostak,
A. Yanpolsky
PROBLEMS
IN
MATHEMATICAL
ANALYSIS
Under
B.
the editorship
of
DEMIDOVICH
Translated from the Russian

by
G.
YANKOVSKV
MIR PUBLISHERS
Moscow
TO THE READER
MIR
opinion
of
Publishers would be
the translation and
glad
the
to
have your
design
of
this
book.
Please send your suggestions to 2, Pervy Rtzhtky

Pereulok, Moscow, U. S. S. R.
Second Printing
Printed
in
the
Union
of
Soviet Socialist
Republic*
CONTENTS
9
Preface
Chapter
Sec.
I.
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS
1.
Functions
Sec. 2
Graphs
Sec. 3
Limits
of
11
Elementary Functions
16
22
Infinitely Small and Large Quantities

Sec. 5. Continuity of Functions
33
Sec. 4
Chapter II
Sec
Sec
1.
36
DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS
Calculating Derivatives Directly
Tabular Differentiation
42
46
Sec. 3 The Derivatwes of Functions Not Represented Explicitly

Sec. 4. Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative
Sec 5 Derivatives of Higier Orders
Sec
Sec
Sec. 8
56
60
66
and Higher Orders

Mean Value Theorems
Taylor's Formula
Differentials of First
9 The L'Hospital-Bernoulli Rule

Forms
Sec
for
Evaluating
71
75
77
Indeterminate
78
THE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION AND THE GEOMETRIC

APPLICATIONS OF A DERIVATIVE
Chapter III
Sec.
1.
Sec. 2
Sec
Sec
4.
Sec. 5.
Chapter IV
Sec.
Sec
Sec
Sec. 4
Sec. 5.
The Extrema of a Function

The Direction of Concavity
of
One Argument
83
Points of Inflection
Asymptotes
Graphing Functions by Characteristic Points
Differential of an Arc Curvature
91
93
96
.
101
INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
Direct Integration
Integration by Substitution
Integration by Parts
Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial

Integration of Rational Functions
107
113
116
....
118
121
Contents
Sec. 6.
Integrating Certain Irrational Functions
125
Sec
Integrating Trigoncrretric Functions

Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
128
7.
Sec. 8
Sec
9.
133
Using Ingonometric and Hyperbolic Substitutions
integrals of the
Form
(x,
â^ + bx + c) dx,
for
Where R
Finding
is
Ra-
tional Function
Sec
10
Sec
11
Sec.
12.
133
Integration of
Vanou* Transcendental Functions
135
Using Reduction Formulas

Miscellaneous Examples on Integration
135
136
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Chapter V
Sec.
1.
Sec
The Definite Integral
as the Limit of a
Sum
138
Evaluating Ccfirite Integrals by Means of Indefinite Integrals 140
Sec. 3
Improper Integrals
Sec
Charge
of
143
Variable in a Definite Integral
146
Sec. 5.
149
Mean-Value Theorem
Sec. 7. The Areas of Plane Figures
Sec 8. The Arc Length of a Curve
Sec 9 Volumes of Solids
Sec 10 The Area of a Surface of Revolution
Sec
Sec
11
torrents
Sec
12.
Applying Definite Integrals
Centres
of
Gravity
150
153
158
161
166
Guldin's Theorems
to the Solution of Physical
168
Prob-
lems
Chapter VI.
Sec.
1.
173
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Basic Notions
180
Sec. 2. Continuity
184
Sec
Partial Derivatives
185
Sec
Total Differential of a Function
187
Sec
Differentiation of Composite Functions

190
Given Direction and the Gradient of a Function 193
Sec. 6. Derivative in a
Sec. 7
Sec
Sec
Sec
HigKei -Order Derivatives and Differentials
197
Integration of Total Differentials

9 Differentiation of Implicit Functions
10 Change of Variables
202
205
.211
217
15
The Tangent Plane and the Normal to a Surface

for a Function of Several Variables
.
The Extremum of a Function of Several Variables
....
*
Firdirg the Greatest and tallest Values of Functions
Smcular Points of Plane Curves
16
Envelope
232
Sec.
11.
Sec
12
Sec.
13
Sec
14
Sec
Sec
Taylor's Formula
Sec. 17. Arc Length o! a Space
Curve
220
222
227
230
234
Contents
Sec.
18.
Sec.
19
The Vector Function of a Scalar Argument

The Natural Trihedron of a Space Curve
Curvature and Torsion of a Space Curve
Sec. 20.
Chapter VII.
Sec.
The Double
Integral in Rectangular Coordinates
Sec.
Sec.
7.
Triple Integrals
Sec.
8.
Improper Integrals
Sec.
Sec.
Sec.
238
242
MULTIPLE AND LINE INTEGRALS
Change of Variables in a Double Integral

3. Computing Areas
4. Computing Volumes
5. Computing the Areas of Surfaces
6 Applications of the Double Integral in Mechanics
Sec.
235
246
252
256
258
259
230
262
Dependent
on
Parameter.
Improper
269
Multifle Integrals
9 Line Integrals
273
Sec.
Sec.
10.
Surface Integrals
284
Sec.
11.
Sec.
12.
The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula

Fundamentals of Field Theory
288
286
Chapter VIII. SERIES

Sec.
Number
1.
293
Series
Sec. 2. Functional Series
304
Sec. 3. Taylor's Series

Sec. 4. Fourier's Series
318
Chapter
Sec.
311
IX DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.
Verifying Solutions. Forming Differential Equations

Curves. Initial Conditions
of
Fami-
lies of
Sec. 2
Sec.
3.
327
Orthogonal Trajectories
Sec. 4
322
324
First-Order Differential Equations
First-Order Diflerential Equations with Variables Separable.
First-Order
Sec. 5. First-Order
Homogeneous
Linear
Differential
Differential
330
Equations
Equations.
Bernoulli's
332
Equation
335
Sec. 6 Exact Differential Equations. Integrating Factor
Sec 7 First-Order Differential Equations not Solved for the Derivative 337
339
Sec. 8. The Lagrange and Clairaut Equations
Sec. 9. Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations 340
345
Sec. 10. Higher-Order Differential Equations
349
Sec. 11. Linear Differential Equations
Sec.
12.
Linear Differential Equations of Second Order with Constant
Coefficients
351
Contents
8
Sec. 13. Linear
Differential
Equations of Order
Higher
than
Two
356
with Constant Coefficients

Sec
14.
Euler's Equations
Sec
15.
Systems
of
Differential
357
Integration of Differential Equations by
Sec. 16.
359
Equations
Means
of
Power
Se-
361
ries
Sec
17.
Chapter X.
Problems on Fourier's Method
363
APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS
367
Sec. 2.
Operations on Approximate Numbers

Interpolation of Functions
Sec.
Computing the^Rcal Roots
376
Sec.
3.
Sec. 4
Numerical, Integration of
Nun
Equations
Functions
Integration of Ordinary DilUrtntial Equations

Sec. 6. Approximating Ftuncr's Coefficients
Sec. 5.
372
of
er:ca1
382
.
384
3>3
ANSWERS
396
APPENDIX
475
I.
II.
Greek Alphabet
Some Constants
Inverse Quantities, Powers, Roots, Logarithms

Trigonometric Functions
V. Exponential, Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions
VI. Some Curves
475
475
III.
476
IV
478
479
480
PREFACE
This collection of problems and exercises in mathematical analcovers the maximum requirements of general courses in
ysis
higher mathematics for higher technical schools. It contains over
3,000 problems sequentially arranged in Chapters I to X covering
branches of higher mathematics (with the exception of analytical geometry) given in college courses. Particular attention is
given to the most important sections of the course that require
established skills (the finding of limits, differentiation techniques,
the graphing of functions, integration techniques, the applications
all
of definite integrals, series, the solution of differential equations).

Since some institutes have extended courses of mathematics,
the authors have included problems on field theory,
method,
and
the
Fourier
approximate calculaiions. Experience shows that

problems given in this book not only fully satisfies
the number of
the requireiren s of the student, as far as practical mas!ering of
the various sections of the course goes, but also enables the instructor to supply a varied choice of problems in each section
to select problems for tests and examinations.
Each chap.er begins with a brief theoretical introduction that
covers the basic definitions and formulas of that section of the
course. Here the most important typical problems are worked out
in full. We believe that this will greatly simplify the work of
the student. Answers are given to all computational problems;
one asterisk indicates that hints to the solution are given in
the answers,
two asterisks, that the solution is given. The
are
frequently illustrated by drawings.
problems
This collection of problems is the result of many years of
teaching higher mathematics in the technical schools of the Soviet
Union. It includes, in addition to original problems and examples, a large number of commonly used problems.
and
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS
Sec.
1.
Functions
1. Real nurrbers. Rational and irrational numbers are collectively known

numbers The absolute value of a real number a is understood to be
the nonnegative number \a\ defined by the conditions' \a\=a if aÔ, and
= a if a < 0. The following inequality holds for all real numbers a
|aj
as real
ana
b:
2. Definition of a function. If to every value*) of a variable x, which

belongs to son.e collection (set) E, there corresponds one and only one finite
value of the quantity /, then y is said to be a function (single-valued) of x
or a dependent tariable defined on the set E. x is the a r gument or independent variable The fact that y is a Junction of x is expressed in brief form
by the notation y~l(x) or y = F (A), and the 1'ke
If to every value of x belonging to some set E there
corresponds one or
several values of the variable /y, then y is called a multiple- valued function
of x defined on E. From now on we shall use the word "function" only in
the meaning of a single-valued function, if not otherwise stated
3
The domain of definition of a function. The collection of values of x for
which the given function is defined is called the domain of definition (or the
domain) of this function. In the simplest cases, the domain of a function is
either a closed interval [a.b\, which is the set of real numbers x that satisfy
the inequalities
or an open intenal (a.b), which :s the set of real
numbers that satisfy the inequalities a
a
more comx
b. Also possible is
plex structure of the domain of definition of a function (see, for instance, Prob-
a^^^b,
< <
lem 21)
Example
1.
Determine the domain
of definition of the function

1
Solution.
The function
is
defined
x
that
is,
if
|x|>
1.
oo<x<
vals:
Thus, the
1
and
if
-l>0,
domain
<x<
-\-
of the function is a set
of
two
inter-
oo
4. Inverse functions. If the equation t/ /(x) may be solved uniquely for

the variable x, that is, if there is a function x
g(y) such that y^*
*)
stated.
Hencetorth
all
values will be
considered
as
real,
if
not
otherwise
Introduction to Analysis
12
\Ch.
then the function x = g(y), or, in standard notation, y=g(x), is the inverse
of y = f(x). Obviously, g[f(x)]s&x, that is, the function f (x) is the inverse
of g(x) (and vice ve^sa).
In He fereia! case, the equation y
f(x) defines a multiple-valued inverse function x
f~ (y) such that y ==[[(-* (y)\ for all y that are values of
the function f (x)
Lxanple 2. Determine the inverse of the function
y=l-2-*.
Solution. Solving equation
(1) for x,
(1)
we have
2-*=l
and
log(l-y)
log 2
'
of the function (2) is

the domain of
oo </<!.
Definition
5. Corrposite and irrplicit functicns. A function y of x defined by a seof equalities y = /(), where u = 9 (x), etc., is called a comoosite function,
Obviously,
ries
or a function of a function.
A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable
the equation x*+i/*=l defines
is called an implicit (unction. For example,
y as an implicit function of x.
6. The graph of a function. A set of points (x, y) in an ;o/-plane, whose
coordinates are connected by the equation y
f(x), is called the graph of
the given function.
1**.
Prove that
if
a and b are real numbers then
\\a\-\b\\<\a-b\<\a\ + \b\.
Prove the following equalities:
2.
a)
|ab|Ha|.|b|;
2
b)
|a|
d)
Solve the inequalities:
3.
1|<3;
a)
|x
b)
|x+l|>2;
Find /(-1),/(0),/(1),
4.
4- llx
c)
d) |jt-
/(2), /(3), /(4),
if
/(*)
= *'- 6*' -f
6.
5.
Find
6.
/ (x)
7.
The function
and /(2)
*)
=a
c)
/(O),
-arc cos (log x). Find
Log x
/(-4). /(-^/(T)
f(x)
is
linear.
/!,
Find
7^.
if/
/(I), /(10).
this function, if/(
3.
is
the logarithm of the
number x
to the base 10.
1)
=2
Sec
Functions
1]
13
Find the rational integral function f(x) of degree two,

= and /(3) = 5.
9. Given that f(4) =
2, /(5) = 6. Approximate the value
if we consider the function / (x) on the interval
3)
/(4,
linear (linear interpolation of a function).
10. Write the function
8.
0,
if
of
if
as a single formula using the absolute-value sign.

Determine the domains oi definition of the following functions:
11.
a)
y=
x+\;
y=
16.
17.
a),= ?E2L
= *VV-2.
14**.
=1/2 + * **.
= lo
13.
b)
21.
19.
(/
Determine the domain
22. f(jc)
= 2A:
SA;'
5x
+ 6A:
(-*)l
function
Find
10.
and
^(^)
defined in a symmetric region

/
and
orfd
if
x)
f(x).
f(
f(x)
/(
x)
Determine which of the following functions are even and which
23.
is
= |/sin 2x.
y
4
t/=
called euen
f (x)
if
are odd:
e)
24.
Prove
/<;*</
that
may
any function
be represented
defined
in the interval
the form of the sum of an
f(x)
in
even function and an odd function.
In t roduction to Analysis
14
[Ch.
25. Prove that the product of two even functions or of two odd
functions is an even function, and that the product of an even
function by an odd function is an odd function.
26. A function f (x) is called periodic if there exists a positive
numter T (the period of the function) such that f(x+ T)^f(x)
for all valves of x within the dcmain of definition of f(x).
Determine uhich of the following functions are periodic, and
for the periodic functions find their least period T:
= 10 sin 3 *,
=
a sin \K + b cos tar;
(*)
= sin *;
= sin (J/*).
/ (x)
1
a) / (x)
d) / (x)
b)
e)
c)
and the area S

Express the length of the segment y =
as a function of
Construct
(Fig
1).
the graphs of these functions.
27.
x=AM
AMN
of the figure
28. The linear density (that is,

mass per unit length) of a rod AB = l
(Fig. 2) on the
segments AC
l^
CD = 1 2 and DB = l\ (/ + l t + / 3 =- 1)
to </,, q z and q^ respecis equal
t
AfsM"
MN
B
Fig.
Fig. 2
AM =
x of this
of a variable segment
tively. Express the mass
rod as a function of x. Construct the graph of this function.
29.
Find cp|\M*)| and
30.
Find
31.
Find
H/Um,
/U+l),
Let f(n) be the

that
32.
Show
33.
Show
that
i|?
jtp(x)J,
if
v(x)
= x?
and q(x)
= 2*.
if
f(x
if
sum
l)
of
= x\
n terms
of
an arithmetic progression.
if
f(x)
and the numbers jc lf xt x t form an arithmetic progression, then

the numbers J (x ) f (x t ) and / (xj likewise form such a pro,
gression.
Sec.
__
Functions
1]
15
Prove that if f(x) is an exponential function, that is,

and the numbers x v *,, x t form an arithmetic
progression, then the numbers /(*,), f (* 2 ) and /(jcj form a geo34.
/ (x)
= a x (a >0),
metric progression.
35. Let
Show
that
Let
36.
Show

a-*).
(y)
<p
Find /(-I), /(O), /(I)

arc sin
arc tan
if
^ ^
< # c + oo.
x for
x for
0,
38. Determine the roots (zeros) of the

rrgion of positivity
of the region of negativity of the function
y if:
a)
b)
c)
39.
In
40.
r/=l
-f-x;
y=2+x
0=1
d)
y = x*
ff
2
;
and
3x;
_ ioo
2jc
Find the inverse of the function y
if:
what regions will these inverse functions be defined?

Find the inverse of the function
/
x,
x*,
if
if
Write the given functions as a series of equalities each

of which contains a simple elementary function (poweri
exponential, trigonometric, and the like):
41.
member
a)
b)
= (2*-5r;
*
y=2
i/
c)
d)
COS
= arc sin (3-*
).
Introduction to Analysts
16
[Ch.
Write as a single equation the composite functions repre-
42.
sented as a series of equalities:

a)
b)
y=
= sin#;
# = arctan, u = Yv,
w
u*>
w,
,
if
= log#;
t/<0,
ifu>0;
*_!.
43. Write, explicitly, functions of
a)
b) 10*
c)
arc cos y
y defined by the equations:
= n;
+10' =10;
+ \y\ = 2y.
Find the domains of definition of the given implicit functions.

Sec, 2. Graphs of Elementary Functions
Graphs of functions # /(*) are mainly constructed by marking a suffiand

/ (*,-) (/ = 0, 1, 2, ...)
ciently dense net of points Ai /(*,-, //), where */,
by connecting the points with a line that takes account of intermediate points.
Calculations are best done by a slide rule.
Fig. 3
Graphs of the basic elementary functions (see Ap pendix VI) are

learned through their construction. Proceeding from the graph of
y
we
= f(x),
readily
(T)
get the graphs of the following functions by means of simple geometric

constructions:
M*) js th * mirror image of the graph T about the *-axis;
1) 0i
2) 0i=/(
*) is the mirror image of the graph F about the #-axis;
Sec. 2]
3) #i
4) 1/4
Graphs
= /(*)
= & + /(*)
the
is
is
F graph displaced along
the F
graph
The
to the right
desired line
is
17
th? x-axis by an
Uve (/-axis by
along
displaced
(Fg. 3).
Example. Construct the graph
Solution.
Elementary functions
of
amount a;
an amount
of the function
y = sinx displaced along the *-axis
a sine curve
by an amount -j
(Fig. 4)
Fig. 4
Construct
the
(straight lines):
44. y
kx, if
45.
46.
i/
=
= x+
6,
fc
if
= 0,
6 = 0,
1,
the
of
graphs
2,
1/2,
2,
1,
following
functions
-1, -2.
1,
2.
0=1. 5* +2.
Construct the graphs of rational integral
two
linear
functions of degree
(parabolas).
3
47. y=--ax , if a=l, 2,

48. //
*'-{- c, if c=0,
49. ,/=(*-*)', if *.
1/2,
2,
1,
1,
2, 0.
1.
= 1, 2, -1.
= y, 4 (x-l)\
= 0, 1, 2, -1.
= 2, c = 3; 2) a =
51*. y = ax* + bx + c,
1) a=l, b
6 = 6, c = 0.
= 2 f x x*. Find the points ol intersection of this
52.
50. y
if
</
if:
t/
rabola with the
2,
pa-
Ac-axis.
Construct the graphs of
the
following rational integral func-
tions of degree above two:

x* (cubic parabola).
53*. y
2 +(*-!)'.
54. </
x'
55. t/
3x-\-2.
x\
56. y
2x'-x*.
57. y
=
=
=
=
=
Construct the graphs of

tions (hyperbolas):
68*.
0=4.
the
following
linear
fractional func-
_ _
18
-.
59.
y=
*-
61*.
62 *-
Construct the graphs of the fractional rational functions:

63.
=*+
</
-.
65*.
y=.
66.
67*.
=r
(WtYc/i of Agnesl).
,^rj
2x
=x
(Newton's serpentine).
i/
68.
*/
69.
y=*-h^.
=^
70. y
(trident of Newton).
Construct the graphs of the irrational functions:

71*. */=]/*:
72.
73*.
y=t/x._2
y=-*/x
74.
y=x\fx
(semicubical parabola).
y=j/25
75*.
76.
(Niele's parabola).
f/=
Vx
(hyperbola).
y- >=,.
J^l-A __
78*. y = + x
y ^^
77.
(ellipse).
(cissoid of Diodes).
==
x 1/25
x
79. r/
Construct the graphs of the trigonometric functions:
83*. */=-cotjc.
80*. y
sinx.
84*. y
sec x.
81*. y
cosx.
85*. y = cosec x.
82*. /=-tanx.
.
86.
87*.
{/-/4sinx
y^smnx,
/
if
if
y= sin(x
89*. y = 5sin(2x
88.
cp),
/4
= 1,
n=l,
*
if
3).
10,
2,
9 = 0,
rv
2.
1/2,
3,
1/2.
Jl
3ll
-J-,
-j-
ft
~T*
[Ch. 1
Sec. 2]
Graphs
of
Elementary functions
19
Construct the graphs of the exponential and logarithmic functions:
101.
= ax
a = 2, l (?(e = 2, 718 ...)*).
a =10, 2, 1,
y = \oga x,
-x
x
=
where
e
sinhx,
y
sinhx=l/2(e
= coshx, where coshx =
= tanhx, where
102*.
if
*.
if
103*.
104*.
).
f/
105*.
f/
106. 0=10*.
2
107*. y=-e~* (probability curve).
= 2""
108. ^
*3
109. //-logx
2
110. y-=log A:.
111. //=-log(logx).
114.
112.
117
the
graphs
118*. y--=arc sin*.

119*.
(/=--
=
= log"(cosx).
^ = 2-^ sin*.
115.
116.
/y==rV-log X
Construct
y=
113.
{/
t/
of the
inverse trigonometric functions?
= arcsin~.
x
=
arc cos--.
#
=
+ arc cot x.
^
122. #
= arccosx.
# = arc tan*.
123.
j/
120*.
124.
A:
121*, (/= arc cot x.
Construct the graphs of the functions:
125.
y=\x\.
127.
= ^(x + \x\).
= x\x\\
a) y
128.
a)
126. y
129.
*)
b)
t/= sinA:+ sin jt|;

b)
2
x when |jc|< 1.
3
^-<
y = log^^l x
f/= sin x
sinx|.
\-
_l. whcn
About the number
* see p. 22 for
more
details.
20
[C/i.
=
#=[*], b) y x[x], where [x] is the integral part
number x, that is, the greatest in.eger less than or equal
130. a)
of the
to
x.
Construct the graphs of the following

coordinate system (r, cp) (rÔ):
131.
132*.
133*.
= l.
f = 7r
=
r =
<*>
/-
134*.
in the polar
functions
(spiral of Archimedes).
(logarithmic spiral).
(hyperbolic spiral).
= 2cosip (circle).
' =
-^- (straight line).
= sec*y (parabola).
135. r
136.
137.
/-
138*. r=10sin3(p (three-leafed rose)

139*. r
a(l fcoscp) (a>0) (cardioid).
2
I
143*. r
a cos2(p (a>0) (lemniscate).
Cjnstruct the graphs of the functions represented parametri-
=
=
cally:
t* (semicubical parabola).
141*. x
t\ y
142*. *=10 cos/, y=sin/ (ellipse).
3
1
143*. *=10cos /,
10 sin / (astroid).
144*. jc
a(cos/-f / sin/), t/
a(sm / /cos/)
y=
(involute of a
circle).
^'
145*. ^
146
'
^3,
=
rTT'
^0//wm ^
Descartes).
/==
2- (branch of
y=2
=
# = 2 sin
(segment of
*-/t\
y=t
xâ (2 cos/ cos2/), = a(2sin/
147. xasfc'-t^143. jc
2cos f f
149.
150.
J/
a hyperbola).
a straight line).
*/
sin 2/) (cardioid).
Cjnstruct 'the graphs of the following functions defined implicitly:
151*.x
152.
25 (circle).
xy--= 12 (hyperbola).
*/
= 2jc (parabola).
154. ^1 + ^! =
= jc'(10
155.
156*. x T + y T =;aT (astroid).
153*.
i/
j/*
157*. x
158. *'
Graphs
Sec. 2]
of
Elementary Functions
21
a"
=e
=
*
159*. |/V
y
(logarithmic spiral).
8
160*. x*
3x//
(folium of Descartes).
y
161. Derive the conversion formula Irom the Celsius scale (Q
to the Fahrenheit scale (F) if it is known that
corresponds
0C
to
32F
and 100C corresponds to 212F.

Construct the graph of the function obtained.
162. Inscribed in a triangle (base 6^=10, altitude h
rectangle (Fig. 5).

tion of the base x.
Fig. 5
Fig
Construct the graph of this function and

value.
163. Given a triangle ACB with BC
a, AC
ACB = x (Fig. 6).

angle
area
ABC as a function of
Express #
of this function and find its greatest value.
Give
164.
a) 2x'
b) x*
c)
find
=b
x.
a graphic solution of the equations:
5x + 2 =
x
1=0;
0;
d)
e)
= 0.1jc;
logJt
f)
I0'
x=l
cot
= x\
4
x^x
xy=10, x
b)
xr/-6,
c)
d)
e)
#=sinx,
5sin;c;
(0<jc<jt).
= 7\
2
2
+
j/
= cos#
(0
<x<
2jt).
its
greatest
and a variable
Plot the graph
165. Solve tjie systems of equations graphically:

a)
6) is a
as
a
of
the
functhe
area
y
rectangle
Express
22
Introdnction to Analysis
(C/t.
Sec. 3. Lfmits
xn
lim
n >
if
for
\xn
e>0
any
|
<e
there
when
Example
1.
the limit of a sequence
is
a,
such that
(e)
n> N.
Show
that
5L + 1.2.
Urn
n
Solution.
oo
N=N
number
is
number
The
1. The limit of a sequence.

x lt .... X0, .... or
*!
Form
-*
rt-r
(1)
the difference
2*
+1
Evaluating the absolute value
of this difference,
-2
<
we have:
e,
(2)
if
n>-\ = N
Thus, for
every
number
positive
(e).
there will
be a number
Af=
such
>
N we will have inequality (2) Consequently, the number 2 is

that for n
the limit of the sequence x n
(2n-\- l)/(n-fl), hence, formula (1) is true.
2. The limit of a function. We say that a function / (x) -*- A as x -+ a
(A and a are numbers), or
lim f(x)
x -a
if
for
every 8
>
\f(x)A <e
we have
<
for
=6
()
>
such that
f(jO
= 4,
a|<6.
|x
Similarly',
lim
*
\f( X
if
-> 00
)A\<*
The following conventional notation

lim
*-*a
which means that
f (x)
>
for
/(x)
<
for
|x|>
/V(e).
also used:
is
= oo,
< 6 (E),
where E
number
positive
3. One-sided
x -- a
= A,
limits.
0; similarly,
f(a
ii
0)=
*
If
>a
a
and x
-+ a,
-* a,
then
f(x) and /(a
lim
-
<a
and x
o
we
is
an arbitrary
we write conventionally
write * -^ a-f-0. The numbers
then
+ 0)=
lim
(x)
*-*a + o
*re called, respectively, the limit on the left of the function f (x} at the point a
and the //mi/ on the right of the function / (x) at the point a (if these
numbers
exist).
Limits
Sec. 3]
23
For the existence of the limit of a function

and sufficient to have the following equality:
the limits
as jc-ô,
it
is
necessary
O)-/
/(a
If
/ (x)
lim /, (x) and lim f 2 (x) exist, then the

x ->a
x -> a
following theorems.
old:
1)
x
2)
3)
lim
-+ a
[/,
(*)
+ /, (*)] = x lima
[f,
(x) f 2
(jc)J
lim [f ,
x- o
W/^
(JK)J
lim
x-*a
+ xlimaf
/, (x)
-+
(x);
lim f, (x). lim f t (x);

x -* a
x -* a
lim
*
The following two
-*
lim
/, (x)l
-#
-*
jc
^ (x)
(lim f , (x)
Jt
-^
^ 0).
limits are frequently used:
ILi=i
lim
AP
->-0
and
lim
Example
2.
1-J--L
lim
(l
Find the limits on the

/ (x)
a
a)
right
=* = 2
and
left
71828
of the function
= arc tan-
as x ->-0.
Solution.
We
have
lim
x
.+
arc tan
)= 2
x J
+o fa
\
and
f(-0)=
lim
-
x->.
Obviously, the function
166.
is
Prove that as n
/ (x)
faictanlW-42
/
A:
o \
in this case
has no limit as x--0.
*oo the limit of the sequence
equal to zero. For which values of n will
we have
the inequal-
= 0.01;
c) 8
ity
an arbitrary positive number)?

Calcula e numerically for a) e
0.1; b) e
167. Prove that the limit of the sequence
(e is
= 0.001
24
_ _
as
>oo
rt
is
which
For
unity.
the inequality
(e
n>N
values of
an arbitrary positive number)?

Find N for a) e = 0.1; b) e = 0.01;
168. Prove that
liin x*=:4.
X ->
How
we have
will
K-l|<e
is
= 0.001.
c)
should one choose, for a given positive number
number
positive
[CH. 1
e,
some
6 so that the inequality

2
-4|<8
|*
should follow from
Compute 6
for a)
= 0.1;
= 0.01;
b)
c)
Give the exact meaning of the

Hoi log* =
oo; b) lim 2*= +00; c)
169.
a)
*
->
+0
170.
c)
_ 2*3'
1 _
a)
*}
b)
V)
X + +
Find the limits
i,
'
1/2",
'
'
(-
)""
_2n_
'
...
2/i~l
'
'
'
1/21/21/2",
.
'
limits:
a+4 + l,+ ...

*\*
lirn
fl
'
'
Hm
n
173
-> 00
of the sequences:
0.23, 0.233, 0.2333,
Find the
172.
1/2
1/2;
d) 0.2,
171.
'
liai/(x)
X
00
= 0.001.
following
-oo
Hm
C+D
"*
)(>.
+ 3)
n
l)
2n+11
2
178*. lim
n
-* CD
J'
notations:
= oo.
Limits
Sec. 3]
Hm (Vn +
179.
n -+
-o/%
\f~n).
<
180. lim
When
x -+
the
seeking
is
it
oo,
useful
of a ratio of two integral polynomials in

n
to divide both terms of the ratio by x , where
limit
first
the highest decree of these polynomials.

A similar procedure is also possible in
ing irrational terms.
Example
lim
2.
*
lim
lim
181.
r
182.
cases for fractions contain-
1.
J2^-3)(3t-f^)(4A'-6)
Example
many
-. or
lim
=.
^rrr.
*
*86.
^^.
187.
~'
lim
lim
*
.,
3*
O ^2
184.
185.
lim
J"
__
+5*
8v
lim
1/
-11-
jc
lim
->*
-\- \
10-j-
A:
Y L
4-
188.
+7
X*
lim
*
lim
1.
^~~^=J.
<x>
00
183.
* as
n is
189.
lirn
-r-r~c
^5
190.
lim
Vx + Vx
If
P(A-)
and Q
(x)
are integral
polynomials and P
(u)
or
(a)
then the limit of the rational fraction

lim
is
obtained directly.
But if P(a)
Q(a)=0, then
out of the fraction
Example
P
Q
(x)
it
is
advisable to camel the binomial *
once or several times.
3.
lim
/'T
lim !*""!!)
xf ??
Hm
^^4.
26
101.
^{.
lim
*-.
192. lim
* _.
*-+>
The expressions containing irrational

ized by introducing a new variable.
Example
196. lim
\Ch.
Um ^
198.
terms are
fl
in
cases rational-
many
Find
4.
lim
Solution. Putting
we
!+* =
have
E=1
lim
199. lim
X -
Mm
*
-4^-.
*~
200. lim
lim
"
,'~
201.
,,. lim
*/',
3/
t/x
x
.
Another way of finding the limit of an irrational expression is to transfer the irrational term from the numerator to the denominator, or vice versa,
from the denominator to the numerator.
Example
5.
lim
lim
x -+a(X
a)(Vx
_^
+ V a)
lim
*-> a
203.
204.
-49Q-.
lim
li.n
*-*
j-^=
206.
207.
jc
-f
lim
lim
*-+<
205.
lim
*-+'
^L""
208.
lim
^-*o
2\f~i
-=f.
__
Limits
Sec. #]
_
209.
27
212.
lim
213
[/*(*
î
214.
Hm(]/xfa
+ a)
xj.
-6* 4 6-*).
'
210. lim
211.
lim
X-
li.
Jf--fCO
215.
The formula
llm
X-
-i
r frequently used when solving the following examples.

cos a.
sin a and lim cos
granted that lim sin *
Example
a)
!!!
lim;
lim
227. a)
lim
X-*
-> CO
sill
,.
3x
228.
xsinl;
lim x sin
b)
b)li.n^.
X
217.
lim
00
x) tan
(1
-~-
lim
X -0
sin
5*
sin
2*
229.
'
Jt-M
218.
taken
is
6.
lira
216.
It
*=
lim cot 2x cot f-^

*
* -+0
x).
/
sin JTX
219.
lim
M
sin BJIJC
230.
lim
*-
220.
lim ( n
n-*cc
221.
lim
222.
lim
223.
lim
224.
lim
225.
lim
226.
lim
sin-).
n I
Jt
231.
lim
232.
lim
cosmx
arc sin
crs^
tan*
236.
'
sui
A:
lim
JC
- cosn
V*
tan
233.
ji
1-2
lim
'
sin six
for
"28
_ _
m.
24
.=T.
ta
!!?.
one should bear
mind
in
C=4";
lim (p(x)
if
= ^
/l
cp
A and
(x)
and
if
(x)
where
\|?
lim ty(x)^=
is
= B,
(x)
oo,
then the problem of finding
we
Hm a
(x)
Hm
(x)
= 2.718
Example
7.
...
is
Napier's number.
Find
lim
Solution. Here,
lim
(5111=2
X
and
lim
Jf-Ô \
hence,
lim
x-*o
Example
Solution.
put
q>(x)=
+a(x),
as x -+ a and, lienê,
-*
lim
solved in straightforward fashion;

lim \|) (x)
then
co,
lini(pU)=l and
the limit of (3)
(3)
that:
lim
where a
-=C
there are final limits
if
3)
'"""
taking limits of the form

lim l<p(Jt)]* U)
X * fl
2)
*""r
Jt
-* 1
When
then
nx
1)
[Ch. 1
8.
Find
We
have
lim
1
r-^(
end
Hm
*2
J^
[(p
(x)
- ij
ty (x)
^Sec
Limits
3]
Therefore,
lim
=0.
Example
Find
9.
lim
Solution.
We
x ~~
\
t
have
^11=
lim
X-+ 06 X
-4- 1
lim
(- CO
i
.
+T
,
Transforming, as indicated above, we have
In this case
easier to find the limit without resorting to the general
is
it
procedure:
it
Generally,
is
useful to
remember
that
lim
250.
244. lim(*
X
"" 2 *"
/î
245>
].
Hmfl
... V
251. lirn(l
252**. a) lim (cos x)
Iim(l
J_
*
;
X ~*
-)/
b)
247
+ sinjc) *.
-.o
2 \*a
Jill ( 2?+T )
/
246.
3x4-2/
X-K>\
li
f I)*.
30
_ _
When solving the problems that follow,

limit lim/(x) exists and is positive, then
lim [In /(*)]
x-+a
Solution.
lim
X-*0
Formula
We
that
if
f (x)].
X-+Q
have
X-+Q
frequently used in the solution of problems.
253. lim [In
(2*+!)
*-
254.
li
255.
"
limfjlnl/J-i^).
lX/
260*.
,_*<> \
llmn(^/a
^
V)
256. lim *[ln(jt+l)
Inx].
261. lim-
<-*--- 00
257.
lim.
258*.
Hm=.
259*.
ital!
262.
-ô
(a
lim
b)
lim
>0).
(see
Find
the*
264. a)
sin
263. a)
*_^
Hm
*" +
b)Jirn*
p===.
267
a/lLutanh*;
*-*-*
b)
limtanh*,
*->+
where tanh^ =
266. a)
x*
Problems 103 and
fa
265.
following limits that occur on one side:
lira
lira
a ) lim
*-b) Hm
*-*+
^^~.
(a>0).
--
li
\)
ptX
pCLX
268. a) lim
b) |im
1+ ' T
the
ln
is
(*)
[Hm
know
Prove that
tO.
Example
= In
useful to
is
it
[Ch.
104).
Limits
Sec. 31
269. a)
31
270. a)
lim-^4i;
'
Hm-^-;
x~*
Construct the graphs of the following functions:

2
\im (cos "*).
271**. y
n->oo
272*.
y=lim
n-*c
= \im
273. y
(xÔ).
xn
J/V-t-a
2
.
a->o
274.
t/
275.
= li;n|
t/
li
-*<
276. Transform
a
common
the
following
fraction:
Regard
277.
it
What
mixed
periodic
fraction
into
= 0.13555...
as the limit of the corresponding finite fraction.

will happen to the roots of the quadratic equation
if the coefficient a approaches zero while the coefficients b and c

are constant, and fc^=0?
278. Find the limit of the interior angle of a regular n-gon
>
oo.
as n
279. Find the limit of the perimeters of regular n-gons inscribed
oo.
in a circle of radius R and circumscribed about it as n
20. Find the limit of the sum of the lengths of the ordinates
of the
curve
= e~*cos nx,
x 0, 1, 2, ..., n, as n *oo.
281. Find the limit of the sum of the areas of the squares
constructed on the ordinates of the curve
drawn
as
at the points
on bases, where x=^l, 2, 3, ..., n, provided that n

282. Find the limit of the perimeter of a broken line
*oo.
M^.. .Mn
inscribed in a logarithmic spiral
[Ch.
oo), if the vertices of this broken line have, respectively,

(as n
the polar angles
<P,
== 0,
<PJ
=y
q>rt
=y
A segment AB = a
(Fig. 7) is divided into n equal parts,

each pnrt serving as the base of an isoscelos triangle with base
angles u ^45. Show that the limit of the perimeter of the broken line thus formed dilTers from the
283.
length of AB despite the fact that in

the limit the broken line "geometrically
merges with the segment AB".
Fig
Fig.
in half; the
point C, divides a segment AB---1
the
in
AC
a
half;
divides
point C, divides a
segment
point C 2
C
C 3 in half, and so
C
divides
the
in
half;
2
point
4
segment C,C
on. Determine the limiting position of the point C n when /i--oo.
285. The side a of a right triangle is divided into n equal
which is constructed an inscribed rectangle
parts, on each of
the limit of the area of the step-like figure
Determine
8).
(Fig.
*ou.
thus formed if n
286. Find the constants k and b from the equation
The
284.
0.
(1)
What
is the geometric meaning of (1)?

287*. A certain chemical process proceeds in such fashion
that the increase in quantity of a substance during each interval
of time r out of the infinite sequence of intervals (tr, (i -f l)t)
substance
(/~0, 1, 2, ...) is proportional to the quantity of the
available at the commencement of each interval and to the length
of the interval. Assuming that the quantity of substance at the
n}
after
determine the quantity of substance Q
nth
each
takes
if
the increase
part of
the elapse of time t
place
initial
time
is
the time interval
Find
Q^lhi
*=
Sec. 4]
33
Small and Large Quantities
Infinitely
Sec. 4. Infinitely Small and Large Quantities
1.
Infinitely small quantities (infinitesimals).
If
lim a (x) = 0,
x->a
i.e.,
<
|a(x)|<e when
if
as
infinitesimal
* oo.
as x
<
then the function a (x) is an

a
fi(e),
similar fashion we define the infinitesimal a (x)
In
a.
The sum and product of

x-+a.
limited
number
infinitesimals as x
of
+a are
also infinitesimals as
If
a(x) and p
*a and
(x) are infinitesimals as
lim SlJfUc,
x-+a P (x)
where C
is some number different from zero, then the functions a(x) and p(x)
are called infinitesimals of the same order; but if C
0, then we say that the
function a (x) is an infinitesimal of Higher order than p (x). The function
u (x) is called an infinitesimal of order n compared with the function p (x) if
lim
where
<
C|
<
Q(x)
-C
"
'
-f oo.
If
then the functions a
For example,
for
(x)
and p
are called equivalent functions as x
*a:
we have
>
sinx~x;
and so
(A*)
tanx~ x;
ln(l-fx)~ x
forth.
The sum
two
infinitesimals of different orders is equivalent to the

lower.
The limit of a ratio of two infinitesimals remains unchanged if the terms
of the ratio are replaced by equivalent quantities. By virtue of this theorem,
when taking the limit of a fraction
of
term whose order
is
lim
!>
aPW
,
as x
*a we can subtract from (or add to)
where a (x)
>.0 and p (x)
the numerator or denominator infinitesimals of higher orders chosen so that
the resultant quantities should be equivalent to the original quantities.
>
Example
1.
j/?T2? = lim a/7
'
,.
lim
i-
,.
*-*o
2.
ber
Af
2x
Infinitely large quantities (infinites). If for an arbitrarily large numa

x
exists a 6(N) such that when
6(N) we have the
<
there
inequality
lfMI>tf.
then the function f(x)
2-1900
is
called an infinite as x
>a.
<
_ _
34
> co
The definition of an infinite f (x) as x

of infinitesimals, we introduce the concept
is
[Ch.
analogous. As in the case
of infinites of different orders.
288. Prove that the function
is
an infinitesimal as x
*oo. For what
values
of
is
the ine-
quality
l/WI<e
fulfilled
if
e is
an arbitrary number?
Calculate for: a) e
0.1; b) e-0.01;
the function
289. Prove that
is
an infinitesimal for x
>1.
c)
e-0.001.
For what values
of
is
the ine-
quality
!/(*)!<
fulfilled
if
e is
an arbitrary positive number? Calculate numeri-
0.01; c) e
a) e-0.1; b) e
cally for:
= 0.001.
x
is
an infinite
for
*2. In
what neighbourhoods
2|<8
of |x
is
the inequality
lf(x)\>N
fulfilled
if
is
an arbitrary positive number?

Find 5 if
a) #=10;
J2^
c)
b)
#=100;
#=1000.
291. Determine the order of smallness

the surface of a sphere, b) the volume
of a sphere if the radius of the sphere r
is an
infinitesimal of order one. What
will the orders be of the radius of the
sphere and the volume of the sphere with
respect to its surface?
292. Let the central angle a of a circular sector ABO (Fig. 9) with radius R
tend to zero. Determine the orders of
the infinitesimals relative to the infinitesimal a: a) of the
chord AB\ b) of the line CD; c) of the area of A/4BD.
o
of: a)
Infinitely Small
Sec. 4]
*0 determine the orders
293. For
and Large Quantities

of
35
smallness relative to
of the functions:
*\
*)
^*
cos
d)
+x
tan
e)
*'*
sin
A:
A:.
b)
c)
$/*'-
294. Prove that the length of an infinitesimal arc of a circle

constant radius is equivalent to the length of its chord.
295. Can we say that an infinitesimally small segment and
an infinitesimally small semicircle constructed on this segment
as a diameter are equivalent?
of
Using the theorem

si "
296. lim
!"
arc sin
ô
infinitesimals, find
lim^
298.
=
_^-*
297. lim
two
of the ratio of
5*
3*' s
299. lim
ln(l--*)
300. Prove that
when x
*0
the quantities
VT+T1 +
Applying formula
a)
1/L06;
b)
+xl
\x\ is
(1)
approximate the following:
(1),
1/0^7;
Y\
when
and
are equivalent. Using this result, demonstrate that

small we have the approximate equality
c)
/lO;
d)
/T20
and compare the values obtained with tabular data.

we have the following approxi301. Prove that when x
mate equalities accurate to terms of order x 2
:
b)
n
+x) &\
c)
(1
d)
log(l+x)
where
+ nx
(n
a positive integer);
is
= Afx,
Af = log e = 0.43429...
Using these formulas, approximate:

*>
02
Compare
2>
0^7
3>
I<55
4)
^16;
5)
1.04'; 6) 0.93*; 7) log 1.1.
the values obtained with tabular data.
_ _
36
302.
Show
X+OQ the
~
P (x) = a.x n + a,x n +
that for
[Ch.
rational integral function
-f
an
is an infinitely large quantity equivalent to the term of highest

n
degree a x
303. Let x*oo. Taking x to bean infinite of the first order,
determine the order of growth of the functions:
.
a)
b)
*>-
100* -1,000;
c)
7+2-
Sec. 5. Continuity of Functions
1. Definition of continuity.
function
continuous
is
/ (x)
when x =
(or "at the point g"), if: 1) this function is defined at the point g, that is,
there exists a number / (g); 2) there exists a finite limit lim f (x); 3) this lim-
x-4
is
it
equal to the value of the function at the point
llmf
(*)
g,
i.e.,
= /().
(1)
*-*fc
Putting
where Ag
^0, condition
lim
(1)
may be
A/(g) =
lim
rewritten as
l/(g+ Ag)-f
(g)]
= 0.
(2)
or the function / (x) is continuous at the point g if (and only if) at this point
to an infinitesimal increment in the argument there corresponds an infinitesimal increment in the function.
If a function is continuous at every point of some region (interval, etc.),
then it is said to be continuous in this region.
Example 1. Prove that the function
y
fs
continuous
Solution.
Ay = sin
<*
for every
We
= sin x
value of the argument
x.
have
+ A*)-sin x = 2 sin
cos
x+
sin
cos f
Since
si
lim
T=
and
2
it
follows that for any x
we have
lim A(/
Hence, the function sin*
is
continuous when
oo<x< +
x+
Sec. 5]
Continuity of Functions
37
2. Points of discontinuity of a function. We say that a function

/(x)has
discontinuity 'at
(or at the point XQ) within the domain of definition
of the function or on the boundary of this domain if there is a break in
the
continuity of the function at this point.
x=*
Example
when x=l.
2.
The
This
function
function
f(x)=
is
10 a)
(Fig.
not defined at the point x
is
1,
discontinuous
and no matter
1-2
how we
choose the number /(I), the redefined

tinuous for *=1.
If the function f (x) has finite limits:
Hm
and not
all
three
/(*)
= f(*
numbers f(x
-0)
),
a discontinuity of the first kind.
then *
is
Urn
/(*)
+ Q)
)
/(*
f (x
In particular,
/ (x)
will not be con-
= /(
are equal, the nxQ
is
called
if
called a removable discontinuity.

of a function f(x) at a point
For continuity
ficient that
and
function
JC
Q,
it
is
necessary and suf-
= 0.
The function
3.
Example
at
[Ch. I
In t reduction to Analysis
38
/(jc)=j-y
has a discontinuity of the
kind
first
Indeed, here,
/
+ 0)=
5!!L
lim
==+ i
and
/(_0)=
lim
jc-*-o
Example 4. The iunction y = E(x), where E(x) denotes the integral

number x [i.e., E (x) is an integer that satisfies the equality x = E(x)
of the
where
1,
0<<7<1],
i2,
and
...,
discontinuous
(Fig.
106) at every integral
all the discontinuities are of the first kind.
is
point: x
part
+ q.
= 0,
+ =
Indeed, if n is an integer, then

/i.
At all
(/i
0)-=/il and
(/i
0)
other points this function is, obviously, continuous.
Discontinuities of a function that are not of the first kind are called
discontinuities of the second kind.
Infinite discontinuities also belong to discontinuities of the second kind.
These ane points * such that at least one of the one-sided limits, /(*<>
0) or
/(*o
0) is equal to oo (see Example 2).
Example
The function # = cos
5.
lim cos 5L
X
X-+-0
the
lOc) at
(Fig.
discontinuity of the second kind, since

here:
both one-sided
and
lim
cosi
Jt->
point
x=0
has a
limits are nonexistent
3. Properties of continuous functions. When testing functions for continuity, bear in mind the following theorems:
of a limited number of functions continuous in
1) the sum and product
some region is a function that is continuous in this region;
2) the quotient of two functions continuous in some region is a continuous
function for all values of the argument of this region that do not make the
divisor zero;
3) if a function
f (x) is continuous in an interval (a, b), and a set of its

values is contained in the interval (A, B), and a function cp (x) is continuous
in (A B), then the composite function cp[/(*)J is continuous in (a, b).
A function f (x) continuous in an interval [a, b] has the following propert
ties:
is
1) f (x)
boanded on
|/(*)|<M when
2) / (x) has a
3) / (x) takes
a<*<6;
[a,
minimum and
6J,
there
i.e.,
maximum
some number
is
value on
[a,
such that
b]\
between the two given values;

matter what the
if
and
fl (a<a<p<6), then no
ithat
is,
number C between A and B, there will be at least one value JC Y (<Y<P)
such that f(y)=*C.
In particular, if f(a)/(p)<0, then the equation
on
f(a) = A
has
at least
304.
of the
one
Show
all
intermediate
=
/(P)
values
real root in the interval
that the function y
argument
x.
(a,
=x
p).
is
continuous for any value
_ _
Sec. 5]
39
305. Prove that the rational integral tunction
is
continuous for any value of x.

306. Prove that the rational fractional function
is continuous for all values of x except those that make the denominator zero.
307*. Prove that the function y = Yx is continuous for x&zQ.
308. Prove that if the function f (x) is continuous and non-
negative in the interval
is
then the function
(a, 6),
likewise continuous in this interval.

309*. Prove that the function y
cos x is continuous for any x.
310. For what values of x are the functions a) tan* and
b) cotjc
continuous?
Show
that the function #

|#| is continuous.
graph of this function.
312. Prove that the absolute value of a continuous
is a continuous function.
313. A function is defined by the formulas
311*.
How
Plot the
function
should one choose the value of the function A=f(2) so

2?
the thus redefined function f(x) is continuous for #
Plot the graph of the function y
f(x).
314. The right side of the equation
that
f(x)
is
meaningless for x =
0.
= lx sin
How
so that f(x) is continuous for

315. The function
f(*)
is
in
for
should one choose the value /(O)

jc
= 0?
= arctan--^
meaningless for x=--2. Is it possible to define the value of /(2)

such a way that the redefined function should be continuous
jc
= 2?
40
316. The
so that fix)
function f(x)
f(x)
= ^ y\__1
y
x
b)
/(*)
c)
/(*)
= ln(\+x)
d)
/(
f)
/(*)
/]
a)
is
not
continuous for x =
is
cos*
[Ch.
defined
0,
for
x=
0.
Define /(O)
if:
(n is a positive
integer);
A*
111(1
= * cot*.
Investigate the following functions for continuity:

317.
y=
318.
y=
3,9.
yssi
320.
^=.
b)
322.
*/
-.
324.
-.
=
y=
xs\n-.
</
325. y
= arc tan
326.
= (!+
329.
</
A:)
arc tan
,
= -/
323.
y=\n(cosx).
330.
y=J
**
\
2#+l
for
'"T
x>3.
P'ot the graph of this function.
331. Prove that the Dirichlet function %(x) which is zero for
and unity for rational x, is discontinuous for every
t
irrational x
value of x.
Investigate the following functions for continuity and construct

their graphs:
= \in\
y = lim (x arc tan nx).
332. y
333.
Sec. 5]
334. a) y
= sgnx,
function sgn x
is
b)
=x
sgnx,
c)
i/
= sgn(sinjt),
where the
defined by the formulas:
sgn x
1,
if
*>0,
0,
if
x=
-1,
if
*<0.
0,
335. a) y
xE(x), b) y xE(x), where E (x) is the integral
part of the number x.
336. Give an example to show that the sum of two discontinuous functions may be a continuous function.
337*. Let a be a regular positive fraction tending to zero
(0<a<l). Can we put the limit of a into the equality
=
which
is
338.
(l
a)
l,
true for all values of a?

that the equation
Show
has a real root in the interval

339. Prove
that
any
(1,2).
polynomial
one real root.

340. Prove that the equation
least
has an infinite number of real roots.
Approximate
P (x) of odd
this root.
power has
at
Chapter II
DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS
Sec. 1. Calculating Derivatives Directly
1. Increment of the argument and increment of the function. If x and x l

are values of the argument x, and y
f(x) and t/ 1
/(jc 1 ) are corresponding
values of the function y
f(x), then
^x~x
is
called the increment of the argument x in the interval
A0=0i
(x,
xj, and
or
/
= f (x,) -f (x) = f (x + A*) -
<n
Fig.
is
11
called the increment of the function y in the

and by AN). The ratio
where
&x=MA
MN
same
interval
(jc,
*,) (Fig.
11,
the slope of the secant

of the
graph of the function y=*f(x) (Fig. 11)
is called the mean
rate of change of the function y over the interval
(x, *-f Ax).
Example t. For the function
5s
and
Sec. 1]
calculate
fromx=l
b)
from
a)
Ax=l. 1
x=3
Solution. We
to x=l.l;
to x
2.
have
1=0.1,
= (l.l 5-1.1 + 6)
Ax = 2 3 =
At/ = (2*
5-2-1-6)
(3*
2
Ai/
b)
to a change in the argument:
Ax and A#, corresponding
a)
1+6) =
5-
(I
2.
5-3 -f- 6)--=0.
In the case of the hyperbola y
secant passing through the points
3,
--
Solution.
AJ/
Ax~~
2. The
Ax=10
Here,
and
the
find
10,
-r^
the
of
'
=7
slope
Ay = ^
1U
1
and
4=
o
5*5U
Hence,
1
30'
The derivative
derivative.
spect to the argument x

that
0.29;
1,
Example
43
is
y'=j-
of a function
the limit of the ratio -r^
y-=f(x) with
when Ax approaches
re-
zero;
is.
y>=
lim
AJC -> o
The magnitude
>.
A*
of the derivative yields the slope of the

f(x) at the point x (Fig. 11):
graph of the function y
tan
y'
tangent
MT
to
the
q>.
usually called differentiation of the function. The

derivative y'=f' (x) is the rate of change of the function at the point x.
Example 3. Find the derivative of the function
Finding the derivative
/'
is
y
Solution.
From formula
= x*.
we have
(1)
Ay = (*+
xi
A*)*
2*Ax+ (Ax) 1
and
Hence,
'=
L^
lim
Ax
5*.
lim
AJC->O
One-sided derivatives. The expressions
/'_(*)= lim
AJ:-*--O
(*+**)-/(*)
Ax
and
/(x)=
lim
Ax
'
44
[Ch. 2
Differentiation of Functions
are called, respectively, the left-hand or right-hand derivative of the function

f(x) at the point x. For /' (x) to exist, it is necessary and sufficient that
/'.(*)
Example 4 Find
By the
Solution.
and
/'_ (0)
f^
4.
Infinite derivative.
(0)
the function
we have
lim
lim
A*--t-o
Ax
some point we have
at
If
(0) of
/'
definition
/'_ (0)
= /+(*).
/(*+**)-/(*)_.
Uoo,
lim
we say that the continuous function / (x) has an infinite derivative at x.

In this case, the tangent to the graph of the function y
f(x) is perpendicular to the x-axis.
Example 5. Find /' (0) of the function
then
Solution.
We
V=V*
have
/'0)=llm *~
Ax
]im
-=-=<-
341. Find the increment of the function

to a
change
a)
b)
c)
in
from x=
from x =
from A: =
argument:
1
to
to
to
xt
xl
A:,
= 2;
=
= + h.
1
342. Find A// of the function

a)
b)
c)
*=
0,
^=8,
^=
a,
2
y = x that corresponds
y=-i/xil:
AA:- 0.001;
^ ==
AA:
9;
/Z.
343. Why can we, for the function y = 2;c

3, determine the
increment Ay if all we know is the corresponding increment
Ax = 5, while for the function y x 2 this cannot be done?
344. Find
the
increment
by and
the ratio
tions:
a)
=
( Jg
f 01
"*^
2)
b)
y=l/"x
forx-0
c)
for
= \ogx
x -100,000
andAjc =
^
A
*
for the func-
0.4;
and AJC = 0.0001;

and A*90,000.
Sec.
1]
which correspond
Ay and
ment fromx to x-(- Ax for the functions:
345. Find
a)
y-ax +
b)
y-x';
d) y
6;
e)
45
to
change in argu-
= /x;
= 2*\
346. Find the slope of the secant to the parabola
==
~x
the abscissas of the points of intersection are equal:
if
a)
x,-l, x a -2;
c)
x^l,' x 2 =l+fc.
To what
if
limit does the slope of the secant tend in the latter case
/i->0?
What
347.
in the
is
mean
the
l^x^4?
interval
rate of change of the
function y
= x*
2/
348. The law of motion of a point is s
3/
5, where
the distance s is given in centimetres and the time t is in seconds.
What is the average velocity of the point over the interval of
time from t~\ to ^
5?
2* in the interval
349. Find the mean rise of the curve y
mean
350. Find the

[x,
x+Ax].
351. What
rise of the
curve
j/
= /(x)
in the interval
f(x)
by the rise of the curve y
given point x?
352. Define: a) the mean rate of rotation; b) the instantaneous
rate of rotation.
353. A hot body placed in a medium of lower temperature
cools off. What is to be understood by: a) the mean rate of
cooling; b) the rate of cooling at a given instant?
354. What is to be understood by the rate of reaction of a substance in a chemical reaction?
355. Let
/(X) be the mass of a nonhomogeneous rod over
the interval [0, x]. What is to be understood by: a) the mean
linear density of the rod on the interval [x, x+Ax]; b) the linear
density of the rod at a point x?
is
to be understood
at a
M=
356.
x=
2,
if:
ative y'
Find
the
a)
Ax-1;
ratio
when x^2?
b)
of
the
Ax = 0.1;
c)
function
*/
Ax -0.01. What
at the point
is
the deriv-
_ _
46
357**. Find the derivative of the function y

358. Find {/'=
a)
=x
t/
c)
lirn
[C/t.
= ianx.
of the functions:
359. Calculate f'(8), if

1
360. Find /'(0), /'(I), /'(2), if /(*)
*(*- 1) (x-2)V
361. At what points does the derivative of the function
#* coincide numerically with the value of the function itself,
/(#)
that is, /(*)
/'(*)?
362. The law of motion of a point is s
5/*, where the distance s is in metres and the time t is in seconds. Find the speed
at
= 3.
Find
363.
the
of
slope
the
tangent
drawn
at a point with abscissa x

2.
364. Find the slope of the tangent
the point
the
to
to the
curve y = Q.lx*
curve y=sinjt at
0).
(ji,
f (*)
\
/
= -i
are the slopes of the tangents to the curves y
=~
365. Find the value of the derivative of the function

at the point
366*.
x = X Q (x
What
of their intersection?
Find the
367**. Show that the following functions

derivatives at the indicated points:
y=^?_
b) y
c)
=l/xl
at
x
x
= |cosx|
at
*=
Sec. 2. Tabular
1. Basic
v
ty(x) are
at
5)
(*)'=,;
6)
3)
)'-'
r
4)
fc
= 0,
1,
(cu)'=cu
have
finite
2,
rules for finding a derivative. If c is a constant

functions that have derivatives, then
2)
(c)'
jt,
do not
angle be-
Differentiation
= 0;
1)
+ 0).
and y = x* at the point

tween these tangents.
a)
t;';
7)-
==
(v
* 0).
and
o>(jc) '
Sec. 2]
__
2. Table
I.
of derivatives of basic functions

n
n- 1
(x )'
III.
= nx
(sinx)'
IV. (cosx)'
V1T
VIII.
47
= cos*.
= sin*.
(arrdn*)':=
ZL.
(arccos*)'=
IX. (arc
<
1).
<|*|<1).
i*.
jo'^y-pj.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII. (cothx)'
XIX.
"
cosh 1 x
(arcsinhjt)'
."""
= -^J==r.
V\+x*
1
XXI.
(arc
tanh
x)'
(|jc|<l).
XXII.
3. Rule
that
is,
/==/
composite function. If y f(u) and u

where the functions y and u have derivatives, then
for differentiating a
[<p (A-)],
y
or in other notations
^/
dx~~ du dx'
This rule extends to a series of any finite
number
of differentiate functions.
48
_ _
Example
Find the derivative
1.
=a
Solution. Putting #
5
,
[Ch. 2
of the function
where w =
2jc
(*
+ 3),
by
formula
we
(1)
will
have
= (u*)'u (* -2x + 3); = 5u

2
y'
Example
Find the derivative
2.
(/
we
*;
2
(jt
of the function
y = sin
Solution. Putting
= 10 (x-1)
(2x-2)
4*.
= sinu;
4jc,
find
>-4
Find the derivatives

a
differentiating
368-408).
= 12sin
4xcos4jt.
of the
composite
following functions (the rule for

function is not used in problems
A. Algebraic Functions
s
QO
AV
,.
ouo. y
Q5Q
oOy.
<>
i/
A V8
~~ TEA
==:
373.
v^
-f-
&A:
Q7 i/.
Of
*j.
4
A
U.OAV
if
+6
y==+n n
Q7IS4T
o/O
QJA
v3
11
t^
= Xv*
Ov
~~~ Â.
~f~
Av~'
/" +f*
y X
+ C.
(,-a(-H-W".
Vâ
374.
~]~
Ov
AA
;r-Jt-pJT
'":
370. y--=ax*
372
2.
379. il-
380.
2jc
JC
=i
381.
B. Inverse Circular and Trigonometric Functions

382.
383.
(/
t/
= 5 sin ^ + 3 cos x.
= tanx cotx.
386.
387.
388
S85.j/-2/sin(-(''-2)cos(.
389.
y=arctan^-h
f/
arc cot x.
=
-
_('+"')' '"'-'.
^
Sec. 2]
49
C. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
390.
= e*arc sin x.
396. y
y^K*-e*.
391. y
= (x-l)e*.
397.
y^ ~.
392.
= 5-
398
r/
393. (/==
399.
J.
394. / (x)
e* cos
2
395. #=:(A;
2
400.
jc.
*
.
\j
=7
y = \nx\ogx
*/
In
a log a
jc.
D. Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

401.
t/
= Jtsinhjt.
y=-Vcosh x
402. y
403.
404
//
t/
^
405.
406.
= tanhA:
407.
*.
= îiL
Inx
= arctanx
= arc
J
(/
arctanh
t/
(/
408. ^
//
==
x-
E. Composite Functions
In problems 409 to 466, use the rule for differentiating a composite function with one intermediate argument.
Find the derivatives of the following functions:
40Q**
"v
u
H
i
\
Solution.
2
~~~- ^r \*
-i_^v
*jAi
i~ \jAt
Denote
= w;
=
^ 30w M
3jt
5jc*
i^
- 30a 29 -(3
L. \
\0x)
then
t/
=w
=3
u'^
j<)
.
We
10*;
=30 (1 + 3jc
410. i/=|
411.
412.
410
,._
10> f/
>
"~56(2*
1)'
414. t/=J/T^J?".
415.
y=^/
416. w=(a''.
24(2^1)'
'
40(2x
I)''
have:
50
417.
t/
= (3
2 sin*)
Solution.
2 sin x) 4
4
Jt)
2 sin x)'
-(3
419. y
r/=J/coU
/coU.
423. y
j/
427.
428
426.
429.
430.
431.
= |/ 3sin*--2cos*
y=
/.
t/
y=/2ex
+ tart
y = sin 3* + cos
-|-
Solution
^
^
sin
Sm
f^
= cos 3^3*)' -sin 4 f 4V +

5
5 /
cos 2
x
Y/-
x
5 "^2
432. t/=sin(x
433. /(x)
cos(ct;
434. /(0=sin/si
,._
"
l+cos2*
= acot~
= ~
y = arc sin 2x.
436. /(x)
437.
438.
t/
Solution, y'
439. y
= arcsin^.
440. /(x)
2 cos x)
-- CGSJC
= 30-^-3
cos *
424. y
= cosec ^+sec
425.
f
f(x) =
6(1 _ 3cosx)
{/= 1/1 + arc sin x.
(arc sin x)
y = J/arc tan *
422.
2 sin x)*
= 2x + 5 cos' *.
421*. x
= 5 (3
418. j/=tanjc
[Ch. 2
= 5 (32 sin
y'
- 10 cos x (3
420. y
= arccosJ/7.
441. y
= arc tan.
442. y
Sec. 2]
443.
AAA
444.
= 5e~*.
447. y = arc cose*.
448 0=1
= X
= logsinjc.
5
449.
= x 10'*.
450. y= ln(l
*').
=
=
\n* *
451.
ts'm2
y
In(lnjc).
f(t)
5
4
arc
x
sin
sinx).
y== \n(e* +
= arctan (lnA:) + ln(arctan^).
y = /In x+l + In (1/7+1).
t/
>
t/
j/
445.
446.
452.
453.
454.
j/
t/
F. Miscellaneous Functions
455**. y=sin'5jccos*y.
15
10
3)'
458.
j/=
460.
az
461. y
462.
463.
f/
^-i-jc 2
x*
=
:
= |-
y=44
465.
t/
=x
(a
__J
"2
|/
470. z
468.
469.
471.
/(0=(2/-
(Jt-i-2)
1 '
51
52
[C/t.
--
= ln(]/l+e*-l)-ln(/l
# = ^ cos'x (3 cos * 5).
473. y
474.
...
475
= (tan
l)(tan
x-HOtan 2 *-fl)
476. y=-ian*5x.
= ^ sin (x
477. y
478. j/=sin
479.
493.
494.
A;+sin'x.
ianx + x.
tan *
486. y
= arc sin
487. y
488. y
= 4~- af c sin fx
491.
jc
*
.
cos *
^
V
= K^
490. t/=jt/a
y=/a sin + p cos x.

y = arc sinjc + arccosA;
2
= arc sin
489. y
^f +cotx.
^-T +a
8
y=arcsin(l
= -^ (arc sin*)
arc cos jt.
=jc-I
y = ln(arcsin5x).
y = arc sin (Inx).
=
495.
496.
</
497.
t/
498.
t/
499.
500.
501.
502.
/
i/
arc tan
= 36
=
=
=
F(
F
5tan-i
-
arc tan
1/2 arc cot
(36
=x.
I/
*
-)
a /
+ a arc sin
x*
484. y
492.
(O-
-o-
481. y
483.
).
= 3sinA:cos
*/
480. w
482.
485. #
+ 2*) Vbxx*.
arc
.
CL
sin-.
Sec. 2]
504.
y = ~e- (3sm3x
x
cos 3*).
507
= x"a-*".
508. y=
K
r
=
= I/cos *a
509.
506.
510. y = x
2 1/7+2 In (!+/*)
= ln(a + *+/2ax + *'). 514*.
511.
5I2 ^ =
!^'
515. y
y
^_
=
513. y
_,_
505. y
<
*.
j/
516.
517. y
518.
y=lnln(3
=5
^=
519. y
520.
522.
t/
x-sin(lnx
^-)
1
524. /(*)
525. y
= \l
526.
=2
i/
arc sln
sin
527.
528.
+ (!
ux
u^?^^-
;/
COS X
= -Uln
arc cos 3x)
'
'
sm 8
1
.
m
'
3 cos' bx
tan^+2-:
=
n
529. y
530.
531.
= arc
tan In x.
y^lnarc sinx +
f/
= arctanln
In
jc-|
arc sin In x.
z
x
54
633. t/=
[C/t.
1Vsin*
1 arc tan x.
= 1 In Ji- + 1 In
J^| +
1 In (1 + *)- In (*'-*+ 1) +
/(*) =
534. y
535.
536. f(*)
= s'mh*2x.
= e * cosh px.
y = ianh*2x.
y = Insinh2jc.
545.
= arcsinh~.
546.
537. y
538. y
539.
540.
541.
t/
542. y=r. arc cosh In*.

arc tanh (tan x).
=
# = arc cot h (sec*).
y = arc tanh y^
543.
544.
t/
= -2-(
A:a
-^+--
547. r/=
548. Find y',

a)
arc tan
if:
y=\x\\
b)
= *|*|.
Construct the graphs of the functions y and

549. Find #'
550. Find
(x)
if
551. Calculate
/'
(0)
f
/'
x<0,
for
if
/(*)
Solution,
y'.
if
= e~ x (3 sin 3x)
= e (3 sin 0) e
(0)
-* cos
3*.
e~* cos
(x)
cos
3jc;
1
552.
553.
f(x)-ln(l+x)
1
y-tan ^.
554. Find
b) / (x)
+ (0)
/'
= arc sin
Y
l+e
+ arcsin.
Find
2 ;
/'(I).
(-gj^.
and /1(0)
^^
Find
of the functions:
e)
f(x)
= x sin
-^
Sec. 2]
55
555. Find / (0) -f xf (0) of the function f(x)=e-*.

556. Find /(3)
(x
3)/' (3) of the function f(x)
557. Given the functions f(x)
tar\x and (p(*)
= Y\ + x.
= ln(l x)>
n0)
find
tind
q/(or
Given the functions /(x)=l
558.
2^
find
nna
ff
and
cp(jc)
sin^
(1)
559. Prove that the derivative of an even function is an odd

function, and the derivative of an odd function is an even function.
560. Prove that the
derivative of a periodic
a periodic function.
561.
Show
that
562.
Show
that the
563.
Show
that the function
the
function
xy' = d-x)y-
xy'
function
tion
xy' = y(y\i\x
is
also
y = xe~*
satisfies
the
equation
= xe~?
satisfies
the
e <l uati
= (\-x*)y.
function
y=
satisfies
lrlx
the equa-
1).
G. Logarithmic Derivative
A logarithmic derivative of a function

logarithm of this function; that is,
is
= f(x)
is
the
derivative
sometimes simplified by
first
of the
exponential function
where u = y(x) and v

ty(x).
Solution. Taking logarithms we get
In
v In u.
Differentiate both sides of this equation with respect to x:

(In y)'
= v' In u + v (In a)',
or
1
whence
~~
the
taking logs of the func-
tion.
Example. Find the derivative
of
fM
~y
Finding the derivative
_ _
56
or
[Ch. 2
564. Find y'
Solution.
In
y'
if
2
= În x + In (1
x)
21,
--ui(1)
= _-
_-2x i-4-32
whence
y'
=y
565. Find
y\
Solution.
In
/'
if
x In sinx;
2x
-/'
cosx
sin x
1-j-x
-^
y = (smx)
(1
+ x + 3 In sin x +2 In cos x;
2
In
-~pj
-2smx
cosx
+ 3cotx--2 tan xj
x
.
= In sin x + x cot x;
= (sin x) x (In sin x + x cot x).
,Ln the following problems find y' after

function y
f(x):
first
taking logs of the
Sec. 3. The Derivatives of Functions Not Represented Explicitly

1. The derivative of an
derivative
y'x
^ 0,
then
the
inverse
function.
I!
derivative of the inverse
*~7
function
function
y=f(x) has
x=/-
(t/)
is
The Derivatives
Sec. 3]
Functions Not Represented Explicitly
of
57
or
_
dy'
dy
Tx
Example
1.
Solution.
\s
Find the derivative x
We
if
=1+1=^1
x
x
have y x
hence,
*>
-7-.
x-\- 1
2. The derivatives of functions represented parametrically.

related to an argument x by means of a parameter t
If
a function
*-
then
*t
or, in other notation,
*JL
t^dx'
dt
Example
2.
Find
^,
dx
if
a cos
y = a sin
Solution.
We
find
t,
/
a sin/ and -r-
d\
dt
_
dx
3. The derivative
and y
is
of an
= acosf.
implicit
sin
Whence
>
function.
If
the
relationship between
given in implicit form,
F(x,y) = Q,
(I)
then to find the derivative
y'x
y' in the simplest cases it is sufficient: 1) to
calculate the derivative, with respect to x, of the left side of equation (1),
taking y as a function of x\ 2) to equate this derivative to zero, that is, to put
~F(A:,f/)
and
= 0,
3) to solve the resulting equation for
Example
3.
Find the derivative
yx
(2)
/'.
if
0.
Solution.
ito
zero,
we
Forming the derivative
get
3*'
of the left
(3)
side
+ 3y V -3a (y + xy') = 0,
of (3)
and equating
it
58
[Ch. 2
whence
2
581. Find the derivative
,_* ay
~~axy*'
xy
a)
f/
c)
if
= 0.
.dy
In the following problems, find the derivative
#'=^
the
functions y represented parametrically:

582.
589.
x = acos*f,
= b sin*
x = acos*
y=b sin
\ y
590.
583.
t.
t,
cos
1.
T^nr
591.
584.
sin
?=
V coslr
585.
= arc cos
arc sin
592.
__
586.
'
y~=e:
= a( In tan + cos
= a(sin + cosO.
-2-
587.
588.
/
595. Calculate
cos/).
when
///i
/t cn
a
sin
= 4= a(t
= a(l
Solution.
*~ ^
593.
sin/
-r-~
a(l
cosO
cos/
if
sin
/),
cos/).
sin
^)
>
The Derivatives
Sec. 3]
Functions Not Represented Explicitly
of
59
and
S1
fdy\
^
**
when
"T
I
596.
Find
if<
= tlnt,
in/
y=^
x = e cosf,
= ^ sm^./
\
x
'
~.
597.
dv
dx
Find
when
= 44
ji
-r
if
<
<
f/
698.
Prove that a function # represented parametrically by the
equations
satisfies
599.
the equation
When x = 2
the following equation

jc
Does
when
it
x = 2?
= Va*
x*.
(x*)'
Is
= :r
5//+10 = 0.
2x
602.
5 + ? =1
s
604.
x'-
605.
l/^ +
606.
l/S + /~* =
607.
/'=
y
--=a
possible to perform term-by-term
+ y*^0'?
it
required to find the deriva-
is
609.
a cos
6I0
'
tan//
611.
xy-
613.
^=
603.
-t-y
= (2x)
implicit functions y.
of the
601.
608.
it
examples that follow
In the
y'
true:
follow from this that
600. Let y
differentiation of
tive
is
= 2x.
K^ = /"a.
0.3 sin y
'/a*.
= *.
614.
616.
arctan
^-
= -^
60
+ y = care tan
2
617.
1/x
619.
Find
Solution.
#=1, we
at the point
y'
Differentiating,
obtain
2*/'
= l+3f/',
620. Find the

indicated points:
a)
b)
for
for
c)
we get
whence
for
if
==y* + 3xy*y'.
Putting
2y'
0'
derivatives y' of
y)
x+l
ye = e
# =
y
A! (1,1),
x*
618.
(Ch.
and
1.
functions y at the
specified
x=
*=
x=
and
and
y=l;
and
r/=l.
*/=!;
Sec. 4. Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative
1. Equations of the tangent and the normal. From the geometric significance of a derivative it follows that the equation of the tangent to a curve
will be
t/ )
(*
y = f(x) or F(x,y)=Q at a point
where
value of the derivative y' at the point

(X Q y Q ). The straight
through the point of tangency perpendicularly to the tangent is
called the normal to the curve. For the
normal we have the equation
y'Q is the
line passing
Y\
2. The angle between
angle between the curves
curves.
The
d
and
at their
10
{Z
the
is
common
A and
point
point
Using a familiar formula of analytic geometry,
to
these
y Q ) (Fig. 12)
tangents
curves at the
(*
between
co
angle
the
we
get
3. Segments associated with the tangent and the normal in a rectangular

coordinate system. The tangent and the normal determine the following four
Sec
Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Deriiative
4]
segments (Fig.
13):
t
= TM
is
NM
the so-called
is
S t = TK
is
S n = KN
is
segment
and tan
y = y'Q
Sn N
/f
Fig.
KM = \y
of the tangent,
the subtangent,
the segment of the normal,
the subnormal.
St
Since
61
13
it
follows that
j/o
4. Segments
associated with the tangent
tern of coordinates. If a
en in polar coordinates
tion
= /(q>),
then
formed by the tangent
OM
the
MT
u.
angle
and the
radius vector r
(Fig. 14),
defined by the following formula:
The tangent
and the normal
curve is givby the equa-
is
MN
MT
and the normal

together with the radithe point of tangency
and with the perpendicular to the
radius vector drawn through the pole
determine the following four segat the point
us vector of
ments
(see Fig.
\Af
Fig.
14
14):
t
= MT
n=
MN
S t = OT
S n = ON
is
is
is
is
the segment of the polar tangent,

the segment of the polar normal,
the polar subtangent,
the polar subnormal.
in a polar sys-
[Ch. 2
62
These segments are expressed by the following formulas:
to
621. What angles cp are formed with the x-axis by the tangents
2
x x at points with abscissas:
the curve y
x = 0;
a)
x=l/2;
b)
x=l?
c)
2x. Whence
Solution. We have y'^\
45; b) tan 9 0, q>=0;
l, 
q>
=
=
622. At
the
sect
what angles do the sine

and y= s'm2x inter-
axis
of
abscissas
at
the
origin?
623. At what angle does the tanianx intersect the
gent curve y
Fig. 15
axis of abscissas at the origin?

tx
624. At what angle does the curve y
e*'
intersect the
line
x
2?
straight
625. Find the points at which the tangents to the curve
4
20 are parallel to the jc-axis.
12x*
y =z 3* -f. 4x*
626. At what point is the tangent to the parabola
+
=
3
0?
5x y
627. Find the equation of the parabola y~x*-}-bx-\-c that is
tangent to the straight line x
y at the point (1,1).
628. Determine the slope of the tangent to the curve x*+y*
Q at the point (1,2).
2
629. At what point of the curve y
2x* is the tangent perto
2
the
line
0?
straight
pendicular
630. Write the equation of the tangent and the normal to the
parallel to the straight line
xy7 =
=
+
4x3y =
parabola
y=
at the point
Solution.
We
= [y'] x= i = -T-
with abscissa x = 4.
have y
,/-
whence
7=;
the
slope
the
of
Since the point of tangency has coordinates
#2 =
= 4,
follows that the equation of the tangent is

1/4 (*
4) or x
Since the slope of the normal must be perpendicular,
*,
whence the equation
of the
normal:
tangent
y = 2,
4 (x
4) or
4x
+y
It
4# + 4 = 0.
= -4;
t/2 =
is
18
0.
Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative
Sec. 4\
63
631. Write the equations of the tangent and the normal to the
4# 3 at the point (2,5).
2x*
curve y = x'
632. Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the
curve
at the point (1,0).
633. Form the equations of the tangent and the normal to the
curves at the indicated points:
tan2x at the origin;
a) y
b)
=
y = arc
sin
^^
at
the
point
of
intersection
with
the
A:-axis;
c)
d)
y = arc cos 3x at the point of intersection with the y-axis;

at the point of intersection with the #-axis;
y = ln*
~ x*
at
the points of intersection with the straight
y=e
}
e)
line
y=
1.
634. Write the equations of the tangent

point (2,2) to the curve
t*
and the normal
at the
'
635. Write the equations of the tangent to the curve
at the origin
and
at the
point
= j-
x*
6=0 at the point with ordinate y 3.
2x
y*
637. Write the equation of the tangent to the curve x*
y*
curve
+ +
2xy = Q at the point (1,1).

638. Write the equations of the tangents and the normals to
the curve y = (x
3) at the points of its intersection
2)(x
l)(jt
with the #-axis.
4
curve y* = 4x
6xy at the point (1,2).
640*. Show that the segment of the tangent to the hyperbola
xy = a* (the segment lies between the coordinate axes) is divided
in two at the point of tangency.
641. Show that in the case of the astroid x 2 8 + y*t* = a*/ J the
segment of the tangent between the coordinate axes has a constant value equal to a.
___
[Ch. 2
64
642.
Show
that the normals to the involute of the circle
x = a(cost
y = a(sinf
sin/),
cost)
are tangents to the circle

643. Find the angle at which the parabolas y
(x
2
_.
x i ntersect.
4 _|_ 6*
y
2
x and y
644. At what angle do the parabolas y
Sect?
645.
Show
that the curves y

4x
2x 8 and y
are tangent to each other at the point (3,34). Will
same thing
646.
at
Show
2)
and
= x*
inter-
= x*
we have
-\-
10
the
(2,4)?
that the hyperbolas
intersect at a right angle.

647. Given a parabola y*
4x. At the point (1,2) evaluate the
lengths of the segments of the subtangent, subnormal, tangent,
and normal.
648. Find the length of the segment
2* at any point of it.
curve y
649.
Show
that in the
equilateral
of the
subtangent of the
2
a the
y
hyperbola x
to
the
radius
vector
equal
length of the normal at any point is

of this point.
650. Show that the length of the segment of the subnormal
2
2
2
a at any point is equal to the abscissa
in the hyperbola x
y
of this point.
651.
x*
Show
that the segments of the subtangents of the ellipse
jjr+frl
an d the circle
x -+y
= a*
at
points
with the same
abscissas are equal. What procedure of construction of the tangent to the ellipse follows from this?
652. Find the length of the segment ol the tangent, the normal, the subtangent, and the subnormal of the cycloid
(
\
x = a(t
a(ts'mt),
y = a(l
an arbitrary point t~t

653. Find the angle between the tangent and the radius vector
of the point of tangency in the case of the logarithmic spiral
at
Find the angle between the tangent and the radius vecthe point of tangency in the case of the lemniscate
1
a cos 2q>.
654.
tor
r*
of
Sec. 4]
Geometrical and Mechanical Applications of the Derivative
65
655. Find the lengths of the segments of the polar subtangent,

subnormal, tangent and normal, and also the angle between the
tangent and the radius vector of the point of tangency in the
case of the spiral of Archimedes
at a
point with polar angle
<p
= 2jt.
Find the lengths of the segments of the polar subtangent,

subnormal, tangent, and normal, and also the angle between the tanat an
gent and the radius vector in the hyperbolic spiral r=
656.
r
rQ
cp
arbitrary point cp
657. The law of motion of a point
;
Find the velocity of the point at /

in centimetres and / is in seconds).
on the *-axis
= 0, ^
and
is
(x
is
658. Moving along the #-axis are two points that have the
2
5t and #=l/2/
where tÔ.
following laws of motion: x=\00
With what speed are these points receding from each other at
the time of encounter (x is in centimetres and / is in seconds)?
659. The end-points of a segment AB

the coordinate axes OX and OY (Fig. 16).
^5 m
A
is
are sliding along

at 2 m/sec.
moving
A
Fig.
17
is the rate of motion of B when A is at a distance OA = 3 m

from the origin?
660*. The law of motion of a material point thrown up at an
angle a to the horizon with initial velocity V Q (in the vertical
plane OXY in Fig. 17) is given by the formulas (air resistance is
What
3-1900
66
_ _
[Ch. 2
disregarded):
#=i; /cosa,
where
trajectory of motion
speed of motion and
661.
i>
/sin a
^-,
point
g is the acceleration of gravity. Find the

and the distance covered. Also determine the
is in
its
direction.
motion along a hyperbola
r/
so that its
x increases uniformly at a rate of 1 unit per second.

the rate of change of its ordinate when the point passes
abscissa
What
the time and
is
*/
is
through (5,2)?
662. At what point of the parabola
y*=\8x does the ordinate

increase at twice the rate of the abscissa?
663. One side of a rectangle, a
10 cm, is of constant length,
while the other side, b, increases at a constant rate of 4 cm,'sec.
At what rate are the diagonal of the rectangle and its area increas30 cm?
ing when 6
664. The radius of a sphere is increasing at a uniform rate
of 5 cm/sec. At what rate are the area of the surface of the
sphere and the volume of the sphere increasing when the radius
becomes 50 cm?
665.
=10
point
is
in
motion along the spiral
of
Archimedes
so that the angular velocity of rotation of its radius

constant and equal to 6 per second. Determine the rate
of elongation of the radius vector r when r
25 cm.
666. A nonhomogeneous rod AB is 12 cm long. The mass of a
part of it, AM, increases with the square of the distance of the
from the end A and is 10 gm when
2 cm.
moving point,
Find the mass of the entire rod AB and the linear density at
any point M. What is the linear density of the rod at A and S?
(a
vector
cm)
is
AM =
Sec. 5. Derivatives of Higher Orders
1. Definition of higher derivatives. A derivative of the second order, or

Ihe second derivative, of the function y=f(x) is the derivative of its derivative; that is,
</"
(</')'.
The second derivative may be denoted

</".
If
* = /(/)
is
or
^.
as
or
f"(x).
the law of rectilinear motion of a point, then
eration of this motion.
is
the accel-
Sec. 5]
Derivatives of Higher Orders
Generally, the ith
a derivative of order (n
derivative of a function y
f(x) is the derivative
1). For the nth derivative we use the notation
(v
Example
or
~^,
or
Find the second derivative
t.
= \n(\
(n)
67
of
(x).
function
of the
x).
/.JZL; /
Solution.
2. Leibniz rule. If the functions u q>(x) and v=ty(x) have derivatives

to the nth order inclusive, then to evaluate the nth derivative of a product of these functions we can use the Leibniz rule (or formula):
up
(uv)
<">
= u<"
3. Higher-order derivatives
= -r
then the derivatives y'x
functions
of
(
i^
==
f/^jc
represented
can
^2
successively
xt
we have
For a second derivative
Example
Solution.
2.
F^nd
We
the formula
w
/
if
have
-
If
_
/
(a cos*),
& cos
.
&
"~~ "~~~
.
asm*
LUl
and
.
(acosO
If
= q>(0,
= *(0,
by the formulas
xt
parametricaKy.
-asln<
osln
be
calculated
68
[Ch.
A. Higher-Order Derivatives of Explicit Functions

In the examples that follow, find the second derivative of
given function.
667. y
668. y
669.
= x* + 7x'
= e*
5x
+ 4.
671.
672.
= \n t/\+x
Show
y= (arc sin x)
= acosh
u
673.
674.
V^
675.
y=sm*x.
670. j
y
//
th<
OY
*/
y=
that the function
-\
satisfies the
differ
ential equation
676.
tial
Show
that the function y
2y'+y = e
equation y"
677.
Show
equation y" 4-3y'

678.
tion y"
679.
680.
681.
682.
683.
Show
=
-|-2y
the
satisfies
differen
y=-C
e"
for all constants
the
that
function
the
that
= -^-x e x
function y
+ C 2 e' 2x
C and C
l
= e 2x s'm5x
satisfies th
2
satisfies the equa

4y
s
2
5x + 7x
2.
Find y"' if y = x
5
Find /'"(3) if /(*) - (2^:
3)
Find y v of the function # = ln(l+x).
Find t/ VI of the function y==sin2x.
Show that the function y = e~ x cosx satisfies the differ
ential equation y lv + 4y = Q.
684. Find /(O), f (0), T(0) and /'"(O;
f
+29y = 0.
,
if
= e x sinx.
f(x)
685.
The equation of motion of a poin

along the jc-axis is
O.OOU 8
X-100-H5/
Find the velocity and the acceleration

the
f
point
for
times
=10.
= 0,
=\
an
is in motion around
with constant anguls
Fig- 18
velocity CD. Find the law of motion of i1
projection M, on the x-axis if at time / =
the point is at
Q (a, 0) (Fig.
18). Find the velocity and the ac
celeration of motion of M,.
at the in
What is the velocity and the acceleration of
tial time and when it passes through the origin?
What are the maximum values of the absolute velocity and th
686.
circle
point
2
+y = a
absolute acceleration of Ai,?
Sec. 5]
69
Derivatives of Higher Orders
687. Find
the nth derivative of the function

3 natural number.
688. Find the nth derivatives of the functions:
where n
y=
js
a)
and
y^T^x*
y^^**'
b)
689. Find the /zth derivative of the functions:
j/=sinx;
a)
e)
b)4, = cos2*;
= e~ *;
c) y
f)
y=^j\
= yJ;
J/
g)
|/=ln(l+x);
d)
h)
y=sin*jr,
y=
690. Using the Leibniz rule, find y

a)
y = x.f\
b)
x
y = jc .e-*
{n
d)y =
c)
691. Find
//
= (!
(n)
(0),
if:
2
A:
e)
= x*
cos x\
if
B. Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions Represented

Parametrically and of Implicit Functions
dû
In the following problems find
692. a)
693. _,
= \nt,
'
b)
:asin/;
:
= 0cos'/,
= arc tan/,
\0-l
x
"'
iv
c)
* = arc sin/
= a(l -cos/);
x = a (sin/- /cos/),
= a(cos/-f-/ sin/).
\ y
696. Find
[Ch. 2
70
d*u
697. Find
698.
tions x
ax 2
Show
== sin
if
y=
{
\
that y (as a function
^
+ be~ iV
y = ae'
2
t,
* = ln(l-f-/
/=0,
for
satisfies the differential
= sec,
{
=
tan/.
\ y
= ^"'cos/,
{xy-e-<*tnt.
x
699.
703.
jt'"
701.
Solution.
By
/,
=
y'
r/
y = f(x),
x = f~*(y).
/=-
and
if
'
find
composite
^^
+ **_
*
function
we have
-2^;^.
if
if
required to determine
represented implicitly.
is
it
= f(x)
the
|y
l.
707.
# = *-}- arc tan
708.
Having the equation y = x + \ny
709. Find
|/.
at the point (1,1)
5xy +
710. Find y" at (0,1)
711. a)
2x
find
-j
= 0.
if
The function y
is
defined
implicitly
= 0.
at the point (1,1).

b)
and
if
Find
the derivatives x",
finally get:
In the following examples

derivative y" of the function y
705. y*
^+f=
^.
differentiating
-jwe
^
706.
the equaand 6
+ y*=*l.
Substituting the value of #',
x = e -1
=
^
function
the rule for
2* + 2i0'=0; whence
by
any constants
7 2 ' Find
x'
if
<
1
of the inverse function
704. Find
defined
x)
y'"
f
the
of
for
'
Knowing
),
equation
In the following examples find

(
Find
if
i/
==a 8 .
by the equation
Sec. 6]
and Higher Orders
71
Sec. 6. Differentials of First and Higher Orders

1. First-order
differential. The differential (first-order) of a

function
the principal part of its increment, which part is linear relative
to the increment Ax
dx of the independent variable x. The differential of a
= f(x)
is
19
Fig.
function
is
equal to the
product of its
derivative
by the differential of the
independent variable
dy--=y'dx,
whence
u
y
MN
If
is an arc of the graph
tangent at M. (x, y) and
dy
dx
'
the function
of
= f(x)
(Fig.
MT
19),
is
the
PQ = Ax-=dx,
then the increment in the ordinate of the tangent
and the segment AN

by.
Example 1. Find the increment
2
=
3x
x.
y
Solution. First method:
A//
= 3 (x + Ax)
and
(x
the
differential
+ Ax)
3x 2
of
the
function
+x
or
At/
Hence,
= (6*
dy = (6x
Ax + 3 (Ax) 2
1)
1)
Ax = (6x
1)
dx.
Second method:
t/'
Example
2.
and Ax = 0.01.
Solution.
= 6x
Calculate
A/ =
At/
1;
df/
= j/'dx = (6x
and dy
of
the
1)
dx.
function
y = 3x
l)-Ax
(6x
<fy
(6jt
+ 3 (Ax) = 5- 0.0 + 3- (0.01 = 0.0503

Ax = 5- 0.01 = 0.0500.
2
and
1)
for
x=l
72
[C/t.
2. Principal properties of differentials.

= 0, where c = const.
1) dc
2) d*- Ax, where x is an independent variable.
3)
4)
5)
= cdu.
dv.
v) = du
d (uv)
udv + v du.
d(cu)
d(u
7)
differential to approximate calculations. If the increment

argument x is small in absolute value, then the differential dy of the
function y = f(x) and the increment At/ of the function are approximately
3. Applying the
A*
of the
equal:
that
A # =^ dy,
is,
whence
3. By how much (approximately) does the side of a square change
2
to 9.1 m 2 ?
area increases from 9
Solution. If x is the area of the square and y is its side, then
Example
if
its
It
is
given that #
The increment
mately as follows:
At/
=9
in
and A*
0.1.
the side of the square
ky^zdy--=y' Ax
4. Higher-order
differentials.
j=z
-0.1
may
be calculated approxi-
= 0. 016m.
second-order differential
is
the differential
of a first-order differential:
We
similarly define the differentials of the third and higher orders.

If y
f(x) and x is an independent variable, then
But
if
= /(),
where w
d*y
and so
forth.
= cp(x),
then
= y"' (du) + 3y" du

9
d*u
+ y' d'u
(Here the primes denote derivatives with respect to
M).
712. Find the increment Ay and the differentia! dy of the func2

# 5* -f x for x 2 and A# 0.001.
tion
Sec. 6}
713.
and Higher Orders
Without calculating the derivative,
find
73
d(l-x')
for
x=\
714.
and Ax =
The area
square S with
of a
Find the increment and the
side x
differential of
is
this
x*.
given by S
function and ex-
plain the geometric significance of the latter.

715. Give a geometric interpretation of the increment and
differential of the following functions:
nx*\
a) the area of a circle, S
b) the volume of a cube, v=^x\
716. Show that when Ax
*0, the increment in the function
= 2X
corresponding to an increment Ax in x, is, for any x,

equivalent to the expression 2* In 2 A*.
717. For what value of x is the differential of the function
2
y = x not equivalent to the increment in this function as Ax >0?
718. Has the function y = \x\ a differential for x = 0?
719. Using the derivative, find the differential of the function
//
cos x for x
=y
and Ax
--=
720. Find the differential of the
for
for
function
Ax-
0.01.
9 and
x
721. Calculate the differential of the function
x-^-J
Ax^.
and
problems find the differentials of the given

functions for arbitrary values of the argument and its increment.
In the following
727. y
722.
y^'-m-
723.
<,=
724.
#= arc sin
= cot
s = arc
729. r
730.
725. //--=arctan~.
= x\nx
q>
x.
-f
cosec
(p.
lane*.
726. y
e~ \
731 Find d//
if
x*
+ 2xy
y*
= a*.
Solution. Taking advantage of the invariancy of the form of a differential,

x dy)
2y dy
(y dx
we obtain 2x dx + 2
Whence
74
[Ch. 2
In the following examples find the differentials of the functions

defined implicitly.
732.
733.
734.
X
y'y = 6x*.
735. Find dy at the point (1,2), if

736. Find the approximate value of sin
Solution. Putting
3) we have
(see
sin
arc30=-jr-
and Ax = arc
+ ^~ cos
31=^ sin 30
31.
1=^, from formula
(1)
30=0.500+0.017-J~^=0.515.
737. Replacing the increment of the function by the differencalculate approximately:
tial,
a) cos
b) tan
c)
61;
44;
d) In 0.9;
e) arc
tan 1.05.
e*\
738. What will be the approximate increase in the volume of

a sphere if its radius
15 cm increases by 2
739. Derive the approximate formula (for
\&x\ that are small
compared to x)
#=
mm?
A*
Using
it,
V5
approximate
Y\7, /70, /640.
740. Derive the approximate formula
and find approximate values

741.
for
for
*=1.03;
* = 0.2;
for
* = 0.1;
for
__
c)
d)
j!/TO,
j/70, jI/200.
Approximate the functions:
/(x)- !/"}=
y=e
~ x*
x =1.05.
for
/
742. Approximate tan 453 20".

743. Find the approximate value of arc sin 0.54.
744.
Approximate
Sec. 7]
_ _
Mean-Value Theorems
745. Using
Ohm's
law,
= --,
show
the current, due to a small change

found approximately by the formula
2/
the
in
resistance,
in
may be
A.
A/
746. Show that,
relative error of 1/
that a small change
75
of the radius, a
error of approximately
in calculating the area of a circle and the surface of a sphere.
747. Compute d*y, if y
co$5x.
determining the
in
length
results in a relative
Solut ion.
748. u
749.
750.
//
d y = y" (dx =
2
25 cos 5* (dx) 2
=
x\
= arccosx,
find d*u.
{/^sinxlnx,
find d*y.
find d*y.
= ^, find d'z.
z = **-*, find d'z.
z =
flnd d4
2=TJ,
M = 3sin(2jt-f 5), find
= e* cosa sin(;t sin u),
751.
752.
753.
*'
754.
755.
//
d"w.
n
find d y.
Sec. 7. Mean-Value Theorems
1. Rolle's
b,
then the
theorem. If
has a derivative
argument
has
at
the interval
is continuous on
f (x)
every interior point of this interval, and
function
at
/' (x)
least
one
value
where a
< 5<
b,
such that
2. Lagrange's theorem. If a function f (*) is continuous on the interval

and has a derivative at every interior point of this interval, then
where a
<5<
ft.
3. Cauchy's theorem.
If
the functions
a<x<b
a^x^b
and for
simultaneously, and F(b)^F(a)
interval
-f (a)
756.
Show
l<x<0
that
and
the
g.
and F
(x) are
derivatives
continuous on the
do not vanish
that
then
_
function
0<x<l
appropriate values of
f (x)
have
f(x)
= xx*
satisfies the
Rolle
on
the
intervals
the
theorem. Find
76
The function / (x) is continuous and different! able for all values
= /(0) = /(1)=0. Hence, the Rolle theorem is applicable on
1)
intervals
and 0<*<_1, To find
form the equation
_ we
Solution.
of x,
the
and /(
Kx<0
n*) = l-3* = 0. Whence

2
0<E <
and
[Ch. 2
757.
The function
fc^-J/l;
J/l
-i< g, <o
where
1.
takes on
f(x)
2)
\/(x
equal values
the end-points of the interval [0.4]. Does
/(4)
j/4 at
the Rolle theorem hold for this function on [0.4]?
758. Does the Rolle theorem hold for the function
/(0)
on the interval
759.
Show
[0,
JT]?
Let
that the equation

/'(*)
has three real roots.

760.
The equation
obviously has a root x
any other
real
= 0.
Show
that this equation cannot have
root.
761. Test whether the Lagrange theorem holds for the function
on
the interval
value of
[2,1] and
the
find
appropriate
intermediate
= xx*
all
Solution. The function f(x)

values of A:, and /' (x)= 1
3x 2
h3ve
/(l)-/(-2y = 0-6
2
2 and
3^
2
inequality
1
continuous and difTerentiable for

by the Lagrange formula, we
= [l-(-2)]/ (E), that
is,
Hence,
the only suitable value is
1, for which the
is
Whence,
/
/'(E)2
=
g=l;
< < holds
1
762.
Test the validity of the Lagrange theorem and find the

intermediate point
for the function f(x)
x 4/s on
the interval [
1,1].
2
763. Given a segment of the parabola y
x
lying between
two points A (1,1) and 3(3,9), find a point the tangent to which
is parallel to the chord
AB.
764. Using the Lagrange theorem, prove the formula
appropriate
sin (x 4- h)
where
sin
x = h cos
Taylor's Formula
Sec. 8]
77
+2
*
765. a) For the functions /(x)
whether the Cauchy theorem holds on
find E;
b)
do
same with
the
on the interval
~1
To,
and F(x)
the
respect to /(*)
= x'
interval
= sin*
test
and
[1,2]
and F(x)
= cosx
Sec. 8. Taylor's Formula

If
(n
is
function
f (x)
is
continuous and has continuous derivatives up to the
l)th order inclusive on the

a finite derivative f (n} (x) at
lor's
a<x<6
interval
each interior point
&<*<a),
(or
of the interval,
and there
then Tay-
formula
fw = f (<o + (*-*) r (o) +
-V(a)
-V
w+
nl
where
= +
a
0(jc
In particular,
f
W =/
(0)
a)
and
when
+xf
(0)
0<6<1,
holds true on the interval.
we have (Maclaurin's formula)
r (0) +
"-'>
(0)
/<>
(I),
where
=
?
0<9<1.
0jc,
766. Expand the polynomial /(A:)

tive integral powers of the binomial x
n*)=3jt
Solution.
for
4A-
= 6^
2;c
A:
+ 3;
/'
f'(2)
= 7;r(2) = 8;r(2)
(jc)
+ 3^ + 5
in posi-
2.
4;
/'"
(x)=6;
n^4. Whence
H;
=6.
Therefore,
or
2x z
8
Jt
767.
+ 3x + 5 =
(n)
Solution.
+7
(.v
2)
+ 4 (x
x
Expand the function f(x)=e
term containing (x-f-1)
where
1 1
(x)
= e*
in
2)
2)
(A-
powers
of
to
the
8
.
for all
n,
p)(
1)=JL. Hence,
+6(*+ 1); 0<G<1.
768. Expand the function /(x)

the term with (x
1)*.
lnjt in
powers
of
up
to
78
[Ch. 2
= sin x
in powers of x up to the term containing x

e* in powers of x up to the term contain770. Expand f(x)
n~ l
ing x
771. Show that sin(a
/i) differs from
769.
Expand
9
/ (x)
and to the term containing x*.
+ h cos a
sin a
2
by not more than l/2/i

772. Determine the origin
.
of the
VT+x&l+x y*
yi+i&l+x~x*,
2
a)
b)
and evaluate their errors.

773. Evaluate the error
Due
774.
to
line
a catenary
in
of the
shape
775*.
\x\<l,
\x\<\
is
formula
in the
weight, a heavy
y = a cosh.
thread
Show
own
its
approximate formulas:
Show
approximately
suspended thread
that
the
by the parabola
expressed
that for \x\<â, to within
small \x\
for
lies
(^-J
we
have
the
approximate equality
Sec. 9.
The L'Hospital-Bernoulli Rule
Evaluating Indeterminate Forms
for
oo
1. Evaluating the indeterminate forms
and
and
u
Let
oo
the
single-valued
a </i; the derivative

be differentiate for 0<|#
of one of them does not vanish.
* a\ that
If f(x) and q>(*) are both infinitesimals or both infinites as x
functions
if
is,
/ (x)
the quotient
(p
(x)
^-4
at
x = a,
is
one
of the
indeterminate forms --
oo
i
then
00
*-+<*
provided that the limit
lim /(*)
(p (x)
^lim
x-+a
(*)
q>' (
x)
of the ratio of derivatives exists.
or
V Hospital-Bernoulli
Sec. 9]
The
rule
is
when a =
also applicable
fix)
If
the quotient
,,
Rule for Indeterminate Forms

00.
yields an
again
indeterminate
at the point
form,
= a,
of one of the two above-mentioned types and /' (x) and

the requirements that have been stated for f(x) and q? (x),
pass to the ratio of second derivatives, etc.
79
q>'
However,
may
exist,
it
should
borne
be
whereas the ratios
mind that the
in
limit of the ratio -^-~
derivatives do not tend to any limit
the
of
(x) satisfy
we can then
all
Example 809).
2. Other indeterminate forms. To evaluate an indeterminate form like
0oo, transform the appropriate product fi(x)*f t (x), wne re lim/, (jt) = and
(see
K+O.
/(*)
lim/ 2 (*)
= oo,
^^
into thequetient
form
(the
*->a
(T^T\
/i (X)
( the
orm -).
oo
M*)
In the case
of
the indeterminate form oo
appropriate difference /,(*)
f 2 (x)
oo,
one should transform the
into the product / t (x)
first
evaluate the indeterminate form 7*7^;

r
lim
if
(X)
and
/ 1
7^7^=1,
\x
x-+a i\
x )j
then
we
re-
duce the expression to the form
form
(the
).
/Tw
The indeterminate forms I, 0, 00 are evaluated by first faking loga
rithms and then finding the limit of the logarithm of the power [f l (x)]^ (x}
(which requires evaluating a form like 0oo).
In certain cases it is useful to combine the L'Hospital rule with tht
finding of limits by elementary techniques.
Example
1.
Compute
lim
JL1
*->o cot
(form ").
7
oo
Solution. Applying the L'Hospital rule
we have
JEfL^llm pL*r
x+ocotx jc-o(cot*)
lim
lim
We
get
the indeterminate form
-jp
jc-*o
however,
L'Hospital rule, since
Um
C-frO
We
sint
Hm
sin
~~*-H)
thus finally get

"
JC->0
COt X
we
do
not
need to
use the
[Ch. 2
80
Example
Compute
2.
limf-J- x
*-M)V sin
Reducing
xL^
J
(form
common denominator, we
to a
lim
oo
oo).
get
(4__J_Ulim*.!z^lf
x
x J
x-o x sin x
x-+o \ sin
v
(fonn
'
Before applying the L'Hospital rule, we replace the denominator of the

2
2
fraction by an equivalent infinitesimal (Ch. 1, Sec. 4) * sin A;~ x*.
obtain
ter
lat-
We
The L'Hospital
rule gives
lim
L)
Then,
in
A "~ S
= lim
m *=lim-
elementary fashion, we find
_ ___
2
x-<> \ sin
Example
3.
cos 2x
2 sin 2 *
,.
Compute
8
*2
lim (cos 2x)
00
(form
X-M)
Taking logarithms and applying the L'Hospital
lim In (cos
X-*0
lim
2*p = X-+Q
31ncos2*
X
rule,
= _ 6 lim
we
%X
x-+Q
get
= _6
J^
Hence, lim
(cos 2x)
*ê-*.
Jf->0
ind the indicated limits of functions in the following
ples.
x '-
77G.
lim
,_>,
*'
Solution. lim
"
;
X->1
777.
lim
xcosx
v
^r 2 "~~ 7/
OJi
~~
sinx
,
779.
lir
*7on
is
I-*
tj
11IU
'
ji
*->il_si n :r
780.
lim
tan*
sin*
exam-
sec
,.
781.
2tan*
1+COS4*
2
'
785.
lim-
*-cot^
2
lim^.
tan5x
782.
^Ji
786.
lim
*-"
787.
i .
1.
lim
[,
cos x) cot
(1
x->o
n x
lim -r-?=r
lim
1
783.
81
A-
x +
lim
Solution,
(1
^cos
x) cot
= Hm
cos A
'^- lim
X->0
Sill AT
Forms
L' Hospital-Bernoulli Rule for Indeterminate
Sec. 9]
Sill
linrZi!iJ^(
788.
lim(l
A*)
Ian
792.
,V-^l
X^X
lim arc sin x cot x.
789.
-,
V
lim x" sin
793.
'
hnilnxln
(x
1).
X-+Q
ri
790.
n>0.
lim(jc e?"*),
vô
791. lim x sin
794.
lim
^
*i
f^
\
n"^
lr
%
Solution.
[-
A'
= lim
lim
j
^^MiiA-l
795.
lim
796.
lim
(A
1)
11
= lim
\nx
-1
*^
A
-7
T-
h~?
2
A'
L__l
limf-^^'
*
y
797
~ >l
^Vc
_^/
A)
AO J
^}
2cosx/
798.
lim
A;*.
Solution.
lim
We
= lim
j~
have
0,
**
r/;
whence lim//=l,
In
y=?x
that
In
is,
A".
ImiA^
lim In
l.
t/
= limjtln x
82
(Ch. 2
799. limx*.
804.
li
V-H
tan
800. limx4 * "*.
805. Hmftan^f)
4 /
X-+l\
801. linue s/n
806. lim (cot x) ln
*.
*->0
*.
X-H)
cos
802.
lim(l-*)
803.
lim(l+x
ta
807.
)*-
lta(I)
x /
x-*o \
".
808. lim (cot x)* in
*.
X-+0
809. Prove that the limits of
X
a)
cannot
sin*
be found
by the L'Hospital-Bernoulli
rule.
Find these
limits directly.
810*. Show that the area of a circular segment with minor

and
central angle a, which has a chord
(Fig. 20), is
AB=b
CD=A
approximately
with an arbitrarily small relative error when a
->0.
Chapter III
THE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION AND THE GEOMETRIC

APPLICATIONS OF A DERIVATIVE
Sec.
1.
The Extrema
1. Increase and
of
a Function of One Argument
of tunctions. Tlu Junction y

f(x) is called
on some interval if, fo. any points x and x 2 which
belong to this interval, from the inequality A',<A- 2 we get the inequality / (*,)<
21a)
</(*i) (Fig
[/(*,)>/ (A,) (Fm. 21&)]. I! f(x) is continuous on the
interval [a, b] and /' (x)>0 [/' (A')<OJ for a< .<b, then /(A) increases (decreases) on the interval [a, b\.
decrease
increasing (decreasing)
ffxj
xz
i,
(a)
Fifi.
Fig. 22
21
In the simplest cases, the domain of definition of f (x) may be subdividincrease and decrease of the funca finite number of intervals of
tion (intervals of monotonicity). These intervals are bounded by ciitic-'
or f' (x) does not exist].
points x [where /'(jc)
Example 1. Test the following function for increase and decrease:
ed into
Solution.
We
find the derivative

t/'
Whence
y'
for
x=l. On
= 2x
a
= 2(*
number
scale
1).
we
get
two intervals
of
monot-
oo<x<l, then
onicity: (00, 1) and (1, -f oo). From (1) we have: 1) if
oo, 1); 2)
i/'<0, and, hence, the function f (x) decreases in the interval (
if l<A'<
oo, then j/'>0, and, hence, the function /(*) increases in the interval (1, +00) (Fig. 22).
Extrema and the Geometric Applications
84
Example
Determine the intervals
2.
of
and decrease
of increase
[Ch. 3
a Derivative
of the func-
tion
Solution.
,
i
o\\2
<Q
oo<*<
Example
Here,
*^~
for
Hence, the
the
of
discontinuity
and
function
(/'
decreases in the intervals
function y
and
Test the following function for increase or decrease:
3.
/i
y
Solution
is
*v s
*y a
'
Here,
(2)
find the points x l

Q, we
Solving the equation x* -x
0, x,= l
1, *2
at which the derivative y' vanishes. Since y' can
change sign only when
passing through points at which it vanishes or becomes discontinuous (in the
given case, y' has no discontinuities), the derivative in each of the intervals
1, 0), (0,1) and (1,
(00,
1), (
+00) retains its sign; for this reason, the
function under investigation is monotonic in each of these intervals. To
determine in which of the indicated intervals the function increases and in
which it decreases, one has to determine the sign of the derivative in each
of the intervals, To determine what the sign of y' is in the interval
00,
inter1), it is sufficient to determine the sign of y' at some point of the
val; for example, taking x=
2, we get from (2) f/'
12>0, hence, y'>Q in
the interval (00,
increases Similar1) and the function in this interval
we find that y'<Q in the interval (1, 0) (as a check, we can take
ly,
(
'
the
in
Y\
/'A\
interval
(0,1)
**
(here,
we can
interval
(1,
x=l/2) and y'>0
use
in
the
+00).
the function being tested inThus,

creases in the interval (
oo,
1), decreases
in the interval
1) and again increases
in the interval (1, -f oo).
2. Extremum of a function. If there
(1,
exists a two-sided neighbourhood of a point

X Q such that for every point X^X of this
Q
neighbourhood we have the

inequality
f(x)>f(x Q ) then the point x is called the
J
Fig
23
minimum
point
of
while the number
mum
the
/ (x
of the function y
neighbourhood of the point
function
is
f(x),
called the
mini-
f(x).
Similarly,
if
x lf the inequality
any point xj^x l of some
f(*)<f(x\) is fulfilled, then *, is called the maximum point of the function
and
is
the maximum of the function (Fig. 23). The minimum
f(x),
/(*j)
point or maximum point of a function is its extremal point (bending point),
and the minimum or maximum of a function is called the extremum of the
function. If xn is an extremal point of the function f
then /' (* ) = 0, or
(x),
for
The Extrema
Sec. 1]
The
of a
Function of One Argument
85
and absence of an
are given by the following rules:
extremum
sufficient conditions for the existence
continuous function
/ (x)
of a
1. If
there exists a neighbourhood (X Q
6, *
6) of a critical point *
such that /'(x)>0 for X Q
d<x<xQ and /'(jt)<0 for xQ <x<xQ d, then * is
the maximum point of the function / (*); and if /' (*)<0 for *
6<*<x
is the minimum point of the
and /' (x)>0 for x <x<xe
function
6\ then *
/(*)-
Finally,
function
2.
if
there
for
/ (x).
r
If
f (XQ)
f' ( XQ )
(*
if
unchanged
sign
=Q
= 0,
is
some
0<|jc
positive
number 6 such
then x
X Q |<6,
is
that /' (x) retains its

not an extremal point of the
then X Q is the maximum

and /"(*<,)<(),
)>0, then x is the minimum point; but if f
)^0, then the point X Q is not an extremal point.
and
f"
and /'"
(*
(*
point;
(*
= 0,
More generally:
let the first of the derivatives (not equal to zero at the

function f (x) be of the order k. Then, if k is even, the
is
an extremal point, namely, the maximum point, if f (k) (* )<0;
and it is the minimum point, if / (ft) (x )>0 But if k is odd, then A- O is not
n extremal point.
Example 4. Find the extrema of the function
point x
point X Q
the
of
<
i/
==2*
+3
Solution. Find the derivative

(3)
Equating the derivative
Whence,
x-
x-=
function
if
we
-/i,
find
then
is
we
get:
x l =-
a sufficiently small
Hence,
/'<0*).
and //max=-l.
Equating the denominator
r/
to zero,
the critical point
where h
\+h,
y'
*,
1.
From formula
(3)
we
have:
if
positive number, then /y'>0; but

I
is the maximum point of the
of
the expression of y' in (3) to zero,
we
get
\\e find the second critical point of the function A'2

there
0, where
for*/! we have
no derivative //' For *==
/i, we obviously have //<0;
is
the minimum point of the function y, and
//>0. Consequently, * 2
m jn
(Fig. 24). It is also
possible to test the behaviour of the function
1
at the point x
by means of the second derivative
whence
is
i/
/=--4^=
1
is the maximum
I
x,
and, hence, *,
point of the
function.
3. Greatest and least values. The least (greatest) value of a continuous
function f (x) on a given interval [a, b] is attained either at the critical
points of the function or at the end-points of the interval [a, b].
Here, r/"<0 for
to determine the sign of the derivative y', one can

*) If it is difficult
calculate arithmetically by taking for h a sufficiently small positive number.
86
Example
of a
Find the greatest and least values
5.
on the interval
Derivative
[Cfi.
of the function
P/2
Solution. Since
it
follows that the critical points of the function y are *,
and
Fig. 24
of the function at these points and the values
function at the end-points of the given interval
Comparing the values
we conclude
the
(Fig.
x=l (at
*=2 /i
point
at the point
that the function attains
25)
the
minimum
point),
and
its least
the greatest value
Determine the
812.
813.
814.
y=l
m=l,
at
A4 = ll
(at the right-hand end-point of the interval).
intervals
of decrease
and increase
1ions:
811.
value,
of the
4*
jf.
= (* 2)
y = (A:+4)
= *'(*- 3).
*>-
{/
817.
818.
= (x
{/
of the func-
The Extrema
Sec. 1]
819.
of
a Function
y^ \-V~x.
822.
y = 2e*
823.
= x -f sin x.
y = x\nx.
= arcsin(l-f-x).
820. y
821.
One Argument
of
'
825
^T"
We
find
the
zero,
we
for extrema:
= +
Solution.
-'*.
_. 2~<*.
24
t/
Test the following functions

x*
826. y
4*4-6.
derivative
of
the
given function,
value of the argument x=
2.
Since i/'<0 when x<
2 is
2, and y'>Q when *>
2, it follows that *=
the minimum point of the function, and #min
2. We get the same result
of the second derivative at the critical point y"~<
by utilizing the
~ sign
Equating
to
y'
the
get
critical
827. y
828. {/
829. (/
--
=
=
Solution,
We
find the derivative
= 6*
y'
4-
6x
12
=6
+*
2
(jc
2).
2
Equating the derivative y' to zero, we get the critical points x,=
and *,= !. To determine the nature of the extremum, we calculate the
second derivative ^"^ 6 (2* 4-1). Since /(
2
2)<0, it follows that x,=
is the maximum point of the function y, and #max
25. Similarly, we have
the function y and
t/*(l)>0; therefore, x 2 =l is the minimum point of
i=
2.
<-
12 )
2
'
840.
(*
I)
y-
2)'.
841.
836. V
= rr4=^.
837. t/=
w=J/(^
OQQ
ooy.
it
*/ ===
Determine the
indicated
843. y
844.
847.
citi ^. v
-+ sin
^k*.
I
least
intervals
,_
846. y
1)'.
O sin
cin ZA
Ov
z
842. #
(if
f/
/1ft
//
M
oto.
= x'e-*.
= -.
X
-
ar/* fan
^
idii ^t.
/t-~drc
interval
is
of the functions on the

not given, determine the
and greatest values

the
ln(l+*).
je
845>
^_.
838.
t/
88
greatest
and
[Ch. 8
of a Derivative
values of the function throughout the domain
least
of definition).
849.
850.
851.
= rih&.
-=
y
x(lOx).
y= sin + cos
A;
imum
interval
= 2x* + 3*
A;.
12*
a)
b)
on the interval
on the interval
that for positive values of
856. Determine
nomial
V = x* on the
854. y
= arc cos x.
Show
852. #
855.
853
!/
*we
1,3].
1,6];
[10,12],
have the inequality
coefficients p and q of the quadratic triso that this trinomial should have a minJt= 1. Explain the result in geometrical terms.
the
y*=x*+px + q
3 when
t/
857. Prove the inequality
e*
> +x
1
when x
4* 0.
Solution. Consider the function
In the usual
way we
find
lhat
this function
has a single
minimum
/(0)
Hence,
/(*)>/ (0)
and so e*
as
we
set
> +x
1
when x
when x
0,
^ 0,
out to prove.
Prove the inequalities:

x
sin x
858. x
<
^<
o
when *>0.
when
~<ln(l +x)<x
when
859.
cos*>l
860.
A:
JL
861. Separate a given positive number a into two summands

such that their product is the greatest possible.
862. Bend a piece of wire of length / into a rectangle so that
the area of the latter is greatest.
863. What right triangle of given perimeter 2p has the greatest area?
864. It is required to build a rectangular playground so that
should have a wire net on three sides and a long stone wall
it
on the fourth. What is the optimum (in the sense of area) shape
of the playground if / metres of wire netting are available?
Sec.
1]
The Extrema
of
a Function
of
One Argument
89
865. It is required to make an open rectangular box of greatest

capacity out of a square sheet of cardboard with side a by cutting
squares at each of the angles and bending up the ends of the
resulting cross-like figure.
866. An open tank with a square base must have a capacity
of v litres. What size will it be if the least amount of tin is used?
867. Which cylinder of a given volume has the least overall
surface?
868. In a given sphere inscribe a cylinder with the greatest volume.
869.
In a given sphere inscribe a cylinder having the greatest
lateral surface.
870. In a given sphere inscribe a cone with the greatest volume.

871. Inscribe in a given sphere a right circular cone with the
greatest lateral surface.
872. About a given cylinder circumscribe a right cone of least
volume (the planes and centres of their circular bases coincide).
873. Which of the cones circumscribed about a given sphere
has the least volume?
874. A sheet of tin of width a has to be bent into an open
cylindrical channel (Fig. 26). What should the central angle cp be
so that the channel will have maximum capacity?
D
N
M
Fig. 27
875. Out of a circular sheet cut a sector such that when made
into a funnel it will have the greatest possible capacity.
876. An open vessel consists of a cylinder with a hemisphere
at the bottom; the walls are of constant thickness. What will the
dimensions of the vessel be if a minimum of material is used for
a
given capacity?
OB of the door of a ver877. Determine the least height h

so that this door can pass a rigid rod
tower
of
length /, the end of which, M, slides along a horizontal straight
line AB. The width of the tower is
(Fig. 27).
tical
MN
ABCD
d<l
90
of
a Derivative
[Ch. 3
878. A point
(x
# ) lies in the first quadrant of a coordinate plane. Draw a straight line through this point so that the
triangle which it forms with the positive semi-axes is of least area.
879. Inscribe in a given ellipse a rectangle of largest area with
sides parallel to the axes of the ellipse.
880. Inscribe a rectangle of maximum area in a segment of
the parabola y*
2px cut off by the straight line x 2a.
,
881.
On
the curve y
find a point at
-\-
Xt
which the tangent
forms with the A>axis the greatest (in absolute value) angle.
882. A messenger leaving A on one side of a river has to get
to B on the other side. Knowing that the velocity along the bank
that on the water, determine the angle at which the
is k times
messenger has to cross the river so as to reach B in the shortest
possible time. The width of the river is h and the distance between A and B along the bank is d.
883. On a straight line AB=a connecting two sources of light A
that
(of intensity p) and B (of intensity </), find the point
receives least light (the intensity of illumination is inversely pro-
square of the distance from the light source).

suspended above the centre of a round table
At what distance should the lamp be above the table
portional to the
884. A lamp
of radius
r.
is
an object on the edge of the table will get the greatest

illumination? (The intensity of illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of the light rays and
is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the
so that
light source.)
885. It is required to cut a beam of rectangular cross-section

ont of a round log of diameter d. What should the width x and
the height y be of this cross-section
so that the beam will offer maximum
resistance a) to compression and b) to
bending?
I
i/J
Note. The resistance of a beam to compresof its crossis proportional to the area
to the product of the
section, to bending
width of the cross-section by the square of
sion
its
height.
886. A homogeneous rod AB, which

can rotate about a point A (Fig. 28),
is carrying a load
Q kilograms at a distance of a cm from A
and is held in equilibrium by a vertical force P applied to the
free end B of the rod. A linear centimetre of the rod weighs
q kilograms. Determine the length of the rod x so that the force P
should be least, and find P mln
Fig.
Sec. 2]
The Direction
887*. The centres

on a single straight
locity v strikes
strikes C of mass
fi,
of Concavity.
Points of Inflection
91
of three elastic spheres A, B\ C are situated

Sphere A of mass
moving with vewhich, having acquired a certain velocity,
line.
m. What mass should B have so that C will

have the greatest possible velocity?
888. N identical electric cells can be formed into a
battery
in different ways by combining n cells in series and then combining the
allel.
in pargroups (the number of groups is

]
The current supplied by this battery is given by the formula
resulting
where
NnS
~~
the electromotive force of one cell, r is its internal

and R is its external resistance.
For what value of n will the battery produce the greatest
<
is
resistance,
current?
889. Determine
the
diameter y of a circular opening in the

which the discharge of water per second Q
will be greatest, if Q = cy Vhtj, where h is the depth of the
lowest point of the opening (h and the empirical coefficient c are
body
of a
dam
for
constant).
890. If x lf # 2 ..., x n are the results of measurements of equal
precision of a quantity x, then its most probable value will be
that for which the sum of the squares of the errors
,
(*-*,)
0=2
1=1
value (the principle of least squares).
is
of least
of
Prove that the most probable value of x

the measurements.
is
the arithmetic
mean
Sec. 2. The Direction of Concavity. Points of Inflection
1. The concavity of the graph of a function. We say that the graph of a

differentiable function y
f(x) is concave down in the interval (a,b) [concave
the arc of the curve is below (or
up in the interval (a p 6,)] if for
for
the tangent drawn at any point of the interval (a, b)
lt above)
or of the interval (a,, &.)] (Fig. 29). A sufficient condition for the concavity
downwards (upwards) of a graph y f(x) is that the following inequality befulfilled in the appropriate interval:
a.<xoj.
2. Points of inflection. A point [* f (jc )] at which the direction of concavity of the graph of some function changes is called a point of inflection
,
(Fig. 29).
92
of
[Ch. 3
a Derivative
point of inflection x of the graph of a function

derivative f (* )
or /" (x ). Points at which
Q or f (x) does not exist are called critical points of the second kind.
f'(x)
The critical point of the second kind x is the abscissa of the point of inflec* an
*
the intervals x
6
tion if I" (x) retains constant
signs in
.d
For the abscissa
f (x)
there
is
of the
no second
<x<
< <
+ 6,
where 6 is some positive number; provided these signs are
x?
Jc
And it is not a point of

inflection if the signs of f (x) are the
same in the above-indicated intervals.
opposite.
y~f(x)
Example 1. Determine the intervals of concavity and convexity and

also the points of inflection of the
Gaussian curve
Solution.
We
have
bx
a,
b,
and
Fig. 29
Equating the second
we
derivative y* to zero,
find the critical points of tHe
second kind
and
7=r
*o
T=-
These points divide the number scale

OO<A:< OO into three intervals:
1 (00, xj, II (*j, x 2 ), and III (x
+00). The signs of t/' will be, respec2
,
Fig. 31
-f(this is obvious if, for example, we take one point in each
lively, +,
of the intervals and substitute the corresponding values of x into y ) Therefore:
,
1)
the curve
curve
is
is
concave up when
concave down when
oo<
-=^
<
<x<
7= and
F2
==
F=
< x <-f oo;
2) the
V 2
The points
-=^
\V2
r=]
are
VeJ
points of inflection (Fig. 30).

It will be noted that due to the symmetry of the Gaussian curve about
the #-axis, it would be sufficient to investigate the sign of the concavity of
x
this curve on the semiaxis
+00 alone.
< <
__
Sec. 3]
Asymptotes
Example
Find the points
2.
of
93
inflection of the graph of the function
y=*/7+2.
Solution.
It
is
We
have:
obvious that y" does not vanish anywhere.

Equating to zero the denominator of the fraction on the
right of (1), we
find that y" does not exist for x
2. Since y"
for
2 and f/"<0 for
2, it follows that (
2,0) is the point of inflection (Fig. 31). The tangent at this point is parallel to the axis of ordinates, since the first derivative y'
is infinite at x
2.
x<
>
*>
Find the
intervals of concavity and the points

graphs of the following functions:
6x*
12x + 4.
891. y = x*
896. y
cosx.
of
inflection
of the
892.
893.
y = (x + l)\
y = -4r
o
897.
898.
X-\-
894.
895.
ff
899.
.
,
12
900.
\2x.
y=i/4x*
=
y=x
y=x
sin*.
2
In x.
= arc tanx
y = (l+x*)e*.
//
x.
Sec. 3. Asymptotes
1. Definition. If a point (#,/) is in continuous motion along a curve

f(x) in such a way that at least one of its coordinates approaches infinity
(and at the same time the distance of the point from some straight line tends
to zero), then this straight line is called an asymptote of the curve.
2. Vertical asymptotes. If there is a number a such that
y
Jim /(v)--=
then the straight line x

3
a
Inclined asymptotes.
is
If
00,
an asymptote (vertical asymptote).

there are limits
llm
X
->>
+ 00
and
lim [/(*)X-++ 00
Ml = *i.
then the straight line y

k l x+b l will be an asymptote
0, a right horizontal asymptote).
asymptote or, when ^
If
there are limits

llm
(a
right inclined
94
of a Derivative
[Ch. 3
and
Urn
k zx
y
b^ is an asymptote (a left inclined asymptote
horizontal asymptote). The graph of the function y
f(x)
(we assume the function is single-valued) cannot have more than one right
(inclined or horizontal) and more than one left (inclined or horizontal) asymptote.
Example 1. Find the asymptotes of the curve
then the straight

or,
when
fe
= 0,
line
a left
Solution. Equating the denominator
to zero,
we
get
two
vertical asyinp-
lotos-
x=
We
x=l.
and
seek the inclined asymptotes. For x
kl
lim
lim
x)
(//
*
+ oo
= lim
we obtain
~l,
lim
*-+o>
b =-
>
}^x z
x
y^2
=0,
\
\
-/
Fig. 32
hence, the straight line y
=x
the right asymptote. Similarly,
is
when*
oo,
we have
fc
fc
Hm
~=
1;
lim
AC->~
Thus, the
totes
is
Example
2.
y= -x
(Fig. 32). Testing a curve for asympconsideration the symmetry of the curve.
Find the asymptotes of the curve
left
simplified
asymptote
if
we take
Is
into
__
Sec. 3]
95
Asymptotes
Solution. Since
lim
t/
oo,
is a vertical
the straight line x
asymptote (lower). Let us now
curve only for the inclined right asymptote (since x>0).
We have:
k=
b
lim (y
*-*+ 00
lim
X++OD X
x)
lim
#->+<
test
the
1,
\nx
oo.
Hence, there is no inclined asymptote.

If a curve is represented by the parametric equations x
cp(0i */
^(0
then we first test to find out whether there are any values of the parameter /
for which one of the functions cp (t) or \|> (/) becomes infinite, while the other
remains finite. When (p(/ )=oo and ty(t ) = c, the curve has a horizontal
asymptote y c. When \j)(f ) = oo and (p(V ) = c, the curve has a vertical
asymptote x = c.
If <pU ) = *(*o)=<
and
lim
then the curve has an inclined asymptote y

kx+ b.
If the curve is
represented by a polar equation r
/(cp), then we can
find its asymptotes by the preceding rule after transforming the equation of
the curve to the parametric form by the formulas x
r cos cp
/((p) cos q>;
r sin ) sin (p.
y
Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

901.
11
903. y
^rr.
-,
908. u
=x
909. y
= e-
910. i/=
911.
905.
y^Y^^l.
912.
906.
y==-
913
907. </=
* ~~"
914. x
/;
j/
915. Find the asymptote of the hyperbolic
spiral r
of a Derivative
96
[Ch. 3]
Sec. 4. Graphing Functions by Characteristic Points

In constructing the graph of a function,
find its
first
domain
of definition
and then determine the behaviour of the function on the boundary of this
domain. It is also useful to note any peculiarities of the function (if there
are any), such as symmetry, periodicity, constancy of sign, monotonicity, etc.
Then find any points of discontinuity, bending points, points of inflection,
asymptotes, etc. These elements help to determine the general nature of the
graph of the function and to obtain a mathematically correct outline of it.
Example 1. Construct the graph of the function
The function exists everywhere except at the points x

1.
and therefore the graph is symmetric about the point
Solution, a)
The function
0(0,
This simplifies construction of the graph
0).
The
b)
lim
odd,
is
discontinuities
are
x=
hence, the straight lines
t/=oo;
and
jc
and
1;
lim
and
oo
J/=
V-M + O
are vertical asymptotes of the
#=1
X->--10
graph.
c)
We
seek inclined asymptotes, and find
,=
lim
X -> +
bl
oo
lim
-x
= 0,
oo,
#->-t-oo
thus, there is no right asymptote. From the symmetry of the curve it follows
that there is no left-hand asymptote either.
d) We find the critical points of the first and second kinds, that is,
points at which the first (or, respectively, the second) derivative of the given
function vanishes or does not exist.
We
have:
x=l,
The
derivatives y' and \f are nonexistent only at

that is, only at
points where the function y itself does not exist; and so the critical points
are only those at which y' and y" vanish.
From (1) and (2) it follows that
when x=
when x =
y'=Q
r/"
y' retains a
Thus,
(-V3,
intervals
l),
(
(1,
00,
V$\
and
x=
3.
in each of the intervals

constant_ sign
1),
3),
(l,
3,
V$)
and (V~3
1),
(1,
0),
+00),
(0,
1),
and
(1,
/
3)
00,
in
each
and
(3,
J/T),
of
+00).
the
To determine the signs of y' (or, respectively, y") in each of the indicated
intervals, it is sufficient to determine the sign of y' (or y") at some one point
of each of these intervals.
Sec
Graphing Functions by Characteristic Points
4]
97
It is convenient to tabulate the results of such an

investigation (Table I),
calculating also the ordinates of the characteristic points of the graph of the
function. It will be noted that due to the oddness of the function r/, it is
enough to calculate only for JcÔ; the left-hand half of the graph is constructed by the principle of odd symmetry.
Table I
e)
Usin^ the results
function (Fig
of
the investigation,
33).
-/
Fig. 33
4-1900
we
construct
the
graph
of
the
Example
2.
of
a Derivative
[Ch. 3]
Graph the function

In x
x
Solution, a) The domain of definition of the function is 0<x<-f-oo.
b) There are no discontinuities in the domain of definition, but as
0) of the domain of definition we have
approach the boundary point (#
=
limw = lim
JL? =
oo
X-*0
JC->
we
Hence, the straight line jc

(ordinate axis) is a vertical asymptote.
c) We seek the right asymptote (there is no left asymptote, since x cannot tend to
oo ):
k=
lim
X<-++
The
00
-^
X
lim #
x->+<
0;
= 0.
right asymptote is the axis of abscissas:

find the critical points; and have
d)
j/
= 0.
We
Inx
y
3
y'
and
y" exist at all
of the
points
y' = Q
domain
when ln*=l,
that
definition of the function and
of
is,
when x =
<?;
(/'=0
We
when
form a table,, including

io the characteristic points
Inx^y,
the
it
is
that
is,
when x~e*l*.
characteristic points (Table 11). In addition

useful to find the points of intersection of
34
1
the curve with the coordinate axes. Putting /
0, we find *
(the point
of intersection of the curve with the axis of abscissas); the curve does not
intersect the axis of ordinates
the
e) Utilizing the results of investigation, we construct the graph of
lunction (Fig. 34).
-h
CM
CO
CM
'
"
>
non
> C
a c.u
-~
100
its
of
[Ch. 3
a Derivative
Graph the following functions and determine for each function

domain of definition, discontinuities, extremal points, inter-
vals of increase and decrease, points of inflection of

the direction of concavity, and also the asymptotes.
916. y
=x
3x*.
"
918.
u = (x
919.
y-
921.
922.
923.
924.
925.
=
=
y=
y=
=
(/
(/
</
926. y==
928.
929.
930.
__
=,-
,6
3*'+!
932.
933.
934.
935.
936.
938.
y = 2x + 2-3'l/(xl-
963
'
#=
its
graph,
Sec.
an Arc. Curvature
Differential of
/>]
964. y
sin
-7-
y=
976.
4 /
978. ,,=
967.
979. ^
=
y = *-l-sin*.
y = arc sin (1
/F).
970.
971.
972.
and
973.
974.
953.
982
tan
983.
984
<>arcsin
f/
= lnA:-arc tan*.
In cos x.
y = cos^
= arc tan(ln
= arc sin In (*' 4-1).
,/
,/
985.
je).
y==x
-^-
987. y
= lnsin*.
A good
exercise
ples 826-848.
Construct the
is
to
>
Af
i/
= garcun*
= n sin x
,,
A;.
= x arc tan - when

when * = 0.
y=
=
2 arc cot*.
= + arc tan*.
975. y
arc cosh
965. */= sin*- sin 2*.

966. (/
COS*-COS2*.
968.
101
graph the functions indicated

following functions
the
graphs of
parainelrically.
l
2/.
988. x=--t*
//----/
2t,
sin/ (a>0).
989. x=--acob*/,
te~
990. jc
/e',
y
fl
/ 4-g991. x
i/=2/ + ea (cosh /
a (sinh/
992. x
/), i/
in
Fxam-
represented
yâ
=
=
=
=
I)
(a>0).
Sec. 5. Differential of an Arc. Curvature
1. Differential of an arc. The differential of an arc s of

represented by an equation in Cartesian coordinates x and y
the formula
dshere,
the equation of the curve
if
a)
J/~(d*)
//
= /(*),
b)* = /,Urt.
then ds
then
= 0,
ds^-
d)
^(*,
f/)
of the
',
form
ds
then
(dy)
= q>(0, y = +(0,
c)
is
ds-
V F* + F
then
'
2
/;
V F'
a
is
plane curve
expressed by
102
of
a Derivative
[Ch. 3
Denoting by a the angle formed by the tangent (in the direction

increasing arc of the curve s) with the positive ^-direction, we get
of
dx
cos
a = -3-
ds
dy
-r
sina
ds
In polar coordinates,
Denoting by p the angle between the radius vector of the point

curve and the tangent to the curve at this point, we have
a
008 P
sin
= dr
of the
'
2. Curvature of a curve. The curvature K of a curve at one of its

is
the limit of the ratio of the angle between the positive direcpoints
and N of the curve (angle of contintions of the tangents at the points
gence) to the length of
the
M
^MN^\s
arc
K=
iim
As
\\hore
point
is
the angle between
The radius
i.
circle
line (/C
the
AS
when
.V
(Fig.
35),
that
is,
= ^,
positive
rfs
directions
of
the
tangent jt the
arid the .v-axis.
curvature,
The
Au
= 0)
of
curvature
is
the reciprocal
of
radius
the
the absolute value of the
e.,
K=
where a
is
the
are lines of constant curvature.
of
circle)
and the straight
Sec
an Arc. Curvature
Differential of
5]
103
We have the following formulas for computing the curvature in rectangular coordinates (accurate to within the sign):
1) if the curve is given by an equation explicitly, y
f(x), then
2)
if
the curve
given by an equation implicitly, F(x,
is
0,
then
represented by equations in parametric form,
*=
Fxx.
Fx
Fxy
'
Flx
y)
F'yy
'y
Fv
F'
/j
3)
/
if
(/),
\j)
the curve
is
then
f
y
y
*,'"
where
dx
dy
-
'
~~dt*
In polar coordinates,
when the curve
is
given by the
equation
/(q)),
we have
r
+ 2r'
rr"
where
,
= dr
d"r
and
dcp
dtp
3. Circle of curvature. The circle of curvature (or osculating circle) of a

is the
curve at the point
limiting position of a circle drawn through
v
and two other points of the curve, P and Q, as P
and Q
M.
The radius of the circle of curvature is equal to the radius of curvature,
and the centre of the circle of curvature (the centre of curvature) lies on the
in the direction of concavity of
normal to the curve drawn at the point
>
the curve.
The coordinates X and Y

computed from the formulas
X=x-
the centre of
of
L,,
curvature
-jf-r
of
the
curve
are
{j
The evolute
of a
curve
is
the locus
of
the
centres
of
curvature
of
the
curve.
If
ture
in the
formulas
for
we regard X and Y
determining the coordinates

as the current coordinates
of
of the centre of
curvapoint of the evoof

the evolute \vith
then these formulas yield parametric equations

parameter x or y (or /, if the curve itself is represented by equations
parametric form)
z
Example 1. Find the equation of the evolute of the parabola // x
lute,
in
104
Solution.
X=
4* 8
Y--
+ 6*
involute
curve
of
curve
is
the parameter x,
Eliminating
the equation of the evolute in explicit form,
The
[Ch. 3
a Derivative
of
o'
we
+ ^lT")
which the given curve
for
find
an
is
evolute.
MC
The normal
CC
length of the arc
involute P 2
of the
of the evolute
is
is
the evolute
to
tangent
equal to the corresponding
P,;
the
increment
the
radius of curvature CC,
in
AfC;
M,C,
that is why the involute P 2 is also called the
evolvent of the curve P, obtained by unwinding
a taut thread wound onto P, (Fig. 36). To each
evolute there corresponds an infinitude of invowhich are related to different initial
lutes,
lengths of thread.
4. Vertices of a curve. The vertex of a curve
of the curve at which the curvature
is a point
has a maximum or a minimum. To determine
the vertices of a curve, we form the expression
of the curvature K and find its extremal points.
In place of the curvature K we can take the
radius
curvature
of
points
Since
//
J
= sinh
a
a cosh
,
2
and, hence,
*=
of
is
X
.
0).
cosh
a
We
follows
it
that
tf
rf/?
have -j- = sinh2

dx
a
Equating
M
6
Q,
the point
we
the
we
get sinh 2
Computing
(0,
get
we
whence
0,
-r-y-
,=
A:
cosh2
catenary.
The vertex
a
a
curvature (or of
of
the
catenary
the
sole
putting
into
find
and
the second derivative
a
point of the radius of
minimum
the
curvature) of
thus,
and J(/"
= acosh
to zero,
=Q
point *
value x
the
/?
>
(a
I")
ax
it
extremal
the derivative -j
critical
its
the computations are simpler in this case.

2. Find the vertex of the catenary
a cosh
Example
36
Solution.
if
and seek
7-7^
> 0.
Therefore,
the
maximum
f/
= acosh
is,
a).
Find the differential of the arc, and also the cosine and sine
of the angle formed, with the positive ^-direction, by the tangent
to each of the following curves:
993. *
2
*/
=a
(circle).
+ ^-=l (ellipse).
y* = 2px (parabola).
994. ~2
995
Sec. 5]
996. x 2 / 8
997.
998.
999.
-f
2/
t/
Differential of an Arc. Curvature
=a
2 /'
(astroid).
105
y = acosh
(catenary).
x = a(ts\nt)\ y = a(lcost) (cycloid).
x = acos*t, y = asm*t (astroid).
Find the differential of the arc, and also the cosine or sine
of the angle formed by the radius vector and the tangent to each
of the following curves:
1000. râtp (spiral of Archimedes).
1001.
1002.
= (hyperbolic spiral).
r =
asec*-|- (parabola).
r
1003. r
= acos*-
(cardioid).
1004. r=za.v (logarithmic spiral).

2
a
1005. r
a cos2q) (lemniscate).
Compute the curvature of the given
points:
1006. y
1007. x*
= x* 4x* ISA'
+ xy + y* = 3 at
2
+
=
=
1008.
=1
at the
coordinate origin.
the point
the vertices
at
curves at the indicated
(1,
1).
and 5(0,
0)
(a,
b).
*' at the point (1,

1009. *
/*, f/
1).
2
2
2a eos2q> at the vertices cp
1010. r
2
1011. At what point of the parabola t/
and
= 8x
<p
is
= n.
the curvature
equal to 0.12S?
1
1012. Find the vertex of the curve y^-e*

Find the radii of curvature (at any point) of the given
x* (cubic parabola).
1013. y
.
lines:
1014.
5 + S =1
(ellipse).
= -!^.
* = acos
y = as\n*t (astroid).
= a(cosM sin 0; y = a(s\nt
1015. *
1016.
1017.
circle).
/;
A:
/?osO
curvature of
the
y* = 2px.
1021. Prove
y = acosh
of
1018. r
ae k v (logarithmic spiral).
1019. r- a(l -f-coscp) (cardioid).
1020. Find the least value of the radius of
parabola
involute
that
the
is equal to a
radius of
segment
curvature
coordinates of the centre of

Compute
at
the
indicated points:
curves
given
the
of
the
catenary
of the normal.
curvature of
the
106
1022. xy=l at the point (1, 1).

x* at the point (a, a).
1023. ay*
Write the equations of the circles
curves at the indicated points:
of
a Derivative
[Ch. 3
=
=
x*
1024. y
Gjc+10 at the point
1025. y
e* at the point (0, 1).
Find the evolutes of the curves:
1026. y*
2px (parabola).
1027.
=
J + g=l
of
(3,
curvature of the given

1).
(ellipse).
1028. Prove that the evolute of the cycloid
x~a(t
is
sin/),
y = a(l
cost)
a displaced cycloid.
1029. Prove that the evolute of the logarithmic spiral

r
is
also a
1030.
logarithmic spiral with the same pole.

that the curve (the involute of a
Show
x
is
= a (cos +
/
sin
the involute of the circle
/),
;c
#=-a(sin
= acob/;
//
circle)
/cos
= asm/.
/)
Chapter IV
INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
Sec.
Direct Integration
1.
1. Basic rules of integration.

1) If F' (A-)--- MA), then
where C
2)
3)
4)
an arbitrary constant.
f f (x) dx, where A
is
Âf(x)dx=-A
[ft
U'H:
f f
If
f2
v )l
dv
( fj
(*)/*
and
(x)dx-~F(\-) -f-C
is
f f2
/-cf
a constant quantity.
O)
dx.
(v),
then
In particular,
ax
2. Table
II.
of standard
dA'
f*
III
,*r
IV
==
-r-:
\
2
s
J X -f- a
dx
C
\
)
-=2
;5
a*
A'
dx
r
V.
integrals.
dx
\:
arctan
~-,T-
2a
a+v
|-C
v:
arc cot
+C
(a
-f-C
(a*Q).
yS-
0).
(aÔ).
VI.
VII.
(>0); fc x d* =
+C
'
(a
^ 0).
'
__
108
VIII.
IX.
\
f
cosx +
sinxdA;=
[Ch. 4
Indefinite Integrals
C.
cosxdx=sinx + C.
COS 2
XI.
J
XII
--=
x
sin
cotx+C.
'
tan
smx
XIII.
XIV.
H-C = In
cosec x
cot x |-f-C.
cosx
f
sinhxdx=coshx-|-C.
XV.
dx
XVL
XVIL
Example
f (ax
1.
+ bx + c) dx=
Applying the basic rules

tion,
1,
2,
3 and the formulas of integra-
find the following integrals:
5dVd*.
1031.
1040.
1032-5(6^ + 8^3)^.
1
033.
(x
r
1
034.
J (a
1035.
-i
a) (x 4 b) dx.
+ bx
)* clx.
yZpxdx.
(V
1042
' U4 ^'
-- dxv
V x)
j/51
1043.
1036.
'~ n
1037.
J
(nx)
"
1045
^x
'
dx.
1046
'
1047
'
1038.
1039.
^+ljc-/x-dx.
^4+^
'
,,
'
Sec
Direct Integration
1]
tan *dx;
1048*. a)
109
1049. a)
Jtanh *d*.
b)
b)
1050.
Jcoth'jtdx.
$3Vdx.
differential. Rule 4 considerably

sign
expands the table of standard integrals: by virtue of this rule the table of
integrals holds true irrespective of whether the variable of integration is an
independent variable or a differentiate function.
3. Integration under
Example
of the
the
2.
where we put u
Exa m p.e
We
5*
We
took advantage of Rule 4 and tabular integral
xdx
d(x
1.
2
1
3.
implied u
Example
2.
4.
jc
and use was made
( x 2 e xl}
dx-^~
( e*' d
3
(jc )
of
Rule
and tabular
i-e^ + C by
integral V.
virtue of Rule 4 and
tabular integral VII.

In examples 2, 3, and
form before making use of
of
we reduced the given
/ (<P (*)) <p' (*)
This type
a tabular
dx\
transformation
is
Some common transformations

ples 2 and
a)
3,
I (u)
the following
du
where a
(p (x).
called integration under the differential sign.
which were used
of differentials,
b)
(a
0);
b)
xdx =
Using the basic rules and formulas
,053.
to
in
Exam-
are:
dx=^d(ax-\
tegrals:
integral
integral:
of
^d(x
and so on.
integration,
find
the following in-
112
1140. f-^f-.
sinh x
1143.
H41. f-*_.
J cosh x
1144.
1142
/f
.
'
Find the indefinite
< 1
Ad
46.
,,47.
integrals:
(x 1/5=1? dx.
i
v*
(cothxdx.
J
J sinh x cosh x
1145.
[tanhxdx.
r*
[C/i.
1163.
A \f
J?=CT1
f-^-.
]cos@
*J
" M -j
f^d,.
1165
1148. \xe-**dx.
1151.
,, 67 .
Jl_!d*.
<ioo
--
1168.
i/^c'
V e
,-
jcdx
JV^L
l
J
I
1169.
~ cc^s
sinx
sin
A: -f-
Jx + cos*
1
i
ftan/JC
1166.
U50.
djt
'
A*
cos x
dx.
2
51
f
v
"-^)
v ^
sin SA:
1170.
^tan^-2
>
'
ff 2 -|--^- )-^-.
2x*+l/ 2x*+l
^
,)
1157.
â
ilax
cosxdx.
7^Ti
1161.
"
M7.:.
!!!_!-.
+ !'
to
fl
_t ^
H76.
K4-tan'x
(<
jsin -Jdx.
(
.rfy.
1174.
Jlan'aArdx
3<
1173.
dAt>
f-i^=.
1160.
I179
1172.
j -j^*
.
ii77. f _
si
J sinajtcosax'
Sec. 2]
113
l/T=3
Sec. 2. Integration by Substitution
1. Change of variable in an indefinite integral. Putting
where
is
new variable and
cp
is
continuously differentiable function, we
will have:
The attempt is made to choose the function q> in such

side of (1) becomes more convenient for integration.
Example 1. Find
Solution.
It
is
natural to put
V~x
1,
whence
A-
way
=/ 2
-}- 1
that
the
right
and dx = 2tdt.
Hencu,
Sometimes substitutions
of the
form
are used.
Suppose we succeeded
in
transforming
the integrand f(x)dx to the form
f(x)dx=g(u)du where u = q>(jc).

t
114
If
[g(u)du
known, that
is
is,
[Ch. 4
then
we have already made use oi this method in Sec. 1,3.

Examples 2, 3, 4 (Sec. 1) may be solved as follows:
Actually,
Example
2.
= 5#
cfw
2;
Example
3.
= x*;
Example
4.
jc
s
;
du
du
= 5c(x;
_
-~
'
+c_
dx\
xdx = -
2xdx;
= 3x
-du.
dx
x dx
2. Trigonometric
1)
If
~a sin
2)
/;
If
substitutions.
an integral contains the radical ]fa z
x2
the usual thin^
is
to put
whence
an
integral
the
contains
radical
V*
a2
we
put
xawct,
whence
/^x
3)
If
a2
= a tan
an integral contains the radical V'V
^.
+a
2
,
we put* = atan/; whence
It should be noted that trigonometric substitutions

do not always turn
out to be advantageous.
It is sometimes more convenient to make use of hyperbolic substitutions,
which are similar to trigonometric substitutions (see Example 1209).
For more details about trigonometric

Sec. 9.
Example
5.
Find
and hyperbolic substitutions,
dx.
see
Sec. 2]
xlant.
Solution. Put
y~x*+l *
f V~ian 2
1?
dt
"~ f
= In
sin
tan 2
J
2
/
tan
+ sec
r-r
cos 2
cos'
dt
cos !
si "
sin
J
/
f sec
dt
~~ f
cos
dx=
Therefore,
1J5
sin 2
4- cos2
/-cos/
-J
1
<
M-~
+ C = In
cos 2
^/
^
J cos
tan
/ -{-
cos/
~~
2
J sin
V\
-j-tan
tan<
find the following
1191. Applying the indicated substitutions,

integrals:
c)
f
e)
COS
A'
d*
Applying suitable substitutions,

1192.
S*(2x+5)"djc.
1
1193.
('
1194.
+ *..d*.
the following integrals:
find
>97. n-
csinA )"
1198.
l+Â-
f-
J!
JxK2t+l
,, 99<
**
1195. r
Applying trigonometric substitutions,
find
the
tegrals:
,201.
('-=*.
*'
K
,202.
1203.
-=.
1204*.
f
J
iZEl'dx.
^
following
in-
__
U6
1205.
\Ch. 4
1206*.
(f^+idx
x
f
ff
2
J x y 4
__
x2
1207.
1208. Evaluate the integral
by means
dx
/*(!-*)
x=sin
of the substitution
/.
1209. Find
by applying the hyperbolic substitution x = as\n\\t.

Solution.
We have:
]Aa
+x =
2
]/~a
+a
suih 2
/=a cosh
and
dx=a cosh
/d/.
Whence
\
ya
-\-x
dx=
a cosh t-a cosh
f ctf
~~~2~
Since
__ x
and
we
finally get
where C 1=^C
In a
is
new
arbitrary constant.
1210. Find
C
putting x
= a cosh/.
Sec. 3. Integration by Parts
A formula for integration

on
tiable functions, then
\
by
parts.
udv = uv
If
= <p(*)
vdu.
and u
= i|)(*)are
differen-
Sec. 3\
Example
Find
1.
In*, dv
Putting u
H7
x In xdx.
dx
xdx we have da
x*
Whence
~~9
x*
dx
Sometimes, to reduce a given integral to tabular form, one has to apply the
fcrmula of integration by parts several times. In certain cases, integration
by parts yields an equation from which the desired integral is determined.
Example 2. Find
\
We
V
e* cos x dx.
have
e* cos x dx
xd
e* sin x
(sin x)
x sin
dx
AT
x d
(cos x)
e* sin x
sin
-\-
x cos x
e* cos x dx.
Hence,
e* cos x dx
x sm
.v-j-e^cos x
V e
x cos x
dx,
whence
cos v dx --
(sin
x -f- cos
Applying the formula of integration by
.v)
-f C.
parts,
find
the following
integrals:
1211.
^
1212.
\nxdx.
Jarclanjcdx.
1213.
Jarcsin
1214.
A-rfjc.
Jjcsiiucr/.v.
1215.
Jjccos3A'Jx.
1216. Urfjc.
1219*.
1220*.
x sin x cos x d\
a
1222*
$
1223.
(jt
+5x+6)cos
x*
\nxdx.
1224.
Jln'xd*.
1225.
(^djc.
f^d*.
K A
Jx-2-*rfx.
1218**.
1226.
1217.
1221.
JjV'd*.
1227.
1228.
Jjcarctanjcdjc.
Jjcarcsmxdjc.
(x ^2A' + 5)^*dA:.
'-
1229.
1230
'
\n (x
+ V T~x*) dx.
118
1231
1234
1232.
1233.
[C/i.
eax *
'
JisFr**'235.
mb * dx
$sin(lnx)dx.
Je*sinxdx.
$3*cosjtdx.
Applying various methods,
find the following integrals:
1236. (x*e~* dx.
1246.
V\-x
1237.
\e
2
1238.
1239.
(x
*dx.
1247.
-2x + 3)\nxdx.
1248.
jttan 2*d;t.
^x\n~dx.
1249.
1240.
f^dx.
1250**,
1241.
fllL^d*.
1251*.
cos (In x)dx.
1242.
1243.
1
244.
*n/ir
1245.
{
j
arctan3jcdA:.
jc
(arc tan
( (arc sin
fare
sin
^2
2
A:)
2
jc)
a2)2
2
:
-|
'
1252*.
dx.
1253*.
dx.
1//1
^
j
254*.
-4-
-4^-
x dx.
.
^.
Sec. 4. Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial
1. Integrals of the form

f
mx + n
2-7-7
7dx.
The
principal calculation procedure

the form
ax z
is
to reduce
+ bx + c = a(x-}-k)
the
quadratic trinomial to
(1)
-{-l,
/ are
constants. To perform the transformations in (1), it is
best to take the perfect square out of the quadratic trinomial. The following substitution may also be used:
where k and
If m=0, then, reducing the

quadratic trinomial to the form
the tabular integrals III or IV (see Table).
(1),
we
get
Sec
Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial
4]
Example
119-
1.
dx
-(-*)
H-
g \2
5
-7
Qi
arc
=-o*~7=
-o
2
tan
(-TJ+S '*?
"S?+c.
If m&Q, then from
the numerator
out of the quadratic trinomial
the derivative
-+.
f
J
we can take
a.v
+^
and thus we arrive at the integral discussed above.
Example
f
J
->
;5=^n
2.
,v
d
-
f"
^J
'-x-i
IV
2.
Integrals of the
form
2x-l
are similar to those analyzed above.

0, and VI, if a
lar integral V, if a
>
Example
The
The methods
integral
of calculation
finally reduced
is
< 0.
3.
dx
Example
d*.
f*
dx
4.
^+3
^^2 f
*"
yV+2x + 2
J ^ ^ + 2x4-2
JC
^^
4jt
to
tabu-
J20
[Ch. 4
3.
of
Integrals
the
form
f
J (mx
+ n)
Vâx'
+ bx + c
By means
of the in-
verse substitution
i
mx+n
these integrals are reduced to integrals of the form
Example
5.
2.
Find
dx
We
Solution.
put
whence
4.
Integrals of the form
]T ax*-\-bx
+ cdv.
By taking
the perfect square
out of the quadratic trinomial, the given integral is reduced

following two basic integrals (sec examples 1252 and 1253):
1)
('
a*
A'
dx
= 4 fa^x* + ^ arc sin

^
2
(a
2)
>
to
+ C;
c/
0);
Vl?
Example
6.
sin
Find the following
1256.
integrals:
S'
'',c
00
xdx
^7^+
one
of the
Integration of Rational Functions
Sec. 5]
oKn
\o\J.
---
<
c r\
<
121
dx
1270.
v2
dy
O *7 1
*~
1272.
'
2* 2
V~2 {-3*
d*
r
I
'
f*
t
1273.
X
1
1-7/1
J
f
/"*l/"o
f~=.
,H4.
1265.
1266.
>1J
-
1267.
xdx
V %
."~
-,-^
/5, -2,
dx.
1277
197 n
1278
dK.
f-1
JYKI
-v
279
x
cJJt
sin
dA
1'-^=.
1268.
t'
T^PTTT^TlTInjfdi
i'
J x
^ _ ilnA._ !n
1
Sec. 5. Integration of Rational Functions
t. The method of undetermined coefficients. Integration of a rational

function, after taking out the whole part, reduces to integration of the proper
rational fraction
where P
rator
and Q
(x)
is
(x)
(A-) are integral

polynomials, and the degree
lower than that of the denominator Q (A-).
If
Q(jr)
= (*
a)*.
of
the
nume-
.(A'-/)\
/ are real
where a,
distinct roots of the polynomial Q (x), and a, ....
.,
K are natural numbers (root multiplicities), then decomposition of (1) into
.
partial fractions
is
justified:
^
calculate the undetermined coefficients A lt A 2t ..., both sides of the
identity (2) are reduced to an integral form, and then the coefficients of
like powers of the variable x are equated (llrst method). These coefficients may likewise be determined by putting [in equation (2) or in an equivalent equation] x equal to suitably chosen numbers (second method).
To
122
Example
Find
1.
xdx
(*-!)(* +
We
Solution.
[C/t.
"
1)
have:
Whence
t
a) F/rsf
method of determining the
We
coefficients.
the form x^(A-{- B^ x 2 -{-(2A-{- B 2 )x-\-(A

ents of identical powers of x we get:
B2
(x\).
(3)
rewrite identity (3) in

Equating the coeffici-
Whence
=i
= _i
Second method of determining the
b)
<3),
we
,,4.
1=4-4,
Putting x
we
1,
i.e.,
'/ 4
x=\
in identity
get:
1
Further, putting *
Putting
coefficients.
will have:
= 0,
we
B2 =
i.e.,
-2,
/2.
will have:
Hence,
TJ
*
~~
Av
T
t
4-1
\
J Ax
AT
Example
Solution.
2.
Find
We
have:
""
2
x(x
tind
1
When
=A
(*
I)
I)
+ Bx (x
1)
1(JC
1)*
+ Cx.
(4)
advisable to combine the two methods

of determining coefficients. Applying the second method, we put *
in
identity (4). We get 1=4. Then, putting jc=l, we get 1=C. Further, app2
lying the first method, we equate the coefficients of x in identity (4), and
get-
Hence,
solving this example
it
is
= 4 + 0,
4=
1.
fl-=
i.e.,
l,
B=
and
1.
C=l.
In t egration
Sec. 5]
Rational Functions
of
123
Consequently,
/=
f dx
dx
'
the polynomial
If
dx
r- = ln
jc17+ J (*l)
f*
\
J X
'
JC
'
A-
ib of
r-f C.
'
has complex roots a
(x)
In
JC
'
multiplicity k, then
partial fractions of the form

(5)
will enter into the
expansion
Here,
(2).
Bk are undetermined coeflicients which are determined

and A lt B lt
.., A k
by the methods given above For k~\, the fraction (5) is integrated direct,
ly;
k>\,
for
use
is
made
of the reduction
~]
Example
and make the substitution

3.
method;
z
sable to represent the quadratic trinomial x
here,
it
px~{-q in the form
A--J-
z.
j2
is
advi-
first
x-\-~
-f-
Find
Solution. Since
A
then, putting x -\-2---z,

r==
*\._ dz=z
jrc
wo
2
-|
4x
got
2
_j_^
tan ?
Hit i!ini
2. The Ostrogradsky method.
is
(A:)
derivative Q'
and
the greatest
-- -- arc
If
P(x)
where Q,
5-
z=
(A)
has multiple roots, then
"-
A'(v)
common
tan
(.Y)
divisor of the polynomial
(6)
(x)
and
its
(A-);
undetermined coefficients, whose degrees

by unity than those of Q, (A-) and Q 2 (x).
The undetermined coeflicients of the polynomials X (x) and Y (x) are
computed by differentiating the identity (6).
Example 4. Find
(A-)
(x)
are polynomials with
arc, respectively,
less
C
}
dx
U'-
124
[Ch. 4
Solution.
Ax z + Bx + C
dx
we
Differentiating this identity,
?Dx
-\-Ex
+ F ax
.
get
Dx z +Ex
\=(2Ax-\-B)(x*
3x*(Ax* + Bx
1)
+ C) + (Dx* + Ex + F)(x*
Equating the coefficients of the respective degrees of x,
4 = 0;
D = 0; E
D + 3C = 0;
2fl--=0;
we
+ 24 = 0;
i).
have:
will
+ F==
1;
whence
C = 0; D = 0;
~;
O
5=
and, consequently,
C
9
^ ~
_
To compute the
r
-^
into partial
1)
on the
integral
__ 2
3^ -l
(x
= 0;
dx
3 J x8
right of (7),
F= -4O
1
we decompose
the
fraction
fractions:
1
x8
lhat
is,
1
Putting
#=1, we
= L (x + + 1) + MX (x
2
A:
1)
+N
(A:
(8)
1).
L=-.
get
<j
Equating the coefficients of identical degrees of x on the

,of
we
(8),
find
right
and
or
Therefore,
dx
\yS
J *
^\V
o J x
dx
r
\_
Q\
J j
~~
=ll
]X
11-1
'
and
^^^^^(J^\\ + ^ ln \ x
Find the following
1280
'
^ +^^
integrals:
'
1282
'
mian
^^+ C
'
left
Sec. 6]
1284
' **
1285
'
5 *' + 2
* - 5* + 4* dx*
12Q1
29J
'
f
j (Ii_4jt
125
dx
+ 3)<J
dx
c
J *(*
+ !)*
-~
d*
C
1296.
-r-g^gdx.
^"*
"
I
R V2
C*
Av
C/
rt
^4
.--.
'
1288.
-290.
.Tjpfc
l291 '
J^Sf*.
'292.
J^d*.
1299.
.300.
Applying Ostrogradsky's method,
Applying
l306
different procedures, find
integrals:
the integrals:
'
I3 7 '
l309
find the following
l312
rf *-
'
Sec. 6. Intagrating Certain Irrational Functions
1.
Integrals of the
f.rm
i
/? <s
a rational function and p lt q v p a
q z are whole numbers.
12J
[Ch. 4
Integrals of form (1) are found by the substitution
where n is the least

Example 1. Find
common
multiple of the numbers
</,,
q2
...
*
dx
a
I
Solution.
The substitution
____dx
2,x
f 2z'dz
J V"5jc=T-- J/2?=l""j
-^ =2
leads
to
an integral
of the
form
rî
"
2
=2
= (1+
/23T-i)
Find the integrals:

13 15.
f-^^djc.
/*-!
A
1316.
('J^Zdjc.
1321.
J .v-f-2
dx
1322.
7,7==.
1U7.
.
^.---
-. ---('-.
J
/v+l
I-
--^7=
A
(jv
(o
-A)
1-
1323.
v+1
)/(v+l)
1324.
1325.
,320.
2.

"
where P n
Put
(x)
is
ai*
- dx,
t,
(2)
+c
a polynomial of degree n
dx
a polynomial of degree (n
with undetermined coeffi1)
number.
The coefficients of the polynomial Q n -i(x) and the number K are found
where Q n _i(x)
cients and A, is
is
by differentiating identity
(3).
Sec. 6]
Example
2.
Whence
Multiplying by V^*
we obtain
+4
and equating the coefficients
of identical
degrees oi
A-,
D-0;
X=_
Hence,
-
3. Integrals
of the
form
dx
i;
a)
V ax
are reduced to integrals of the form (2) by the
They
substitution:
Find the integrals:

1326
1327.
j__^_.
(-f^dx.
1329.
1330.
-^
fv
-^^rfjc.
1331.
FA'
Vl-i
4.
X+l
Integrals of the binomial differentials
(5)
where m, n and p are rational numbers.

Chebyshev's conditions. The integral (5) can be expressed in terms of a
finite combination of elementary functions only in the following three cases:
1) if p is a whole number;
"
2)
=z
s
t
is
if
where
m
3)
if
is
whole number. Here, we make the substitution a + bx n =
the denominator of the fraction p;
+p
is
whole number. Here, use
is
made
of the substitution
128
(Ch. 4
Example
3.
Find
m=-^;n = -r ;p = -^;
x.
Solution. Here,
we have here Case 2

The substitution
yields *
= (z
I)
\Y dz
(z*
Find the
+ J/T
f (2
1335
),fe=J2ef_
dx
'
^-
133G
0. f
2
*
f_-
,334.
Hence,
1333. r
=2.
integrals:
*
1332.
Therefore,
= 12
where
integrability.
dx=\2z*
-1+1
-T
.v:
i'
337.{
(2
+
,
3
JC
r*
1+
Sec. 7. Integrating Trigonometric Functions
1. Integrals of the form

:
where
1)
m
If
and n are
an odd positive number, then we put
is
'
We
do the same
Example 1.
if
0)
integers.
m^2/j+l
,
'm..
s l(]Zk
( sin 10
x cos " xd ( cos
is
^)
cos 2 x) k cos" xd (cos
( 1
an odd positive number.
x cos 8 * dx
f sin 10 x (1
sin
11
sin
sin x)
13
.v
(sin *)
A:).
Sec.
7]
__
Integrating Trigonometric Functions
the integrand
2) If m and n are even positive numbers, then
formed by means of the formulas
sin
*= y (1
sin JCGOS
Example
=
=
If
3x
3-
cos 6*
dx
cos 12*
n
^
3* dx
--
f /
J \
x
m=
sin
-- -
sin 6x1
p
\
^>
3)
f cos
2.
cos
cos 2*),
= sin
.
,
2
x=
*= y (1 + cos 2*),
3* sin 3*) 2
sin
3x dx
'
f
\
GA:
Zc
sin
(sin 6A:
c \
dx
cos 6^
,
2C
6x cos fi
o^) ax
v
sin 12AC
and
[i
n=
v are integral negative
numbers
of
parity, then
dx
cos
In particular, the following integrals reduce to this case:
Example
3.
-^-= JC sec xd (tan *)= Jf (l+tan*x)

= tan x-p--=-o tan '* + C.
J COS X
d (tan
x)
jc
_1 r ""-
tan 2
5-1900
(I) is trans-
sin 2*.
f (cos
1
129
identical
130
form
4) Integrals of the
(or, respectively, cot*
Example
tan
f tan
5.
P.
= cosec* x
tan*xdx=
\
.
tv
(or
cot w xdx),
where
is
an
in-
1).
l)dx=
6.
tan*xdx =
V tan x (sec*x
tan* x
(sec*x
w xdx
number, are evaluated by the formula
tegral positive
[Ch. 4
-5
1)
dx=-^-^
~
tanx + x+C.
,
3
J
5) In the general case, integrals 7 m>n of the form (1) are evaluated by
means of reduction formulas that are usually derived by integration by parts.
5
Example
J cos* x
sin
cos
dx
A;
C cos x
2^^"j -^
.
,
cos x
sin
Find the integrals:

1338.
1339.
1
340.
1341.
1352.
Jcos'xdx.
C
\
sin
sin
sin*
-jr
cos
1346.
'T
-~-
dx.
sm*xcos*xdx.
sin
1
A:
cos x dx.
Jcos'Sxdx.
1353.
1343.
345.
-2
x cos x dx.
1342.
COS
sin
Jsin'xdx.
1344.
{;
1354.
J
1355.
JsecMxdx.
1356.
Jtan
1357.
5jcdA:.
jjcot'*d*.
1358.
1359.
1360.
'
COS X
1362.
1363.
1364.
sin'xi/cosxdx.
f
J
V sin x cos*
dx
.
f-==.
J l^tan*
Integrating Trigonometric Functions
Sec. 7]
2.
V
cos
mx cos
1)
sin
2) sin
3)
mx
sin
cos
nxdx,
sin
131
rnx
sin
nx dx and
nx dx. In these cases the following formulas are used;
mx cos nx = -~
mx
sin
nx
cosm*cos ^^
Example
7.
= -^
=
sin
-9-
(m + n) x + sin (m
[sin
(m
[cos
9* sin
n)
n) x] ;
cos(m
+ n) x]\
n)*-fcos (m-f/i)
(m
xdx=
8*
-^ [cos
x].
cos
lOjt]
dx=*
Find the integrals:

1365.
1366.
sin
cosSxdx.
sin 10* sin 15
1367.
f cos
1368.
f sin
3.
3jc
~ cos
|-
sin
A:
1370.
d*.
djc,
1371.
~ djc.
1372.
^-
J cos(aA:
sin
a>/
f
sin
(co/ -f-cp)
cos x cos* 3x dx
sin x sin 2* sin
dt.
3* dx.

f
where R
1)
1369.
is
/?
cos x) dx,
(sin *,
(2)
a rational function.
By means
of substitution
tan
t,
whence
2*
integrals
of
new variable
Example
form
(2)
are
reduced
t.
8.
Find
f
J
Solution.
f*
Putting
to integrals
__
*E
+ sin x + cos
tan -pr^*'
we
wil1
have
of rational
/.
functions by the
132
we have
2) If
the identity
R(
Ihen
we can
use
[Ch.
sin*,
the
cos*)
s/?
*
tan
substitution
cos*),
(sin*,
to reduce the
integral (2) to a
rational form.
Here,
sin
jg
COS*=
,-
and
*=arc
Example
tan/, dx
<3 >
Jnn-'-
tan* = f,
sin
dt
dx =
^,
:j
-jz
have
will
dt
dt
note
denominator
that
the
integral
+ C = -7=2 arc tan

F
(3)
it
is
/T tan *) +
evaluated faster
divided by cos 2 *.
is
useful
to apply
C.
the numerator and
if
procedures (see, for
artificial
1379).
Find the
1373
2~)
of the fraction are first
In individual cases,
example,
/"
(/
= -^=arctan
We
Find
9.
Solution. Putting
we
'
1374.
J 3
integrals:
+ 5*cos*
C^
1382 *'
'
*!.
J sin *
+ cos *
cos*
dx
J 3
sin 2
2
J sin *
iooyi*
1384 *1
385.
-|-
P
\
(1
^^.
I39
'
X
r-. dx.
3
cos*)
Sin2x
<*-
COS
jj
p-j-^-rfx
S
'
1389*.
cos 2 *
3sin *cos *
si n
J.
'
dx
1386.
1388
JiHiJT 5sln*cos*
J
100T
1387.
**
1383*. f
10 or
mi-.
+ 5 cos
Is. n
*-6 sin* + 5
^
'
sin*) (3
sin*)
o-.j |;;;;;i::;>.
'
Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
Sec. 8]
133
Sec. 8. Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

Integration of hyperbolic functions is completely analogous to the integration of trigonometric functions.
The following basic formulas should be remembered:
sinh 2
cosh 2 X
1)
2) sinh
3) cosh
*=l;
*=
~ (cosh 2*
x=
Y (cosh 2x+
4) sinh x cosh x
Example
1.
1);
1);
= ~ sinh 2x.
Find
cosh 2 *djt.
We
Solution.
have
f cosh x djc-=r~(cosh 2x + \)dx
Example
2.
( cosh
We
xcU=
jsinh
2x +
Find
\
Solution.
cosh 3 ****.
have
cosh 2 xd (sinh
x)=
(l
+ sinh
Jc)d(sinhA:)
= smh x-\
.
Find the
1391.
integrals:
1397.
Jsinh'jtd*.
1392.
1398.
^cosh'xdx.
1393.
sinh'* cosh*
1394.
1396
Sec.
9.
Integrals
C
2
J sinh
Using
of the
^
A:
cosh 2
1402.
A;
Trigonometric
and
Hyperbolio
Substitutions
for
Finding
Form
(1)
is
a rational function.
134
[CH. 4
the quadratic trinomial ax* + bx-\-c into a sum or difference

Transfor
Transforming
integral (1) becomes reducible to one of the following types
t
of squares, the
of integrals:
2)
(z,
3)
(z,
The
1) 2
2) 2
3) 2
m* +
Vz 2
z*) dz\
latter integrals
= msin/
= mtan/
= msec/
Example
1.
or z
or 2
or z
dz.
are,
taken
respectively,
by
means
= m tanh
= msinh/,
= m cosh/.
/,
Find
dx
==/.
(x+\Y
Solution.
Putting
We
have
*+l = tan2, we
then have dx
sec 2
dx
= f tan
\
Example
Solution.
Putting
2.
Find
We
have
zdz
= sec*zdz
zsec2~"J
and
~ dz =
f cos 2
of substitutions:
Sec. 11]
we
finally
Using Reduction Formulas
135
have
Find the integrals:

1403.
S/3-2jt-x'd*.
1409.
W-6*-7d*.
"
1404.
1410.
1405.
1406.
Sec. 10. Integration of Various Transcendental Functions
Find the integrals:

J (*
1416.
$*
1417.
1418.
1419.
1420.
+ I)
1415.
cos
2x
1421.
dx.
1422.
SJCC/A;.
x s\nxcos2xdx.
(*-/=
J
1423.
f^lnj^djc.
*
J
2
$e *sin
x
\ê
jcdjt.
1424.
smxsmSxdx.
1425.
x
^ A'e
cos x dx.
1426.
J
J
?
In (x
jc
+ /FT?) djc.
arc cos
(5jc
smxsinhxdx.
Sec. 11. Using Reduction Formulas
Derive the reduction formulas for the following integrals:

1427.
/..Jj-^,,;
1428. /
=$
find /.
and
sln"xdje; find / 4 and
/,.
/,.
136
[Ch. 4
/w
1430. 7 n
1429.
Sec.
J^h;;
find
(x n e~*dx\
I*
find
and
/ 10
7 4-
12. Miscellaneous Examples on Integration
dx
1448.
xdx
f
JO+jt
x
dx
J *'-2*+2
1433.
xdx
1449.
..
2^ j
j yî
1450.
dx.
KI-J
+1
dx
2
'
dv
dx
dx
1452.
dx
1453.
dx
P
'
J (x*
r
+ 2)
f-7^
A
'
t/
dx
y l/^v2
*
r
1455.
Jx-2A' +
dx
C__^L_
1457.
'
Jf *
VT^X*
,458.
'
J
5jt
1442.
J
1460.
1443.
-1
1461
dx
-
1444.
IHB^T^
1462.
J/ Jl a!+i)'
(
1446.
ax
'-^-
1463.
1464.
P
1447.
y2
j^===d.
f^
^
dA;
1465.
sin' A;
COS '
cosec'SxdA;.
Miscellaneous Examples on Integration
Sec. 12]
1466.
M67.J.-(f,4
'
l469
dx,
fsinh^l-A
J 2sinx
+ 3cosx-5
"
J 2-+w-*-
f.
,)sinh'*"
dx
1470.
A:
d)c
f*
!468
sinh ^ cosh
484.
1485
137
]>
1488.
C_^_
,.
2e*
2*
J e
d.v
.471.
1489.
"
j sin
2x
sin
jc
dx
1472.
rfx.
j1474.
1476.
1477.
1478.
1479.
1480.
JV? +
A:
a*
sin x dx.
Jxe^djc.
J(x
1493.
J/?Tirfx.
sin*
2>
.j-^z
(sin
C-
>
-s-
1)
src tdn x
dx.
1494.
1495.
(Varc
1496.
J cos(lnx)dA:.
1497.
J (x
1498.
Jxarctan(2x+3)dx.
1499.
fare sin
dv
>-
/\
\nYT=xdx.
x'
10~ *cfx.
1492.
^*V'djt.
r*
1483.
sin*
CJiLdx.
1481.
1491.
aX
<
sinyd.v.
3x) sin 5*
*î*
cos
"2"^*.
+ cos x)*'
1500.
V^ dx.
rfjc.
Chapter
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Sec. 1. The Definite Integral as the Limit of a
Sum
1. Integral sum. Let a function f (x) be defined on an interval

and a=xc <Xt <
< x n = b is an arbitrary partition of this interval
n subintervals (Fig. 37). A sum of the form
.
into
(1)
where
/
is
is
= 0,
1,
2,
...
(n
1),
called the integral sum of the function f (x) on [a, b].

the algebraic area of a step-like figure (see Fig. 37).
Geometrically,
S,,
10
Fig. 37
Fig. 38
2. The definite integral. The

number of subdivisions n tends
to zero,
from
is
x=a
limit of the sum S nt provided that the

to infinity, and the largest of them, Ax/,
called the definite integral of the function f (x) within the limits
to *
&; that is,
max
(2)
A*j
-> o
The Definite Integral as the Limit
Sec. 1]
of
Sum
139
it is integrable on [a, b]\

If the function / (x) is continuous on [a, b],
i.e.,
the limit of (2) exists and is independent of the mode of partition of the
interval of integration [a, b] into subintervals and is independent of the
choice of points / in these subintervals. Geometrically, the definite integral
(2) is the algebraic sum of the areas of the figures that make up the curvilinear trapezoid aABb, in which the areas of the parts located above the #-axis
are plus, those below the jc-axis, minus (Fig. 37).
The definitions of integral sum and definite integral are

b.
eralized to the case of an interval [a, b], where a
Example 1. Form the integral sum S n for the function
>
by dividing the interval into n equal parts and chooscoincide with the left end-points of the subintervals
x i+l ]. What is the lim S n equal to?
n -+ CO
9
Ax.
and tc/ J
Solution. Here,
-. Whence
n
n
on the interval
ing
[x it
gen-
naturally
points
[1,10]
that
|/
= 101 =
Hence
(Fig. 38),
S n -58-L.
lim
n
->> oo
Example 2. Find the area bounded by an

and the ordinates * = 0, and x = a (a >
jc-axis,
Partition
Solution.
parts
the
arc of the parabola

0).
base a into n equal
Choosing the value
of
the
tion at the beginning of each subinterval,
func-
we
will
have
The areas of the rectangles are obtained by multiplying each yk
Summing, we
by the base
A*=
(Fig.
39).
get the area of the step-like figure
Using the formula
sum
for the
of the squares of integers,
2>
n(n+\)(2n+\)
6
Fig. 39
= x*
the
140
we
[Ch.
Definite Integrals
find
= g'n(n-l)(2n-l)
6H*
S
and, passing
'to
the limit,
S-
lim
n -*
'
we obtain
>
Sn =
lim
n
-* co
(-D(2-l) = al
6n
>
Evaluate the following definite integrals, regarding them as the

limits of appropriate integral sums:
b
1501.
1502.
1503.
dx.
x*dx.
-2
10
1504.
J(0 t +g*)<tt,
J2*dx.
S
and g are constant.
1505*.
x dx.
1506*. Find the area of a

the hyperbola
curvilinear
by two ordinates: x = a and x = b

1507*. Find
trapezoid
(0<a<&),
bounded
by
and the x-axis.
sintdt.
Sec. 2. Evaluating Definite Integrals by Means of Indefinite Integrals
1. A definite integral with variable upper limit.

continuous on an interval [a, b], then the function
If
a
is
the aritiderivative of the function

F' (x)
= f (x)
2. The Newton-Leibniz formula.

o
f (x)\
that
is,
a<*<6.
F' (*) = /(*)
for
If
th ^n
function
f (t)
is
Sec. 2]
Evaluating Definite Integrals by Indefinite Integrals
The antiderivative F
Example
1.
(x)
is
computed by finding the
indefinite integral
Find the integral
Find
Find the derivatives
of the following functions:
\={\ntdt
1510.
f(jc)=Td/.
1512.
1513. Find the points of the
extremum
of the function
=
j!lild/
in the region
Applying the Newton-Leibniz formula,
l^~-
1515.
find the integrals:
1514.
*>0.
1516.
Jdt.
~*
^-.
*
1517.
J*cos/<#.
'
-.
Using definite integrals, find the limits of the sums:
1520.
lim
n-
Rl
[Ch.
Definite Integrals
142
Evaluate the integrals:

8
2*
J(jt*
+ 3)d*.
1522.
dx
I
Jl
1523.
cos* a da.
1536.
Jl
1524.
2d*.
JK*
2
1537.
sin'cpdcp.
*
]'
1
1539.
Jl
JF
1540.
71
4~
l
iL
8
***
1541.
dx
JF=3F
1831.
1543.
.L
coshA:dA;.
Ins
1532.
\
j
sec a da.
f*
*'
rfjt
5
J cosh !'
In
sinh*xdjc.
Sec. 3]
_ _
Improper Integrals
Sec. 3. Improper
143
Integrals
1. Integrals of unbounded functions. If a function f (x) is not bounded

any neighbourhood of a point c of an interval [a, b] and is continuous
and c<x<>b then by definition we put
for
in
a<*<c
C-B
(f(x)dx =
J
a
lim
C
â
f(x)dx
+e
lim
f(x)dx.
(1)
-*%+e
are finite, the improper inteIf the limits' on the right side of (1) exist and
a or c
thj
b,
gral is called convergent, otherwise it is divergent. When c
definition is correspondingly simplified.
If there is a continuous function
F (x) on [a, b] such that F'(x) f(x)
when x
then
c (generalized antiderivative),
F(a).
If
a<*<6
|/(*)|<F(x) when
and
(2)
F(*)dx converges, then
the
in-
tegral (1) also converges (comparison test).
and
lim
X-+C
when x-+
then
c,
for
1)
(x)
x m
oo,
oo,
0,
i.
e.,
f(x)~
the integral (1)
If
converges,
the function / (x)
2) for
the
when
continuous
is
^
I
m^>l
then we assume
\f(x)dx=
J
lim
b ->
oo
(3)
\f(x)dx
J
and depending on whether there

the respective integral
Similarly,
is
is a finite limit or not on the

called convergent or divergent.
lim
f(x)dx=
a -^
I'
C
\
m<
integral (1) diverges.

2. Integrals with infinite limits.
<
Â
I/WK^W
(f(x)dx
oo
f(x)dx=
and the
integral
of (3),
oo
and
right
[p(x)dx
lim
a->
oo
converges,
\f(x)dx.
J
then
the
infe-
a
gral (3) converges as well.
If
/W^rO
oo,
then
1)
gral (3) diverges.
and
for
lim
m>
f (x)
xm
= Ajt<x>
the integral
(3)
A^Q,
converges,
i.e.,
2) for
/(x)~-4 when
m<l
the inte-
144
__
Definite Integrals
Example
&_
f 2
J x
[C/i.
1.
lim
f 4?
+ e-*oJ*
"f"*
*2
e -K> J
-i
lim
lim
(I-lU e-*oV
(l-l
e
e->oVe
and the integral diverges.

Example 2.
6
QO
=
Example
3.
lim
lim (*rT^2=
2
&-><
ft-oo J
(arc tan 6
1+^
arc
tan
())
Test the convergence of the probability integral
(4)
*r
Solution.
We
put
C
00
00
e~ x
dx=
<r*
dv+
e~ x dx.
*
The first of the two integrals on the right

2
the second one converges, since e~x <e~*
dx=
not an improper integral, while
is
lim
when
x^\
e~ b
+ e~
and
l
)=e~
hence, the integral (4) converges.

Example 4. Test the following integral for convergence:
w
r
j
^^
J?
'
Solution.
When x -++&>, we have
Since the integral
converges, our integral (5) likewise converges.

Example 5. Test for convergence the elliptic integral
dx
'
Sec. 3]
145
Improper Integrals
Solution. The point of discontinuity of the integrand

the Lagrange formula we get
where
*<*,<!.
Hence,
for
*-+
is
x=l. Applying
we have
/T ^
\\-xj
'
Since the integral

1
v dx
ff
nr^y
converges, the given integral
(6)
converges as well.
Evaluate the improper integrals
(or establish their divergence):
xlnx
a
P AY
1552.
-^.
f1
1560.
I
a
*L
a
oo
1553.
J.
1561.
Jcotjcdx
146
_
00
1562.
kx
\e-
dx
GO
f -arc tan*
Definite Integrals
(*>0).
d*-
1565.
1566
(Ch.
1564.
Test the convergence of the following integrals:
100
1567.
j)
.-
**..,_
/*+2 */*+*
1571.
./*
..
^/l-jc
1570.
1574*. Prove that the Euler integral of the
fiist
kind
(beta-
function)
B(P, q)=*
converges when
p>0
and
q>0.
1575*. Prove that the Euler integral of the second kind (gam-
ma-function)
converges for
p>Q.
Sec. 4. Change of Variable in a Definite Integral
a<x(0 It a function
continuous together with its derivative cp' (t) over a<^<6, where a=*9(a)
and &=cp(P), and /[<p(01 is defined and continuous on the intervtl
Sec. 4]
of Variable in
Change
a Definite Integral
147
then
Example
1.
Find
x*
We
Solution.
V~a*x*dx
(a
> 0).
put
asin
t\
dt.
Then
P=
arc sin
= arc sin
l
=y
and,
Therefore,
we
consequently,
we
shall
can
take
= arcsinO = 0,
have
IL
a
C x2
VV
x2
=a
a2
dx=\
sin
2
1
a 2 sin 2
J/~a
jl
JL
f sin
cos
d/ =
a cos
dt
IL
t
2
f sin 2/
d/ =
-^-
C
-^-
(1
Jtfl
1576.
Can the substitution
Transform the following

indicated substitutions:
A:
= COS/
definite
be
made
integrals
in the integral
by means
of
the
1577.
f(x)dx,
= arc tan/.
1578
ly=,
1581. For the integral

b
148
__
Definite Integrals
[Ch.
indicate an integral linear substitution
which the limits
as a result of
of integration
would be
and
1,
respectively.
Applying the indicated
evaluate
substitutions,
the
following
integrals:
1583.
a
1584.
x
\Ve -\dx,
n
2
1586.
Evaluate
the
following
integrals
by
means
of
appropriate
substitutions:
1587.
f^=
A~
i5 8 9.
fi^^d*.
*
1590.
'
2
2
1538.
____
f
J 2*4-
%=.
1^3*+

a
1591.
C
J
dx
y
xV
x2
1593.
e
+ 5x4-\
tyax
x*dx.
o
271
1594.
fg-f
53 cos x
J
i
1595. Prove that
if
f(x)
is
an even function, then
Sec. 5]
But
if
f(x)
1596.
is
Show
an odd function, then
that
00
00
00
~'T=
-00
1597.
Show
149
dx
that
!L
2
arc cos
1598.
Show
that
T
C
f(s\nx)dx =
T
f
Sec. 5. Integration by Parts

functions
If the
interval [a, b], then
(x)
(x) v' (x)
and
dx
Applying the formula
v (x)
are
continuously
= u (x) v(x) for
t;
integration
differentiate on
(*) u' (x) dx.
by
parts,
the
(1)
evaluate the
following integrals:
*L
00
1599.
^xcosxdx.
1603.
oe
1600.
Jlnxd*.
1604.
1601.
J*V*dx.
o
1602.
Je*sinxdx.
1605.
o
e- aJC cos6A:dA:
(fl>0).
__
150
[Ch. 5
Definite Integrals
1606**. Show that for the gamma-function (see

the following reduction formula holds true:
From
+ =
T (n
n\,
\)
that for the integral
this derive that
Show
1607.
=
= [sm
/=
sin" xdx
n
is
1575)
a natural number.
if
Example
cos
71
the reduction formula

n
n ~*
holds true.
Find /, if n is a natural
Devaluate I 9 and 7 10
1608. Applying repeated
number. Using the formula obtained,
integral (see
Example
B(p,
<7)
parts,
evaluate the
where p and 9 are positive

1609*.
by
integration
1574)
integers.
Express the following integral
in
terms of
(beta-
function):
m=
if
sin
and n are nonnegative
x cos
integers.
Sec. 6. Mean-Value Theorem
1. Evaluation of
If
integrals.
f(x)^F(x)
^f(x)dx^^F(
66
f(x) and <p(x) are continuous
where
is
the interval
the smallest
[a,
b]>
for
a<*<6
(1)
and,
besides,
(p(*)^0, then
W ^.
(2)
and
then
X )dx.
mJq>(x)d*<J/(*)9(*)dx<M
a
a<*<&,
If
for
is
the
largest
value of the function /
(x)
on
Mean-Value Theorem
Sec. 6]
In particular,
if
151
<p(#)s=l, then
b
m (ba) <.[f(x)dx*^M
(6
(3>
a).
The inequalities
(2)
and
may
(3)
be replaced,
respectively,
by
their equiva-
lent equalities:
b
and
b
-a),
a
where c and
Example
are certain
1.
numbers lying between a and
b.
Evaluate the integral

5L
M
2
Solution. Since
(Xsin'x^l, we
have
Jl
<
2'
that
i/l
K 2
'
is,
1.57
2. The mean value
</<
of a function.
1.91.
The number
b
is
called the
mean value
of the function / (x)
on the interval
1610*. Determine the signs of the integrals without evaluating
them:
n
b)
152
[Ch. b
Definite Integrals
Determine (without evaluating) which of the following
1611.
integrals
is
greater:
i
V\+x*
a)
dx
or
dx\
x sin x dx
or
e x*dx
or
b) ^
J x sin
x dx\
c)
Find the mean values
of the functions
on the indicated
inter-
vals:
1612. /(x)
1613. f(x)
1614.
=x
=a
0<x<l.
2
,
f(x)=sm
x,
1615.
1616. Prove that (

J
o
dx
lies
1/2+^
Find the exact value
0.70.
between
^2
of this integral.

n
4
1617.
+ jfdx.
1620*.
JT
1618
djf
J gqpjj.
2JI
1619.
1622. Integrating by parts, prove that

200JI
10071
43
0.67 and -4=

V^2
The Areas
Sec. 7]
of
153
Plane Figures
Sec. 7. The Areas of Plane Figures
1. Area in rectangular coordinates. If a continuous curve is defined in

f(x) [f(x)^Q], the area of the
rectangular coordinates by the equation y
curvilinear trapezoid bounded by this curve, by two vertical lines at the
a
Fig.
40
a and x
6 and
points x
is given by the formula
by
segment
of
the jc-axis
(Fig. 40),
b
(1)
Example
straight
1.
lines x
Compute
and
.v
the
3,
area bounded by the parabola

and the x-axis (Fig. 41).
y-fi(*)
Fig. 42
Solution. The sought-for area
Fig. 43
is
expressed by the integral
X
= -~
^
the
154
Definite Integrals
Example
the
2.
Evaluate the area
(Ch.
bounded by the curve # = 2
y*
*/
and
/-axis (Fig. 42).
Solution. Here, the roles of the coordinate

sought-for area is expressed by the integral
axes
are changed
and so the
where the limits of integration y l

2 and i/ 2 =l are found as the ordinates
of the points of intersection of the curve with the t/-axis,
a
Fig. 44
In the
curves
Fig. 45
more general case, if the area S is bounded by two continuous

and y = f 2 (x) and by two vertical lines x = a and x = b, where
= M*)
/i(*XM*) wn
a<*<&
(Fig. 43),
we
will then have:
(2)
Example
3.
Evaluate the area 5 contained between the curves
y
<Fig. 44).
Solution. Solving the
Jiniits of integration: x,
If
set
1
=2
of
x 2 and
l
/
equations
=JC 2
(3)
(3)
simultaneously, we find the

of formula (2), we obtain
and # 2 =1. By virtue
the curve is defined by equations in parametric form x

q>(/), y
y(t\
the area of the curvilinear trapezoid bounded by this curve,
by two
then
The Areas
Sec. 7]
a and #=&), and
vertical lines (x
integral
Plane Figures
of
by a segment
155
of the
*-axis
is
expressed
by the
f, are determined from the equations

and 6 = <p( 2 ) [\|?(/)^0 on the interval [/ lt /,]].
Example 4. Find the area of the ellipse (Fig. 45) by using
where
a
and
/,
= (p(/j)
equations
Due
Solution.
quadrant and
we
/
xc
y
l
parametric
= a cos
= bsint.
c
/,
it
is sufficient to compute
the area of a
the result by four. If in the equation jc
aco
symmetry,
multiply
and then x
put x
first
= 0.
to the
then
its
a,
we
get the limits of integration
/,
=
= y and
Therefore,
ji
-i-S
(b
sin
sin /)
dt=ab(
sin
2
/
dt
=^
S nab.
2. The area in polar coordinates.
and, hence,
If a
curve is defined in polar coordinates by the equation r~f (<p), then the area of the sector AOB (Fig. 46),
bounded by an arc of the curve, and by two radius vectors OA and OB,
Fig. 47
Fig. 46
which
correspond
to
the
values
cp,
=a
and
cp,=
p,
is
expressed
by
the
integral
Example
5.
Find
(Fig. 47).
the
area
contained
inside
Bernoulli's
lemniscate
156
__
Definite Integrals
Solution.
By
virtue of the
[Ch. 5
curve we
of the
symmetry
quadrant of the sought-for area:
Whence S = a2
_
determine
first
one
1623. Compute the area bounded by the parabola y

4x
x
and the x-axis.
1624. Compute the area bounded by the curve y
\nx, the
e.
;t-axis and the straight line x
x (x
1625*. Find the area bounded by the curve y
2)
1) (*
and the x-axis.
1626. Find the area bounded by the curve y*
x, the straight
8.
line y=l and the vertical line x
1627. Compute the area bounded by a single half-wave of the
and the Jt-axis.
sinusoidal curve
1628. Compute the area contained between the curve y
ianx,
y=smx
the x-axis and the straight
line
x=~
1629. Find the area contained between the hyperbola xy

m*,
and x 3a (a>0) and the x-axis.
the vertical lines
1630. Find the area contained between the witch of Agnesi
xâ
u= x- + a
and the x-axis.
1631. Compute the area of the figure bounded by the curve

8 and the y-axis.
the straight line y
1632. Find the area bounded by the parabolas y**=2px and
y~x*,
x
= 2py.
1633. Evaluate the area
and the straight line f/ =

1634. Compute the area
bounded by the parabola y = 2x
x*
x.
of a segment cut off by the straight

2
2x from the parabola y = x
1635. Compute the area contained between the parabolas y*=*x*,
line
y=3
*/=Y and
1636.
the straight line y
Compute the area contained
and y = 4
y=
1637.
Agnesi
1638.
between
the
parabolas
|x
Compute the area contained z between the witch
y=
and the
= 2x.
and the parabola
f^.
Compute the area bounded by the curves y**e*>

straight line
x=l.
of
The Areas
Sec. 7\
of
Plane Figures
1639. Find the area of the figure
=
f2
and the straight
__
157
bounded by the hyperbola
linex = 2a.
1640*. Find the entire area bounded by the astroid
1641. Find the area between the catenary
y = a cosh
the (/-axis and the straight line
= ~(e +
2
f/
!)
x
1642. Find the area bounded by the curve a*y*
1643. Compute the area contained within the curve
(a*
2
;c ).
1644. Find the area between the equilateral hyperbola x*

y*
the x-axis and the diameter passing through the point (5,4).
= 9,
1645. Find
the
and the ordinate

Find
1646*.
between
area
x=l
the curve y
(x>l).
bounded
area
the
the
x-axis,
9
the
by
J
asymptote x = 2a (a>0).
1647*. Find the area between the strophoid
and
~i,
cissoid
r/
y
X
= 2ax
o
its
y*
=x
x ~~ a)2
2Jfl^~~
and
asymptote (a>0).
its
1648.
circle
and
jt
the area of the two parts into which

divided by the parabola if =2x.
2
2
the area contained between the circle x
y
the
Compute
r/
=--8 is
1649. Compute
the parabola x*=l2(y
1).
1650. Find the area contained within the astroid
jc
1651. Find
the cycloid
the
= acos
/;
y= b
sin
= 16
/.
bounded by the x-axis and one arc
area
x = a(t
# = a(l
of
sin/),
cos/).
1652. Find the area bounded by one branch of the trochoid
tefr***/and a tangent
to
it
<P<<
at its lower points.
158
(Ch.
Definite Integrals
1653. Find the area bounded by the cardioid

cos2/),
--
sin20.
1654*. Find the area of the loop of the folium of Descartes
*-r+T"
*-
a (1-f coscp).
1655*. Find the entire area of the cardioid r
1656*. Find the area contained between the first and second
turns of Archimedes' spiral, r
acp
(Fig. 48).
1657. Find the area of one of the

leaves of the curve r
acos2cp.
1658. Find the entire area bound2
2
a sin4cp.
ed by the curve r
1659*. Find the area bounded by
the curve r
asin3cp.
1660. Find the area bounded by
Pascal's limagon
Fig. 48
1661.
Find
the
= 2 + cos
area
and the two half-lines
cp.
bounded by the parabola
9=4-
and 9
1662. Fin'd the area of the ellipse

r
= y.
r =
-r
1
+ e cos
1663. Find the area bounded by the curve
=a
sec
(e<l).
v
'
cp
= 2acos3cp
a.
lying outside the circle r
1664*. Find the area bounded by the curve x*
and
+ y* = x* + y*.
Sec. 8. The Arc Length of a Curve
1. The arc length
in rectangular coordinates.
y=f(x) contained between two
The arc length s of

= a and x~b
points with abscissas x
2 8
2 8
curve
is
'
'
Example I. Find the length of the astroid * +/'*-= a
(Fig. 49).
Solution. Differentiating the equation of the astroid, we get
The Arc Length
Sec. 8]
For this reason, we have
of a
Curve
159
for th* arc length of a quarter of the astroid:
Whence s = 6a.
2. The arc
length of a curve represented parametrically. If a curve is

<p(0 and y
represented by equations in parametric form, #
ty(t), then the
arc length s of the curve is
where
and
t2
"
are values of the parameter that correspond to the extremities
of the arc.
49
Fig
Example
2.
Fig. 50
Find the length
one arc
of
x
a(t
[
\ j/=:a(l
Solution.
We
have
of the
cos/)-
cosf) and -^
-^=a(l
= asin/.
/=2a
The limits of integration
of the arc of the cycloid.
If a curve is defined
the arc length s is
^=
and
cycloid (Fig. 50)
sin/),
= 2ji
by the equation
sln~-d/=
correspond
= /(cp)
Therefore,
to
in polar
the
extreme points
coordinates, then
where a and p are the values

the arc.
of
the
polar
angle
at
the extreme points of
160
[Ch.
Definite Integrals
Example
The
3.
Find the
entire curve
is
the
length of
entire
described by a point as
cp
curve
asin-|-
ranges from
(Fig. 51).
to 3ji.
Fig. 51
Solution.
She curve
We
have
r'
= a sin
-^- cos
therefore the entire arc length of
is
8JI
s=
J J/a*
1665.
y*
8JI
= x*
sin
-|
+o
Compute the
cos'
sin*
-f-
-|-
arc
length
of
=a
d
=^
semicubical
from the coordinate origin to the point x =

1666*. Find the length of the catenary y =
1667.
x=0
to
Compute
B(b,h).
the arc length of
x=l.
the parabola y
curve y
of
the
of
the curve y
*=K8.
*=
1670. Find the

to
1671.
between
length of the curve y
arc
to
= e*
= lnx
= 2}/"x
from
lying between
from x
= /3
= arc sin (e~*)
from
= In secy,
lying
jc=l.
Compute the
t/
and
j/
arc length
-5-
of the
curve x
1672. Find the arc length of the curve x
=1
from the
(6,a) to the point
1668. Find the arc length

the points (0,1) and (l,e).
1669. Find the arc length
to
parabola
4.
acosh-^-
vertex
= e.
= ^-y
-^\ny
from
Volumes
Sec, 9]
of Solids
161
1673. Find the length of the right branch of the tractrix
a+vV-t/
from y = a to
t/=&(0<6<a).
1674. Find the length of the closed part of the- curve
= x(x
3a)
1675. Find the length of the curve

to
t/
= ln ( coth ~-J
from
x=b (0<a<6).
1676*. Find the arc length of the involute of the circle
f
to
= 7\
1677. Find the length of the evolute of the ellipse
1678. Find the length of the curve
x=- a (2 cos/
y = a(2 sin/
1679. Find the length of the
cos 2/)
-y
which
is
cut
off
first
1680. Find the entire length of

1681. Find the arc length of
r = asec
sin 2/).
turn of Archimedes' spiral
the cardioid r
that
part of
by a vertical
line
= a(l + coscp).
the
passing
parabola
through
the pole.
1682. Find the length of the hyperbolic spiral rq>= 1 from the
point (2,'/ 2 ) to the point C/,,2).
ae m v,
1683. Find the arc length of the logarithmic spiral r
r
a.
lying inside the circle
1684. Find
r=l
to
the arc
length
r = 3.
of
the curve
<p
=
-g-
(r
from
j
'
Sec. 9. Volumes of Solids
1. The volume of a solid of revolution. The volumes of solids formed by

the revolution of a curvilinear trapezoid [bounded by the curve y&f (x) fhe
AT- ax is and two
a and x
vertical lines x
b\ about the x- and '(/-axes are
J
1900
162
Definite Integrals
[Cft.
expressed, respectively, by the formulas:

b
Vx =ji
1)
J
a
y*dx\
2)
V Y =2n
xr/dx*).
Example 1. Compute the volumes of solids formed by the revolution of a

bounded by a single lobe of the sinusoidal curve # = sinx and by the
segment O<;*<JT of the x-axis about: a) the x-axis and b) the j/-axis.
figure
Solution.
a)
V^^-ji
b)
Vy=2n
xsinxdx=2jt(
xcosx + sinx)Jc ~2ji t
The volume of a solid formed by revolution about the t/-axis of a figure

bounded by the curve x=g(y), the (/-axis and by two parallel lines y = c and
t/
= d,
may
be determined from the formula
from formula
obtained
x and y.
(1),
given
above, by
interchanging
the
coordinates
If the curve is defined in a different form (parametrically, in polar coordinates, etc.), then in the foregoing formulas we must change the variable of
integration in appropriate fashion.
In the more general case, the volumes of solids formed by the revolution
about the x- and (/-axes of a figure bounded by the curves /!
/! (x) and y 2
f z (x)
a and x
b are, respectively,
[where f\(x)^f z (x)] and the straight lines x
equal to
=
=
and
b
Example
circle x*
2.
+ (y
Find the volume of a torus formed by

2
a 2 (6â) about the x-axis (Fig. 52).
&)
the rotation of the
*) The solid is formed by the revolution, about the (/-axis, of a curvilinear

a, x
trapezoid bounded by the curve y
b,
f(x) and the straight lines x
and
0. For a volume element we take the volume of that part of the solid
formed by revolving about the 0-axis a rectangle with sides y and dx at a
distance x from the (/-axis, Then the volume element dVy=2nxydx, whence
V K =2JI
xydx.
Volumes
Sec. 9]
Solution.
We
of Solids
163'
have
I/,
=6
Iâ
x 9 and y 2
= t>+ Va*x
Therefore,
(the latter integral
is
taken by the substitution
x=asi
-a
x a
Fig
52
The volume of a solid obtained by the rotation, about the polar axis, of a
sector formed by an arc of the curve r
F((p) and by two radius vectors
ipr-=a, .
This same formula is conveniently used when seeking the volume obtained
by the rotation, about the polar axis, of some closed curve defined in polar
coordinates.
Example
= asin2(p
3.
Determine the volume formed
by the rotation
about the polar axis.
Solution.
= 2.--n\
rsinq>d(p
yJia
sin
.L
2
= ^ Jia
3
sin
4
 dcp
of
the curve
164
__
\Ch. 5
Definite Integrals
2. Computing the volumes of solids from known cross-sections. If S S(x)

the cross-sectional area cut off by a plane perpendicular to some straight
line (which we take to be the x-axis) at a point with abscissa *, then the
volume of the solid is
is
where *, and x 2 are the abscissas of the extreme cross-sections of the solid.
Example 4. Determine the volume of a wedge cut off a circular cylinder
by a plane passing through the diameter of the base and inclined to the base
at an angle a. The radius of the base is R (Fig. 53).
Solution. For the *-axis we take th? diameter of the base along which
the cutting plane intersects the base, and for the (/-axis we take the diameter
of the base perpendicular to it. The equation of the circumference of the base
is
*2
+ =R
2
j/
The area
2
.
of the section
ABC
at
a distance
x from the origin
is
S(x) = area A ABC = -^ ABBC = -^yy tana =^- tana.

1
r/
Therefore, the sought-
for
volume
of the
wedge
is
y=
2~
f y2
tanad*=tana
(*
(R
1
*)<& = y tana R
1685. Find the volume of a solid formed by rotation, about

the x-axis, of an area bounded by the x-axis and the parabola
1686. Find the volume of an ellipsoid formed by the rotation
of the ellipse ^r
+| =
1687. Find the
the x-axis', of
volume
about the x-axis.
formed by the rotation, about

an area bounded by the catenary y = acosh
the
of a solid
xa.
and the straight lines

1688. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation, about
a
the x-axis, of the curve j/=sin x in the interval between x
xr-axis,
and x = n.
the x-axis, of an area bounded by the semicubical parabola if = x s
the x-axis, and the straight line x== 1.
1690. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation of
the same area (as in Problem 1689) about the {/-axis.
1691. Find-, the volumes of the solids formed by the rotation
of an area bounded by the lines y = e*, x = 0, y =
about: a) the
x-axis and b) the y-axis.
the t/-axis, of that part of the parabola j/ 2 = 4ax which is cut off
by the straight line x = a.
,
Sec. 9]
_ _
Volumes
of Solids
165

the straight line x
a, of that part of the parabola y*=4ax which
is cut oft by this line.
the straight line y
p, of a figure bounded by the parabola
2
t/
= 2p*
and the straight
line
= --

the x-axis of the area contained between the parabolas y
x*
L
and
y= Y*.
1696. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation,

about the x-axis, of a loop of the curve (*
4a)tf =ax(x
3j)
1697. Find the

of the cyssoid y*
volume
A8
= ^ _x
of a solid
about
its
generated
by the rotation
asymptote x = 2a.
1698. Find the volume of a paraboloid of revolution whose

base has radius R and whose altitude is //.
1699. A right parabolic segment whose base is 2a and altitude h
is in rotation about the base. Determine the volume of the resulting solid of revolution (Cavalieri's "lemon").
1700. Show that the volume of a part cut by the plane jc
2a
off a solid formed by the rotation of the equilateral
hyperbola
x*
tf^c? about the *-axis is equal to the volume of a sphere
of radius a.
1701. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation of a
bounded by one arc of the cycloid x=-a (/
sin t),
figure
y=^ a (\
cos/) and the x-axis, about: a) the x-axis, b) the y-axis,
and c) the axis of symmetry ot the figure.
1702. Find the volume of a solid formed by the rotation of
acos 8 /, y bsm*t about the //-axis.
the astroid *
1703. Find the volume of a solid obtained by rotating the
cardioid r
a(l -hcostp) about the polar axis.
1704. Find the volume of a solid formed by rotation of the
acos 2 <p about the polar axis.
curve r
1705. Find the volume of an obelisk whose parallel bases are
rectangles with sides A, B arid a, ft, and the altitude is h.
1706. Find the volume of a right elliptic cone whose base is
an ellipse with semi-axes a arid &, and altitude h.
^= a\ which are
1707. On the chords of the astroid *'/
{/'/
to
the
are
constructed
*-axis,
parallel
squares whose sides are
equal to the lengths of the chords and whose planes are perpendicular to the A#-plane. Find tfte volume of the solid formed by
these squares.
166
of
[Ch. 5
Definite Integrals
1708. A circle undergoing deformation

the points of its circumference lies on
moving so that one

the y-axis, the centre
is
describes an ellipse
^^-=1, and the plane of the circle is
perpendicular to the jq/-plane. Find the volume of the solid
generated by the circle.
1709. The plane of a moving triangle remains perpendicular
to the stationary diameter of a circle of radius a. The base of
the triangle is a chord of the circle, while its vertex slides along
a straight line parallel to the stationary diameter at a distance h
from the plane of the circle. Find the volume of the solid (called
a conoid) formed by the motion of this triangle from one end of
the diameter to the other.
1710. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinders
z
2
z*
a*.
a and y
1711. Find the volume of the segment cut off from the ellip"'
+ =
= * by the plane x = a.
paraboloid |21712. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the hyperbo-
tic
loid of
^ -f
one sheet
1713. Find the
^-=1 and
rj
volume
the planes 2
X2
of the ellipsoid
^2
U2
and z
li.
+ ^ + ^2"=
10. The Area of a Surface of Revolution
Sec.
The area
of
formed by the rotation, about

a and x
f(x) between the points x
a surface
arc of the curve y

the formula
the
= b,
is
an
expressed by
x-axis, of
Vl+y'*dx
(ds
is
(1)
the differential ol the arc of the curve).
Zfta
Fig. 54
If
surface
of the curve
cbtained from formula
the equation
$x
is
is
(!)
represented differently, the area of the

by an appropriate change of variables.
Sec.
The Area
10]
of
a Surface of Revolution
Example 1. Find the area of a surface formed by

2
x-axis, of a loop of the curve 9i/
;t(3
x)* (Fig. 54).
Solution. For the upper part of the curve, when
167
rotation, about
= -- (3
mula
x)
y~x. Whence
the differential of the arc
(X*<3,
ds=
X ~^
r_dx.
2
the area of the surface
(1)
the
we have
Fromfor-
= 2n
Example
of
the
2.
\($6
Find the area

x
cycloid
=a
of a surface
s\nt)\
(t
y = a(l
formed by the rotation of one arc

cost) about its axis of symmetry
(Fig. 55).
Solution. The desired surface is formed by rotation of the arc OA about

the straight line AB, the equation of which is x
na. Taking y as the independent variable and noting that the axis of rotation
AB is displaced relative to the #-axis a distance na, we
will
have
Passing to the variable
(na
/,
we obtain
da
n
=
4na
nsin
/sin
y + sinf sin
~-
Fig. 56
dt-j
The dimensions
of a parabolic mirror AOB are indicated

required to find the area of its surface.
1715. Find the area of the surface of a
spindle obtained by
rotation of a lobe of the sinusoidal curve
about the
1714.
in Fig. 56.
It
is
ys'mx
#-axis.
1716. Find the area of the surface formed

a part
of
about the
the
tangential curve
t/
= tan*
by the rotation
from Jt =
to
of
A:==^-,
jc-axis.
1717. Find the area of the surface formed

by rotation, about
the x-axis, of an arc of the curve y
e-* 9 from x
to x
168
\Ch. 5
Definite Integrals
1718. Find the area of the surface (called a catenoid) formed
about the x-axis from

by the rotation of a catenary # = acosh
x = to x = a.
1719. Find the area of the surface of rotation of the astroid
3
x'/'-i
-a
/'/
3 3
'
about the y-axis.
1720. Find the

JC
= -^/
area
the surface of rotation of the curve
of
y=\
from
In (/about the *-axis
to
y = e.
1721*. Find the surface of a torus formed by rotation of the

2
x*
b) ^=a* about the *-axis a).
(y
1722. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation of the
circle
ellipse
^+^ =
about:
1)
the *-axis, 2) the y-axis
(a>6).
1723. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation of one

arc of the cycloid x
cos t) about: a) the
a(t
sin/) and r/
a(l
x-axis, b) the y-axis, c) the tangent to the cycloid at its highest
point.
1724. Find the area of the surface formed by rotation, about
the j^-axis, of the cardioid
x
t/
= a (2 cost
= a(2sin/
cos
2/),
sin2/).
1725. Determine the area of the surface formed by the rotation

2
2
a cos2<p about the polar axis.
1726. Determine the area of the surface formed by the rotation
of the cardioid r
2a (1 +coscp) about the polar axis.
of the lemniscate r
Sec. 11. Moments. Centres of Gravity. Guldin's Theorems
1. Static moment. The static moment relative to the /-axis of a material

A having mass m and at a distance d from tha /-axis is the quantitv
point
Mi~md.
The
static
moment
relative to the /-axis of a system of n material

points
in the plane of the axis and at distances
with masses m,, m 2 ..., m n lying

d lt d 2 ..., d n is the sum
,
M i=
m A2
=
(1)
where the distances of points lying on one side of the /-axis have the
plus
sign, those on the other side have the minus sign. In a similar manner we
define the static moment of a system of points relative to a

plane.
If the masses
continuously fill the line or figure of the x#-plane, then the
static moments
about the x- and /-axes are expressed ^respectivex and
not as the sums (1). For the cases of
ly) as integrals and
geometric figures,
Itie density is considered
equal to unity.
My
Sec.
is
Moments. Centres of Gravity. Guldin's Theorems
II]
In particular:
the arc length,
for
1)
the curve *
= *(s);
we have
y=y(s) whare
t
= V(dx)* + (dy)*
is
M Y =.
(s) ds\
(s)
2) for a
plane figure bounded by th3 curve y

a and y
b we obtain
bounded by the
Find the
static
straight lines:
Solution. Here, y
(2)
= y(x),
ihz Jt-axis and
two
= b II
x\y\dx.
(3)
the x- and
/-axes of a triangle
a
1.
ds
Fig. 58
Example
the differential of the arc);
Fig. 57
vertical lines x
parameter
(ds
the
169
moments about
~-f-^
a
b
l,
= 0, =
//
Applying formula
(Fig. 57)
(3),
we
obtain
ab*
and
2. Moment
of inertia. The moment of inertia, about an /-axis, of a imfe2

point of mass m at a distance d from the /-axis, is the number l t -=-tnd .
of
n
material
of
an
a
The moment of inertia, about
/-axis,
system
points
with masses m lt m 2t ...,
n is the sum
rial
170
__
[Ch. 5
Definite Integrals
where d lf d 2 ..., d n are the distances of the points from the /-axis. In the
case of a continuous mass, we get an appropriate integral in place of a sum.
Example 2. Find the moment of inertia of a triangle with base b and
altitude h about its base.
Solution. For the base of the triangle we take the x-axis, for its altitude,
the y-axis (Fig 58).
Divide the triangle into infinitely narrow horizontal strips of width dy t
which play the role of elementary masses dm. Utilizing the similarity of
we
triangles,
obtain
j
= bL
dm
y
.
dy
and
Whence
3. Centre of gravity. The

figure (arc or area) of mass
coordinates of the centre of gravity of a plane

are computed from the formulas
moments of the mass. In the case of geometnumerically equal to the corresponding arc or area.
For the coordinates of the centre of gravity (x, y) of an arc of the plane
curve y
connecting the points A[a f (a)] and B [6, f (b)],
f (x) (a^x^b),
where
MX
ric figures,
and
My
are the static
the mass
is
we have
B
t>
b
(
-A\yds
2
y 1^1 +(y') dx
'}
The coordinates
dx
of the centre of gravity (x, y) of the curvilinear

trapezoid
x^b, Q^y<^f(x) may
be computed from the formulas
~~
-.(y^dx
^xydx
a
*~~
a_
^
,3
where
S=f y dx
is
the area of the figure.
There are similar formulas for the coordinates of the centre of

gravitv
6
y of
volume.
Example 3. Find the centre of gravity of an arc of the semicircle
,,2^n*- i,i^n\
(pig
59)
Sec
Moments. Centres
11]
We
Solution.
Guldin's Theorems
of Gravity
171
have
and
Whence
f,
'
yds--
xJ ..
,.
yV-.v
^=
y a
Hence,
4. Guldin's theorems.
Theorem 1. The area of a surface obtained by the
plane curve about some axis lying in the. same plane
intersecting
it
circumference of
is
to
circle
equal
the
rotation of an arc of
as the curve and not
the product of the length of the curve by the
described by the centre of gravity of the arc of
the curve.
Theorem 2. The volume of a solid obtained by rotation of a plane figure

about some axis lying in the plane of the figure and not intersecting it is
equal to the product of the area of this figure by the circumference of the
circle described by the centre of gravity of the figure.
Fig. 59
1727. Find the static moments

a segment of the straight line
x
o
lying between the axes.
y
o
about
the
coordinate
axes of
__
172
Definite Integrals
1728. Find the static
about
its
moments
of a rectangle,
[Ch. 6
with sides a and
&,
sides.
1729. Find the static moments, about the x- and t/-axes, and
the coordinates of the centre of gravity of a triangle bounded by
the straight lines x + y
Q.
a, x
Q, and y
1730. Find the static moments, about the x- and (/-axes, and
the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an arc of the astroid
_t_
_i^
-If/*
>
==aT
>
lying in the first quadrant.

1731. Find the static moment of the circle
r
= 2asin<p
about the polar axis.

1732. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an arc
of the catenary
y = a cosh
x=
a to x
a.
Find the centre of gravity of an arc of a circle of radius a
subtending an angle 2a.
1734. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the arc
of one arch of the cycloid
from
1733.
= a(t
sin/); y
= a(\
cos/).
1735. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an area

bounded by the ellipse
2 -|-=l and the coordinate axes (
1736. Find the coordinates
bounded by the curves
of the centre of gravity of
1737. Find the coordinates of the centre of

gravity
bounded by the first arch of the cycloid
x = a(t
sin/), r/ = a(l
cos/)
and the jc-axis.
1738**. Find the centre of gravity of a
hemisphere
lying above the ;q/-plane with centre at the origin.
of
an area
an area
of radius a
1739**. Find the centre of gravity of a homogeneous

right
circular cone with base radius r and altitude h.
1740**. Find the centre of gravity of a homogeneous hemi-
sphere of radius a
origin.
lying
above the jo/-plane with centre
at the
&?c. 12]
1741. Find the

its
moment
to Solution of Physical
Problems
173
inertia of a circle of radius a about
of
diarneler.
1742. Find the moments of inertia of a rectangle with sides

a and b about its sides.
1743. Find the moment of inertia of a right parabolic segment
with base 26 and altitude ft about its axis of symmetry.
1744. Find the moments of inertia of the area of the ellipse
2
JC
U2
^ + ^=1
about
its
principal axes.
1745**. Find the polar moment of inertia of a circular ring

and R t (R <RJ> that is, the moment of inertia
with radii
R^
about the axis passing through the centre of the ring and perpen}
dicular to its plane.

1746**. Find the moment of inertia of a homogeneous right
circular cone with base radius R and altitude H about its axis.
1747**. Find the moment of inertia of a homogeneous sphere
about its diameter.
of radius a and of mass
1748. Find the surlace and volume of a torus obtained by
rotating a circle of radius a about an axis lying in its plane
and at a distance b (b>a) from its centre.
1749. a) Determine the position of the centre of gravity of
an arc of the astroid x -\-i/ T = a* lying in the first quadrant.

b) Find the centre of gravity of an area bounded by the curves
2
= 2px and x* = 2py.
t/
17f>0**. a) Find the centre of gravity of a semicircle using
Guldin's theorem.
b) Prove by Guldin's theorem that the centre of gravity of
a triangle is distant from its base by one third of its altitude
Sec.
12. Applying Definite
Integrals to the
Solution of Physical Problems
1. The path traversed by a point. If a point is in motion along some

curve and the absolute value of the velocity o~/(/) is a known function of
the time t, then the path traversed by the point in an interval of time
is
'. *
Example
1.
The velocity
of a point
Find the path

ing
the
during
= 0. 1/
covered by the point

ol motion.
commencement
this interval?
in
is
m/sec.
7=10
the interval of time

sec followis
the mean velocity cf motion
What
174
[Ch. 5
Definite Integrals
Solution.
We
have:
10
t*
.-Jo.irt-o.i
T = 250
metres
and
=-=25
2. The work
of the x-axis,
of a force.
then the work
If
m/sec.
a variable force
X=f(x)
acts in the direction
over an interval [x ly x z ]
of this force
is
A=
2. What work has to be performed to stretch a spring 6 cm, if
kgf stretches it by 1 cm?
Solution, According to Hook's law the force X kgf stretching the spring
kx, where k is a proportionality constant.
by x m is equal to
100v.
we get
and
l kgf,
100 and, hence, X
0.01
Putting x
Whence the sought-for work is
Example
a force of
X=
m
0.08
0.06
A=
X=
100 x dx
= 50 x
= 0. 18
kgm
3. Kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a material

velocity v is defined as
point of mass
and
mv*
The
mv m
2%
kinetic
...,
mn
energy of a system of n material points with masses

having respective velocities t; lf v 2 ..., v n is equal to
,
To compute the
kinetic energy of a solid, the latter is appropriately partitioned into elementary particles (which play the part of material points); then
by summing the kinetic energies of these particles we get, in the limit, an
integral in place of the sum (1).
Example 3. Find the kinetic energy of a homogeneous circular cylinder
of density 6 with base radius R and altitude h rotating about its axis with
angular velocity CD.
Solution. For the elementary mass dm we take the mass of a hollow
cylinder of altitude h with inner radius r and wall thickness dr (Fig. 60).
We have:
Since the linear velocity of

kinetic energy is
the
mass dm
is
equal
to
t;
/-co,
the elementary
Sec.
12]
to
Solution of Physical Problems
175
Whence
2
r 9 dr^=
nco 6/?
fc
4. Pressure of a liquid. To compute the force of liquid pressure we use

Pascal's law, which states that the force of pressure of a liquid on an area S
at a depth of immersion h Is
where y
is
the specific weight of the liquid.
Example 4. Find the force of pressure experienced by

r submerged vertically in water so that its diameter
is
radius
water surface (Fig
semicircle of
with the
flush
61).
Solution, We partition the area of the semicircle into elements

strips
parallel to the surface of the water. The area of one such element (ignoring
higher-order infinitesimals) located at a distance h from the surface is
ds
The pressure experienced by
where y
is
^ 2xdh = 2
this
V'*
element
h2
dli.
is
the specific weight of the water equal to unity.

the entire pressure is
Whence
=2
The velocity of a body thrown vertically upwards with

velocity V Q (air resistance neglected), is given by the
1751.
initial
C
J
ITS
Definite Integrals
\Cfi.
formula
ff'.
where t is the time that elapses and g is the acceleration of gravAt what distance from the initial position will the body
ity.
be in t seconds from the time it is thrown?
1752. The velocity of a body thrown vertically upwards with
initial
velocity
(air
resistance
allowed
for)
is
given
by the
formula
where
t is the time,
g is the acceleration of gravity, and c is
a constant. Find the altitude reached by the body.
1753.
point on the x-axis performs harmonic oscillations
about the coordinate origin;
its
velocity
given by the formula
is
where t is the time and t;

co are constants.
Find the law of oscillation of a point if when / =
it had
an abscissa * = 0. What is the mean value of the absolute magnitude of the velocity of the point during one cycle?
1754. The velocity of motion of a point is v = te~"' Qlt m/sec.
Find the path covered by the point from the commencement of
motion to full stop.
,
1755. A rocket rises vertically upwards. Considering that when

the rocket thrust is constant, the acceleration due to
decreasing
weight of the rocket
increases by the law
find the velocity at any instant of time /,

is zero. Find the altitude reached at lima
/==^~^
if
/
the
(a
initial
ftf
>0),
velocity
r
1756*. Calculate the work that has to be done to
pump the
water out of a vertical cylindrical barrel with base radius R and
altitude H.
1757. Calculate the work that has to be done in order to
pump
the water out of a conical vessel with vertex downwards, the
radius of the base of which is R and the altitude H.
1758. Calculate the work to be done in order to
pump water
out of a semispherical boiler of radius R
10 m.
1759. Calculate the work needed to pump oil out of a tank
through an upper opening (the tank has the shape of a cylinder

with horizontal axis) if the specific weight of the oil is
y, the
length of the tank H and the radius of the base R.
1760**. What work has to be done to raise a body of massm
from the earth's surface (radius R) to an altitude ft? What is
the work
if
the body
is
removed
to infinity?
Sec.
12]
What work
*2
=10 cm?
1762**.
and
Problems
177
Two
1761**.
on the
lie
electric charges *
100 CGSE-and e l==200 CGSE
x-axis at points *
and *,
1
cm, respectively.
will be done if the second charge is moved to point
length
p=10kgfcm
cylinder with a movable piston of diameter

/
= 80cm
2
.
is
filled
with
What work must be done
steam
at
to halve the
D = 20 cm
pressure
volume of
steam with temperature kept constant (isoihermic process)?

1763**. Determine the work performed in the adiabatic expan3
of
air
sion
and pressure
(having initial volume u =l
2
8
10 m ?
p _=l kgf/cm ) to volume u,
1764**. A vertical shaft of weight P and
radius a rests on a bearing AB (Fig. 62).
The frictional force between a small part a
of the base of the shaft and the surface of
the support in contact with it is F==fipa,
const is the pressure of the shaft
where p
on the surface of the support referred to
unit area of the support, while pi is the coefficient of friction. Find the work done by the
frictional force during one revolution of the
the
ft
shaft.
1765**. Calculate the kinetic energy of a

and radius R rotating with
angular velocity G> about an axis that passes through its centre
perpendicular to its plane.
1766. Calculate the kinetic energy of a right circular cone of
mass
rotating with angular velocity CD about its axis, if the
radius of the base of the cone is R and the altitude is H.
1767*. What work has to be don? to stop an iron sphere of
2 me'res rotating with angular velocity w = 1,000 rpm
radius R
j
about its diameter? (Specific weight of iron, y = 7.8 s/cm .)
1768. A vertical triangle with base 6 and altitude h is submerged vertex downwards in water so that its base is on the
surface of the water. Find the pressure of the water.
1769. A vertical dam has the shipa of a trapezoid. Calculate
the water pressure on the dam if we know that the upper base
20 m.
a
70 m, the lower base 6=50 m, and the height h
1770. Find the pressure of a liquid, whose specific weight is y.
on a vertical ellipse (with axes 2a and 26) whose centre is submerged in the liquid to a distance h, while the major axis 2a
of the ellipse is parallel to the level of the liquid (h^b).
1771. Find the water pressure on a vertical circular cone
with radius of base R and altitude H submerged in walei vertex
downwards so that its base is on the surface of the water.
disk of mass
178
Definite Integrals
[C/i.
Miscellaneous Problems
1772. Find the mass of a rod of length /

100 cm if the linear
density of the rod at a distance x cm from one of its ends is
= 2 + 0.001 x
g/cm.
1773. According to empirical data the specific thermal capacity

of water at a temperature
is
= 0.9983
What
from
/C (0^/<100)
5.184xlO- + 6.912xlO5
quantity of heat has to be expended to heat

to 100 C?
0C
of water
of
of
1774. The wind exerts a uniform pressure p g/cm on a door

width b cm and height h cm. Find the moment of the pressure
the wind striving to turn the door on its hinges.
1775.
What
is
the
force
of
attraction
of
a material
and mass
on a material point of mass
a straight line with the rod at a distance a from one
length
rod of
lying on
of its ends?
1776**. In the case of steady-state laminar (low of a liquid

through a pipe of circular cross-section of radius a, the velocity
of flow v at a point distant r from the axis of the pipe is given
by the formula
difference at the ends of the pipe, |i is

is the pressure
the coefficient of viscosity, and / is the length of the pipe.
Determine the discharge of liquid Q (that is, the quantity of
liquid flowjng through a cross-section of the pipe in unit time).
1777*. The conditions are the same as in Problem 1776, but
the pipe has a rectangular cross-section, and the base a is great
compared with the altitude 26. Here the rate of flow u at a point
M(x,y) is defined by the formula
where p
Determine the discharge
of
liquid Q.
1778**. In studies of the dynamic qualities of an automobile,

use is frequently made of special types of diagrams: the velocities v are laid off on the Jtr-axis, and the reciprocals of corresponding accelerations a, on the (/-axis. Show that the area S bounded
v 2t and
v l and v
by an arc of this graph, by two ordinates v
by the *-axis is numerically equal to the time needed to increase
the velocity of motion of the automobile from v l to v 2 (accelera-
tion time).
Sec. 12]
1779.
downward
of the
horizontal
beam
vertical load
beam, and
of
of length
uniformly
support
Problems
179
/ is in- equilibrium due to

distributed over the length
reactions
A and
fi(yl==5==-y-j
directed vertically upwards. Find the bending moment

x in
a cross-section x, that is, the moment about the point P with
abscissa x of all forces acting on the portion of the beam AP.
1780. A horizontal beam of length / is in equilibrium due to
support reactions A and B and a load distributed along the
kx, where x is the distance
length of the beam with intensity q
from the left support and k is a constant factor. Find the bend-
ing
moment
Note.
Mx
in cross-section x.
The intensity
of
load distribution
is
the
load
(force) referred to
unit length.
1781*. Find the

sinusoidal current
during a cycle
quantity
of heat released
in a conductor
by an alternating
with resistance
/?.
Chapter VI
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
Sec. 1. Faiic Notions
1. The concept of a function of several variables. Functional notation.

variable quantity 2 is called a single-valued function of two variables jc,
y, if to each set of their values (x, //) in a givm range there corresponds a
unique value of z The variables x and y are called arguments or independent
variables. The functional relation is denoted by
Similarly,
we
Fxample
= /(*,
y).
define functions of three or more arguments.

Express the volume of a cone V as a function of
1.
eratrix x and of its base radius y

Solution. From geometry we know that the
where h
is
the altitude of the cone. But h
This
is
volume
**
2
-
of a
cone
its
is
Hence,
the desired functional relation.

of the function z^f(x.y)
The value
point
is
that
(a.b).
is,
gen-
when
x=^-a
and y
at a
bt
denoted by / (a,b) or f (P) Generally speakthe geometric representation of a func-
ing,
tion like
in
(x,y)
nate system X, Y. Z
Example
2.
Find/
is
(2,
Fig. 63
Solution.
Substituting
r=2
and t/=
3,
we
find
rectangular
a surface (Fig.
3)
and/1,
coordi63).
if
Sec.
Basic Notions
1)
Putting
*=1
and replacing y by
we
[SI
have
will
SL\
*'
thai
is,
/(l.
2. Domain
)=f(*.
0).
of definition of a function. By the domain of definition of a

function ?
f(x, y) we understand a set of points (*, r/) in an jq/-plane in
which the given function is defined (that is to say, in which it takes on definite real
values) In the simplest cases, the domain of definition of a function U a finite or infinite part of the jo/-plane bounded by one or several
curves (the boundan, of the domain).
Similarly, for a function of three variables u

f(x, y, z) the
definition of the function is a volume in At/z-space.
Example 3. Find the domain of definition of the function
domain
of
>
<
2
x2
function has real values if 4
or x* + y 2
4.
y
inequality is satisfied hy the coordinates of points lying inside a
circle of radius 2 with centre at the coordinate origin. The domain of definition oi the function is the interior of the circle (Fig 64).
Solution. The
The
latter
Fig. 64
Example
4.
Fiy
Find the domain

z
Solution.
The
first
term
= arc sin
or
|
function
when
|/
xy
of the function
The second term has
when
65
real
defined for
is
values
.The domain
if
xr/Ô,
of
1<~
in
i.e.,
definition
of
or
two
cases:
the
entire
is
shown
in Fig. 65
and includes the boundaries
of the
domain.
Functions
182
of Several Variables
[Ch. 6
3. Level lines and level surfaces of a function. The level line of a function 2
f(x, y) is a line / (*, y)-C (in an *r/-plane) at the points of which
C (usually labelled in
the function takes on one and the same value z
drawings).
The
iace
level surface of a
C, at the
z)
/ (x, y,
function of three arguments u~f(x,

points of which the function takes
value u~C.
Example 5. Construct the
the function z
x*y.
Solution. The equation of
has the form x 2 y

Putting
C = 0,
1784. Find /(1/2, 3), /(I, -1),
__x
2,
~ -j
....
level
lines
of
the level lines
we
get a family
1782. Express the volume V of a

regular tetragonal pyramid as a function of its altitude x and lateral edge y.
1783. Express the lateral surface S
of a regular hexagonal truncated pyramid as a function of the sides x and y
of the bases and the altitude z.
Fig. 66
Find
1,
or y
is a sura constant
z)
on
lines (Fig. 66).
of level
1785
=C
if
x,
f(
f(y,x),
y),
if
f(*,y)
1786. Find the values assumed by the function
at points of the
parabola y
z
,
and construct the graph
function
1787. Find the value of the function

Z
2
at points of the circle x

1788*. Determine f(x),
1789*. Find f(x, y)
if
rrr
+y*=R
if
2
.
of the
Sec.
__
Basic Notions
1]
183
= V7+/(l/x 1). Determine the functions /

y= 1.
Letz = */(-V Determine the functions f and
1790*. Let *
z
if
=x
and
when
1791**.
if
when x=\.
1792. Find and sketch
lowing functions:
a)
b)
z==Y\ x
z=\-\-V
domains
the
of
definition of the fol-
(x
=
2 - x + arc cos
z-l/l-^ +
z = arc sin
X
2 = V 7IT
2 =
c) z
d)
//;
e)
f)
'
g)
h)
1793.
Find the domains
of
the following functions of three
arguments:
a)
u=-\x +
b) u
z\
= ln(xyz):
c)
w=--arc sin jc+arc sin #
d)
u = V\x
+ arc sinz;
z\
1794. Construct the level lines of the given functions and determine the character of the surfaces depicted by these functions:
a)
z^x + y;
b) 2
= ^+y
c) z
= x*-y*;
d) z
2
;
e)
O^
1795. Find the level lines of the

following functions:
a) z
b) 2
= ln(*'+f/);
= ar
d) z
= /(y
a*);
1796. Find the level surfaces of the functions

pendent variables:
x y-\-z;
a) u
*
'
'
b) u =
c) u = J
= +
of three inde-
_ _
[Ch. 6
Functions of Several Variables
184
Sec. 2. Continuity
1. The limit of a function.
= /(*, y)
there
e >
2
is
A number A
is
called the limit of a function
approaches the point P (o.

is a 6 >
such that when
< Q < 6, where Q = |/\x
the distance between P and P', we have the inequality
as
the
point
(x, y)
ft),
if
a)*
for
+ U/
any
6)
y)A\<e.
f(x, y) = A.
/(*,
In this case we write

lim
X-K2
y-*b
2. Continuity and
continuous at a point
points of discontinuity.
(a,
b)
function z=f(x, y)
is
called
if
lim f(x
x-+a
0)
= /(a,
b).
A function that is continuous at all points of a given range is called

continuous over this range
A function /(AT, y) may cease to be continuous either at separate points
(isolated point of discontinuity) or at points that form one or several lines
(lines of discontinuity) or (at times) more complex geometric objects.
Example 1. Find the discontinuities of the function
_*+>
Solution.
zero. But **
The function
-r/
function has for
its
or y
will be meaningless if the denominator becomes

2
x is the equation of a parabola. Hence, the given
discontinuity the parabola y
x2
1797*. Find the following limits of functions:

a)
c)li n
liin(*?^)sinl;
M;
e)lin-L;
1798. Test the following function for continuity:

ft x
/)
= / V\x*
I
if
when * 2 -r-// 2 <l,

when x* 4-//*> 1.
1799. Find points of discontinuity of the

a) z
ln;
c)
e-
functions:
Sec. 3]
Partial Derivatives
1800*.
Show
that the function
SL
when
when
-{
is
185
**
jt
=^=0,
</'
= =
continuous with respect to each of the variables x and y sepabut is not continuous at the point (0, 0) with
respect to
rately,
these variables together.

Sec. 3. Partial Derivatives
t. Definition of a partial derivative.

example, y constant, we get the derivative
If
f(x,y), then assuming, for
which
is called the partial derivative of the function z with

respect to the
variable x. In similar fashion we define and denote the partial derivative of
the function z with respect to the variable y It is obvious that to find partial
derivatives, one can use the ordinary formulas of differentiation.
Example 1. Find the partial derivatives of the function
we
Solution. Regarding y as constant,
dz
get
1
t
dx
tan
cos 2
dz
we
2.
Find the
2.
2*
partial derivatives of the following function of three
= *y z + 2*
3y
+ 2 + 5.
Euler's theorem. A function

if for every real factor k
degree n
2x'
arguments:
Solution.
I/sin
y
have
will
Example
Similarly, holding x constant,
f (x,
y) fs called a
we have
f (kx, ky) --=
ttf
homogeneous function of
the equality
(x,
//)
[Ch. 6
186
rational integral function will be
and the same degree.

The following relationship holds
of degree n (Euler's theorem):
xfx (x, y)
Find the
1801. z
homogeneous
for a
if
all
homogeneous
its
terms are of one
differentiable function
+ yfy (x, y) = nf (x, y).
partial derivatives of the following functions:

1808. 2
3axy.
1809. 2
1810. 2
1811. 2
1806.
1807. z
= arc tan
1814. Find /;(2,
and fy (2,
1)
1815. Find /;(!, 2, 0),
/i(l, 2, 0),
/(*, y,z)
Verify Euler's theorem

ples 1816 to 1819:
1816. f(x,y)
1817. z
if
1)
xy
f(x,y)
ft
(l, 2, 0)
+L
if
= ln(xy-\-z).
on homogeneous functions
= Ax + 2Bxy-Cy
3
in
Exam-
1818. /
=
J-
1820.
where
2
1821. Calculate
1822.
Show
that
1823.
Show
that
1824.
Show
that
1825.
Show
J826. Find
that
and y
57,
= 2,
if
x+
g+fj+S-0,
g+g+g-1,
-.(,.
y),
it
if
= ln(*'
=
u = (x-y)(y-z)(z- X
if
).
if
-*+J=J.
Sec. 4]
1827. Find z--^z(x y)
knowing that
(J2
X 2 -4-
= slny
J/
ând z(x, y)
187
when *=1.
Through the point M(l,2, 6) of a surface z = 2x*+y*

drawn planes parallel to the coordinate surfaces XOZ and
YOZ. Determine the angles formed with the coordinate axes by
the tangent lines (to the resulting cross-sections) drawn at their
common point M.
1829. The area of a trapezoid with bases a and b and alti1828.
are
tude h
is
equal
to
S=
/,(fl
+ &) A.
Find
g, g,
and,
using
the drawing, determine their geometrical meaning.

1830*. Show that the function
0,
has partial derivatives fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) at the point (0,0),

although it is discontinuous at this point. Construct the geometric image of this function near the point (0, 0).
Sec. 4. Total Differential of a Function
1. Total
= /(*i
y)
increment of
The
function.
total
increment
of
function
the difference
is
Az-Af (x,
+ Aj/)-f (*,
#)--=/(*+ Ax,
y).
a function. The total (or exact) differential of

a function z
f(x, y) is the principal part of the total increment Az, which
is linear with respect to the increments in the arguments Ax and A//.
The difference between the total increment and the total differential of
2. The
total differential of
is an infinitesimal of higher order compared with Q

At/*.
\^&x*
function definitely has a total differential if its partial derivatives are
continuous. If a function has a total differential, then it is called differenThe differentials of independent variables coincide with their incret table.
ments, that is, dx=kx and dy=ky. The total differential of the function
z
/(x, y) is computed by the 'formula
the function
dz
=^ dX +
d2=
dz
dy
d-y
Similarly, the total differential of a function of three arguments u

is computed from the formula
.
du
Example
1.
= du
-3- dx
.
dx
-j'
du
^- d y
dy
,
du
dz.
+ -rdz
.
For the function

f(x
find the total increment
and the
y)=x* + xyy
total
differential.
=/
(x, y, z)
[Ch. 6
J88
Solution.
f(x+Ax,
= 2x
+ Ay) = (x -f Ax)
Ax + AA
+x
= [(2x + y) A* + (x
-f (x
+ A*) (y
Ay + y Ax + Ax2 Ay
2y) A^l
-f-
Ay)
2y Ay
+ (A* + AA> Ay
(y -f
Ay
Ay)
2
;
Ay
(2x + y) A* -{-(*
2y) Ay is the total differential of
Here, the expression d/ =
2
2
infinitesimal of higher order
is an
the function, while (A* -f AJC*
)
comared with VAx 2 +Ay 2
compared
Example 2. Find the total differential of the function
AyAy
Solution.
3. Applying
For
sufficiently
Q= y Av 2 -f
Ay
2
,
the total differential of a function to approximate calculations.

small |AA:| and |Ay| and, hence, for sufficiently small
we have for a differentiate function z f(x t y) the approxor
Az^dz
imate equality
dz
3.
Example
The
Solution,
we
altitude of a cone is //
30cm, the radius of the base
the volume of the cone change, if we increase
by
= 10cm. How will

3mm and diminish R
fl
by
The volume
mm?
of the
cone
is
V = -~-nR 2 H. The change

o
in
volume
replace approximately by the differential
AV =^ dV =
-j
n (2RH dR + R* dH) =
= lji(
2.10.30.0.1
+ 100.0.3) =
s 01
Example 4. Compute 1.02
approximately.
Solution. We consider the function z^x^.
considered the increased value of this function
Ay 0.01. The initial value of the function z
lOjiss
31. 4 cm*.
In x
8
Hence, 1.02
01
The desired number may be

when jc=l, y = 3, Ajc = 0.02,
s
l =l,
Ay = 3-1.0.02+
1- In 1-0.01
=0.06.
^ 1+0.06=1.06.
=
1831. For the function
f(x,y)
x*y find the total increment
total differential at the point (1, 2); compare them if
0.1 f Ay
0.2.
a) Ax=l, A//-2;
b) A*
1832. Show that for the functions u and v of several (for
and the
example, two) variables the ordinary rules of differentiation holcb

v
du
udv
Sec. 4}
Find the
total
differentials of the following functions:
1841.
z- In tan i.
x
1842. Find df(l,

1836. z
1837.
= si
= ln(x*+y*).
= lnl+i.
/*,
1838. z
1844.
1839.
1845.
= arc tan
if
~*'
=
u =
u=
1846. w
-2-+
arctan^.
1847. Find d/
+ arctan-*.
1848.
tj)
1),
1843 - "
2=yx?.
1840. 2
189
(3, 4, 5)
if
One
side of a rectangle is a
10 cm, the other &
24cm.
a diagonal / of the rectangle change if the side a is
increased by 4
and b is shortened by 1
How
will
mm
mm?
the change and compare it with the exact value.

A closed box with outer dimensions
1849.
and 6 cm is made of 2-mm-thick plywood.
Approximate
10 cm, 8 cm,
Approximate the
volume
of material used in making the box.

1850*. The central angle of a circular sector is 80; it is desired
to reduce it by 1. By how much should the radius of the sector
be increased so that the area will remain unchanged, if the
original leng:h of the radius is 20 cm?
1851. Approximate:
2
a)
(1.02)'-
c)
sin32-cos59
calculating
(0.97)
sin 60
b)
(when converting degrees into radius and

three significant figures; round off the
take
last digit).
Show
that the relative error of a product is approximasum of the relative errors of the factors.
1853. Measurements of a triangle
yielded the following
data:
side
a=-100m2m. side
fc
angle
1852.
tely equal to the
ABC
601.
To what
degree
side c?
1854. The oscillation
from the formula
of
period
= 200m3m,
accuracy can
of
we compute the
pendulum
is
computed
190
_ _
[Ch. 6
where
is
the length of the
of gravity. Find the error,

a
result of small errors A/
1855.
pendulum and g is the acceleration

when determining T, obtained as a
= and Ag = (J in measuring / and

and P (x,
The distance between the points P (*
,
g.
equal to Q, while the angle formed by the vector P P

the x-axis is a. By how much will the angle a change
dx, y
dy)?
point P(P is fixed) moves to P l (x
y)
with
is
if
the
Sec. 5. Differentiation of Composite Functions
1. The case of one independent variable* If z

f(x, y) is a differentiate
function of the arguments x and y, which in turn are differentiate functions
of an independent variable /,
then the derivative of the composite function z

puted from the formula
dz
____i
dt
'"dxdt^dydt
= /[<p(0i
^(01 ma X
be com-
'
In particular, if / coincides with one of the arguments, for instance

then the "total" derivative of the function z with respect to x will be:
x,
dzdy
Example
1.
Find
~,
if
where * = cos/, y
y,
Solution.
e'*+
From formula
^3(-sinO +
Example
2.
* 8X+
(1)
^-2^
Find the partial derivative

z
Solution.
t*.
we have:
= e*y
and the
total derivative
if
where y
jZ^syety.
From formula
(2)
we obtain
2. The case
of several independent variables. If z is a

composite function of
variables, for instance, z
where *=q> (u v)
f(x,y),
y=ty(u t v) (u and v are independent variables), then the partial derivatives z
with respect to u and v are expressed as
several
independent
dz dy
~
Sec. 5]
and
Differentiation of Composite Functions
~~-~
dzdy
dz__dzdx
191
In all the cases considered the following formula holds:

.
dz
dz
-j-
dx
dx
dz
+ dy
5- dy
y
(the invariance property of a total differential).
Example
p
Find ^- and ^du

dv
3.
z=:f(x,
if
x=uv, y=
where
y),
Solution. Applying formulas (3) and
we
(4),
get:
and
Example
Show
4.
that the
function
Solution.
ment
x*
The function
+ y*=t,
<p
(x*
+y
satisfies
the
equation
dx
dy
depends on x and y via the intermediate
cp
argu-
therefore,
dz__dzdt___
and
dzdt
\z
rt
Substituting the partial derivatives into the left-hand side of

tion,
we
get
t/
that
is,
*~^
i)2
the function z satisfies the given equation.
1856. Find
if
where x = e t
1857. Find
y = \nt.
if
= lnsin-=,
f
1858. Find
where x = 3t\ y = yt'+l.
if
j
= xyz,
where
^=/ +l, y=ln^,

I
the
equa-
192
_ _
1859. Find
if
where x =
r,
I860. Find
if
1861. Find
= uv
1862. Find
where u =
and
2
= arc
~
and
~ and
j
z = f(u, v),
~
ow
and
= arc tan
1865. Find
1866.
Show
= #*.
<f>(x).
if
where a = A:
where x = usmv,
where
= x^/ + ^.
where x =
3*),
cp
sin
ip,
=R
then
1868.
where
Show
=a
if
cos
and
*_a.
if
= /(*.
//
if
1867. Find
vê
1
t/
if
= /(u),
that
*/
where y =
oy
,
and
and
tan
if
1863. Find
1864. Find
= cos #,
sin x, v
if
= xy
[Ch.
y> *).
that
where
y=
if
/ is a differentiable function,
dz
dz
then
cos
9 cos \|>>
sin 9,
Sec. 6]
1869.
Show
that the function
w = f(u,
where u = x + at, v
= y + bt
dw
dT= a
Show
satisfies the
1871.
,
,
dw
dt
that the function
=J
equation
Show
v),
satisfy the equation
dw
1870.
19S
Derivative in a Given Direction
that the function
equation x-^ + y -^ = j
1872. Show that the function
satisfies the
satisfies the
(A-
The side
^-
+ xy-^ =
increases at the rate

of a rectangle x -^20
the other side f/
30
decreases at 4 m/sec. What
the rate of change of the perimeter and the area of the rect-
1873.
of 5 m/sec,
is
equation
angle?
1874.
What
is
The equations
of
motion
of a material
point are
the rate of recession of this point from the
coordinate
origin?
1875.
Two boats start out from A at one time; one moves

northwards, the other in a northeasterly direction. Their velocities are respectively 20 km/hr and 40 km/hr. At what rate does
the distance between them increase?
Sec. 6.
Derivative in a
Given
Direction
1. The derivative of a function

function z
7- 1900
= /(#,
and
the Gradient
in a given direction.
y) in a given direction /
= PP,
is
of
a Function
The derivative
of a
where f(P) and

If
the function z
where a
(Ch. 6
194
is
are values of the function at the points P and

differentiate, then the following formula holds:
/ (P,)
is
the angle formed by the vector
with the x-axis (Fig. 67).
Y
e^
P(*,y)
Fig. 67
In similar fashion we define the derivative in a given

function of three arguments u
f(x, y z). In this case
du
du
= du cos a + du
5- cos p + 3- cos v,
dz
dx
dy
,
/ for a
'
dl
direction
(2)
where a, P, Y are ^ ne angles between the direction / and the corresponding

coordinate axes. The directional derivative characterises the rate of change
of the function in the given direction.
2
2
at the point
3</
Example 1. Find the derivative of the function z 2x
a
a
direction
that
120
with
makes
the
in
x-axis.
angle
P(l, 0)
Solution. Find the partial derivatives of the given function and their
values at the point P:
dz
-.
dx
= 4*;
.
(dz\ =4;
A
3\dxjp
dz
Here,
sina
Applying formula
(1),
we
= sin
120
get
The minus
sign indicates that the function diminishes at the given point and
in the given direction.
2. The gradient of a function. The gradient of a function z f(x, ij) is
3 vector whose projections on the coordinate axes are the corresponding par-
Derivative in a Given Direction
Sec. 6]
tial
195
derivatives of the given function:
dz
dz
(3)
The derivative
of the given function in the direction /

the gradient of the function by the following formula:
is
connected
with
~
That is, the derivative in a given direction is equal to the projection of the
gradient of the function on the direction of differentiation.
The gradient of a function at each point is directed along the normal to
the corresponding level line of the function. The direction of the gradient of
the function at a given point is the direction of the maximum rate of increase
of the function at this point, thlft
on
its
is,
when /=grad
z the derivative
-^
takes
greatest value, equal to
In similar fashion
u -=/(*, y, z):
we
define the gradient
du
.
,
du
of
function
.
,
du
of
three
variables,
The gradient of a function of three variables at each point is directed along

the normal to the level surface passing through this point.
Example 2. Find and construct the gradient of the function z~x*y at
the point P(I, 1).
X2
Fig. 68
Solution.
Compute
the partial derivatives and their values at the point P.
dxjpdz
^T"
Hence, grad
7*
= 2t+J
(Fig. 68).
s
\y'*
.
9.2
_ _
196
1876. Find
the
x*
derivative of the function z
xy2y*
the direction that produces an angle
at the point P(l, 2) in

of 60 with the x-axis.
= x*
1877. Find the derivative of the function z

at the point Af(l, 2) in the direction from
point
tf (4,
[Ch. 6
6).
1
xy*
2x*y
point to the
this
1878. Find the derivative of the function z

lnYx* y*
the point P(l, 1) in the direction of the bisector of the
at
first
quadrantal angle.
1879. Find the derivative of the function u = x*

3yz + 5 at
in the direction that forms identical
the point Af(l, 2,
1)
angles with all the coordinate axes.
1880. Find the derivative of the function u = xy + yz -)- zx at
the point M(2, 1, 3) in the direction from this point to the

point N(S, 5, 15).
eP + e*)
\n (e*
1881. Find the derivative of the function u
at the origin in the direction which forms with the coordinate
axes x, y, z the angles a, p, y, respectively.
1882. The point at which the derivative of a function in any
direction is zero is called the stationary point of this function.
Find the stationary points of the following functions:
a)
z-=x*
= x* + y*=
u
2y*-{ z*xyyz
b) z
c)
1883.
Show
that the derivative of the function z
+ =
any point of the ellipse 2x* y* C* along the

ellipse is equal to zero.
1884. Find grad z at the point (2, 1) if
at
1885. Find grad z at the point
(5,
3)
if
1886. Find grad u at the point

1887. Find the magnitude and
(1,
2,
3),
point
(2,
2,
1)
direction
taken
normal
to the
u=xyz.
if
of
grad
at the
if
1888. Find the angle between the
*=ln-j-
at the points
(1/2,
1/4)
gradients
and 5(1,
1).
of
the
function
Sec. 7]
Higher-Order Derivatives and Differentials
1889. Find the steepest slope of the surface
197
x'
z
4y*
at the point (2, 1, 8).
1890. Construct a vector field of the gradient of the following
functions:
= je-f y:
a) z
= x* + y
c) z
z
\
Sec. 7. Higher-Order Derivatives and Differentials
1. Higher-order partial derivatives. The second partial derivatives of a

function z
/(*, y) are the partial derivatives of its first partial derivatives.
For second derivatives we use the notations
32z
d (dz\
Derivatives of order higher than second are similarly defined and denoted.
If the partial derivatives to be evaluated are continuous, then the result
of repeated differentiation is independent of the order in which the differentiation is performed.
Example 1. Find the second partial derivatives of the function
z~ arc tan
y
Solution. First lind the
dz
first
==
partial
_J_
dz^
dy~~
Now
derivatives:
j__
1_
J
,
differentiate a second time:
^L = d
.
dz z
\-
2 *y
dxdy
We
note that the so-called

so-
different
"mixed" partial
derivative
may
be
found in a
el
way, namely:
d /
dxdy~~dydx
dx(
y*
198
f(x
We
= d(d*z)
d*z
and, generally,
z
function
function:
similarly define the differentials of a function z of order higher than
two, for instance:
If
[Ch. 6
Higher-order differentials. The second differential of a

of this
y) is the differential of the differential (first-order)
2.
z
= /(x,
differential of
dz = d(d n -
z).
y), where x and y are independent variables, then the second

the function z is computed from the formula
(1)
Generally, the following symbolic formula holds true:
formally expanded by the binomial law.

z
f (x, (/), where the arguments x and y are functions of one or
eral independent variables, then
it
is
If
"- *
If
x and
i/
sev-
+2
are independent variables, then d 2 jt
becomes identical with formula (!)

Example 2. Find the total differentials
= 0,
d 2 y = Q, and
of the first
formula
and second orders
(2)
of
the function
z
Solution. First method.
We
2;t
3xyy
2
.
have
*-<*-*
I*-*.
Therefore,
dz
=
fr
Further we have
~
^-4
djc
whence
it
'
J*!L-_ 3
^l
'
djcd^""
dy*
follows that
Second method. Differentiating we find
Differentiating again and remembering that dx and dy are not

y, we get
x and
= (4dx
3dj/)
dx
(3d*
dependent on
+ 2d(/) dy =4dx*6dx dy2dy
z
.
Sec. 7]
if
Find
if
1894. Find
if
1893
= arc tan
A
Find
1895.
xy
if
1896. Find all second partial derivatives of the function
Find
1897.
^~-
dxdy dz
if
u
1898. Find
if
1899. Find
f(0,
0),
= sin (xy).
= (l
1900.
Show
/^(O, 0)
f xt/ (Q, 0),
that
if
= arc sin
1901.
1902*.
Show
Show
that
if
that for the function
if
199
_ _
[Ch. 6
200
= 0]
[provided that f(0, 0)
we have
rxy(' 0)=-1,
1903
&$"=
Find
where
y(x,
1906.
if
= f(x,
= f(u,
v),
Show
a)*
= arc tan
+ (y
= lny
satisfies the
b)\
(x,
t)
=A
sin (akt
2
dû_
~~~ a dû
2
Show
dx
sin
Kx
u(x
//
'
that the function

(x-x
cp)
equation of oscillations of a string

dt*
(where *
conduction
Laplace equation
that the function
1909.
y),
that the function
Show
satisfies the
= <((x,
Laplace equation
= Y(x
1908.
z),
that the function
where
y,
where u
1907.
f(u, v),
y).
Show
satisfies the
0)=+1.
= xy.
where u = x* + y*, v
1904. Find
/;,(0,
'
>
>
'>-
)*
+ (y-y n )*
a are constants)
satisfies
â'/^-uÛ*^
the equation of heat
Sec. 7]
Show
1910.
that the function
201
are arbitrary twice differentiable functions, satiscp and \|)

the equation of oscillations of a string
where
fies
Show
1911.
satisfies
that the function
the equation
x
1912.
Show
satisfies the
1913.
+ 2wy dxdy + Jy
,
5-,2
dv
r-
x-,
dy*
= n0.
that the function
equation
Show
-7
'
d su
that the function z
= f[x + y(y)]
satisfies the
equa-
= u(x,
which
tion
d22
dz
dx dx dy
1914.
Find u-û(x, y)
dzd 2z
2
dy dx
'
if
dTSy^^
1915.
the form of the function u
Determine
satisfies the
equation
1916. Find d*z
if
1917. Find d u
if
11
1918. Find d*z
if
- rn
\l^
1919.
(f}
\^/F
Find dz and d*z

z
=u
whpr^
vviitivx
/
t>
-r
y2
j\r
-1- /y* .
|
if
where u
=~
= xy.
y),
_ _
202
1920. Find d'z
= ax,
where u
v),
= by^
= ye*.
if
= f(u,
1922. Find d*z
if
z~f(u,
1921. Find d*z
[C/i.
where u = xey
v),
if
= e x cos y.
1923. Find the third differential of the function
= * cos y + y sin x.
Determine all third partial derivatives.

1924. Find df(l 2) and d*f(l, 2) if
9
= x + xy + y*
2
f(x, y)
4\nx
\Q\ny.
1925. Find d /(0, 0,0)
f(x
Sec. 8.
y,
=x
z)
if
t. The condition for a total differential. For an expression P (x, y)dx-}~

Q(* y)dy> where the functions P (x, y) and Q (x, y) are continuous in a
simply connected region

(in D) the total
ficient that
together with their first partial derivatives, to be

some function u (x, y), it is necessary and suf-
differential ol
aqâp
~~
dx
Example
is
a total
t.
Make
sure that the expression
differential of
some function, and
Solution. In the given case,
1,
'
dy
find that function.
P = 2x + y Q
t
x+2y.
Therefore,
,5 = --
and, hence,
where u
It
is
is
the desired function.
given
that
-=
But on the other hand

and
Finally
we have
2jt
+ #;
therefore,
= x + y' (y) = x + 2y, whence
q>' (y)
= 2y,
(p(f/)
Sec.
ti\
2. The
203
case of three variables. Similarly, the expression
P(x,
where P
z)dx
y,
+ Q(x,
z)dy
y,
+ R(x
z)dz,
y,
R(x, y, z) are, together with their first partial

functions of the variables x, y and 2, is the total
differential of some function u (x y, z) if and only if the following conditions
(x, y, z),
Q(x,
y, z),
continuous
derivatives,
are fulfilled:
dQ^W dR^dQ dP^dR

'
dx
Example
2.
Be sure
'
dy
dy
dz
dx
dz
that the expression
the total differential of some function, and find that function.

f
2
3jc
Solution. Here, p
1,
3x, R
2yz+\. We establish
30
the fact thai
is
dQ
dx
Q=z +
= dP = O
dy
dR = dQ
-r
dz
dy
dP
c.
rr
= OR =
r
V.
dx
dz
and, hence,
~
where u
We
is
the sought-for function.
have
hence,
u=
On
(3x
+ 3y
\)dx
= x* + 3xy
+ <p(y,
z).
the other hand,
du
-
~
= dtp
dz
whence
y^
=z
and ~P
dz
= 2f/z+l.
two variables q>(#, 2)

tion for total differential
find q>:
of
whose
is
The problem reduces

partial derivatives are
fulfilled.
We
that
is,
y(y,
= ^2 + 2 + C,
2
e)
And
finally,
to finding the function
known and
the condi-
_ _
204
Having convinced
are
total
differentials
[C/i.
yourself that the expressions given below

of certain functions, find these functions.
1926.
ydx + xdy.
1927.
(cosx+3x*y)dx + (x'y
1928-
1930.
1931.
-dx^dy.
y
x
dx +
*
dy.
1932. Determine the constants a and 6 in such a

the expression
2
z
2
(ax + 2xy + y ) dx-(x + 2xy + by*) dy
should
be
total
differential of
some function
z,
manner
and
find
that
that
function.
Convince yourself that the expressions given below are

some functions and find these functions.
total
differentials of
1933.
2
+ 3z)dx+(4xy + 2y
+ 8xy* + 2) dx +
z)dy
+ (3x
l)dy
(x
1934. (3x
2y*
1935. (2xyz3y*z
2)dz.
xdx + ydy + zdz

1938*. Given the projections of a force on the coordinate axes
v _.
v_
to
where A, is a constant. What must the coefficient K be for the force

to have a potential?
1939. What condition must the function f(x, y) satisfy for the
expression
f(x,
y)(dx
+ dy)
to be a total differential?
1940. Find the function u
if
du = f(xy) (ydx + xdy).
Sec. 9]
Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Sec. 9. Differentiation of Implicit Functions
205
1. The case of one independent variable.
If the equation f(x, y)

0, where
differentiate function of the variables x and y, defines y as a
function of x, then the derivative of this implicitly defined function, provided
that
is
y)
(*
y) ?= 0,
f' (x,
y
may
be found from the formula
dy
dx
f'
x
(**y)
f'y(x,y)'
found
are
derivatives
Higher-order
by successive differentiation
formula
of
a)
Example
1.
Find
dx
-~
and
Solution. Denoting the
if
dx 2
left-hand
side
of this
equation by
f (x, y),
we
find
the partial derivatives
f'u
(x
y)-=3(x
Whence, applying formula
+y
(1),
z 2
2y
we
get
find the second derivative, differentiate with respect to x the first derivative \vhich we have found, taking into consideration the fact that y is a functiun of x'
To
x -~
dx
y
J
dx
(x,
dx\
y J
y
J
y J
'
if
2. The case of several independent variables. Similarly,

0, where F (x, y, z) is a differentiate function
y, z)
x,
y and
z,
Fz
(x
y,
z)
if
of
the equation
the variables
defines z as a function of the independent variables x and y and

then the partial derivatives of this implicitly represented
0,
function can, generally speaking, be found from the formulas
t
'
dK
F'z
(x,
dlJ
y, z)
F'g
(x, y,
z)
another way of finding the derivatives of the function

ating the equation F (x, y, z)=0, we find
Here
is
dF
Whence
it
is
_,
dF
dF
rt
possible to determine dz, and, therefore,

dz
TT-
dx
dz
and 3dy
z:
different^
_ _
Example
we
[Ch. 6
206
Find
2.
and
-T-
if
j-
Solution. First method. Denoting the left side of this equation

find the partial derivatives
F'x
(x, y,
z)
= 2x,
Applying formulas
dz
d*~
F'x(x>
F'z (x
(2),
y. *)
F'
y (x, y, z)
we
40-z+l, F z
(x,
y,
2)
^
~"
2)
(x,
//,
z),
= 6z-0.
get
2x
~~
y,
by
Jy(*.
dz^
dy~
'
6*
z)
(x>
!/,
4//
62
z)
Second method. Differentiating the given equation, we obtain

2x dx
4f/
Whence we determine dz
dy
+ 6zdz
that
is,
zdy + dy = 0.
y dz
the total differential of the implicit func-
tion:
\
z}dy
4//
~ dy we
Comparing with the formula dz = -Q- dx -\,
2x
dz
3. A system
6z
dy
F(x,
G(x,
and v as functions
y,
62
system of two equations
of implicit functions. If a
\
defines u
\4yz
dz
'
dx
see that
i>)
y, u,
o)
= 0,
=
of the variables
x and y and the Jacobian
dF_ dF_
D(F, G)
D(u, v)'
dudv
dGdG
du dv
then the differentials of these functions (and hence their partial derivatives
as well) may be found from the following set of equations
.
dF
dF
dF
dx ^
dv =0,
^+ -z- dyy + -^~ du ^
+ ^dx
dv
'dF
,,
dy
Example
3.
3dx
-r~
dy
^du
dG
-^--3y
dv
du
*
/Q
'
The equations
define u and v as functions of x and ^

w; find
and
-,,dx
dx
dy
dy
rr?
Sec. 9]
Solution.
First
207
method. Differentiating both equations with respect to #
we obtain
du
dv
whence
__
?ff
dx~~
Similarly
we
u ~^~y
x
y
dv __ u-\-x
dx~~ x y
'
'
find
dy~~
du
+y
dy~~~ x
we
Second method. By differentiation

differentials of all four variables:
x du
dv
'
two equations that connect the
find
du 4- dv = dx + dy,
+ u dx + y dv + v dy =4).
Solving this system for the differentials du and dv,
we obtain
xy
Whence
_
dx
'
(}y__-f-x
dx~~xy
t)f/
dv
v -}-x
'
'
dy~~x
4. Parametric
bles x and y
is
representation of a function. If a function

represented parametrically by the equations
z
= z(u,
of the
varia-
v)
and
then the differential

equations
be found from the following system
may
of this function
of
dx
dx
Knowing
dz
^~=pr and 3-
dz
dx
the differential
dy
~^.
^
dz^p
du
dx
dv
dz
dz
xdu
dv
5~du-\--5- dv,
d*
+ qdy,
dv.
we
find the partial derivatives
_ _
208
[Ch. 6
Example
The function
4.
arguments x and y
of the
is
defined by the
equations
_.
dz
dz
Find ^- and 3ox
dy
we
Solution. First method. By differentiation

connect the differentials of all five variables:
dx
From
the
first
= du + dv
find three equations that
two equations we determine du and dv:

20 dx
"^
dy
2u dx
dy
'
'
2(v
2(u
u)
w)
Substituting into the third equation the values of du and

have:
d
dy
rfy
just found,
we
= 6wu (u
'
Whence
3-
3au,
3-
^jc
dt/
=TT
2
(w-fy).
v
;
Second method. From the third given equation we can find
+ 3^;
*=3Jf
dx
^
dx
Differentiate the
respect to y:
two equations
first
the
first
system we
dy
we
da
dv
a'
dy
u
v
find
= _l__
dy~~2(u
Substituting the expressions
__
dx~ u
dv_
v)'
and
^
(5)
'
with respect to x and then with
dy
dx~~ v
the second system
first
dy
find
du___
From
= 3'Jf + 3t,'f!.
dx
From
f
dy
dy~~2(vu)'
into formula (5),
we obtain
Sec. 9]
209
1941. Let y be a [unction of x defined by the equation

y*
Find
ma
*
dy
dhj
di' d?
1942. y
Show
that
and
ana
is
dx"'
a function defined
^=
1943. Find
and explain the
%
^
1944. Find
by the equation
if
y=\+y x
and
if
result obtained.
A;
and
(g)
(g)
\ax J K~\
\ax jx=i
1945. Find
if
Taking advantage of the results obtained, show approximately

the portions of the given curve in the neighbourhood of the point
*=1.
1946.
The function y
In
dx
1947.
and
Find
dx
c,.
j
Flnd
5i
and
and
-1-
2//
variables x and y
and
^
dy
3;q/z
2r/
is
defined by
+ 3 = 0.
%-
~
dx
A:
Find
if
dx z
^2
1949. Find
1950.
arc tan
function z of the
x
,
|?T7 =
dx*
1948. The
the equation
^2
defined by the equation
is
cosy
The function
and
for the
-j-
if
-|-
y cos 2
+zcosx= 1.
defined by the equation
is
x*
+y
system
of
xy
= 0.
values *==
1,
//
= 0,
= l.
__
210
dz
1QR1
1951. KinA
Fmd,
1952. /(*, y,z)

1953.
equation
l>
= 0.
= (p(x, y),
= 0.
ty(x,
2
f/)
d* 2
&*
dz
1955. 2
is
if
if
where y
Find ~.
is
function of x
defined by the
if
a function of the variables x and # defined
equation
2x*
[Ch. 6
Show
2
Find dz and d z,
1954.
d*Z
,
__
+ 2y*
-4-
8xz
z*
+8-
by the
Find dz and d z for the values x = 2, f/^=0, 2^=1.

2
1. What are the
1956. Find dz and d 2, if In z=jc + i/ 4-2
first- and second-order derivatives of the function 2?
1957. Let the function 2 be defined by the equation
2
where
1958.
an arbitrary differentiate
is
 (z)
f(y y)
,
Show
&, c are
Q,
an arbitrary differentiate function of two arguments,

equation
a-+b - =
1959.
a,
that the function 2 defined by the equation
F(x
where F
and
function
that
o|>
= 0.
that
(2)
Show
the
that
function
satisfies the
xfx +y~ = z.
2
defined
the
by
equation
equation
d*zf(
1961. The functions y and 2 of the independent variable x are

2
2
2
2
2
2
defined by a system of equations *
2 ^0, x
32
4.
2#
+#
_ _
Sec. 10]
Change
2H
of Variables
1962. The functions y and z of the independent variable x are

defined by the following system of equations:
Find dy,
dz, d*y, d*z.

1963. The functions u and v of the independent variables x and y
are defined implicitly by the system of equations
Calculate
du
du
d2u
d*u
dzu
2
~dy
for x=--Q,
'
dv
dv
dx' d~y
62 v
'
dz v
d*v
~d\*'
dxdy
dy*
1.
1964. The functions u and v of the independent variables

and y are defined implicitly by the system of equations
Find du, dv, d*u,
d*v.
The functions u and
v of the variables x and

defined implicitly by the system of equations
1965.
.v
= (p(w,
v),
y are
//=-i|)(w, v).
(b
du
du du
51' cty' d~x> fy'
^ and g? x = M cos u, y w sin u, 2 =

x = u + v, y = u
and ~
v,z = uv.
b) Find
=
c) Find dz,
where r and
are functions of the variables
1967. e = F(r,
1966. a)
Find
if
if
\l
jc
cp)
<p
x and y defined by the system of equations
Find
ax
and
dy
1968. Regarding z as a function of x
x = a cos
Sec.
q)
cos
i|),
and
y, find
y = b sincpcosij), z
and ~,
if
10. Change of Variables
When
changing
variables in differential
them should be expressed
in
expressions,
the derivatives in
terms of other derivatives by the rules of
entiation of a composite function.
differ-
[Ch. 6
212
\. Change of variables in expressions containing ordinary

Example 1. Transform the equation
x2 y
dx
putting
derivatives.
y-
Solution. Express the derivatives of y with respect to x in terms of the

derivatives of y with respect to /. We have
dx
dy
dy
dt
dt
dx
dt
dt
'
t*
dt
Substituting
the
expressions
equation and replacing x by
the
of
-r-
we
derivatives
found
just
the given
into
get
or
dt*
Example
2.
ruij -"'
Transform the equation

x
g + ^y_g =0
taking y for the argument and x for the function.

Solution. Express the derivatives of y with respect to x in
derivatives of x with respect to y.
terms of the
dx^Jx''
dy
"~
'
dx*
dx{ dx
\
dyl dx \dx~~
\ dy J
fdx\
(Ty)
dx
'
fdx\*
(dy)
dy
Substituting these expressions of the derivatives into the given equation,

will
have
d*x
dj
1
'
dy
\dy
L=o
dx
dy
'
we
Sec.
or,
10]
_ _
213
of Variables
Change
finally,
Example
3.
~xy'
dx
by passing to the polar coordinates

,v=rcoscp,
Solution. Considering
dx = cos
cp
f/
= rsinq>.
as a function of
dr
cp,
d// = sin
r sin cp dcp,
(1)
from formula
dr
cp
+ r cos
cp
(1)
we have
dcp,
whence
dr
.
d//_sm cp dr -f
cos cp
3J
T dr
cos
dcp __
~~
cp
sin cp
r
r sin cp
T d(pr
cos
cp
3- -f
r cos cp
^
_rcos
d<P
-- r sin
dr
coscp
or,
--
dr
cp
Putting into the given equation the expressions for

sin
cos (p
Y
dcp
cpH-
rcoscp
r sin q)
x,
rsm
//,
and
-^
we
will
have
cp
rsincp*
cp
after simplifications,
Change of variables in expressions containing

Example 4. Take the equation of oscillations of
and change
it
new independent
to the
partial derivatives.
a string
variables a and p, where
a = .v
at,
Solution. Let us express the partial derivatives of u with respect to x and t

terms of the partial derivatives of u with respect to a and p. Applying
the formulas for differentiating a composite function
in
du___du
du__du da
du dp
da,
di^dadT^d^dT
du dp
^dadx^dfidi
we get
du
du
^T-=^(
da
d/
^'^
du__du
a)
du
+
,
du
-35"
dp
a (du
is
\dp
^'
_^_,^f
du\
3~
day
_ _
214
..
[C/i.
same formulas:
Differentiate again using the
dt~~dadt
dt 2 ~~dt
d2u
d 2 u\,
2
(d u
d*u
dz u
dx*~dx\dx)
da\dx
_d
d'u
d*u
/)ft 8
'
rtn
'
'
/)ft
/}R2
we
Substituting into the îven equation,

2
/d a
d2 u
-=
for
5.
2
Transform the equation x 2
^- + y
the
new independent
*
d*u\
= 0.
Example
d2 u
Jd u
d u\
d u
have
will
2
=z
taking
and
variables,
-g-
for
z
,v,
the
new
function.
and
Solution. Let us express the partial derivatives
ypartial
derivatives
^~
and
To do
On
dx
v
dy
oy_
-^^,
dx
dz
^
the other hand,
dw
dw =
:;
du
du
dw
~\
dv
dv
Therefore,
dw
-3-
du
du
dw
dx
dv =
+ -5dv
x
,
dz
=
2
or
dw
i^ w_f^x__m dy\^,^x
&*_
Whence
dw
dw\
and, consequently,
dz^_
dx~~
dw ~~ 1 dw \
J
z
x*dv J
~~du
\x
terms of the
differentiate the given relation-
this,
ships between the old and new variables:
~ in
dw
Sec.
Change
10]
215
of Variables
and
dz __
z^
dw
2
dy~~y dv
'
Substituting these expressions into the given equation,
we
get
or
1969.
x j--
putting x=--e*.
1970. Transform the equation
putting
A:
cos/.
rm
1971
69
Transform the following equations, taking y as the ar-
gument:
The tangent of the angle [A formed by the tangent line

and the radius vector OM of the point of tangency (Fig. 69)
1972.
MT
is
expressed as follows:
tan u=^
216
_ _
Transform
this
by
expression
to
passing
1973. Express, in the polar coordinates x

the formula of the curvature of the curve
1974.
[C/i.
polar
= r cos
coordinates:
q>,
y=
r sin
cp,
Transform the following equation to new independent
variables u and v:
dz
dz
if
u = x
v =x +y
2
*-*3&
'
2
.
1975. Transform
variables u and v:
the
following
dz
if
=n
equation
new independent
dz
to
= x, 0=-p
11
1976. Transform the Laplace equation

<Fu
dM_
n
~-"
dx*~*'dy
to the polar coordinates

A:
= rcoscp,
= rsm<p.
^2_ y ^__
~ U>
dx*
2
ar/
u=*xy and
putting

dz
dz
yTx- K jy=(y-^ z
>
by introducing new independent variables
and the new function w=\nz

(x + y).
dx*
taking u
>=
= x + y,
for the
new
=^
for
function.
the
new independent
variables
and
Sec. 11]
The Tangent Plane and the Normal
to
a Surface
217
putting u
= x+y,
=x
w = xyz,
y,
where
w=w(u,
v).
11. The Tangent Plane and the Normal to a Surface
Sec.
1. The equations of a tangent plane and a normal for the case of explicrepresentation of a surface. The tangent plane to a surface at a point
to
(point of tangency) is a plane in which lie all the tangents at the point
various curves drawn on the surface through this point.
The normal to the surface is the perpendicular to the tangent plane at the
point of tangency
If the equation of a surface, in a rectangular coordinate system, is given
in explicit form, z
function, then
f (x, y), where f (x, y) is a differentiate
z ) of the surface is
the equation of the tangent plane at the point
(x
f/
it
z-*o=/i(*
z
0o)(X-*o)
+ /i(*o,
)0
-0o).
and X, K, Z are the current coordinates
Here,
t/ )
f (x
the tangent plane.
The equations of the normal are of the form
where
F,
.Y,
Example
the surface z
1.
(i)
of
the point of
are the current coordinates of the point of the normal.

Write the equations of the tangent plane and the normal
at the point
M (2,
the
of
=v
'
dx
to
1,1).
Solution. Let us lind the partial derivatives

their values at the point
<k
(fo\
'
given
function and
=2
\dxjM
*~
Whence, applying formulas
or 2x-|-2f/
10
= ^-i- =
-, which
2. Equations
it
representation
implicitly,
and F
(X Q
which
t/
is
(1)
is
and
(2),
we
will
the equation
have
of the
=2(*
2)
+2
tangent plane and
(r/-|- 1)
==
the equation of the normal.
of the tangent plane and the normal for the case of implicof a surface. When the equation of a surface is represented
= 0,
the corresponding equations will have the form
_ _
218
which
[Ch. 6
the equation of the tangent plane, and
is
XXQ
F'X
(**,
Yy
_
*
ZZQ
Z 0)
F'z (*0. J/0.
(*0> 00. *0)
Fy
which are the equations of the normal.

the equations of
Example 2. Write
s
8
the tangent plane and the normal to

a.
z
a at a point for which x
the surface 3;q/z
0, z/
Solution. Find the z-coordinate of the point of tangency, putting x
0,
a 8 whence z
a. Thus, the
z*
a into the equation of the surface:
.j/
point of tangency
is
Denoting by
M (0,
and
Applying formulas
(3)
+ a=:0,
a).
the left-hand side of the

their values at the point Af:
which
and
we
(4),
~r~
'
wn
equation,
~2 5
the
Qj/
cn are
e q ua îons of
^ ne
/?sina,
of
paraboloid
the normal.
and
revolution
= x*+y
the
the equaindicated
at
the
point
cone
b) to the
c) to
the
points:
a) to
'
find
get
1981. Write the equation of the tangent plane

tions of the normal to the following surfaces at
0-
we
the equation of the tangent plane,
is
or
(x, y, z)
partial derivatives
or ^-(-z
a,
the
= at the
x*+y* + z = 2Rz
^ + -^
y-
sphere
point
at
the
(4, 3, 4);
point
(ffcosa,
/?).
1982. At
what point
of the ellipsoid
~2
y2
_4.
""
^ f_4.^ __
f.2
c2
does the normal to it form equal angles with the coordinate axes?
1983. Planes perpendicular to the A:- and #-axes are drawn
z*
169.
through the point
(3, 4, 12) of the sphere x*
y*
Write the equation of the plane passing through the tangents to
the obtained sections at their common point M.
1984. Show that the equation of the tangent plane to the
central surface (of order two)
ax
+ by
-\-cz
=k
+ =
Sec. 11]
The Tangent Plane and the Normal
M (x
at the point
Draw
to
the
Draw
1986.
which cuts
off
219
a Surface
has the form
surface x
x
to
the
4</4 6z
parallel
plane
1985.
to
+ 2tf + 3z = 21
= 0.
â+fi + 'T^l
to the ellipsoid
tangent
planes
tangent
plane
on the coordinate axes.

equal segments
2
2
z*
1987. On the surface je
2*^=0 find points at which
the tangent planes are parallel to the coordinate planes.
s
1988. Prove that the tangent planes to the surface jq/z
a
of
the
tetrahedron of constant volume with the planes
form
coordinates.
r
f
1989. Show that the tangent planes to the surface }/ x-\-\/ y
+y
=m
-\
is
\/
z^Ya
cut
on the coordinate axes, segments whose sum
off,
constant.
Show
1990.
that the cone
^-i-f!
= -^
and the sphere
are tangent at the points (0,

b,c).
1991. The angle between the tangent planes drawn to given
surfaces at a point under consideration is called the angle between
two surfaces at the point of their intersection.
At what angle does the cylinder x*-\-y*
R* and the sphere
(x-R)
!-</'+z
-#
intersect at the point
Affy,
^-^,
OJ?
1992. Surfaces are called orthogonal if they intersect at right

angles at each point of the line of their intersection.
Show that the surfaces x*+y* z* r t (sphere), y xiany
2
(**
(plane), and z
y*)ian*-ty (cone), which are the coordinate
surfaces of the spherical coordinates r, cp, tj?, are mutually ortho-
gonal.
1993.
z^xf(~
*
\
Show
)
+ =
that all the planes tangent lo the conical surface
at the point
(,v
//
),
where x
+ 0,
pass through
the coordinate origin.

1994*. Find the projections of the ellipsoid
/'
+z
on the coordinate planes.

1995. Prove that the normal
revolution z
= /(/^ +
f/
(/'
xy
at
+ 0)
1=0
any point
of
the
intersect the axis
of
surface of
rotation.
220
[C/i.
Sec. 12. Taylor's Formula for a Function of Several Variables
of all orders
f (x, y) have continuous partial derivatives
(rc+l)th inclusive in the neighbourhood of a point (a, b). Then
Taylor's formula will hold in the neighbourhood under consideration:
Let a function
up
to the
-a) + f'y (a, b)(y-b)]
where
In other notation,
)
+ -Jy
[/tfX
if
...+[^^
or
-j
df
(x, y)
2
rf
/ (x, y)
The particular case of formula (1), when a b Q, is called Maclaunn's

formula.
Similar formulas hold for functions of three and a larger number of
variables.
A3
Example.' Find the increment obtained by the function f (x, y)
when passing from the values
1 to the values *,-- -{-//,
1, y
*=
Solution. The desired increment may be found by applying formula

calculate the successive partial derivatives and their values at
First
given point
(1, 2):
= 3- 1+3.2=9,
=
/;il,2)=-6.4 + 3.1 -21
fxx (\, 2) = 6-l=6
/;
(1,2)
^(1,2)= -12.2= -24,
(2).
the
Taylor's Formula for a Function of Several Variables
Sec. 12]
are
All subsequent derivatives

into formula (2), we obtain:
[/i
-64-2/z k- 3-f
1996.
powers
Expand
h and
of
2
fc
f (x i
fe
+ ^y
24))
ft,
zero.
identically
[/i
+ k)
+ 3/z
fc.
in a series
of
221
these
Putting
3/ife
-0-f *'(
positive
results
12)]
integral
if
*
1997. Expand the function f (x, y)
6x
2xy
3y*
4 by Taylor's formula in the neighbourhood of the point
2/y
(-2,
1).
1998. Find the increment received by the function

^-x*y when passing from the values x=l, {/=! to
4*
tegral
the
yz
neighbourhood
of
(1, 1, 1).
Expand
powers
of
f (x
/?,
k,
/ (x, y, z)
2001.
f(x, y, z)
z-l-4 by Taylor's formula in
3#
the point
2000.
= Jc'-fy + 2* +2xy
1
Expand the function
1999.
f(x,y)~
=--=
ft,
/)
in a series
of
positive in-
if
/,
z-|
fr,
//-J
and
// 4 z
2A:e
2jr//
Expand the following function
2yz.
Maclaurin's series
in a
Maclaurin's series
in
up to terms of the third order inclusive:

/(.Y,
2002.
//)
= ?* sin//.
up to terms
of order four inclusive:

/ (x, //)
= cos x cos y.
2003. Expand the following function in a Taylor's series in

the neighbourhood of the point (1, 1) up to terms of order two
inclusive:
/(*.
{/)
= {/*
2004. Expand the following function in a Taylor's series in

the neighbourhood of the point (1,
1) up to terms of order
three inclusive:
_ _
222
[Ch. 6
2005. Derive approximate formulas (accurate to second -order

terms in a and P) for the expressions
if
and |p| are small compared with unity.

2006*. Using Taylor's formulas up to second-order
|a|
terms,
approximate
Ô98;
1/T03;
a)
2 01
-
b) (0.95)
an implicit function of x and y defined by the

+ y = 0, which takes on the value z= 1 for x= 1
equation
and y=l. Write several terms of the expansion of the function
z in increasing powers of the differences
and y
1.
2007. z
z
is
2xz
x\
Sec.
13. The
Extremum
of
a Function
of Several
Variables
1. Definition of an extremum of a function. We say that a function

f(x,y) has a maximum (minimum) f (a, b) at the point P (a, b), if for all
points P' (x, y) different from P in a sufficiently small neighbourhood of P
the inequality /(a, b) > f(x, y) [or, accordingly, /(a, b) < f (x y)] is fulfilled.
The generic term for maximum and minimum of a function is extremum.
In similar fashion we define the extremum of a function of three or more
t
variables.
2. Necessary conditions for an extremum. The points at which a differentiate function f (x, y) may attain an extremum (so-called stationary points)
are found by solving the following system of equations:
0)-0,
t'
x (x.
f't/
(x
y)-Q
(1)
(necessary conditions for an
extremum). System (I) is equivalent to a single

0.
In the general case, at the point of the extremum
equation, df(x, #)
P (a, b), the function f (x, y), or df (a, ft) = 0, or df (a, b) does not exist.
3. Sufficient conditions for an extremum. Let P (a, b) be a stationary
point of the function f(x, y), that is, df (a, &)- 0. Then: a) if d*f (a b) <
for dx z
dy*>Q then /(a, b) is the maximum of the function f(x, //); b) if
d z f(a, ft)>0 for d* 2 -}- di/ 2
then /(a, b) is the minimum of the function
0,
2
/(* 0); c ) if d /(a, ft) changes sign, then f (a, b) is not an extremum of /(v, //).
t
>
The foregoing conditions are equivalent
= f'y (a,
ft)
-0
Then: I) if
P(a, ft), namely
(or
C>0);
2)
A=f xx
and
if
then the question

(which is to say,
>
0,
(a,
then
maximum,
<
0,
then
ft),
B~fxy
the
if
an extremum
(or
is
to the
ft),
<
following: let
C = /^(ci,
has
function
A<
there
(a,
an
0),
f[ (a,
We
ft).
form
extremum at
a minimum,
and
no extremum
at
(a
b)----
the
the point
if
>
A==0.
remains open
ft);
3)
if
of the function at P (a, ft)

requires further investigation).
4. The case of a function of many variables. For a function of three or
more variables, the necessary conditions for the existence of an extremum
of
it
Sec.
13]
The Extremum of a Function
of Several Variables
223
are similar to conditions (1), while the sufficient conditions are analogous to
the conditions a), b), and c) 3.
Example 1. Test the following function for an extremum:
Solution. Find the partial derivatives and form a system of equations
(1):
or
r
**
\ xy
we
Solving the system
Let us find
(2,
P 4 (_2,-1).
P,(-l,-2);
1);
second derivatives
tiie
d2 z
adx 2
=c
6.v,
d2z
3 T-
dxdy
For the pomt
= 6, A^=4C
= 36
<
144
0.
6r/,
for
c
= 6x
dy
each stationary point.
=6. B =
A = (g}
2
\dx Jp
d*z
T-22
= ry
B2
and form the discriminant A=^/4C

1)
get four stationary points:
Pt
P,(l,2);
+ *_5-0,
2 = 0.
=12, C=(g) =
(fL\
\dy J p,
\dxdyjp,
2
Thus, there
2) For the point P 2 4 --12, B^6, C-12;

the function has a minimum. This minimum
function for A -2, y~\'
:
no extremum at the point P,.
is
= 144
is
36
equal
> 0,
>
/I
0.
the value
to
3012^28.
6; A = 36
^-6,
12, C^
^- 12, B = 6, C= 12; A = 144
At P 2
of
the
3) For the point P 9

no extremum.
4) For the point P 4
At the point
P4
fi---
the function has a
maximum
equal to
2 ma x
144
36
< 0.
>
0,
There
< 0.
6-f-30-{-
4- 12 ---28
5*.
of
Conditional extremum. In the simplest case, the conditional extremum
a function /(A,
attained
<|)(jr,
on
//)
is
maximum
condition
that
its
or
//),
minimum
this function which is

related by the equation
the conditional extremum of a funcwe form the so-called Lagra<ige
i/)
arguments
(coupling equation). To find

given the relationship q> (A-,
w)
tion /(A-,
the
of
are
function
F(A-,
where X
is
y)-=f(
an undetermined
multiplier, and
we seek
the ordinary
of this auxiliary function. The necessary conditions for the

to a system of three equations:
with three unknowns

to
x,
t/,
X,
determine these unknowns.
from which
it
is,
generally
extremum
extremum reduce
speaking,
possible
_ _
[Ch. 6
224
The question of the existence and character of a conditional extremum is

solved on the basis of a study of the sign of the second differential of the
Lagrange function:
-
yi
for the given
system
dx 2
dxdy
of values of x, y,
dy
h obtained from
(2)
or the condition
that dx and dy are related by the equation
<
Q, and a
Namely, the function / (x y) has a conditional maximum, if d*F
conditional minimum, if d 2 F
0. As a particular case, if the discriminant A
of the function F (x, y) at a stationary point is positive, then at this point
there is a conditional maximum of the function / (x, y), if A
(or C
0),
and a conditional minimum, if A
0)
(or C
In similar fashion we find the conditional extremum of a function of
three or more variables provided there is one or several coupling equations
(the number of which, however, must be less than the number of the variables)
Here, we have to introduce into the Lagrange function as many undetermined
multipliers factors as there are coupling equations.
Example 2. Find the extremum of the function
t
>
<
>
>
z=:6
4*
<
3y
provided the variables x and y satisfy the equation
x*-\-y*=\
Solution. Geometrically, the problem reduces to finding the greatest and
6
4.v
plane z
3y for points of its
intersection with the cylinder ji 2 -f// 2 =l
We form the Lagrange function
least values of the e-coordinate of the
F(x, y)--=6
We
have
T=~
following system
=
***-
+ 2>jr,
4x-3f/-l-M*
3
+ 2X#.
The
of equations:
:
i
Solving this system
we
find
i
^-"2"'
'-~5~'
and
2
____^_
~"
2
___
^~""5"
Since
dx 2
it
follows that
-*"'
dxdy
=0,
-|-{/
1).
necessary conditions yield the
Sec.
The Extremutn
13]
54
~__
and
-=-
3
= --,
o
Function of Several Variables
thend 2 /7 >0,
and,
225
the function
4^3
consequently,
5
-- and f/
-=O
D
and, consequently, the function at this point has a conditional
has a conditional
z
F <Q,
maximum.
then d
of a
minimum
at this point.
If
K-
-^
Z
Thus,
= 6 + i5 + -=ll,
z max
6. Greatest and smallest values of a function.

rentiable in a limited closed region attains
its greatest (smallest) value either at a sta-
function
that
is
diffe-
tionary point or at a point of the boundary

of the region.
Example
3.
Determine the greatest and
smallest values of the
function
in the region
A'<0, [/<0, x + y^z
Solution. The indicated region is a

angle (Fig. 70).
1) Let us find the stationary points:
I
z'
K
7
{J
~ 2xy 1=0,
^ 2y x -}-1^0;
\-
whence x-=
1, //-=
At A1 the value
to test for
tri-
70
and we get the point

1
the function ZM
1;
of
It
1,
is
not absolutely necessary
an cxtrcmum
1)
Let us investigate the function on the boundaries of the region.

we have 2 [/ 2 -f-f/, and the problem reduces to seeking the
When A
greatest and smallest values of this function of one argument on the interval
2)
3^//^0.
Investigating,
(2 sm ) v _
(3,0);
When
find
get
(Zsm) y =*
x-[-y
that
(2g r ) x=0
T" at thc
3
A-
P oint
we
find
that
(z &m ) x
,,^^^~r
we
(~ V 2
will
we
the
at
point
3);
(0,
l^)
x z -\-x. Similarly,
3 or //-=
=6
at the point (0,
When //~0 we
point
we
at the point
'
(2g r ) v=0
=6
at
the
have
/
that
find
= 3A
3
-^
-f-9A'-j-6.
3 \
~
Similarly
(2 gr )
+ =
3
metres coincides with (z gr ) x =o anc (^r).jf=o- ^ n * ne straight line jc
^
we could test the Function for a conditional extremum without reducing to
a function of one argument.
3) Correlating all the values obtained of the function z, we conclude
at the stationary
1
that z gr
6 at the points (0,
3) and (3, 0); z sm
^
point
8-1900
M.
226
_ _
[Ch. 6
maximum and minimum
Test for
the following
functions of
two variables:
2013.
= (x \)*+2y*.
= (x I) 2y*.
2x y.
z = x* + xy + tf
=
z
*y (6 xy)(x>0
2 = x +y
2x*+4xy 2y
z =x
2014.
z=l
2008. z
2009. z
2010.
2011.
2012.
=
2 =
2015. z
20,6.
Find the extrema

2
2017. a = x
of the
2
+ +z
2018.
xy
^++
Find the extrema
functions
following
f/
+x
of
three variables:
2z.
-(^>0, y>0, z>0).
of the following implicitly represented func-
tions:
2019*. x*
2020. x
+ y* + z* 2x+4y 62 11=0.
y*3x + 4y + z* + z 8 = 0.
Determine the conditional extrema

2021. z
= xy
for
+ 2y
z = x* + if
2022. z^=x
for
2023.
for
2027.
= cos + cos
W=
2y + 2z
^=^ +
+2
u = xtfz*
2028.
u^xyz
2024. z
2025.
2026.
A:
-=
A:
f/
f/
for//
for
for
of the following functions:
A:
2
A:
+
-
= ~-.
for .v-f-y
+ z=
12(jc>0,
provided x-(~j/+e=5,
xy+yz+zx=8.
2029. Prove the inequality
if
x^zQ
Hint: Seek the
maximum
of the
function u
= xyz
provided
Finding the Greatest and Smallest Values of Functions
Sec. 14]
in
227
z=l+x + 2y
2030. Determine the greatest value of the function

the regions: a) x>0, y^*0, x
y^l\ b)
2031. Determine the greatest and smallest values of the func2

2
#*
tions a) z
y in the region x?+y *^l.
x*y and b) z
2032. Determine the greatest and smallest values of the func-
tion
= sinx-h sin y-f- sin (x + y)
in
the
O^jt^-2.-
region
2033. Determine the greatest and smallest values of the func1

x'
tion z
3xy in the region
y*
0^x^2,
14. Finding the Greatest and Smallest Values of Functions
Sec.
Example t. It is required to break up a positive number a into three

nonnegative numbers so that their product should be the greatest possible.
Solution. Let the desired numbers be x, y, a
x
We seek the maxi//.
mum
the function / (x, y)

xy(a
to the problem, the
closed triangle xÔ, y^zQ, x
of
According
+ yâ
x
y).
function
/ (x,
is
y)
considered inside a
(Fig. 71).
Fig. 71
Solving the system of equations
f'(x,
we
will
have the unique stationary point
(-TTI
triangle. Let us test the sufficiency conditions.
>
(/)
20,
T
We
(x, y)=a2x2y,
f
IXIf
or
* ne
have
f"
yy'(x,
/)
of
the
_ _
228
[Ch. 6
Consequently,
And
so
at
f-g-,
~)
the function reaches a
the contour of the triangle, this
maximum
to say that the product will be greatest,

a3
greatest value is equal to
is
maximum.
Since f(x, */)=0 on
will be the greatest value,

if
=y=a
//
which
= --, and
the
-^=-
Note
The ploblem can
also be solved
extremum, by seeking the maximum

that x
+ y + z = a.
2034.
From among
all
of the
by the methods of a conditional

function u
xyz on the condition
rectangular
parallelepipeds
with
given volume V, find the one whose total surface is the least.
2035. For what dimensions does an open rectangular bathtub
given capacity V have the smallest surface?
2036. Of all triangles of a given perimeter 2p, find the one
that has the greatest area.
2037. Find a rectangular parallelepiped of a given surface S
of a
with greatest volume.

2038. Represent a positive number a in the form of a product of
four positive factors which have the least possible sum.
on an x^- plane, the sum of
2039. Find a point
(x, y),
the squares of the distances of which from three straight lines
= Q, f/ = 0, x y+l=0) is the least possible.
(x
2040. Find a triangle of a given perimeter 2p, which, upon
being revolved about one of its sides, generates a solid of
greatest volume.
2041. Given in a plane are three material points P, (x lf # ),
P*( x z' #2)* î(*> #3) w ith masses m lf m 2 m 3 For what position
of the point P(x, y) will the quadratic moment (the moment of
inertia) of the given system of points relative to the point P
2
P2 P2
P 3 P 2 ) be the least?
(i.e., the sum m.P.P
2
3
2042. Draw a plane through the point
c) to form
(a, b
a tetrahedron of least volume with the planes of the coordinates.
2043. Inscribe in an ellipsoid a rectangular parallelepiped of
greatest volume.
2044. Determine the outer dimensions of an open box with a
given wall thickness 8 and capacity (internal) V so that the
smallest quantity of material is used to make it.
+m
+m
Sec.
14]
Finding the Greatest and Smallest Values
of
229
Functions
2045. At what point of the ellipse

w2
r2
-Ta2
does the tangent line to

angle of smallest area?
2046*. Find the axes
2047.
Inscribe in
surface.
'
form with the coordinate axes a
it
of
5x
+ TT-1
b
tri-
the ellipse
2
-f-
8xy + 5tf
given
= 9.
sphere
cylinder
having
the
greatest total
2048. The beds of two rivers (in a certain region) approxi2 = 0.

y
mately represent a parabola y = x* and a straight line x
It is required to connect these rivers by a straight canal of least
length. Through what points will it pass?
2049. Find the shortest distance from
to the straight line
x __
~~
1
~~
3
the
point
M(l,
2,
3)
2
'
2050*. The points A and B are situated in different optical

media separated by a straight line (Fig. 72). The velocity of
*1
Fii<.
72
Fig. 73
light in the first medium is v l9 in the second, v 2

Applying the
Fermat principle, according to which a light ray is propagated
along a line AMD which requires the least time to cover, derive
the law of refraction of light rays.
2051. Using the Fermat principle, derive the law of reflection
of a light ray from a plane in a homogeneous medium (Fig. 73).
2052*. If a current / Hows in an electric circuit containing a
.
resistance
/?,
proportional
then the quantity of

2
to /
/?.
heat
released in unit time is

/ into
Determine how to divide the current
230
_ _
currents / t
#i
[Ch. 6
72 ,
so
#a
R*>
possible?
/,
by means
that
the
of three wires,
generation of
whose resistances are
heat would be the
least
Sec. 15. Singular Points of Plane Curves
1. Definition of a singular point.
is
f(x, #)
at once:
2. Basic
called a singular point
if
At
point Af (x c y Q ) of a plane curve

coordinates satisfy three equations
,
its
M (*
let
the
a node (double point) (Fig. 75);

is either a cusp of the first kind (Fig. 76) or of
c) if
second kind (Fig. 77), or an isolated point, or a tacnode (Fig. 78).
the
types of singular points.
a singular point
),
second derivatives
be not
all
equal to zero and
then:
a)
b)
if
if
A>0,
A<0,
A = 0,
then
then
then
M
M
M
is
A = /1C-B 2
an isolated point (Fig.
74);
is
Fig. 74
Fig. 75
When solving the problems of this section it is always necessary to draw

the curves.
z
x* has a node if a
ax*
0; an
Example 1. Show that the curve y
isolated point if a
0.
0; a cusp of the first kind if a
2
z
Solution. Here, f (x, y)z=zax
Let us find the partial derivatives and equate them to zero:
<
+ x'y
fx
(x,
t/)
>
Singular Points of Plane Curves
Sec. 15]
system has two solutions:
This
coordinates of the point
Hence, there
is
do not
0(0, 0) and
the
satisfy
unique singular point
(0,
231
equation
--~a
Oj,'btit
the
0).
Fig. 78
Fig. 77
Fig. 76
of the given curve.
Let us find the second derivatives and their values at the point 0:
,
4=20,
0=0,
a =0
fa>0
Pig.
Fig. 80
79
Fig. 81
Hence,
if
a>0,
if
if
2
{/
=x
< 0,
a--^0,
8
or
#=
then
then
then
A<0
A
>
AjÔ.
y
which
Y^\
about the x-axis,

first kind (Fig. 81).
is a node (Fig. 79);

and the point
is an isolated point (Fig. 80);
and
The equation of the curve in this case
exists only
is a tangent.
when JcÔ;
the curve
Hence, the point
is
is
will
be
symmetric
a cusp of the
232
Determine the character
the
of
[Ch. 6
singular points of the follo-
wing curves:
2053. y*
2054. (y
x* -\-x\
2055.
=*
ay=aV-x'.
2056.
jtyjt
2057. x*
+y
f/Ô.
3axy = Q (folium
2061.
of Descartes).
= (cissoid).
= a*(x y (lemniscate).
+
= (a x)x (strophoid).
+
= ftV (a>0, 6>0)
(x* + y*)(x
a)*
3
2058. y*(a
x)
2
2059. (x*
y*)
2060. (a
x)y*
jc
(conchoid).
Consider three cases:

1)
a>6,
2)
= 6,
a<6.
3)
2062. Determine the change in character of the singular point

2
curve y
(x
b) (x
a)(x
c) depending on the values of
of the
a,
6,
c(a<ft<c
are real).
Sec. 16. Envelope
t. Definition of an envelope.
The envelope of a family of plane curves

curve (or a set of several curves) which is tangent to all lines of the
given family, and at each point is tangent to some line of the given family.
2. Equations of an envelope. If a family of curves
is
f(x
dependent on
a)=0
y,
a single variable parameter

of the latter are found
metric equations
a has an envelope, then the parafrom the system of equations
= 0,
a) = o.
f(x. y, a)
&(*.
y.
Eliminating the parameter a from the system

the form
D(x,
0)
(1)
(1),
we
= 0.
get an equation of
(2)
It should be pointed out

that the formally obtained curve (2) (the *>ocalled "discriminant curve") may contain, in addition to an
envelope (if
there is one), a locus of singular points of the given f amily, which locus ts
not part of the envelope of this family.
When solving the problems of this section it is advisable to make
drawings.
Example. Find the envelope
*cosa+f/sina
of
the family of curves
= 0(p = const,
p>0).
Sec. 16]
233
Envelope
Solution. The given family of curves depends on the parameter a.

the system of equations (1):
J
\
Solving the
envelope
system
for
*cosa + y sin a
x
sin
x and y
a+y
t
cos
p = 0,
= 0.
we obtain parametric equations
= pcosa,
r/
of the
Squaring both equations and adding, we eliminate the parameter
frig.
Form
a:
82
Thus, the envelope of this family of straight lines is a circle of radius p

with centre at the origin. This particular family of straight lines is a family
of tangent lines to this circle (Fig. 82).
2063. Find the envelope of the family of circles
2064. Find the envelope of the family of straight lines
(k is a variable parameter).
2065. Find the envelope of a family of circles of the same

radius R whose centres lie on the jc-axis.
2066. Find a curve which forms an envelope of a section
of length / when its end-points slide along the coordinate axes.
2067. Find the envelope of a family of straight lines that
form with the coordinate axes a triangle of constant area S.
2068. Find the envelope of ellipses of constant area S whose
axes of symmetry coincide.
234
2069. Investigate the character
the "discriminant curves"

a constant parameter):
of
of families of the following lines (C
+ x) (y
d) strophoids (a
is
cubic parabolas y
(x
C)
2
b) semicubical parabolas t/
(x
2
C)
(x
c) Neile parabolas y*
a)
[Ch. 6
C)*;
=*
C)
x).
(a
Fig. 83
2070.
The equation
trajectory of a shell fired from a

v
at an angle a to the horizon
of the
with initial velocity

point
resistance
(air
disregarded) is
Taking the angle a as the parameter, find the envelope of all

trajectories bf the shell located in one and the same vertical
plane ("safety parabola' ) (Fig. 83).
1
17. Arc Length of a Space Curve
Sec.
The
dinates
where
differential of
equal to
an arc
of a
space curve in rectangular Cartesian coor-
is
current coordinates of a point of the curve.
z are the
x, y,
If
are parametric equations of the space curve, then the arc length of a section
of
it
from
to
t2
/a
f
j
is
1/7 <M + (dy\* + ( dz

y
(-dr
2
(-df)
The Vector Function
Sec. 18]
of a Scalar
235
Argument
In Problems 2071-2076 find the arc length of the curve:
2071. x
t,
y=/
2-~-'
from
to
= 2.
= 2 cos y = 2 sin z = -|- from == to =

= *' cos y = e* sin z = e from = to arbitrary t
from JC==0 to x==6
y = 4~' 2 = 4~
* = 3(/, 2jcy = 92
from the point (0, 0, 0) to M (3, 3, 2).
= aarcsin~, z = -|-ln ^j from the point 0(0,0,0)
2072. x
/,
t,
it.
2073.
A:
2074.
/,
/,
2075.
2076.
f/
M(*
to the point
j/
).
2077. The position of a point for any time

by the equations
Find the mean velocity

Sec.
of
(f>0)
motion between times
is
defined
and ^=10.
18. The Vector Function of a Scalar Argument
1. The derivative of the vector function of a scalar argument. The vector

a (0 may be defined by specifying three scalar functions ax (t)
a (t) and a z (t) which are its projections on the coordinate axes:
function a
The derivative of the vector function a-=a(t) with respect to the scalar
argument t is a new vector function defined by the equality
da
The modulus
a(t
+ M)-a(t)_da x (t)
day (0
da f
(t)
of the derivative of the vector function is
da
dt
The end-point
of the variable of the radius vector
r=r(/) describes
in
space
the curve
r=x(t)l+y(t)J+*(t)*.
which
is
called the hodograph of the vector r.
The derivative
-~
is
a vector, tangent to the
hodograph at the corre-
sponding point; here,
dr
[
where
s is
dt
[_
\
ds
dt
'
the arc length of the hodograph reckoned from
For example,
Up
some
initial point.
236
__
If
the
parameter
the time, then -jT
is
tf
is
[Ch. 6
the velocity vector of the
=w
is * ne acceleration vector of the

and
JTS
"^T
of
vector
the
r.
extremity
2. Basic rules for differentiating the vector function of a scalar argument.
extremity
of the vector r,
= m-~-,
2)
-77-
(ma)
3)
-77-
(cpa)==-~-a
4,
7)
where
+ (p-^-
is
a constant scalar;
where q>(0
a scalar function of
is
<*,_..+..:
a-~=0,
if
|
|-= const.
Example 1. The radius vector

time defined by the equation
r=i
Determine the trajectory
Solution.
From
Eliminating the
(1)
time
of
of
moving point
of
motion, the velocity and acceleration.
t,
we
find that the trajectory of

1
~~
z
'
differentiating,
we
find the velocity
and the acceleration
The magnitude
any instant
(1)
4"" 3
(1),
at
we have:
From equation
is
4t*j+3t*k.
line:
We
/;
of the velocity
note that the acceleration
\*L
\dt*
is
is
constant and
= ]/(_ 8) +6
2
is
=iO.
motion
is
a straight
Sec.
18]
Show
2078.
where r
The Vector Function
the
that
of
a Scalar Argument
vector
and r 2 are radius vectors
= (/* 2
equation
two given points,
rr,
of
237
r,)
is
/,
the
of a straight line.
2079. Determine which lines are hodographs of the following
vector functions:
equation
a)
= at -f c\
=
a/ +
r
r
c)
b)
ft/;
d)
= a cos -f b sin
r = a cosh -f 6 sinh
t\
/,
a, ft, and c are constant vectors; the vectors a and b

are perpendicular to each other.
2080. Find the derivative vector-function of the function
a(t)a (/), where a(t) is a scalar function, while a(/)
a(t)
is a unit
vector, for cases when the vector a(t) varies: 1) in
length only, 2) in direction only, 3) in length and in direction
(general case). Interpret geometrically the results obtained.
2081. Using the rules of differentiating a vector functisn with
respect to a scalar argument, derive a formula for differentiating
a mixed product of three vector functions a, 6, and c.
2082. Find the derivative, with respect to the parameter t,
of the volume of a parallelepiped constructed on three vectors:
where
a = i + tj+t z k,
2083.
The equation
of
motion
is
= 3/cos/~j-4/sinf,
is
the time. Determine the trajectory of motion, the
the acceleration. Construct the trajectory of motion
and
velocity
and the vectors of velocity and acceleration for times, / = 0,
where
2084. The equation of motion
is
Determine the trajectory of motion, the velocity and the accelWhat are the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration
and / =
and what directions have they for time =
-y?
2085. The equation of motion is
eration.
r= i cos a cos at -\-jsmacostot + k sincof,

where a and o are constants and / is the time. Determine the
trajectory of motion and the magnitudes and directions o! the
velocity and the acceleration.
238
2086. The equation of motion
of
shell
\Ch. 6
air re-
(neglecting
is
sistance)
where V Q {V OX v oy v oz } is the initial velocity. Find the velocity

and the acceleration at any instant of time.
2087. Prove that if a point is in motion along the parabola
,
z/=
manner
in such a
on the x-axis remains constant
that
the
of
projection
[-= const],
velocity
then the accelera-
tion remains constant as well.
2088. A point lying on the thread

into a beam describes the spiral
of
screw being screwed
where 9 is the turning angle of the screw, a is the radius of the

screw, and h is the height of rise in a rotation of one radian.
Determine the velocity of the point.
2089. Find the velocity of a point on the circumference of a
wheel of radius a rotating with constant angular velocity co so
that its centre moves in a straight line with constant velocity V Q
.
Sec. 19. The Natural Trihedron of a Space Curve
At any nonsingular point
(;c,
//,
sible to construct a natural trihedron
z) of a
space curve r
consisting
of
three
r(t)
is
it
pos-
mutually perpen-
dicular planes (Fig. 84):
M A4jA4
containing the vectors
1)
osculating plane
2)
normal plane
3)
rectifying plane MMjAIj, which
MM*M
S,
which
is
perpendicular to
is
At the intersection we obtain three straight lines;

1) the tangent
2) the principal normal MAf 2
of which are defined by the appropriate vectors:
1)
2)
3)
T=-rr
(the vector of the tangent l'me)\
^-gfx^p
NBXT (the
the vect
f tne
binormal);
vector of the principal normal)]
The corresponding unit vectors
and
-r-^
the vector
JV
3)
and
at
perpendicular to the first
MM^
all
TT
two planes.
the binomial
MM
9t
The Natural Trihedron
Sec.
19]
may
be computed from the formulas
dr
t= dF
of
a Space Curve
239
ds
dt
ds
If X
K, Z are the current coordinates of the point of the tangent, then
the equations of the tangent have the form
f
X-x = Y
y==
'
3C
(I)
'2
if
Normal
Rectifying
plane
plane
Osculating
plane
Fig. 84
where
of
Tx
--
Tv=
the line and the plane
T 2 = -~
we
from the condition
get an equation
of the
2)
of
perpendicularity
normal plane:
= 0.
T x Ty 7\ by B x
(2)
Bv
B z and A^.
(1) and (2), we replace

get the equations of the binomial and the principal normal and,
respectively, the osculating plane and the rectifying plane.
Example t. Find the basic unit vectors T, v and p of the curve
If
in
Wy,
equations
^V^,
at the point
at this point.
Solution.
and
= 1.
Write the equations

mal
we
We
have
of
the tangent, the principal normal and the binor-
[Ch. 6
240
Whence, when
1,
we
get
dt
dt
2 3
^= 026
1
dt
i
>'
662
Consequently,
T
Since for
= <+2/+3A
P=
3/-ay+*
?=1 we have *=1, y=l, 2=1,
'
-1U-8/+9*
follows that
it
"~
""
are the equations of the tangent,
x\_y
~~
l_z
~~
3
are the equations of the binomial and
*-l
z-1
y-1
11
are the equations of the principal normal.

If a space curve is represented as an intersection of
F(JC, y, z)
then in place
of
the vectors
-^-
= 0,
and
G(x,
TT-Z
y, 2)
two surfaces
= 0,
we can take
the vectors dr{dx, dy,

dz}
and d 2 r {d*x, d*y, d z z}; and one of the variables x, y, z may be considered
independent and we can put its second differential equal to zero.
Example 2. Write the equation of the osculating plane of the circle
*2
at its point
M(l,
1,
+ + z = 6,
2
J/
+ y + z^Q
(3)
2).
Solution. Differentiating the system (3) and considering x an independent

we will have
variable,
x dx
+ y dy + z dz
--=
0,
and
dx*
+ dy + y d*y + dz + z d*z .= 0,
1
d 2 (/
Putting
x=l, y=\>
z~2,
we
get
The Natural Trihedron of a Space Curve
Sec. 19]
Hence, the osculating plane
dx
{dx,
241
defined by the vectors
is
and
0}
|o,
yd*
jdx*\
or
1,
{1,
and
0}
1,
{0,
1}.
Whence the normal vector of the osculating plane

J
B=
-1
and, therefore,
its
equation
is
lj
is
-l(x-l
that
as
is,
it
should be, since our curve
is
located in this plane.
2090. Find the basic unit vectors
x^l
at the point
= -g-
T, v,
y=sin/,
cosf,
p of the curve
z
2091. Find the unit vectors of the tangent and the

of the conic spiral
principal
normal
at an arbitrary point. Determine the angles that these lines

with the z-axis.
2092. Find the basic unit vectors r, v, p of the curve
x*,
make
= 2x
2.
at the point x
2093. For the screw line
= asmt,
= bt
write the equations of the straight lines that form a natural

trihedron at an arbitrary point of the line. Determine the direction cosines of the tangent line and the principal normal.
2094. Write the equations of the planes that form the natural
trihedron of the curve
x*
one
-1- 1/
+ * = 6,
2
if
-1-
-4
points M(l, 1, 2).

the equations ot the tangent line, the normal
z
t*
the
and
t*,
/,
osculating
plane of the curve *
plane
y
at the point
(2, 4, 8).
at
of
2095.
its
Form
_ _
[Ch. 6
242
2096.
Form
and binormal
the equations of the tangent, principal normal,

an arbitrary point of the curve
at
Find the points at which the tangent to

to the plane x
10 = 0.
3y-\- 2z
this curve is parallel
2097. Form equations of the tangent, the osculating

the principal normal and the binormal of the curve
at the point /
at this point.
= 2.
Compute the
direction cosines of the binormal
2098. Write the equations of the tangent and

plane to the following curves:
a)
x = R cos 2
b)
z=x*+y*, x = y
*
C)
/,
y = R sin /cos/,
+ y + z = 25,
2
= Rsmt
for
x+z=5
2/3,
at the point (2,
normal
Find the equation
y = x at the coordinate origin.
2100. Find the equation of the osculating plane
normal
the
?-;
at the point (1,1, 2);
2099
z=x
plane,
of
3).
plane to the curve
the
if,
*,
(/
= <>-',
2101. Find
2
*
2
b) *
2
a)
c)
JC
to the
curve
= ty2
0.
at the point /
the equations of the osculating plane to the curves:
+y + 2 = 9, x y = 3 at the point (2, 1, 2);

= 4y, x' = 24z at the point (6, 9, 9);
+ z = a y fz = 6 at any point of the curve (x
2
QJ
y ot z
).
Form
the equations of the osculating plane, the principal

normal and the binormal to the curve
2102.
y
2103.
Form
= x,
=z
at the point (1,
1,
1).
the equations of the osculating plane, the princi-
normal and the binormal to the conical screw-line A; = /COS/,

j/=/sin/, z~bt at the origin. Find the unit vectors of the
tangent, the principal normal, and the binormal at the origin.
pal
Sec. 20. Curvature and Torsion of a Space Curve
1. Curvature.
By
the curvature of a curve at a point
number
*
/(
lim
AS-+O
JL,
As
we mean the
Curvature and Torsion
Sec. 20]
of
a Space Curve
243
the angle of turn of the tangent line (angle of continence) on a

curve MN, As is the arc length of this segment of the curve.
segment
R is called the radius of curvature. If a curve is defined by the equation
r=r(s), where s is the arc length, then
where
(p
is
of the
For the case
we have
parametric representation of the curve
of a general
(1)
2. Torsion. By
mean the number
torsion (second curvature) of a curve
at
point
we
-1
r-l-ihn
As-*o As
Q
the angle of turn of the binormal (angle of contingence of the

where
second kind) on the segment of the curve MN. The quantity Q is called the
radius of torsion or the radius of second curvature. If r=r(s), then
is
drd 2 rd sr
ds ds 2 ds 3
dp_
ds
where the minus sign
is
direction, and the plus

If /=/(/), where t
taken when the vectors
when
sign,
and v have
the
an arbitrary parameter, then
is
dr d 2r dV
d/d?" d7
-
(2)
~d,
dt
Example
1.
Find the curvature and the torsion of the screw-line

r
Solution.
We
same
not the same.
= i a cos
-\-j
a sin
+ k bt
+ja cos t + kb
(a
> 0).
have
~= _/ a
sin
d r
==
a cos
= _/ a sin/
/a
sin
/,
cos/.
Ja
Whence
k
J
a sin
a cos
a cost b
-a sin
ab sin
jab cos
+ a*k
Hence, on the basis
formulas
of
JDL
R ~(
we
(2),
+ 6i)
"fl'
/.
get
VaT+b*^
i
fl
and
(1)
+a
and
1
a*b
a 2 (a 2
+ b*)~~ a + b
2
'
Thus, for a screw-line, the curvature and torsion are constants.

3
Frenet formulas:
dr
^v
'
7s~"~R
2104. Prove
___
~~
5s
iP
^P_
'
ds~~~~o"'
~~~~R~T~~Q
the curvature at all points of a line is

a straight line.
2105. Prove that if the torsion at all points of a curve is zero,
then the curve is a plane curve.
2106. Prove that the curve
that
zero, then the line
if
is
x=\+3t + 2t
is
2
,
= 22t + 5t\ z=lt*
plane curve; find the plane in which it lies.

Compute the curvature of the following curves:
2107.
a)
x = cost, y = s'mt,
2
2
2
z = l, y
-|
//
b) x*
2108.
curves:
a)
b)
= cosh
= e'cos/,
at the point /
0;
at the point (1, 1,
Compute the curvature and
y = e sint, z
xâcosht, y asiuht.
je
-2x + z = Q
1).
torsion at any point of the
e*\
= at
(hyperbolic screw-line).
2109. Find the radii of curvature and torsion at an arbitrary

point (x, y, z) of the curves:
2
x
9
b) x
a)
=
=
2110. Prove that the tangential and normal

are expressed by the formulas
acceleration
v2
dv
VOif
T
<MJ
V
V,
WT-^T,
Wv-
components
of
where v is the velocity, R is the radius of curvature of the

T and v are unit vectors of the tangent and principal
trajectory,
the
to
curve.
normal
Sec. 20]
2111.
la cost
tion w.
2112.
Curvature and Torsion of a Space Curve
+ja
sin
in
is
point
t
+ btk
The equation
Determine,
at
trajectory and
acceleration.
times
2)
the
of
24S
uniform motion along a screw-line r =*

with velocity v. Compute its accelera-
motion
is
and /=!: 1) the curvature of the

tangential and normal components of the
Chapter VII
MULTIPLE AND LINE INTEGRALS
Sec. 1. The Double Integral
in
Rectangular Coordinates
1. Direct computation of double integrals. The double integral of a continuous function f (x, y) over a bounded closed region S is the limit of the
corresponding two-dimensional integral sum
f (x,
y)dx dy =
lim
max A*i max Ar// -
(1)
&y k = yk+l yk and the sum is extended over those

xg,
and k for which the points (*/, y k ) belong to S.
2. Setting up the limits of integration in a double integral. We distinguish two basic types of region of integration.
where A*
values of
x,
= Xf +l
o
Fig. 85
1)
The region
of integration
Fig. 86
(Fig. 85)
is
bounded on the
left
and
right
while the vaFig. 85). In the region S, the variable x varies from x l to x
riable y (for x constant) varies from
9, (x) to j/ 2
q> 2 (x). The integral (1) ma>
^=
The Double Integral
Sec. 1]
247
in Rectangular Coordinates
be computed by reducing to an iterated integral by the formula

*a
<Pa (X)
f(x, y)dy,
J
(S)
<PaU>
where x
is
held constant
when
calculating
/(x, y) dy.
2) The region of integration S is bounded from below and from above

by the straight lines y y and y yt(y z >yi), and from the left and the
(y)],
right by the continuous curves x = ^> (y) (AB) and x = 2 (y) (CD) [t|? 2 (y)
each of which intersects the parallel y = Y (y*
Y y t) at only one point
l
(Fig. 86).
As before,
^^
i|?
^ <
we have
$2
Vl
JJ/(*.
y)dxdy=\dy
(S)
here, in the integral
j/i
f(x, y) dx
we
(U)
f (x.
J
i|?,
y)dx
((/)
consider y constant.
If the region of integration does not belong to any of the above-discussed

types, then an attempt is made to break it up into parts, each of which does
belong to one of these two types.
Example 1. Evaluate the integral
Solution.
Example
2.
Determine the limits
of integration of the integral
(x,
(S)
y)dxdy
248
_ _
Multiple and Line Integrals
[Ch. 7
2
*
1
the region of integration 5 (Fig. 87) is bounded by the hyperbola y
2 and x
2 (we have in view the region constraight lines *
taining the coordinate origin).
Solution. The region of integration ABCD (Fig. 87) is bounded by the
2 and x
2 and by two branches of the hyperbola
straight lines
if
and by two
x-
y=yT+*
that
is,
it
belongs to the
first
and
type.
We
(/--1
have:
dx
f(x, y)dy.
Evaluate the following iterated integrals:
21
2113.
2114
35
\dy\(jf + 2y)dx.
2117.
^pTv?31
2118.
Jdy
rrfr.
dcp
j
a
sin
<p
Jt_
2115
X 2dU
COS
(p
'
00
Write the equations of curves bounding regions over which the
following dduble integrals are extended, and draw these regions:
2
2121.
2-t/
Jrf/
f(x, y)dx.
X+9
2122.
JdxJ
IX
4
2125.
f(x, y)dy.
10-y
dy
o
JdxJ/(*. y)dy.
K25-JC-
2123.
2X
2124.
00
^dx
f(x, ^)dx.
2126.
f(x, y)dy.
X+2
d*
-ix*
f(x, y)dy.
Set up the limits of integration in one order and then in the

other in the double integral
JJ/(*. y)dxdy
(S)
for the indicated regions S.
Sec.
The Double Integral
1]
2127.
C(0,
is
a rectangle
S
S
is
a triangle
is
with vertices 0(0,
0),
249*
4(2,0), 5(2,
1),
1).
2128.
2129.
C(0,
with vertices 0(0,
4(1,
0),
trapezoid with vertices 0(0,
0),
0),
(2, 0),
5(1,
5(1,
1).
1),
1).
2130.
C(2,
7),
2131.
0),
(0,
parallelogram with
is
D(l,
5).
is
whose
circular sector
arc end-points are
vertices
045
A
4(1,
2),
5(2,
4),
with centre at the point

and 5 f - 1, 1) (Fig. 88).
(1, 1)
Fig
89
right parabolic segment 405 bounded by the

a segment of the straight line 54 connecting
and
parabola
the points 5(~-l, 2) and 4(1, 2) (Fig. 89).
2133. S is a circular ring bounded by circles with radii r=l
and /?-=2 and with common centre 0(0, 0).
2134. S is bounded by the hyperbola if
x?
\ and the circle
2132.
is
504
^9
(the region containing the origin is meant).

2135. Set up the limits of integration in the double
//
(x,
integral
y)dxdy
(S)
if
the region S
b) *
c)
h//
defined by the inequalities
is
<a
e)
|-
//*
*;
Change the order
//<x<y4
0<*/
2a;
:a.
of integration in the following
double integrals:
\2X
2136.
f(x, y)dy.
2137.
JdJ/(x.
y)dy.
250
2138.
\dx
f(x, y)dy.
2141.
\
d*
dy
f(x
y)dx.
VTZx^tf
2139.
[Ch. 7
f(x, y)dy.
2142.
\dy
V*-*
$/(*,
yi
~2
20
2140.
Jdx
f(x
y)dy.
RVT
A
2143.
-V
d*J/(x,
sin
2144.
\dx
t/)dy+
f(x. y)dy.
/)d/.
J/(jc,
Evaluate the following double integrals:

(
where S is a triangle with vertices 0(0,
[ xdxdy
2145.
0),
(S)
A(\,
1),
and B(0,
1).
A(2,0)X
Fig. 90
2146.
^xdxdy,
where the region
Fig. 91
of integration
Sis bounded
(S)
by the straight line passing through the points A (2, 0), fi(0, 2)
of a circle with centre at the point C(0, 1), and
and by the arc

radius
(Fig. 90).
The Double Integral
Sec. 1]
2147.
Vr a
,
JJ
===, where S
x*y*
is
251
a r
part of a circle of radius
(S)
a with centre at 0(0,

2148.
lying in the
first
where S
y dx dy
V**
$ $
0)
is
quadrant.
triangle with
vertices
(S)
0(0,0),
2149.
-1), and
(I,
fl(l,
1).
y*dxdy, where S
\j !/"*#
triangle with vertices
is
(S)
0(0,
4(10,
0),
rr
2150.
ed
J J
(S)
1),
and
fl(l,
1).
dxdy, where S
ey
by the
parabola
y*
is
=x
a curvilinear triangle
and
OAB
bound-
x = Q, (/=!
the straight lines
(Fig. 91).
2151.
ff^Ti,
-
the parabola
2152.
extend:
y=7f and
Compute the
is
a parabolic segment
the straight line y
integrals
\dx
[
j
= x.
_rt
tfsmxdy;
c)
$ <ty
/
bounded by
and draw the regions over which they
i-f-cosjc
at
a)
where S
$/
x* sin'
"
b)
COS*
When solving Problems 2153 to 2157

the drawings first.
2153. Evaluate the double integral
it
is
abvisable to
make
(5)
if
line
is
a region
x = p.
bounded by the parabola
y*
= 2px and
the straight
2154*. Evaluate the double integral
^xydxdy,
extended over the region S, which
2
2
and an upper semicircle (x
2)
#
is
+ =
bounded
1.
by
the #-axis
_ _
252
(Ch. 7
dxdy
/25=5
(S)
where S
the area of a circle of radius a,

to
the
coordinate axes and lies in the
gent
is
which
first
circle
is
tan-
quadrant.
^ydxdy,
(S)
where the region S
is
bounded by the axis
of abscissas
and an
of the cycloid
= R(t
y = R(\
sin/),
cos/).
(S)
in which the region of integration

nate axes and an arc of the astroid
2158. Find the
region
mean value
is
bounded by the coordi-
of the function f(x, y)=--xy
in the
SJO^Jt^l, 0<y<l}.
Hint.
The mean value
of a function
f(x, y)
the region
in
is
the
number
2159. Find the mean value of the square of the distance of

2
2
from the coordia point
(x, y) of the circle (x
nate origin.
Sec.
2.
Change
^R
af+y
of
Variables in a Double Integral
1. Double integral in polar coordinates. In a double integral, when passing

from rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, cp), which are
connected with rectangular coordinates by the relations
#
we have
= /'Cos(p,
r sin
ip,
the formula
^{
(S)
f (*>
y)dxdy=((
(S)
(r
cos
q>,
r sin
cp)
r dr
e/cp,
(1)
Sec. 2]
Change
of Variables in a Double Integral
253
a
integration (S) is bounded by the half-lines r
the curves r
and r r 2 ((p), where r l (q>)
r,(cp)
r z f<P) [ r i ( fP)^ r 2( (P)l are single-valued functions on the interval
then the double integral may be evaluated by the formula
If
the
region
r=^p(a<P)
of
and
and
and
a^rp^p,
C f
r) r
(q),
dr
dcp
/-J
(S)
<<p)
\ dcp
r) r rfr,
(cp,
r, (cp)
r 2 (cp)
where F
(cp,
In evaluating the
r sin (p).
r)~/(rcos(p,
integral
((p,
r)rrfr
'i (<p)
we hold
the quantity (p constant.

the region of integration does not belong to one of the kinds that has
been examined, it is broken up into parts, each of which is a region of a
If
given type.
2. Double
if
integral in curvilinear coordinates.
the more general case,
In
double integral
in the
(x,
y)dxdy
from the variables x, y to the variables u, v, which

it is required to pass
are connected with x, y by the continuous and differentiate relationships
A-^cp(w, i),
between the points

region
of
the
of
t|?(K,
I/
v)
both directions, continuous) correspondence
that establish a one-to-one (and, in
and the points
region S of the .v//-plane

if the Jacobian
the
of
some
UV- plane, and
*^
D(u
retains a constant
dx dy
du da
y)
V'
dx dy
dv dv
sign in the region 5, then the formula
(^
y) dx
dy
I [cp (u,
v),
(w,
v)
du du
(6)
holds true
The limits of the new integral are determined from general rules on the
basis of the type of region S'
Example 1. In passing to polar coordinates, evaluate
where the region 5
is
origin (Fig 92).

Solution. Putting x
J/'l
radius
a circle of
rcoscp,
if^
Y"\
//
(r
/?
rsincp,
cos
cp)
we
with centre
at
the coordinate
obtain:
(r sin cp)
= ^1
r8
254
Since the coordinate r in the region

to 2jt, it follows that
varies from
varies
2Jt
ff
Pass to
to
for
any
q>,
and
q>
y\x*
coordinates r and cp and set up the limits of
to the new variables in the following
polar
with
integration
from
(Ch. 7
respect
integrals:
2160.
2162.
K,
2161.
y)dy.
Jd*$/(]/J
JJ/(x, y)dxdy,
\-'/
where S
a triangle
is
bounded by the straight
lines
(/
= #, y~
x,
</=!.
2163.
-i
2164.
^f(x, y)dxdy, where S
is
bounded by the lemniscate
(S)
Fig. 92
2165. Passing to polar coordinates,
calculate the double inte
gral
(S)
where S
C(f,0)
is
a semicircle
(Fig. 93).
of
diameter a with centre at the poin
Sec. 2]
Change of Variables in a Double Integral
255
2166. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate the double integral
(S)
extended over a region bounded by the circle jc*

y* = 2ax.
2167. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate the double
in-
tegral
(S)
integration S is a semicircle of radius a with

centre at the coordinate origin and lying above the #-axis.
r
2168. Evaluate the double integral of a function f(r, <p)
over a region bounded by the cardioid r
a(\ +coscp) and the
a. (This is a region that does not contain a pole.)
circle r
2169. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate
where the region
of
V a*-x*
Jdx
Vx' +
tfdy.
2170. Passing to polar coordinates, evaluate
(S)
where the region S
is
loop of the lemniscate
ll
T/^R;
(S)
extended over the region S bounded by the ellipse
x
x*
-j
+ ^^
u
passing to generalized polar coordinates:

X
^wo
2172**. Transform
c
p*
\dx\f (x y)dy
t
(0<a0) by introducing new variables u
256
__
2173*.
= x + y,
Change the variables u
= xy
[Ch. 7
in the integral
\dx\f (x,y)dy.
2174**. Evaluate the double integral
(S)
where S
is
bounded by the curve
a region
-_ k
b2
Hint.
Make
~~fi 2
'
the substitution
br sin
cp.
The area
of
>,
Sec. 3. Computing Areas
1. Area
in rectangular coordinates.
a plane region S
is
(S)
If
the region
defined
is
by the
a^x^b,
inequalities
q>
(x)
^y ^
\|)
(x)
then
b
op
\dx
X)
is
cp
dy.
(x)
2. Area in polar coordinates. If a region S in polar coordinates r and

defined by the inequalities a^cp^p, / (cp)^/'
(q>), then
<F
= ffrdcpdr=
(S)
6/9
q>
P)
/-dr.
/(q
2175. Construct regions whose areas are expressed by the in-
tegrals
x+2
a))
dx
J
d;
dy;
b)
dy
d*.
J
Evaluate these areas and change the order of integration.

2176. Construct regions whose areas are expressed dy the
tegrals
ji
arc tan
a)
]
n_
T
Compute
d(f
sec
<p
rdr\
b)
"T"
these areas.
a(i+coscp)
^9
\
a
in-
Sec
_ _
Computing Areas
3]
2177.
Compute
the area bounded by the straight lines
257
y,
2178. Compute the area lying above the x-axis and bounded
3a.
4ax, and the straight line x-[-y
by this axis, the parabola y*
2179*.
Compute
the area bounded by the ellipse
2180. Find the area
bounded by the parabolas
f
z
y =10x4- 25 and y
6x +
9.
2181. Passing to polar coordinates, find the area bounded by

the lines
2
2
z
Q.
x
x -[-y*
4x,
2x,
x,
y
y
-y =
2182. Find the area bounded by the straight line r cosq)=l

circle r~2. (The area is not to contain a pole.)
2183. Find the area bounded by the curves
and the
= a(14coscp)
and
acosq>(a>Q).
bounded by the
2184. Find the area

(
~*~
V 4
line
(/!V__
" ~ **_//?
"9 J
'
4"
2185*. Find the area bounded by the ellipse
(x2y
!-3)
4 (3* -\-4y-
1)
100.
2186. Find the area of a curvilinear quadrangle bounded by

2
z
the arcs of the parabolas x --=ay x*
a,x,
y
by y*
$x(Q<.
<a<b, 0<a<p).
Hint. Introduce the
new variables u and

x2
= uy,
if
u,
and put
vx.
2187. Find the area of a curvilinear quadrangle bounded by

the arcs of the curves if=ax, if
a, xy
bx, xy
$(Q<.a<.b,
0<a<p).
Hint. Introduce the
new variables u and

u,
-1900
v,
y*~vx.
and put
(Ch. 7
258
Sec. 4. Ccmputing Volumes
The volume V
a cyltndroid bounded above by a continuous surface

of
low by the ph-ne 2
0, and on the sides by a right cylindrical
surface, which cuts out of the ju/-plane a region S (Fig. 94), is equal to
*
= /(*,
y),
be
2188. Use a double integral to express the volume of a pyravertices 0(0,

0)",
A(\, 0, 0), fl(l, 1,0) and C(0, 0, 1)
ol
the
limits
Set
integration.
95).
up
(Fig.
mid wiih
C(0,0,1)
Fig. 94
Fig. 95
In Problems 2189 to 2192 sketch the solid

expressed by the given double integral:
2189.
f
J
dx
f (1
J
Z-X
2190.
y)dy.
2193. Sketch the solid

V a*
tegral
dx
- x*
YC?
2191.
value
is
x)dy.
2192.
whose volume
tfy* dy\
whose volume
is
expressed by the in-
reason geometrically to find the
of this integral.
2184. Find the volume of a solid bounded by the elliptical
2
x + y=\, and the coordi2x* -f f/
1, the plane
paraboloid z
nate planes.
215. A solid is bounded by a hyperbolic paraboloid z x* tf
and the planes (/ 0, e 0, x=l. Compute its volume.
Sec. 5]
2196.
planes
*/
solid
= 0,
is
= 0,
th
Computing
Area* of Surfaces
2
bounded by the cylinder x
y = x.
Compute
its
=a
+-z
259
and the
volume.
Find the volumes bounded by the following surfaces:
= y\ x* -\-y* --='*, 2 = 0.
=
= 2J/T, * + 2 = 6, 2 = 0.
y"x,
y
=
x* +y\ y = x
z
//=!, 2 = 0.
x -}-*H-2 = a, 3*4-*/ = a, ~x4-tj=â,
+ -1, y = *' = 0, 2 = 0.
= 2ax, 2 = a*, 2 = p* (a > p).
x
if
2197. az
2198.
2199.
2200.
2201.
2202.
f/
*/
= 0,
= 0.
-h
In Problems 2203 to 2211 use polar and generalized polar

coordinates.
2203. Find the entire volume enclosed between the cylinder
2
2
2
2
a
x 2 -\-y
a and the hyperboloid x -f- if
2*
2204. Find the entire volume contained between the cone
2
2
2
z* =
a
2
and the hyperboloid x 2 -f- if
2(* +if)
2
x + /* f
2205. Find the volume bounded by the surfaces 2a2
**
4-//
=a
= 0.
volume
2206. Determine the
of the ellipsoid
2207. Find the volume of a solid bounded by the paraboloid

2
2
2
-= x 2 H- // 2 and the
3a
-f- 2
(The volume lying
sphere * 4inside the paraboloid is meant.)
2208. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the jq/-plane t
2
2
2
2
the cyl inder x -*- y
2a^, and the cone x -f if = 2
2209. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the jq/-plane,
2
2
2
the surface 2 =-ae~ <*'J4 " >, and the cylinder x + y = /?
2210. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the *f/-plane,
202
the paraboloid
=^+
=
and the cylinder
^-h| 2
2211. In what ratio does the hyperboloid

2
2
2
divide the volume of the sphere x 4- t^
2212*. Find the volume of a solid bounded
4-
2~.
jc
^3a
-h//
= a*
by the surfaces
Sec. 5. Computing the Areas of Surfaces
The area o of a smooth single-valued surface z

on the jci/-plane is the region S, is equal to
-JJ
= f(x
y),
whose projection
260
[Ch. 7
%+j+=
2213. Find the area of that part of the plane
lies between the coordinate planes.

2214. Find the area of that part of the surface of the cylin2
2
der x 4 y
R 2 (zÔ) which lies between the planes z mxand
which
=
= nx(m>n>Q).
2215*.
2
Compute
2
2
=z
the
area of that
part
which is situated
y
bounded by the plane y -\-z-a.
cone x
2216.
Compute
2
2
y
cylinder 2
2
2
2
x
y +z =-a
2217. Compute
the area
=ax
of that
which
part
of
out
of
cut
is
of the
in the
first
the
it
surface of the
octant and is
surface of the
by the sphere
sphere x
-\-
the area
=a
of that
part
of the
y2
cut out by the surface

-^
surface
of
the
..2
+ ^=1.
2218. Compute the area of that part of the surface of the

2
2
ax
paraboloid y + z = 2ax which lies between the cylinder tf
and the plane x= a.
2219. Compute the area of that part of the surface of the
2
2
2ax which lies between the xy-plane and the
cylinder x + y
cone x
-\-y
=z
2
.
2220*. Compute the area of that part of the surface ol the

2
2
= 2ax.
cone x 2 y 2
which lies inside the cylinder x 2
z
f/
2221*. Prove that the areas of the parts of the surfaces of the
2
2
z
2
2az arid x
2az cut out by the cylinparaboloids x + y
y
2
2
der x -\-tf
are
size.
of
R
equivalent
2222*. A sphere of radius a is cut by two circular cylinders
whose base diameters are equal to the radius of the sphere and
which are tangent to each other along one of the diameters of the
sphere. Find the volume and the area of the surface of the remaining part of the sphere.
2223*
An opening with square base whose side is equal
to a is cut out of a sphere of radius a. The axis of the opening
coincides with the diameter of the sphere. Find the area of the
surface of the sphere cut out by the opening.
of
2224*. Compute the area
that
part of the helicoid
= carctan
ders
X
2
-i-y
which
=a
lies
in
the
first
octant
between the cylin-
and
Sec. 6. Applications of the Double
Integral
in
Mechanics
1. The mass and static moments ot a lamina. If S is a region in an

jq/-plane occupied by a lamina, and Q (x, y) is the surface density of the
lamina at the point (x, y), then the mass
of the lamina and its static
Sec. 6]
Applications of the Double Integral in Mechanics
moments
x and
double integrals
A4
MY
relative to the
--=
(x, y)
dx
and t/-axes are
x-
Mx= J
dy,
jj
(S)
yQ
expressed
261
by the
dx dy,
(x, y)
(S)
M Y =^
J*e(x,
y)dxdy.
(1)
(5)
If
the lamina
homogeneous, then Q
is
2. The coordinates
centre of gravity of a lamina, then
My
_i_
where
is
tive to the
formulas
(1)
const.
(x, y)
of the centre of gravity of a lamina.
-M
~_
//
M x My
coordinate axes (see 1).

we can put Q=l.
the
3. The moments
lamina relative
of
to the x-
/X=
S S
and
t/-axes are,
y'Q (x, y) dx dy,
of
its
is
moments
The
moments
static
rela-
homogeneous, then in
of inertia 01 a
respectively, equal to
/r=
*2 Q
J J
(*. y)
*x dy.
(2)
(S)
(S)
The moment
are
lamina
a lamina.
of
inertia
the
'
the mass of the lamina and

If
is
(x, y)
x
d
'
If
inertia of a lamina relative to the origin
is
(3)
Putting Q(X, //)-=! in formulas

inertia of a plane iigure.
2225. Find the
mass
(2)
and
(3),
of a circular
we
get the geometric
lamina
of radius
proportional to the distance of a point

density
and is equal to 6 at the edge of the lamina.
is
2226.
OB = a
A lamina has the

OA = b, and its
shape of a right
moments
if
of
the
from the centre
triangle
with
legs
and
density at any point is equal to the

distance of the point from the leg 0/4. Find the static moments
of the lamina relative to the legs 0/4 and OB.
2227. Compute the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the
sin*
area OmAnO (Fig. 96), which is bounded by the curve //
and the straight line OA that passes through the coordinate origin
and the vertex
(-^
Ij
of a sine curve.
2228. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an area
bounded by the cardioid r = a(\ + cosij)).

2229. Find the coordinates of the centre
of gravity of a circular sector of radius a with angle at the vertex 2a (Fig. 97).
2230. Compute the coordinates of the centre of gravity of an
area bounded by the parabolas //
4.x f 4 and if
2x4-4.
2231. Compute the moment of inertia of a triangle bounded
2 relative to the #-axis.
2, y
2, #
by the straight lines x
y
[Ch. 7
262
2232. Find the

ters
d and
moment
D(d<D):
a)
of inertia of an annulus with diamerelative to its centre, and b) relative to
diameter.
2233. Compute the moment of inertia of a
relative to the axis passing through its vertex
the plane of the square.
2234*. C)mpute the moment of inertia of
the parabola if = ax by the straight line x
its
square with side a

perpendicularly to
segment cut
=a
straight line
//
relative
to
oil
the
a.
Fig. 96
2235*. Compute the moment of inertia of an area bounded by

4 and the straight line x-\-y
the hyperbola xy
5 relative to
the straight line x
y.
2236*. In a square lamina with side a, the density is proportional to the distance from one of its vertices. C:>mpute the moment of inertia of the lamina relative to the side that passes
through this vertex.
2237. Find the moment of in?rtia of the cardioid r
a(l
cos<p)
relative to the pole.
2238. Compute the moment of inertia of the area of the lem2
2
niscate r ^-2a cos2cp relative to the axis perpendicular to its
in
the
pole.
plane
2239*. Compute the moment of inertia of a homogeneous lamina
bounded by one arc of the cycloid xâ(t
sin/), y
a(\
cos/)
and the x-axis, relative to the x-axis.
=
=
Sec. 7. Triple Integrals
1. Triple integrals in rectangular coordinates. The triple integral of the

/(*, y, <) extended over the region V is the limit of the corresponding threefold iterated sum:
function
62
= lim
max
max
max
\x\
A'/j
- o
~> o
Az/c -> o
2 2 2^
f
fa
(*t> &/>
'
Sec. 7]
2o3
Triple Integrals
Evaluation of a triple integral reduces to th? successive computation

ordinary (onefold iterated) integrals or to the computation
double and one single integral.
three
Example
Z d*d/dz,
JJ*y
V
/=.$
where the region V
We
is
defined by the inequalities
have
X
2
'</
Example
one
Compute
1.
Solution.
of the
of
7T
dy
Evaluate
2.
AT
extended over the volume of the ellipsoid
//
--
-|-
-j-
Solution.
a
x2
dxdy
dz
x2
dA-
J J
-a
(V)
S yz
is
We
^ + -^^1 --
the area of the ellipse
S vvzz -=Jib I/
x*S
^
yz
dx
-a
(5^.)
M^
\\here
dydz=
^^
j^2
JC
= cons ^
an(^
=*n
\-V
r
a
l-~-c
a-
therefore finally get
-a
(V)
2. Change
of variables in a triple integral.
0.
If
in tha triple integral
2)dxdydz
from the variables AT, //, z to the variables

it is required to pass
u, ay,
which are connected with *, //, z bv the relations x
^(u v, w), y = ty(u,v,w),
z = X(". u ^)i where the functions cp, i|), x are:
1) continuous together with their paitial first derivatives;
,
2)
in one-to-one (ind,
tween the points
some region
in
both directions, continuju?) correspondence beV oi xf/z-space and the points of
of the region of integration
of l/l/l^-space;
[Ch. 7
264
3) the functional
of these functions
determinant (Jacobian)
dx dx
dx
~dv
dw
dii
D (u,
v,
dy
dy dy
da dv dw
w)
dz
dz
dz
dw
da dv
we can make
region V, then
retains a constant sign in the
use
the for-
of
mula
=
$ J
\f(x,y,2)dxdydz
(V)
\
IT ( w
\ f
L?
w )>
>
ty( u
>
w )<
In particular,
1) for cylindrical coordinates
X
get
cp,
rcosrp,
spherical coordinates
the radius vector) (Fig. 99),
we have
r,
//
h (Fig. 98), where

z^-//,
rsinrp,
r\
2) for
r
du dv dw.
Fig. 99
Fig. 98
we
Example
3.
= r cos
cos
i|)
cp,
ap,
r (
the
latitude,
where
cos 9,
f/
= /-cosi|3 sin
sin
v|\
i[).
Passing to spherical coordinates, compute
JSJ
(V)
where V
is a sphere of radius R.
Solution. For a sphere, the ranges of the spherical
tude), \|) (latitude), and r (radius vector) will be
coordinates
fp
(longi-
Sec
We
265
Triple Integrals
7\
therefore have
f f f
Vx
-\-y
3. Applications
sional A'//z-space
-\-z*dxdydz=\
of
dcp
dty f r A'COS \|?dr
The volume
triple integrals.
= Ji# 4
of a region of
three-dimen-
is
<n
The mass
of a solid
occupying the region V
-----
C f f
z)
is
(V)
where \(x,y,z) is the density of the body at the point (*,//,*).

The slal/c moments of the body relative to the coordinate planes are
M yy =
"(V)'
Myz =
(*
(*
I
'
)}
0')"
MZX
~-
'
(A
f/
2)
f/
dx dy dz.
(V)
The coordinates
gravity are
of the centre of
_
J ~~
'
'
Al
then we can put Y (*, y> z) =

If the solid is homogeneous,
mulas for the coordinates of the centre of gravity.
The moments of inertia relative to the coordinate axes are
T-
J J $
(y*
+ **) Y (*,
U, 2)
dx dy
in
the
for-
dz;
(V)
(V)
l
=J
J J
(*
(V)
Putting
of inertia
of
Y(*0
î^21
in
* nese
formulas,
we
get the
the body.
A. Evaluating triple integrals

Set up the limits of integration in the triple integral
J J
(V)
for
the indicated regions V.
^f(x,y,
z)dxdydz
geometric
moments
266
Multifile
2240.
is
a tetrahedron
Jr
2241.
is
2242*.
2243.
is
+ ^fl
J/
= 0,
= 0.
= 0,
= /f.
volume bounded by the surfaces
000
2245.
= 0,
cone bounded by the surfaces
Compute the following

2244.
bounded by the surfaces
a cylinder
is
bounded by the planes
yJrZ =\,
JC'
[Ch. 7
and Lire Integrals
integrals:
+ +-2+1
djt
dy
2246
fd*
00
('
1-X
2247.
rfy
.1
.)
dx
1-JC-t/
dy
xyzdz.
J
o
2248. Evaluate
d* dy dz
'
1)3
where V is the region ol integration

planes and the plane x-\~y-[z\.
2249. Evaluate
bounded
by the coordinate
r r r
(V}
where V (the region

2
paiaboloid
2cu^x
of
2
-\-y
integration) is the
and the sphere X?
common
of the
part
+ y* + 2 ^3a
2
.
2250. Evaluate
(V)
where
spheres
V (region
x
+ y*
\-z*
of
integration)
^R'
and
is
the
+ \f + z
common
^ 2Rz
part
of
the
gee.
__
Triple Integrals
7]
267
2251. Evaluate
^zdxdydz,
(V)
where V
is
volume bounded by the plane

j. +
half of the ellipsoid
-+
and the upper
-J.==l.
2252. Evaluate
(V)
where
Xz
is
2
IJ
+ "^r
the interior of the ellipsoid

~^r
2253. Evaluate
where
2
(jc
region
(the
2
hi/
of
is
integration)
and the plane
bounded
the
by
cone.
= h.
2254. Passing to cylindrical coordinates, evaluate
where V
2
jc
the surfaces x*
is a region bounded by
a
-=z and containing the point (0,0, R).
-|
//
2255. Evaluate
2
21
jc
transforming it to cylindrical coordinates.

Evaluate
first
225(5.
di/
dz,
transforming it to cylindrical coordinates.

2257. Evaluate
first
VR*-X*
Vfla-jir*-0a
J
\dx
-/?
first
transforming
-/f^TJa
it
dy
(A:
to spherical coordinates.
+y*
-\-
z*
= 2Rz
[Ch. 7
268
2258. Passing to spherical
evaluate the integral
coordinates,
(V)
where V
B.
is
the interior of the sphere x -\-y
Computing volumes by means
2259. Use a triple integral

bounded by the surfaces
to
+z
triple integrals
of
compute the volume
of a solid
2260**. Compute the volume of that part of the cylinder

2
2
x 2 -f tf = 2ax which is contained between the paraboloid* + y = 2az
and the xy-plane.
2261*. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the sphere
2
2
2
2
2
2
x +y +z =a and the cone z ---x + /y" (external to the cone).
2262*. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the sphere
2
2
z
x 2 +y +z = 4 and the paraboloid x +if=-3z (internal to the
paraboloid).
2263. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the xy-plane,
z
2
2
2
z
2
a (internal
ax and the sphere x
the cylinder x
-f- z
to the cylinder).
2264. Compute the volume of a solid bounded by the paraboloid
+y =
+y
+ -~ = 2 -i
and the plane
C. Applications
to
of
triple integrals
mechanics and physics
2265. Find the mass
0<z<c,
<*/<??,
Fig.
and the plane
(l(x,
y,
z)
point
the den-
if
y,
(x,
= x-\-y-\-z.
z)
is
2266. Out of an octant of the

2
2
2
2
c
z
x .> 0,
x
y
sphere
cut a solid OABC
*/^0,
bounded by the coordinate planes
+ +
zÔ
100
-+- =
sity
the
of a rec-
Q^xâ,
tangular parallelepiped
at
x--=a.
(a
c,
&<c)
(Fig.
100).
<
Find the mass
of this body if the density at each point (x, y, z) is equal to

the 0-coordinate of the point.
2267*. In a solid which has the shape of a hemisphere
22*0, the density varies in proportion to the
Improper Integrals Dependent on a Parameter
Sec. 8]
260
distance of the point from the centre. Find the centre of gravity
of the solid.
2268. Find the centre of gravity of a solid bounded by the
2
2
4x and the plane x=2.
paraboloid // +2z
2269*. Find the moment of inertia of a circular cylinder,
whose altitude is h and the radius of the base is a, relative to
the axis which serves as the diameter of the base of the cylinder.
2270*. Find
the
moment of inertia of a circular con^
base,
a, and
(altitude, /i, radius of
density Q) relative to
the diameter of the base.
2271**. Find the force of attraction exerted by a homogeneous
cone of altitude h and vertex angle a (in axial cross-section) on
a material point containing unit mas^ and located at its vertex.
2272**. Show that the force of attraction exerted by a homogeneous sphere on an external material point does not change if
the entire mass of the sphere is concentrated at its centre.
on a Parameter.
Sec. 8. Improper Integrals Dependent
Improper Multiple Integrals

1. Differentiation with respect to a parameter. In the case of certain
imposed on the functions / (.v, a), f'a (x, a) and on the corresponding improper integrals \vc have the Leibniz rule
restrictions
(.v,
a) dx
Example
fa
(A-,
a) dx.
differentiating with respect to a parameter, evaluate
By
1.
'i
~~
>
dx
(a
> 0,
> 0).
Solution. Let
Then
~
da
Whence F
equation.
(a,
We
p)
have
Whence C(p)
2a
Ina + C(p). To
0=
= -^-lnp.
In P
Hence,
find
+ C(P).
"2a*
C(p), we put a =
in the latter
270
2. Improper double and

a) An infinite region. If
region 5, then we put
triple integrals.
a function f (x, y) is continuous in
y)
\{f(x,
U
[Ch. 7
dx dy
lim
"S\
( f (x, y)
an unbounded
dx dy,
(1)
where a is a finite region lying entirely within S, where a -+ S signifies that

we expand the region o by an arbitrary law so that any point of 5 should
enter it and remain in it. If there is a limit on the right and if it does not
depend on the choice of the region o then the corresponding improper inte,
gral
is
called convergent
otherwise it is divergent.
is
nonnegative [f (x,
//)
If the inU'grand / (,v,

vergence of an inirioper integral
is
it
y)^Q], then
on
the right of (1) lo exist at least for

the region 5.
b) A discontinuous function. If a function / (x, y)
uous in a bounded closed region S, except the point
(*,
for
the con-
and sufficient for the limit

one system of regions o that exhaust
necej-sary
y)dxdy=\\m
is
everywhere contin-
(a,
b),
then we put
f(x,y)dxdy.
(2)
where S 6 is a region obtained from S by eliminating a small region of dia

meter e that contains the roint P. If (2) has a limit that does not depend
on the tyre of small regions eliminated from 5, the improper integral under
is called convergent, otherwise it is divergent.
/(A, //)^>0, then the limit on the ripht of (2) is not dependent on the
type of regions eliminated from S; for instance, such regions may be circles
consideration
If
with centre at P.
of radius
The concept
of
of
improper double integrals
is
readily extended to the case
triple integrals.
Example
2.
Test for convergence
dxdy
3)
is}
where S
is the entire j/-plane.

Solution. Let a be a circle of radius
origin. Passing to polar coordinates for
If
p<
then
then
1,
lim
lim 7 (a)
O -* S
7(o)=
= lim
Q
/(a)
=00 and
with
p^
1,
centre
at
the
coordinate
we have
the integral diverges. But
if
p>
1,
~f QC
and
the
integral
converges.
For
p=l
we
have
Sec. 8]
_
Q
2JT
Improper Integrals Dependent on a Parameter
(a)= Cdcpf -f^l-==jiln(l+Q

r
*
J
lim/(a)
);
~r
Q -*
oo
for
p>
= oo,
that
is,
271
the
integral
diverges.
Thus, 'the integral
2273. Find
(3)
/' (*),
converges
1.
if

+
00
*f'
2
\
J ^
,2
(l/
dz
2)
QC
satisfies
the Laplace equation
*u
dx*
is
'
~c)y*
2275. The Laplace transformation

defined by the formula
Find
d)
d
~U
+
^ *-Q
F(p),
if:
= cos p/.
/(/)
a)
/(O-l;
b)
(p)
/(/)=e;
2276. Taking advantage of the (ormula
compute the
integral
\
xn
2277*. Using the formula
evaluate the integral
for the
\nxdx.
c)
function /(/)
/(/)
= sinp/;
272
Applying differentiation with respect
__
\Ch. 7
to a parameter,
evaluate
the following integrals:

GO
2278.
"
00
2279
rno^
228
"-""*
~**~ e ~'X
ax
arc tan
dx
>
0,
>
0).
smrnxdx (a>0, p>0).

.
dx
e-<"d*
2282.
(a
(oÔ).
Evaluate the following improper integrals:

GO
QC
2283.
x_
2284.
2285.
\dy\ev
dx.
\\
c) c/
*,
^ 4 ~r
where S
is
a region defined
by the inequali-
(5)
ties
#^5
2287.
1,
The
Euler-Poisson
integral
defined
by
the
formula
00
may
also be written in the
uate / by multiplying
coordinates.
2288. Evaluate
CO
form
I=\c-^dy.
Eval-
these formulas and then passing to polar
00
GO
dz
273
Line Integrals
See. 9]
Test for convergence the improper double integrals:

2
2289**.
where S
55 \nVx*-\-y dxdy,
is
circle
2
f/
<K
(S)
2290.
where S
TTiriva
is
defined by
region
the ine-
(6')
quality x
2291 *.
2292.
tf^\
-|
$,
("exterior" of the circle).

.
J_
d xd
CCr
JJJ
(x T~
where S
^\
\
a square
is
where V
is
<
A;
|
\y\^l.
defined
region
by
the
(V)
inequality x
-\-
if
-\-
("exterior" of a sphere).
Sec. 9. Line Integrals
1. Line integrals of the (Irst type. Let / (x, y) be a continuous function

= (p (A-) [a<: \ <;&] be the equation of some smooth curve C.
*/
Let us construct a system of points M, (A-,-, //,) (/~0, 1, 2, .... n) that
break up the curve C into elementary arcs Al _,M = As and let us form the
and
integral
max
2^
sum S n
As/ -^ 0,
is
AV
^ s r ^ ne
#/)
'
im it of this sum,
when n
-* oo
and
called a line integral of the first type

n
lim
"->>ac
(cfs
is
2=
/(xf,
r/,-)
As/=
/ (x,
i/)
ds
the arc differential) and
is
evaluated from the formula
b
'
f (A
!/) rfs
C
In
the
case
-
'
"
of
rt
],
J
a
f(x
parametric
we have
cp (,v))
y~\
+ (q>'
representation
of
(A-))
the
c/.vr.
curve
C:
.Y
= q>(/),
Also considered are line integrals of the first type of functions of three
variables f (x, y, z) taken along a space curve. These integrals are evaluated
in like fashion A line integral of the lirsl type does not depend on the direction of the path of integration; if the integrand / is interpreted as a linear
density of Hie curve of integration C, then this integral represents the mass
of the curve C.
274
Example
1.
Evaluate the
[Ch. 7
line integral
where C is the contour of the triangle ABO with vertices A (1,

and 0(0, 0) (Fig 101).
Solution. Here, the equation AB is (/=l
x, the equation
and the equation OA is */ = 0. We therefore have
AB
2. Line
uous
BO
0),
OB
B
is
(0,
1),
= 0,
OA
integrals of the second type. If P (x, y) and Q (x, y) are continand f/ <p(A) is a smooth curve C that runs from a to b as
functions
A
Fig.
x varies, then the corresponding
101
line integral
of the
second type
is
expressed
as follows:
(x,
y)dx + Q
(x,
y)dy =
[P
(x,
cp
(*))
<p'
(x)
(x, q> (x))\ dx.
In the more general case when the curve C is represented parametrically:

y
ty(t), where / vanes from a to 0, we have
= <P(0,
y)
Similar formulas hold

space curve.
dy
for
'
[P
(<p
Une
(0,
integral of
(9(0,
the
second
type
(OJ
taken
over a
A line integral of the second type changes sign when the direction of the
path of integration is reversed. This integral may he interpreted mechanically
P (x, y), Q(x, y) } along the
as the work of an appropriate variable force
{
curve of integration C
Example 2. Evaluate the line integral
Cyi
____
____
C is the upper half

clockwise.
Solution. We have
where
2
y dx
275
Line Inlegtah
Sec. 9]
+ x* dy =
[b
sin
the
of
t-(a sin
*--=a cost,
ellipse
/)
+a
-b cos /] dt
ab* f sin 8
dt
+ a*b
jt
3. The case
of a total differential.
traversed
sin*
oo
cos 2
=b
dt
= -t a&.
?t
the
If
C cos 8
of
integrand
line integral
second type is a total differential of some single-valued function

U^--U(x, */), that is, P (x, y)dx-\-Q(x, y)dy-=dU(x, y], then this line integral
is not dependent on the path of integration and we have the Newton-Leibniz
formula
(x 2 yj
of
the
P(x, y)dx
where
is
In particular,
if
(x lt
y)dy = U(x 2
+ Q(x,
the initial and (* 2 #,) is the

the contour of integration C
,
yJ
terminal
is
(x l9
point
then
closed,
(1)
</,),
the
of
path
(2)
of integration C is contained entirely within some

S and 2) the functions P(r, (/) and Q (x, y) together
with tlvir partial dcnviitives of the first order are continuous in 5, then a
is the
necessary and sufficient coiditioi foi th? existence of the function
identical" fulJilment (in S) of the equality
If
1)
the
contour
simnlv-connectH
reaio.i
2_^
dX
(3)
(d)
~dy
If conditions one and two are not ful(see integration of total differentials)
does not guarantee the existence of a
jillcd, the presence of condition (3)
single-valued lunction U, and formulas (1) and (2) may prove wrong (see
Problem 23:2) We give a method of finding a function U (x, u) from its
total diflerential based on the use of line integrals (which is yet another
method of integrating a total differential). For the contour of integration C
let us take a broken line P P
(Fig 102), where P (.v
y ) is a fixed [oint
and
0,
y and dy
(x, y) is a variable point. Then along P P, we have y
We get:
we have dx
and along P t
(x
y)-U
II
(J
(x
)=
(x,
y)
dx
+ Q (x,
y)
dy =
y
(x.
Similarly, integrating with respect to
P C P 2 M, we have
x
U(x.
y)-U(*v
*/
)-$Q(* y)dy+^P(x,
,
Vo
x*
y)dx.
y)dy.
[Ch. 7
276
+ 2y) dx+ (2x 6y) dy = dU.

= O, y = Q. Then
Find U.
Example 3. (4x
Solution. Let A-O
U(x,
y)
or
+ 2y) dx + C=
U
where C
(0,
0)
is
-i-c,
3//
Uo
--4/I
XQ
102
Fig.
4. Green's formula for a plane. If C is the boundary of a region S and

the functions P (x, y) and Q (x, y) are continuous together with their firstorder partial derivatives in the closed region S-j-C, then Green's formula holds:
(S)
here
t'ê
remain
circulation about the contour
chosen so that the region S should
is
to the left.
5. Applications
of line integrals.
(p
An
y
area
dx=
bounded by the closed contour C
(p
is
xdy
(the direction of circulation of the contour is chosen counterclockwise).

The fo lowing formula for area is more convenient for application:
2)
The work
(x,
X=
X(x, y,
of a force, having projections
accordingly, the work of a force field),
z) (or,
2),
Y=Y
(x, y,
along a path
z),
is
Sec. 9]
__
277
Line Integrals
expressed by the integral
A= ^Xdx + Ydy + Zdz.

c
If the force has a potential, i.e., if there exists a function

potential function or a force function) such that
(a
dV
dx
=A
dU
dU
j
TT
-7
*j)
//2,
where
(v l5
(*J,
'/J.
(*i,
l/ lt
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz^
J
(*|. {/,,
dU
the initial and (x 2
Zj) is
= U(x
is
tli2
2293.
xyds, where
2t
y tt
z 2 )-t/ (x lt y,
z } ),
terminal point of the path.
A. Line Integrals of the First
Evaluate the following
equal to
2-J
z2)
</,,
is
Z.)
Zi)
f/ 1?
(x, y, z)
dz
dy
then the work, irrespective of the shape of the path C,

(*.
U=U
Type
line integrals:
the contour of the square
is
x\
y\
=a
(fl>0).
s
2294.
--^=
,.
2
A:
if
|-
connecting the points 0(0,
^xyds, where
2295.
where
a segment of the straight line
is
\-
and A
0)
(I,
a quarter
is
2).
of the
lying
the
in
2296.
first
fi>
quadrant.
where C
ifds,
ellipse î
is
the
first
arc of the cycloid x
=a
(t
sin /)>
cos
(1
/).
}x
2297.
+y
ds,
where
circle
----
a (cos
2298.
^ (x
(-/sin/), y
2
2
-\-
d$,
is
an arc
= a(smt
where C
is
of the involute of
the
tcost) I0^/=^2ji].
an arc
of the logarithmic spi-
c
ral
râe m v(m>Q)
2299.
niscate r
2300.
+ y)
JU
c
= a cos2<p.
rfs
where C
is
(0, a)
to the point
0(
oo, 0).
the right-hand loop of the lem-
(A:
\-y)ds,
c
q/2
from the point
>
where
is
an
arc
of
the
curve
JK
=^
278
2301.
%2
(*
~T~
# = acos/ y = as\nt,
f
2302.
J t/"2#
is
the
where
is
turn of the screw-line
first
= bt.
-I-
where
*2
[Ch. 7
z ds y
the
circle
+ y +z = a
2
2
,
x=y.
2303*. Find the area of the
cylinder y
surface
lateral
the parabolic
of
= 0, x~0, 2 = x, = 6.
//
ae cos?,
2304. Find the arc length of the conic screw-line C x
sin /, z
ae from the point 0(0, 0, 0) to the point A (a, 0, a).
2305. Determine the mass of the contour of the ellipse
1
y = ae*
2
2-
yi
-T2-
= l,
if
the linear density ot
it
at each
point
M (x,
y) is
equal to \y\.
2306. Find the mass of the first turn of the screw-line A; = a cos/,
y = asmt, zbt, if the density at each point is equal to the
radius vector of this point.
2307. Determine the coordinates of the centre of gravity of
a half-arc of the cycloid
x = a(t
sin
/),
y = a(\
cost)
[0</<ji].
2308. Find the moment of inertia, about the z-axis, of the

turn of the screw-line x = a cos/, !/
bt.
asin/, z
2309. With what force will a mass
distributed with uni2
2
form density over the circle x -f y 2
a
z
0, act on a mass m
located at the point A (0, 0, &)?
first
B. Line Integrals of the Second
Type
Evaluate the following line integrals:

2310.
J (x
2xy)dx-\- (2xy+tf)dy, where
AB
2
parabola y = x from the point
2311.
(2a
y)dx
-xdy,
^4(1,
where C
to
1)
is
an
AB
is
the
point
arc
an arc
of
of the
B(2,
the
4).
first
arch of the cycloid

x
a(t
a(l
sin/), #
cos/)
which arc runs in the direction of increasing parameter
/.
taken along different paths emanating

J 2xydxx dy
OA
from the coordinate origin 0(0, 0) and terminating at the point
2312.
(2,
ia)
1)
(Fig. .103):
the straight line
Om A\
Lim
Sec. 9]
parabola OnA,
b) the
279
Integrals
the axis oi
symmetry
of
which
is
the
of
which
is
the
(/-axis;
c)
the parabola
the axis of
OpA,
symmetry
x-axis;
broken line
d) the
e)
OBA\
OCA.
the broken line

2
2313.
2xydx ^x dy
as in
Problem 2312.
OA
(x+u)dx
(x
x*
+ y*
i/)dy
counterclockwise.
Fig.
^tfdx + x*dy, where C
2315.
103
the upper half of the ellipse
is
xâcost, y =
2316.
bs\r\t traced clockwise.
cosydxsmxdy
taken along the segment
bisector of the second quadrantal

point A is 2 and the ordinate of
d
x!f(l'
2317.
dll}
^*
(f
where C
angle,
is
is
if
the
AB
of the
abscissa oi the
2.
the right-hand
loop
ol
the
lemmscate
co$2(p traced counterclockwise.
2318. Evaluate the line integrals with respect to expressionswhich are total differentials:
r*
(a. 4)
8)
(2.
a)
rt
xdy -\-ydx,
(2,
f
(1.
c)
i)
$
(0, 0)
1)
1)
ydx
d)
b)
(O r
2)
(i.
xdx + ydy,
2)
xdy
,
(along a path
that
does
not
intersect the
280
(x, y)
dx + dy
x ~ry
f
J
e)
f)
p a th
ong a
ât
[C/t.
not
(joes
intersect
the
= 0),
straight line A;-f-y

(* 2
(a i
___
J/ 2 )
q>
J
(*;, </0
2319. Find the antiderivative functions

evaluate the integrals:
integrands and
0)
(3,
a)
of the
(x<
+ 4xy') dx 4
(6x
5#
dy
(-2, -1)
o)
(i,
* J ~~~ y
b)
!
x
-1)
(0,
straight line y
(,
C)
1)
y)
(the integration path does not intersect the
= x),
(x+Wx + ydy
(the integration
j
a.
i)
the straight line y

A\
(0,
\V
X
!
x*
0)
2320.
+ y*
path does not intersect
x),
yA
J
fix
\}^xZ + y
fat
Compute
/=.
xdx + yfy
taken clockwise along the quarter of the
X*
ellipse -5
the first quadrant.

2321. Show that if f(u) is a continuous
closed piecewise-smooth contour, then
+ ^=!
that
lies in
function and
2322. Find the antiderivative function

a)
b)
c)
du = (2x
du = (3* 2
du =
d)' dtt
if:
+ 3y)dx + (3x4y)dy\
2xy + y
2
)
dx
(x
2xy
+ 3y*) dy\
is
Sec
281
Line Integrals
9]
Evaluate the
curves:
2323.
line
taken along the following space
integrals
z)dx+(zx)dy + (x
^ (y
where
tj)dz,
is
turn
c
of the screw- line
i
= asin/,
corresponding to the variation

2324.
of
the parameter
ydx + zdy + xdz, where
(p
c
I
;t
/y
is
from
to
the circle
= /?cosacos/,
= /?cosa sin
= ^sina (a = const),
/,
traced in the direction of increasing parameter.
2325.
xydx + yzdy
+ zxdz,
where
OA
is
an
arc
of
the
OA
circle
situated on the side of the A'Z-plane where //>0.

2326. Evaluate the line integrals of the total
(,
a)
4.
zdz,
xdx-\-ydy
]
(1,
0,
-3)
(i.
i.
i)
(3,
4.
5)
b)
differentials:
8)
//
dx f 2 x dy
-
xd\
\-
xy dz
\-\idij-\-zdz
rA'.|.y"
+2
'
(0, 0, 0)
-M
^v
d)
yte + mv + 'y**
f
J
(i.
xyz
,
(the
integration
path
is
situated
in the first octant).
C. Green's
Formula
2327. Using Green's formula, transform the line integral

/
\f*
-\
if
dx + y [xy +
In
(jc
where the contour
C bounds
the region S.
K?T?)]
dy,
_ _
282
[C/t.
2328. Applying Green's formula, evaluate

/
2 (x?
if)
-t-
dx +
(x
+ y)
dy,
where C
is the contour of a triangle (traced in the positive direcverlices at the points A (I, 1), fl(2, 2) and C(l, 3).
with
tion)
Verify the result obiained by computing the integral directly.
2329. Applying Green's formula, evaluate the integral
x*y dx
+ xif dy,
where C
2330.
chord
is
Find
the circle x*
is
+ if = R*
traced counterclockwise.
A parabola AmB, whose axis is the #-axis and whose

AnB, is drawn through the points A (1,0) and 8(2,3).
(x
+ y)dx(x
y)dy directly and by applying Green's
AmBnA
formula.
2331. Find
e* y [y*
dx
(1 -f xtj)dy\,
\-
if
the points
A and B
AmB
on the #-axis, while the area, bounded by the integration
path AmB and the segment AB, is equal to S.
2332*. Evaluate
Consider two cases:
lie
îfc^f.
when
when
the origin is outside the contour C,

the contour encircles the origin n times.
b)
2333**. Show that if C is a closed curve, then
a)
where
s is the arc length and n is the outer normal.

2334. Applying Green's formula, find the value of the integral
= (j)[xcos(X, n)+ysm(X,
n)]ds,
where ds
is the differential of the arc

the contour C.
2335*. Evaluate the integral
taken along the contour of a
(1,
is
traced counterclockwise.
0).
fl(0
1),
C(-l,
0)
and n
is
the outer normal to
square with vertices at the points

1), provided the contour
and>(0,
2S&
Line Integrals
Sec. 9]
D. Applications of the Line Integral
Evaluate the areas of figures bounded by the following curves:

a cos/, y
bs\nt.
2336. The ellipse x
acos 3 /, #-=asin 8 /.
2337. The astroid jt
x a (2 cos/
cos 2/),
2338. The cardioid
y a (2 sin/
=
=
sin 20-
2339*.
of
loop
the
folium
(a>0).
Descartes x*
+if
3zxy
=Q
= axy.
2340. The curve (x + y)*

2341*. A circle of radius
fixed circle of radius
integer, find the area

by some point of the
of r
of
(cardioid).
A circle of
2342*.
R and
is
rolling without
outside
sliding along a
n
is an
Assuming that
it.
bounded by the curve (epicycloid) described

moving circle. Analyze the particular case
radius
a fixed circle of radius
R and
is
rolling
inside
without sliding along

D
Assuming that
it.
is
an
integer, find the area bounded by the curve (hypocycloid) described by some point of the moving circle. Analyze the particular
r>
when
case
=j
(astroid).
2343. A field is generated by a force of constant magnitude F

Find the work that the field does
in the positive jt-direelion
when a material point traces clockwise a quarter of the circle
2
2
x -^-y ^=R lying in the first quadrant.
2344. Find the work done by the force of gravity when
a material point of mass m is moved ironi position A (JC P // l? zjz 2 ) (the z-axis is directed vertically upto position B (x 2
// 2
,
wards).
2345. Find the work done by an elastic force directed towards
the coordinate origin if the magnitude of the force is proportional to the distance of the point fiom the origin and if the point
of application of the force traces counterclockwise a quarter of
the ellipse
2346.
^s4-î=l
Find
the
lying in the
potential
first
and determine the work done by the

= 0, K:=0. Z-=rng (force
a) X
rial
is
point
B(*
b)
Uv
moved
from
quadrant.
of a force R {X, Y, Z\
force over a given path if:
of gravity) and the mate-
function
position
y l9
zj
where
jx
(x lt
to
position
*i)'-
x=
?,
K=-^. Z=-*
= const
and
Yx* 4 if f (Newton attractive force) and the material point

moves from position A (a, b, c) to infinity;
-\-
_ _
284
X=
c)
force),
x* 4-
Sec.
and
k*x, Y
k*y, Z
the initial point of the
+ z = /?
2
2
,
[Ch. 7
where k
k*z,
= const
(elastic
path is located on the sphere

while the terminal point is located on the sphere
10. Surface Integrals
1. Surface integral of the first type. Let

function and z=-cp(*, y) a smooth surface S.
The
surface integral of the first type
'(x,
//,
z)dS=
n
is
f (x,
//,
2)
be a continuous
the limit of the integral
sum
lim
-> 00
fas
.3
is the area of the

/th element of the surface S, the point (*/, y lt
belongs to this element, and the maximum diameter of elements of partition tends to zero.
The value of this integral is not dependent on the choice of side of the
surface S over which the integration is performed.
If a projection a of the surface S on the jo/-plane is single-valued, that
to the z-axis intersects the surface S at only
is, every straight line parallel
one point, then the appropriate surface integral of the first type may be
calculated from the formula
where AS/
z/)
(*' y)
dx
dlJ-
(a)
Example
where S
is
1.
Compute
the surface integral
the surf ace of the cube
0<Jt<l,
<//<!,
Let us compute the sum of the surface integrals over the

the cube (z=l) and over the lower edge of the cube (z
0):
00
2. Surface
integral
is
of
00
00
The desired surface
upper edge
obviously
three
times
greater
and
equal to
If P
P(x, //, z), Q
Q (*, y, z),
continuous functions and S + is a side of the smooth surface S characterized by the direction of the normal n
{cos a, cos p, cos Y}. t'hen
ihe corresponding surface integral of the second type is expressed as follows:
R = R(x,
integral of the second type.
y, z) are
P dy dz + Q
dz
dx+ R
dx
dy=
f f
(P cos a
-f
cos p
+ R cos Y) dS.
Sec. 10]
285
Surface Integrals
When we pass to the other side, S~, of the surface, this integral reverses sign.
then the direcIf the surface 5 is represented implicitly, F (x, y, z)
0,
tion cosines of the normal of this surface are determined from the formulas
1
OF
COSBQ^
COSa==-pr^-,
D dx
dF
-FT^
D dy
COS VT
OF
-rr- -T
dz
where
and the choice
should
of sign before the radical

of the surface S.
with the side
be
brought into agreement
P (.v, //, z), Q Q (x, //, z),

If
the functions P
continuously differentiable and C is a closed contour bounding a two-sided surface S, we then have the Stokes' formula
3.
formula.
Stokes'
R = R(x,
y, z) are
(j)
dQ\
= rr\fdR
3-- 5- 1
dz
\
JJ l\dy
5
c s
Id?
dR\
Tdx
+
-3
^\dt
fi
cos a
l
+
^
,
dP\
fdQ
T-
3-2-
\dx
dy J
cos v
y
dS,
|
where cos a, cos p, cosy are the direction cosines of the normal to the surface S, and the direction of the normal is defined so that on the side of the
normal the contour S is traced counterclockwise (in a rigiit-handed coordinate
system).
Evaluate the following surface integrals of the

2347.
$$ (*
tf)dS, where S
first
the sphere x +//
is
type:
2
-{-z
= a*.
2348.
5$
Vx
s.
-\-tfdS
where 5
is
the
surface
lateral
the
of
+ g_?6 i= =0 [O^z^bl
cone
Evaluate the following surface

2349.
\ \
integrals
of
the second type:
yz dydz -\-xzdz dx-\- xydxdy, where 5
is
the
external
side of the surface of a tetrahedron
=Q
2350.
= 0, x+y + z = a.
Nzdxdy, where S
is
the external side of the ellipsoid
x dydz-\-y*dzdx + z*dxdy,
2351.
o
where S
is
+? =
2
the
2
a (z
side of the surface of the hemisphere
+//
2352. Find the mass ot the surface of the cube
Os^z
1, if the surface density at the point
Is equal to xyz.
O^y^l,
<
0,
A:
external
^0).
O^x^l,
M (x,
y, z)
_ _
286
[C/i.
2353. Determine the coordinates of the centre of gravity of a
2
2
homogeneous parabolic envelope az^je + #
Find
2354.
the
moment
(0<z<a).
inertia of a part
of
=V
the lateral
of
< <
x 2 -f y 2 [0
z
about the z-axis.
surface of the cone z
ft]
2355. Applying Stokes* formula, transform the integrals:
2
(x
a)
- yz) dx + (y
zx)
dy +
(z
xy) dz\
c
b)
(j)
ydx-\-zdy + xdz.
Applying Stokes' formula, find the given integrals and verify

the results by direct calculations:
2356.
(f (y
+ z)dx + (z + x)dy + (x + y)dz,
where
the circle
is
2357.
x)dy +
z)dx^(z
(y
JC
-|-//
(x
y)dz, where
is
the ellipse
X + 2=l.
=1,
+ (x-{-y)dy + (x + y + z)dz, where C is the curve

= acos/, z = a (sin + cos/) [0 </^2nj.
0sin/,
2359. $ y dx-{ z dy + x dz, where ABC A is the contour of
ABCA
2358. ()xdx
c
//
/IflC with vertices
2360. In what case

/
(a, 0, 0),
is
C (0,
(0, a, 0),
0, a).
the line integral
= $ Pdx + Qdy + Rdz

c
over any closed contour
equal to zero?
11. The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula
Sec.
If
=Q
thMr
is
closed
R=
(A% y, z),
first partial
smooth surface bounding the volume V, and P
(x, y, z),
are functions that are continuous together with

derivatives in the closed region V then we have the Ostro/? (v,
(/,
e)
gradsky- Gauss formula
where crsa, cos p,

surface S
cosy are the direction cosines
of the outer normal to the
Applying the Ostrogradsky-Gauss formula, transform the following surface integrals over the closed surfaces S bounding the
>ec.
11]
The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula
/olume V(t*osa, cosp,

lormal to the surface
2361. JJ
287
cosy are direction cosines of the outer

S).
xydxdy+yzdydz -\-zxdzdx.
2362.
J J
6
x 2 dy dz +
y* dz
dx
+z
d* dy.
2363.
Using the Ostrogradsky-Gauss formula, compute the following

surface integrals:
2o65.
x*dydz + y*dzdx + z*dxdy, where S
the external
is
side of the surface of the
2366.
of a
\ \
cube
O^xâ, O^r/^n, O^zâ.
xdydz + ydzdx + zdxdy, where 5
the external side
is
pyramid bounded by the surfaces x + y-{-z
= a,
= Q,y = Q,
z=-0.
2367.
x*
dydz-\-if dzdx
= z* dxdy,
where 5
the
is
external
side of the sphere x
2368
~a
cos p + 2
2
^(jc cosa-t y
//
2
-|-z
cos
y)
d5,
where S
is
the exter-
nal total surface of the cone
2369. Prove that

direction, then
if
is
closed
surface
and
is
any
fixed
where n
is the outer normal to the surface S.

2370. Prove that the volume of the solid
surface S is equal to
=
-3
V bounded by
the
where cose, cosp, cosy are the direction cosines

normal to the surface S.
of
the outer
288
[Ch. 7
Sec. 12. Fundamentals of Field Theory
1. Scalar and vector

of the point
surfaces f
t/,
(x,
fields.
= /(/>) = /(*,
= C, where
y, z)
z),
C=
defined by the scalar function

is a point
of space. The
const, are called level surfaces of the scalar
scalar field
where
is
(x, y, z)
field.
A vector field is defined by the vector function of the point a a(P)~

a(r), where P is a point of space and r=xi-\-yj+zk is the radius vector
of the point P. In coordinate form, a
a v j-\-a z k, where a x ~a x (x, y, z),
ax i
a
and a z a z (x, //, z) are projections of the vector a on the
y
ay(x, y, z),
coordinate axes. The vector lines (force lines, flow lines) of a vector field are
found from the following system of differential equations
~~~'
dx__dy _dz
scalar or vector
'ry;
-
that
field
where
"
V = ^3-+y^- + ^y
is
not depend on the time

is called nonstationary.
does
t
time,
depends on the
t. The
Gradient.
Th vector
it
if
stationary;
~
it
Hamiltonian operator
the
or
(del,
called
is
nabla),
is
called the gradient of the field U

f (P) at the given point P (ci. Ch. VI, Sec. 6).
The gradient is in the direction of the normal n to the level surface at the
point P and in the direction of increasing function U, and has length equal
to
dn~~
If
the direction
is
\dx
given
by the unit vector
=
(the derivative of the function
3. Divergence and rotation.
+ ay j+a z k
the scalar
is
The rotation
in
cos
- cos p +
a+
the direction
The divergence
diva-^ +
(curl) of a vector field
{cos a, cos p, cos Y},
/).
of a vector field
is
the integral
an dS =
a (P)
~ aî
\~
+ ^^Va.
a (P) = ax + ay j + az k
4. Flux of a vector. The flux of a vector field a(P)

in a direction defined by the unit vector of the normal
S
cosy
is
the
vector
da
y
da z
to the surface
then
an dS
\
\
(ax cos
a -|- a
cos p
through a surfaces
ujcosa, cos p, COSY}
+ az cos Y) dS.
If S is a closed surface bounding a volume V, and n is a unit vector of the

outer normal to the surface S, then the Ostrogradsky -Gauss formula holds,
which
289
Sec. 12]
in vector
form
is
ff
(\
r\
r*
div
5. Circulation of a vector, the work

a along the curve C is defined by
vector
f a
dr =
a s ds
a dx dy
dz.
The
of a Held.
integral of the
line
the formula
a x dx
-f-
a dy -f a z dz
y
(0
and represents the work done by the field a along

projection of the vector a on the tangent to C).
curve
the
(a s is
the
If C is closed, then the line integral (1) is called the

circulation of the
vector field a around the contour C.
If the closed curve C bounds a two-sided surfaces, then Stokes' formula
holds, which in vector form has the form
adr=
f f
rotadS,
/i
where n is the vector of the normal to the surface S; the direction of the
vector should be chosen so that for an observer looking in the direction of n
the circulation of the contour C should be counterclockwise in a right-handed
coordinate system.
6.
tial
Potential
and solenoidal
fields.
The
vector
iield
a(r)
is
called poten-
if
U,
where Uf(r) is a scalar function (the potential of the field).

For the potentiality of a field a, given in a simply-connected domain,
it
be non rotational, that is, rota = 0. In
it is necessary and sufficient that
that case there exists a potential U defined by the equation
dU ~a x dx-}- a v dy -f- a 2 dz.

If
the potential
is a
single-valued function, then
a dr
(B)
U (A);
AB
in
particular, the circulation of the vector
a = 0;
If
is
equal to zero:
m adr=Q.
vector field a (r) is called solenoidal if at each point of the field div
in this case the flux of the vector through any closed surface is zero.
the field is at the same time potential and solenoidal, then div (grad U)=.Q
and the potential function
"Er++5-<>.
is
or
harmonic;
AU=0
'
that
where
is,
it
satisfies the
Laplace
A= *'=;+>+> isthe
Laplacian operator
2371. Determine the level surfaces of the scalar field
where
U = F(Q),
10-1900
\fx*+y*-\-z*.
where
What
will the level surfaces be of a field
290
_ _
[Ch. 7
2372. Determine the level surfaces ot the scalar field
U = arc sin
2373. Show that straight lines parallel to a vector c are the

vector lines of a vector field a(P)
c where c is a constant
vector.
2374. Find the vector lines of the field a
CD*// 4 CDJC/, where CD
is a constant.
2375. Derive the formulas:
a)
+ C K) = C
gTad(UV) = Ugrad
grad (t/ = 26/ grad
grad(C
i/
gradf/
+C
gradV, where C,
and
C2
are constants;
b)
c)
j\
d)
V grad(/ U
AfU\ =-*
grad
e)
grad
(^ J
<p ((/)
cp' (t7)
grad U.
2376. Find the magnitude and the direction of the gradient

3
x*
z
of the field U
if
3xyz at the point A (2, 1, 1). Deterthe
mine at what points
gradient of the field is perpendicular to
the z-axis and at what points it is equal to zero.
2377. Evaluate grad f/, if U is equal, respectively, to: a) r,
b)
r\
c)
+ +
d) /(r)(r
= /?+^qr?).
2378. Find the gradient of the scalar field U

cr, where c is
What will the level surfaces be of this field,
and what will their position be relative to the vector c?
a constant vector.
2379. Find the derivative of the function
given point P(x, y,

this point. 'In
z)
U = ^ + y^ + ~ala
in the direction of the radius vector r of

will this derivative be equal to the
what case
magnitude of the gradient?

2380. Find the derivative
of
the
function
U=
in the di-
rection of /{cosa, cosp, cosy}. In what case will this derivative

be equal to zero?
a)
divâj + C^^Cjdivaj + Cjjdivajj, where C and C

l
constants;
b) div (i/c)
c)
= grad /, where c is
div((/a) = grad U-a+ (/diva.
2382. Evaluate
di
2383. Find div
where
for the
central
are
a constant vector;
vector
field
a(P)
= /(r)~
Sec.
12]
291
+ C a = C rota + C rota where C and

rot(/c) = grad U-c, where c is a constant vector;
rot (Ua) = grad U a + U rot a.
rot(C a l
a)
2)
are
constants;
b)
c)
2385.
Evaluate the divergence and the rotation of the vector

respectively, equal to: a) r\ b) re and c) f(r)c, where c
if
is
a constant vector.
is,
2386. Find the divergence and rotation of the field of linear

velocities of the points of a solid rotating counterclockwise with
constant angular velocity o> about the z-axis.
2387.' Evaluate the rotation of a field of linear velocities
co r
of the points of a body rotating with constant angular
velocity <o about some axis passing through the coordinate origin.
2388. Evaluate the divergence and rotation of the gradient of
the scalar field U.
2389. Prove that div(rota)
0.
2390. Using the Ostrogradsky-Qauss theorem, prove that the
flux of the vector a
r through a closed surface bounding an
arbitrary volume v is equal to three times the volume.
2391. Find the flux of the vector r through the total surface
2
of the cylinder # 2
</? 2 0<e<//.
//
2392. Find the flux of the vector a
x*i
y*j+z*k through:
a) the lateral surface of the cone

0<e<//; b) the
total surface of the cone.
2393*. Evaluate the divergence and the flux of an attractive
j<f^,
force
F=
of a
mass w, located
point of
at the coordinate
through an arbitrary closed surface surrounding this point.

2394. Evaluate the line integral of a vector r around one
turn of the screw-line * = /?cos/; y = Rsmt\ z = lif from / =
origin,
to
2n.
2395. Using Stokes' theorem, evaluate the circulation of the
vector a
zk along the circumference x* + if
x*tfi
R 2 z=-0,
2
2
jt
taking the hemisphere z
J/"/?
if for the surface.
2396. Show that if a force F is central, that is, it is directed
/
+j+
towards a fixed point
and depends only on the distance r from

where
f(r) is a single-valued continuous
point:
function, then the field is a potential field. Find the potential U
F = f(r)r,
this
of the field.
2397. Find the potential

by a material point of mass
nates:
a=
equation
10*
~r. Show
of a gravitational field generated

located at the origin of coordi-
that the potential
satisfies the
Laplace
_ _
292
(Ch. 7
2398. Find out whether the given vector field has a potential
find
if the potential exists:
and
a)
b)
c)
a
a
a=
2399. Prove that the central space field

lenoidal only
is
U,
when
= ~,
f(r)
2400. Will the vector field

a constant vector)?
where k
is
a = r(cxr)
= /(r)rwill
be so-
constant.
be solenoidal (where c
VIII
Chapter
SERIES
Sec.
1.
Number Series
1. Fundamental concepts. A number series

00
a,+a t +...+a +...=

tt
is
called convergent
if
its
has a finite limit as n
>
(1)
tt
sum
The quantity
oo.
S=
lim S n
n -+ oo
is
then called the sum
number
of the series, while the
is
partial
2a
n-\
called the remainder of the series.
If
Sn
the limit lim

n -*
does not exist (or
is
QO
infinite), the series is then called divergent.

If a series converges, then lim a n
Q (necessary condition for convergence).
n-*oo
The converse
not true.
For convergence of the series (1) it is necessary and sufficient that
such that for n
any positive number e it be possible to choose an
and for any positive p the following inequality is fulfilled:
is
(Cauchifs test).
The convergence or divergence
subtract a finite
number
of
2.
Tests of convergence
a)
Comparison
test
*!
I.
of
series
is
not
violated
if
for
>N
we add
or
terms.
its
and divergence
<a,,<6 n
If
+ *,+ ..
of positive series.
after a certain n
n
+*,!+. ..^
and the
series
(2)
converges, then the series (1) also converges. If the series ( J) diverges, then
(2) diverges as well.
It is convenient, for purposes
of comparing series, to take a geometric
progression:
00
2 aq
n=o
n
(a
0),
294
[Ch. 8
Series
which converges
which
is
|^|<land
for
\q\^\, and
diverges for
the harmonic series
divergent series.
Example
The
1.
series
++
converges, since here

a
J_
"~n-2 n
2*'
while the geometric progression

1
n=i
whose ratio
Example
is
<7
The
2.
converges.
series
diverges, since
of
b)
its
In
ln_3
ln_2
general term
is
/i
greater than
the
term
corresponding
the harmonic series (which diverges).
Comparison
test
II.
there
If
exists a finite
and
nonzero
limit
lim ?
y. b
n
n if
a n -^b n ), then the
(in
particular,
the
same time.
Example 3. The
series (1)
and
series
diverges, since
1"
whereas a series with general
Example
4.
The
term
n J
diverges.
series
_J_
_J
converges, since
while a series with general
term
converges.
(2)
converge or diverge
at
Sec. 1]
c)
__
Number
D'Alembert's
Let
test.
>
an
295
Series
certain
(after
n)
and
there be
let
a limit
-l =
lim
n
Then the
it
not
is
<
series (1) converges
if q
the series
known whether
Example
5.
an
-> GO
q.
and
1,
diverges
if
>
If
1.
<7
1,
then
convergent or not.
is
Test the convergence of the series
1+1+1+
2
2
'
22
Solution. Here,
and
?-H =
lim
Hence, the given series converges.

d) Cauchy's test. Let of^Ô (after a certain n) and
lim
n
Then
(1)
converges
if
q<\,
let
there
-> OD
and diverges
if
q>\. When q=l
remains open.
e) Cauchy's integral test. If a n
f(n), where the function f (x)
rnonotomcally decreasing and continuous for jcâ^l, the series
of the convergence of the series
be a limif
n/~ =
the question
is
(1)
positive,
and the
integral
00
"
/ (x)
dx
converge or diverge at the same time.
By means
converges
of
series
if
of the integral test
p>
may
1,
be
and diverges
tested
by
it
may
be proved that the
The convergence of a large number

if p<^\.
comparing with the corresponding Dirichlet
series (3)
Example
6.
Test the following series for convergence
--^"
-U--L + -L+
Solution.
We
*
1
r "'
i
have
1
~
Dirichlet series
__1_1
J^
4/i
'
__
296
[Ch. 8
Series
Since the Dirichlet series converges for p

2, it follows that on the basis of
test II we can say that the given series likewise converges.
3. Tests for convergence of alternating series. If a series
comparison
+ |fll+...,
l+.-.
composed
values of the
of the absolute
(4)
terms of the series
converges,
But if (1) con-
(1),
then (1) also converges and is called absolutely convergent.

verges and (4) diverges, then the series (1) is called conditionally (not absolutely) convergent.
For investigating the absolute convergence of the series (1), we can make
use [for the series (4)] of the familiar convergence tests of positive series.
For instance, (1) converges absolutely if
<
lim
-> oo
In the general case, the divergence of
gence of
But
(4).
n
(4)
?2_J
lim
if
GO
/KI<
lim
or
0-n
>
(1)
or
not
does
1.
from
follow
lim
/\a n
n -> oo K
\>
1,
the
diver-
then not only does
diverge but the series (1) does also.

Leibniz test If for the alternating series
*!-*
conditions
the following
are
(*^0)
+*3- **+
fulfilled:
1)
(5)
^ b ^b
bl
^.
(5)
bn
lim
2)
then
oc
converges.
In this case, for the
remainder
of
Rn
the series
the evaluation
holds.
Example
7.
Test for convergence the series
Solution. Let us
form a series of
the
absolute
values
o!
the
terms of
this series:
Since
lim
lim
I
oo
the series converges absolutely.
Example
8.
The
series
converges, since the conditions of the Leibniz

converges conditionally, since the series
14-
diverges (harmonic series).
-*
4-
4-4
test are fulfilled.
This series
__
Sec
Number
/\
Series
297
Note. For the convergence of an alternating series it is not sufficient that

general term should tend to zero. The Leibniz test only states that an
alternating series converges if the absolute value of its general term tends
to zero monotonically. Thus, for example, the series
its
diverges despite the fact that its general term tends to zero (here, of course,
the monotonic variation of the absolute value of the general term has been
S 2k = S'k + S"k
violated). Indeed, here,
and
S k = cc(S k
lim
k -
Sk
lim
limit
fe
exists
is
a partial
and
sum
finite (S k
is
where
of the
a
is
harmonic
partial
sum
series),
whereas the
o f the convergent geo-
-*
metric progression), hence,
S 2fe =oo.
lim
k
-> 00
On
the other hand, the Leibniz test is not necessary for the convergence
series: an alternating series may converge if the absolute
value of its general term tends to zero in nonmonotonic fashion
Thus, the series
of
an alternating
.22
~3 a
42
~~'""(2n
1)'
converges (and it converges absolutely), although the Leibniz test is not fulfilled: though the absolute value of the general term of the series tends to
zero, it does not do so monotonically.
4. Series with complex terms A series with the general term c n a n
00
z
-]-ib n (i
1)
converges
and only
if,
if,
the
series
with
real
terms
an
n=i
00
and
2&,, conver g e
n
a*
same time;
the
SC
n=i
=S=
n
The series (6) definitely converges

series
whose terms are the moduli

5. Operations on series.
a)
that
is,
convergent series
and
of the
may
8
i
be
+'2Xn =
(6)
is
called absolutely convergent,
terms of the series

multiplied
+a
(6),
+...+fl n + ...=S
if
the
converges.
termwise by
if
a,
then
in this case
any
number
fc;
__
298
Series
b)
sum
the
By
two convergent
(difference) of
fli
[Ch.
series
+ flt+-..+fl n +...=5
+ *,+ .. .+*+...=$,
(7)
If
(8)
*!
we mean
a series
+ (a
bl)
(a,
c)
The product
of
b z)
If
verges
d)
terms
verges
cn
the series
= a,bn + a A-I +
+ (a n
(7)
and
bn )
=S,
S2
the series
is
(8)
+ c>+...+cn +...
+0M = 2
cl
where
*>
(9)
the series (7) and (8) converge absolutely, then the series (9) also conabsolutely and has a sum equal to S S 2
If a series converges absolutely, its sum remains unchanged when the
of the series are rearranged. This property is absent if the series conconditionally.
.
Write the simplest formula of the

the indicated terms:
term
/ith
of the series
using
2401.
1+1+J + I+...
2404.
i+4 + j+^+...
2402.
1+1+1+1+"-
2405.
2403.
1+1 + 4 + 4+..
+ +
+ ~4
2406.
4+*.+ ^+...
f+{ + + +
2407.
2409.
2410.
1+
H-
- 14 ~
1
+...
-I-
In Problems 2411-2415 it is required to write the first 4 or

5 terms of the series on the basis of the known general term a n
.
2411. a n
2412.
2413
|q^.
2414. a n
2415
\*
din*. a
t^.
flrt
Test the following series for convergence by applying the comparison tests (or the necessary condition):
2416.
+1
+ ...+(
1)-'
...
Number
2418.
+ +
0419
J___1_
444^
^
4 ^ 6
2422.
++
2421.
'
'
4^
-I-
'
2i
'
'
'
'
...
-= + -=-f -=
+
^3-4
... 4'
1/2-3
02
2423. 2
299
Series
]fn
(n
+ \)
O"
OJ
+ + y+...
i-
+=;-+..
-'
4 J/3
3 V'2
Using d'Alembert's
(n
test
lest,
the
gence:
2427.
98
-*'
-l=
2
1
!
1-5
''-}
^ 1-5-9
-
"
following
2 "~'
+ 4 4-^- +...-'
1-1)
'
'
'
1-5- 9. ..(4/i-3)
Test for convergence, using Cauchy's test:
Test for convergence the positive series:
2431.
1+1 + 1+...+1+...
1 + 1 + 1+ ..+
_
1
2432.
((H
2433
r4+4T7 + 7no+
)2
r/lo/
^TtjO
+...
+(3n-2M3n+l
24.i+f -^+... +sSFI+

2435.
...
^ + 1- + ^+...+^+...
^
.'^
J_
i
_X.
9
^
j_
__________
l
bones
for
conver-
300
Series
2439.
-+ +
+...
2440.
1+
+...
[Ch.
++...
2441>
2442.
1++.+
1,
4
1-3.5
-3,
1-jT
...
4^M2~*"
1.3.5.. .(2/1-1)
'
""
4-8-12...4n
2445.
""
1000. 1002. 1004... (998

1-4-7. ..(3n-2)
2.5-8...(6 n
!. 5.9...
2447
-7)(6g-4)
+2n)
"
(8_H)(8n -7)
...
I,
'- 4
1 '
4'9
^--^ 1.3.5.7.9
....^ '""
2449
2450.
2451.
1-4-9.
..
""*
'
1-3-5-7- 9... (4n
arcsin.
2455.
sin.
2456.
3)
!,
i=J
2452
152.
Ulnfl+l).
^
\
n J
2457.
,.
~
^-
ri'lnn-ln In n
00
2453.
yinî.
2458.
/J=2
2454
E -'
2459
STTOTJ
Number
Sec. 1]
2464.
Series
cos-2-)
^
2469. Prove that the series

1)
converges for arbitrary q
p>l,
p<l,
if
and
for
?>1,
if
p=l;
p=l.
and for </<!, if

2) diverges for arbitrary q, if
Test for convergence the following alternating series. For convergent series, test for absolute and conditional convergence.
i
(_n-i
2470.
l-
2471.
2472.
l_ + _... +
2473.
l_
2474
+ -....ui--f...
-- - + /2
K3
..
+ 3_... + (^S +
"
'
...
^- -. +(-!)-
2475.
__
2476.
-- -- -- ---^--h...+
+ _. ..+(_!)
^
7=4
2|^2
.^+...
7=4
3^3
4^41
n+\
{)
(n
947Q
"'
l_k!-J-lL_
7
7.9~t"7.9.11
-i
"TV
ii-'
U
\)
1-4. 7... (3/1-2)

7.9-11. ..(2/1
5)'
302
[Ch. 8
Series
na
sin
2481.
2482.
(_l)"l^,
ly-'tan
nî
Vn
2483. Convince yourself that the d'Alembert test for converdecide

ide the quesl
question of the convergence of the
gence does not

series
2a
where
>
whereas by means of the Cauchy
test it is possible to establish

that this series converges.
2484*. Convince yourself that the Leibniz test cannot be
applied to the alternating series a) to d). Find out which of
these series diverge, which converge conditionally and which con-
verge absolutely:
a)'
___
_J
_1_
'
^\
d)
i_
+y
*~
+ 21
.j;
r
3F
"
"L
32
h 5
3?+
__u
"
'
'
'
3*
_
_
T _l + T T + TT T +...
!
Test the following series with complex terms for convergence:

CO
00
^2+#.
2485.
2488.
00
2486,
00
(2 '
X" 7
1=1
V.
1)
''.
2489.
=i
__
Sec.
Number
1]
Series
{/
= X-?
r(2-Q + 1"
l
'
[n(3-20-3ij
fa
2493. Between the curves
and
y=-^
X
and
303
the right
to
intersection are constructed segments parallel

an equal distance from each other. Will the sum
the lengths of these segments be finite?
2494. Will the sum of the lengths of the segments mentioned
of their point of
to the t/-axis at
of
Problem 2493 be
in
curve y
=
X
curve \)^-\
x
finite if the
is
by the
replaced
?
00
Form
2495.
Does
sum
the
^-^ and
the series
of
sum converge?
this
00
2496.
Form
the
anc*
* es *
and
difference
2497.
]T
Does
the
formed
series
by
the
subtracting
series
00
TT
divergent
series
QC
the
for convergence.
'*
rt
of
sef i es
-f
21
n
converge?
sum converges while
2498. Choose two series such that their

their difference diverges.
CC
2499.
Does
Form
the product
of the
QC
V
~nVn
series
and V.OTTM2
tt
this product converge?
2500.
Form
the series
(l
+1 + 1+
..
+ J~-f-
V.
Does
this series converge?
2501. Given the series
1+1 1+
...+
(
-
^+...
Estimate
the error committed when replacing the sum of this series with
the sum of the first four terms, the sum of the first five terms.
What can you say about the signs of these errors?
2502*. Estimate the error due to replacing the sum of the
series
y+
by the sum
2!
(2")
of its first
+ ~3\('2J + " + 5H2")

n terms.
+"
_ __
304
[Ch. 8
Series
2503. Estimate
the
due to replacing the sum
error
the
of
series
by the
sum
JL -L-L-L-l.
4-
^2M3M
of its first
4-
"+/i!^"'
n terms. In particular, estimate the accu-
racy of such an approximation for n=10.

2504**. Estimate the error due to replacing
the
sum
of the
series
1
sum
+ 22 + 32+
+î+
'
n terms. In particular, estimate the accuan approximation for n= 1,000.

2505**. Estimate the error due to replacing the sum of the
by the
of its first
racy of such
series
1
by the
sum
+ 2(i)'43()V.
of
its
first
n terms.
00
Zl
_ I)""
does one have
n=i
take to compute
decimals?
to
2507.
sum
its
How many
two decimal
to
terms of
the series
(2/1
have to take to compute
its
sum
to
to
places?
-MIS*
three
does one
two decimal places?
to three?
to four?
2508*. Find
the
2509. Find the
sum
sum
the
of
series
-L +
gL + jL
..
of the series
Sec. 2. Functional Series
1. Region of convergence. The
set of values of the
argument x
for
which
the functional series

/.<*)
converges
is
+ /.(*)+.. .+M*)+...
called the region of convergence of this series.
S(*)
=
n
where S n
(x)
vergence,
is
of the series.
fl
(x)
+f
called the
lim
Sn
(1)
The function
(x),
-* QO
(x)+ ...+f n (x), and x belongs to

sum of the series; R n (x) = S(x)S n
the
(x) is
region of conthe remainder
Sec. 2]
In
_ _
305
Functional Series
the
cases,
simplest
it
(1), to
convergence of a series
holding x constant.
is
sufficient, when determining the region of
apply to this series certain convergence tests,
Diverges
,%f?
-3-101
Determine the region
1.
104
Fit*.
Example
Diverges
of
of the series
convergence
x+\
" (x+\y ~ (X+\Y

"
~ (*+iy
TT" 2-2* "~T^r t""'~ n- 2" +
1
'
we
Solution. Denoting by u n the general term of the series,
lim
M -*|
\U n
Using d'Alembert's
we
get the
we have
'<!
that
l,
is,
harmonic
the
*'* *
lim I'+H
Jx+l\
2
n^*2 n + (n+\) |jc|
series
that
series
+ -~
(c n
and a are
gence)
a
|
+ c, (A-a) + c
real
<
1< x <
or
To +...,
converges (conditionally).
Thus, the scries converges when
2. Power series. For any power
c
3<x<l;
if
is,
+ TT+-Q-+..
o
2
2,
test)
have
'
assert that the series converges (and converges
oo<^<
if
will
we can
test,
if
absolutely),
11
(*
-t
oo
the
series diverges,
104).
(Fig.
When x=l
which diverges, and when
which
(in
if
x=
with the Leibniz
accord
3^*<1.
series
fl)'+
+c n (x
B
fl)
(3)
numbers) there exists an interval (the interval of convercentre at the point x

a, with in which the series (3)
R with
>
a
R the series diverges. In special cases, the
converges absolutely; for \x
and oo. At the end-points of
radius of convergence R may also be equal to
a
the interval of convergence x
R, the power series may either converge
or diverge. The interval of convergence is ordinarily determined with the
help of the d'Alembert or Cauchy tests, by applying them to a series, the
terms of which are the absolute values of the terms of the given series (3).
Applying to the series of absolute values
\
the convergence tests of d'Alembert and Cauchy, we get, respectively, for the
radius of convergence of the power series (3), the formulas
=
lim
n -
rt*
and
# = Hm
-
"/|c,,|
too
'
However, one must be very careful in using them because the limits on the
right frequently do not exist. For example, if an infinitude of coefficients cn
306
__
Series
\Ch. 8
vanishes [as a particular instance, this occurs if the series contains terms
with only even or only odd powers of (x a)], one cannot use these formulas.
It is then advisable, when determining the interval of convergence, to apply
the d'Alembert or Cauchy tests directly, as was done when we investigated
the series (2), without resorting to general formulas for the radius of convergence.
z
If
= x + ty
is
complex variable, then
z-Zo)
(cn = a n + ib n
for the
series
power
n
+...+C n (Z-Z Q +...
(4)
there exists a certain circle (circle of convergence)

z
z
inside which the series converges
z |>fl the series diverges. At points lying on the cirabsolutely; for Iz
cumference of tne circle of convergence, the series (4) may both converge and
diverge. It is customary to determine the circle of convergence by means of
the d'Alembert or Cauchy tests applied to the scries
-z
|z
<R
Jt
-f/f/
with centre at the point
whose terms are absolute values of the terms of the given series. Thus, for
example, by means of the d'Alembert test it is easy to see that the circle of
convergence of the series
""
""
2-2 2
1-2
~~"'~~
3.2 s
~""'
n .2*
is determined by the inequality |z-f 1 |<2 [it is sufficient to repeat the calculations carried out on page 305 which served to determine the interval of
convergence of the series (2), only here x is replaced by z]. The centre of
the circle of convergence lies at the point z
1, while the radius R of this
circle (the radius of convergence) is equal to 2.
3. Uniform convergence. The functional series (1) converges uniformly on
some interval if, no matter what e
0, it is possible to find an N such that
does not depend on x and that when
for all x of the given interval
we have the inequality R n (x)
where R n (x) is the remainder of the
e,
>
given series.
If
\fn( x )\*f* c n
cn
converges,
(rt=l,
then
the
2,
<
...)
n>N
a^x^b
when
functional
series
(I)
and
number
the
converges
series
on the interval
n-\
absolutely and uniformly (Weierstrass' test).

series (3) converges absolutely and uniformly on any interval
lying within its interval of convergence. The power series (3) may be termwise differentiated and integrated within its interval of convergence (for
fl| <RY, that is, if
|x
[a,
The power
*-) +
+c n (xa)+
then
for
-a)+. ..+ncn (xa)*- +.

cQ
dx+
any x of the interval of convergence of the series
d (xa) dx+
c2
(xa) dx+
cn
=/(*),
(3),
(5)
we have
=f (x),
(xa) n dx+...=
(6)
Sec. 2]
Functional Series
307
number # also belongs to the interval of convergence of. the series (3)J.
Here, the series (6) and (7) have the same interval of convergence as the
[the
series
(3).
Find the region
of
convergence
of the series:
2510.
(-D-'.
2511.
n-
n-
+I
2512.
-jbn
l)"
M=
25.9.
252
2-(jzrk-
n-i
00
O(T
3D
M
x
lÂ-
v~^ sin (9n
^'oMI^fl
v^
2/1-4^'*'
>
O^vQI
n=i
ri
1
*
=o
nr
2514.
25.5**.
"
2 sin
Xî.
/l
2523.
2516.
2517.
2522
-J-
(-l)"
fI
V^
/I=l
*- nMn *.
2524*.
2525.
2-p-
Find the interval of convergence of the power series and test

the convergence at the end-points of the interval of convergence:
2531.
2532.
30
2528.
yin
X ^rr.
n-1
2533.
2529.
n=i
2530.
2534.
'
-_^".
2535.
308
Series
[Ch.
CO
OCQA
25<JO.
V>,
^
00
V""
s
;-=
\2rt-f-ly
r* .
0**1
>
2551.
^-
7^
n
2n4
n=i
CO
+ 5)* n ~
^-rr
4
CO
2537.
CO
2553.
(-!)
n=i
2 "'
V
X
(3
,n
2539.
^-'
2554.
2541.
^1
a=i
2556.
2542**.
2^
nl
xnl
n=i
2557.
+l
21
/I
l)"
>
(AT-2)"
/j"
2544*.
2V=1
2558.
2545.
l(
2(-l)"" -^|r.
n
2559*.
n=o
X(A;
2549.
2 ^S^
2562.
Y.
(3ft
n=
2550.
V n"
(*
3)".
2563.
2)".
Y(
- 2)
>"
.^-.
!
(n+l) 2"+
l
1)"
309
Functional Series
Sec. 2]
Determine the circle

2564.
of
convergence:
V W.
V <=gC
2566.
Aarf
ârf
fl.
n=i
n=o
00
2565.
2568.
2567
(1-M0 2 ".
'
'
+ 2i) + (1 + 20 (3 -h 20 2 +
(1
+ (l+
2569.
+ r=-, + (l-lHI-20
+ (1-00-20. ..(l-/ii)
9*70
257 2571. Proceeding from the definition of uniform
prove that the series
convergence,
..+*"+...
does not converge uniformly in the interval (

1, 1), but converges uniformly on any subinterval within this interval.
sum
Solution. Using the formula for the

get, for
|jc|<
of a
geometric
progression,
we
1,
Within the interval (

1, 1) let us take a submterval [
1+ct, 1
a], where
a is an arbitrarily small positive number. In this subinterval |jc|s^l a,
|1
xlâ
and, consequently,
I
*,.(*)
<
_ at"*
/I
(
1
.
;>
To prove the uniform convergence of the given series over the subintervai
it is possible to choose
a, 1
a], it must be shown that for any e >
an N dependent only on e such that for any n > N we will have the ine-
[1+
quality
Rn
(x)
<e
Taking any e>0,
is,
Thus>
puttin g
a)
n>N
\R n (x)\
is
indeed
<
+ >
1
[since ln(l
ea
ln
ln(ea)_
when
let
a)<ln(ea), that
(n+l)ln(l
In (1
x of the subinterval under consideration.

(1
a)"* 1
w+l <ea,
us require that e; whence (i
a)
for all
Ns=s
ln(l
less than
\
a)
e
1,
we
are
a)<0] and
convinced that
x of the subinterval
the given series on any sub-
for
all
1+a, 1 aj and the uniform convergence of

interval within the interval (
1, 1) is thus proved.
As for the entire interval (
1, 1), it contains points that are arbitrarily
(-
close to Jt=i,
and since
Hm R n (x) = \im
X-+1
X-+1
-- =00,
J/I+
.
no mattei
how
large n
is,
310
_ __
Series
[C/i.
points x will be found for which R n (x) is greater than any arbitrarily large
N we
number Hence, it is impossible to choose an N such that for n
e at all points of the interval (
would have the inequality R n (x)
1, 1),
and this means that the convergence of the series in the interval (
1, 1)
is not uniform.
>
<
2572. Using the definition of uniform convergence, prove that:

a) the series
converges uniformly in any
finite
interval;
b) the series
x*
converges
(-1.
throughout
uniformly
the
of
interval
convergence
i);
c) the series
1+F + F+- -+;?+...

in
converges uniformly
positive number;
the
interval
(1-1-8,
where 8
co)
is
any
d) the series
2
+ (x*- *) +
jc
(x
8
jc ) -f-
(jc
x 2n+2 )
+ (x "
2
-h
1,
converges not only within the interval (
1), but at the extremities of this interval, however the convergence of the series in
(1,
1) is nonuniform.
Prove the uniform convergence
of the functional series in the
indicated intervals:
00
2573
on the inlerval
I"
'
!]
on
2574.
over *he en tire number scale.
2^ ~~2~
00
I
2575.
Applying
sums
)"~
T=
termwise
on the interval
differentiation
[0,
and
integration,
of the series:
Y2
V3
y.3
y5
\n
+ ^ + ^+. ..+?-+...
x
x -*- + --...+(-l)'-*L + .,
, + + +... + _ + ...
2576. x
2577.
2578
yLfl
1].
find
the
__
Taylor's Series
Sec. 3]
v8
2579.
+ -' .- +(-!)"+2x + 3x* + ... 4
l-3*
-[5x
2582. 1.242-3A;
+---
...
2
...+(/+
3-4A: 4-
Find the sums of the

2583
r 2 "" 1
*-
2580.
2581.
311
!)*""'
series:
+++ ++
^ + l+!+...+^L i+...
2586.
/r
Sec. 3. Taylor's Series
1. Expanding a function in a power series. If a function f (x) can be

of the point a, in a series of
expanded, in some neighbourhood
a, then this series (called Taylor's series) is of the form
powers of A:
\xa\<R
(I)
When
holds
the Taylor scries is also called a Maclaurin's series. Equation (I)

the remainder term (or simply remainder) of the
\xa\<R
when
if
Taylor series
as n
oo.
To evaluate
fin (x)
the remainder, one can
make
<*-
f(n
l)
l
fl
(Lagrant*e's form).
Example
f
if
We
X ) =,
smh
even, and
is
x,
(H)
0<0<1
where
(2)
find
f" (x)
)l
the function f (x)

cosh x in a series of powers of x.
the derivatives of the given function f (x)
cosh x,
sinh x, ...; generally, f (n) (x)
cosh x, f" (.v)
cosh x,
sinn A, if n is odd. Putting a
0, we get /(0)
(A-)
1,
Expand
1.
Solution.
fl
use of the formula
=
=
/'(0)=0, T(0)-l, /'"(0) = 0, ...; generally, / >(0)

")=-0 if n is odd. Whence, from (1), we have:
(II
1,
if
is
even, and
(3)
To determine
d'Alembert
the
test.
interval
We
of
convergence
of
the
series
have
lini
n->
oo
(2/1
(3)
we apply the
312
[Ch. 8
Series
for any*. Hence, the series converges

remainder term, in accord with formula
.cosh 9*,
R n (x)=
>9>
it
sinh9*,
=ê'*',
X I"-*'**
and therefore \R n (x)\^
if
is
odd, and
if
is
even.
e1
series
with the general term
in
with
accord
the
necessary
Y\ n
^
\
made immediately evident with
any x
(this is
therefore,
|sinh9*|
test);
QO<JC<OO. The
follows that
converges for
d'Alembert's
convergence,
interval
has the form:
n 1
A +
R n (x)=
Since
the
in
(2),
the help of
condition
for
n+l
lim
and consequently lim #(*) = ()
for
any
x.
This signifies that the
sum
of the
/2->00
series (3) for
any x
is
indeed equal to cosh*.
2. Techniques employed for expanding in power

Making use of the principal expansions
I.
= !++*!+.
series.
(_oo<*<oo),
..+fj+...
II.
III.
IV.
and also the formula for the sum of a geometric progression, it is possible,
in many cases, simply to obtain the expansion of a given function in a power series, without having to investigate the remainder term. It is sometimes
advisable to make use of termwise differentiation or integration when expanding a function in a series. When expanding rational functions in power
series it is advisable to decompose these functions into partial fractions.
On
x=
the boundaries of the interval of convergence (i.e., when

1
it converges absoas follows: for
m
1
it
and
lutely on both boundaries; for
diverges when
for
1
it
l;
diverges on both bounconditionally converges when x
*)
and x=l) the expansion IV behaves
daries.
>
>
m^
mÔ
x--\
313
Taylor's Series
Sec. 3]
Example
Expand
2.
in
powers
of x *) the function
Solution. Decomposing the function
into
fractions,
partial
we
will have
Since
(4)
and
2
V^
^^ ... _
^^
\\j
1
n<l n x. n
fi
A>
(5)
n =o
it
follows that
we
finally get
(6)
/i
n=Q
=o
The geometric progressions

and
of
|*|<y;
hence,
3. Taylor's series
two variables /(x,
point
(a,
b)
(4)
n
n-Qv
and
formula
(5)
converge,
(6)
holds
when
respectively,
for
|x|<-j
|x|
i.e.,
= = 0,
is
when
for a function of two variables. Expanding a function

into a Taylor's series in the neighbourhood of a
//)
has the form
...
fc
If a
notation
<
the
Taylor
series
is
then called
Maclaunn's
series.
(7)
Here the
as follows:
,
y)
(X
x=a
!l=t>
~
d*f(x,y)
a)
dx*
+2
*)
dy*
~W
and so
Here and henceforward we mean "in positive integral powers".
forth.
314
(Ch. 8
Series
The expansion
occurs
(7)
if
the remainder term of the series
fe=l
as n
* oo.
The remainder term may be represented
in the
form
n+i
where
0<0<
1.
Expand the indicated functions in positive integral powers

of *, find the intervals of convergence of the resulting series and
investigate the behaviour of their remainders:
2587. a
2589. cos(*
2
2590. sin *.
(a>0).
9*a sin
cin^r-i-M
* -r--r
Jooo.
,-,>*
+ a).
/^
of the principal expansions I-V and a geometric

the expansion, in powers of *, of the following
write
progression,
functions, and indicate the intervals of convergence of the scries:
Making use
2592.
2593.
X2
*7
~4X
2594. xe~*
2598. cos
7^rJT2
5
*.
2599. sin 3*
,.
+ * cos 3*.
2600.
2595. e \
2601.
2596. sinh*.
2602. In
*
.
2597. cos2*.
2603. In
(1
,v
-f*
2*
).
the
Applying
expand
following functions in
powers of *, and indicate the intervals in which these expansions
differentiation,
occur:
2604.
(l+*)ln(l+*).
2606. arc sin*.
_
+*
2607. In (x
V\
).
various
the
functions
in
techniques, expand
given
Applying
powers of * and indicate the intervals in which these expansions
occur:
2605. arc tan*
2608. sin *cos *.

2609.
2610.
2611.
+O~
(1
2613
'
2614
cosh8
*'
Sec
315
Taylor's Series
3}
2615. ln(x
+ 3x + 2).
in/i_L.^/*v
+ *)**
rMl
2618.
J.
2616.
f'Jl
dx.
2619.
2617.
^L_
"-* z ^"
*4
Write the first three nonzero terms of the expansion of the

following functions in powers of x:
2620. tan*.
2623. sec*.
2621. tanh*.
2624. In cos*.
2622. e^ x
2625. <?*sin*.
2626*. Show that for computing the length ot an ellipse it is
possible to make use of the approximate formula
.
where
is
2627.
the
eccentricity
and 2a
is
the
major axis
of
the
ellipse.
tenary
J line
heavy string hangs, under its own weight, in a ca= acosh

and H is the horizontal
where a =
//
J
,
tension of the string, while q

that for small *, to the order
string hangs in a
2628.
powers
-f
2*
5*
in
series
of
of *-| 4.
2629.
powers
function
the
yâ
parabola
Expand
the weight of unit length. Show

4
of *
it
may be taken that the
is
of
4*
f(*)-5*
3* +2.
in a series of
Expand f(x+h)
h
in a
powers of *
series of powers of *
in a
series of
2630.
Expand In*
2631.
Expand
2632.
Expand
Xz
in a series of
powers
of
1.
1.
*+l.
2633.
2634.
2635.
Expand
X2
~Y~
oX
in a series of
~\~ JL
Expand
Expand
e* in a
4jc
2636. Expand ]/* in

2637.
Expand cos*
2638.
2
Expand cos *
2639*.
Expand In*
of
powers
*-f4.
powers of x
series of powers of * + 2.
a series of powers of *
4.
7
in a series of
in a series of
in a series of
powers
of
powers
of
*
j
in a series of
powers
_^
of
^^.
T-J
|-2.
316
[Ch. 8
Series
2640.
-*
Expand
in a series of
of
powers
2641.
What
is
the
the
of
magnitude
error
we put appro-
if
ximately
^2 + 1 + 1 + 1?
To what degree of accuracy
if we make use of the series
2642.
ber
we
will
by taking the sum
of
its
five
first
2643*. Calculate the number

ing the function arc sin A: in a
ple 2606).
2644. How many terms do
-*
O
x=l?
to three decimals
we have
num-
..,
terms when
series of
cosAr=l
calculate the
powers
of
by expand(see
Exam-
to take of the series
|j+...,
in order to calculate cos 18
2645.
How many
to three decimal places?

terms do we have to take of the series
+...,
to calculate sin 15 to four decimal places?

2646. How many terms of the series
have to be taken to
2647.
How many
find the
number
to four
decimal places?
terms of the series

In
do we have
to take to calculate
cimals?
In 2
to
two decimals? to 3 de-
__
2648. Calculate \/7 to two decimals by expanding the funcx in a series of powers of x.
tion l/S
2649. Find out the origin of the approximate formula
\/ (f-{-x&a
a = 5,
+ ~-
(a>0), evaluate
it
by means
and estimate the_ error.
2650. Calculate J/I9 to three decimals.
of
Y^3
putting
317
Taylor's Series
Sec. 3]
2651. For what values of x does the approximate formula

2
JC
yield an error not exceeding 0.01? 0.001? 0.0001?

2652. For what values of x does the approximate formula
sin
X&X
yield an error that does not exceed 0.01? 0.001?

'/*
2653. Evaluate
to four decimals.
y^-dx
1
ê~* dx
2654. Evaluate
to four decimals.
2655. Evaluate
l/^ccosxdx to three decimals.
2656. Evaluate
dx to three decimals.
2657. Evaluate
j^l+^'dx
decimals.
to four
1/9
2658. Evaluate
^yxe*dx
to three decimals.
2659. Expand the function cos(x

y) in a series of powers
x and y, find the region of convergence of the resulting series
and investigate the remainder.
Wiite the expansions, in powers of x and y, of the following
functions and indicate the regions of convergence of the series:
of
2663*.
2660. sin x> sin y.

2
2661. sin(* +y*).
664 *
\n(lxy+xy).
arctan
j/_
2662*.
\=*!!.
\+xy
2665. f(x, y)
wers of
ft
2666.
function
*:=
4-
ft,
2667.
2668.
~*y
and
/(*,
= ax*-\-2bxy + cy*.
Expand f(x+h,y-\k)in po-
k.
y)
= x*
2y*
when passing from
+ 3xy.
Find
the values
the
#=1,
increment
f/
=2
to the
of
this
values
y=2 + k.
Expand
Expand
2.
the function e x+y in powers of x -2 and y
the function sin(x+y) in powers of x and
__
Series
318
[C/i.
Write the first three or four terms of a power-series expansion

x and y of the functions:
x
2669. e cosy.
in
2670.
*'-
(H-*)
Sec. 4. Fourier Series
let
1. Dirichlet's theorem.
conditions in an interval
1)
is
We
uniformly bounded;
is
say that a function
satisfies the
the function
f (x)
b)
if,
in this interval,
that
is
\f(x)\^M when
(a,
<x<
b,
Dirich-
where
constant;
2)
of
all
has no more than
them
the function
are
a
the
of
number
finite
kind
first
has a finite limit on
f (x)
of
points
of
[i.e.,
at
each
the
0)=
left f (g
discontinuity and
g
discontinuity
Urn f (I
e) and a
~"
finite limit
on the right /(-{-0)= lim /(
+ e)
(e>0)J;
e ->o
has no more than a finite number of points of strict extrenium.

Dirichlet's theorem asserts that a function /(*), which in the interval
of this interval at
ji, Ji) satisfies the Dirichlet conditions at any point x
(
which /(x) is continuous, may be expanded in a trigonometric Fourier series:
3)
f(x)=?+ a, cos x + b
sin
+a
cos 2x-\-b 2 sin
2*+
+a n cos nx +
+ b n sinnx+...,
where the Fourier
a n and b n are calculated from the formulas
coefficients
ji
=
JT
J\
(1)
ji
f(x)cosnxdx(n = Q,
1,
...);&=
2,
JI
-n
-jt
If x is
a point' of discontinuity, belonging to the interval (
of a
jt, n),
function f (,v), then the sum of the Fourier series S (x) is equal to the arithmetical mean of the left and right limits of the function:
SM = ~
At the end-points
of the interval
2. Incomplete Fourier
s=/(jc)], then in
formula
series.
If
n and X = K,
a function
/ (*)
is
even
(1)
6 rt
-0
(w
2,
...)
and
ji
/"=^
= 0,
1,2,
...).
[i.
e.,
/(-
x)
a function
If
319
Fourier Series
Sec. 4]
odd
is
/ (x)
/(
[i.e.,
and
x)
an
then
/ (*)],
=Q
t/i
= 0,
2 ...)
i,
IT
bn
=~
nx dx
/ (x) sin
J\
JT
(n
2,
. .
.).
function specified in an interval (0, n) may, at our discretion, be contior an odd function; hence,
in the interval (
Jt, 0) either as an even
it may be
expanded in the interval (0, Ji) in an incomplete Fourier series
of sines or of cosines of multiple arcs.
3. Fourier series of a period 21. If a function f (x) satisfies the Dirichlet
the discontinuities
conditions in some interval (
/,
/) of length 2/, then at
of the function belonging to this interval the following expansion holds:
nued
r,
=a +
y
ju
/(*)
fli
cos
-J-
2nx
juc
+ &! stay +a
,
cos
j-
2nx
+ b sm+..,
.
nnx
nnx
where
-M
-- dx
flllX
f (x)
cos
= 0,
/-v
(/i
1,
2,
...),
(2)
6n
= -L
\f(x)sln^-dx(n=\,
'
2,
-i
At the points
of discontinuity of the function f (x) and at the end-points

of the interval, the sum of the Fourier series is defined in a manner
similar to that which we have in the expansion in the interval (
Jt, n).
In the case of an expansion of the function / (x) in a Fourier series in
x-l
an arbitrary interval
formulas
(2)
(a,
a-f-2/) of
length
the
2/,
limits
of
integration
in
should be replaced respectively by a and a-|-2/
functions in a Fourier
determine the sum of the series
the following
in the
the points
of discontinuity and at the end-points of the interval (x
ic,
X
function itself and of the sum
JT), construct the graph of the
of the corresponding series [outside the interval (
JT, ji) as well]:
Q
x
when ~~ n
Expand
interval
ji,
ji),
series
at
< ^
Consider the special case when

9fi79
2672.
xr
Consider
c)
fl
= 0,
the
1;
2673. f(x)
2674. f(x)
2675. f(x)
2679.
=x
= eax
= slnax.
(0,
=~
bx when
special cases:
0.
d) a=l, 6
2
Expand
the interval
ct
>
a)
= b = l\
2676. / (x)
2677. f(x)
2678. f (x)
the function f(x)
2ji).
1,
b)
1,
6=1;
= cos ax.
= smhax.
= cosh ax.
-jr-
in
a Fourier
series
in
320
Series
2680.
in the interval
number
the function f(x)
Expand
=~
in sines of
(Ch. 8
multiple arcs
Use the expansion obtained
n).
(0,
__
to
sum
the
series:
Take the functions indicated below and expand them, in the

interval (0, jt), into incomplete Fourier series: a) of sines of
multiple arcs, b) of cosines of multiple arcs. Sketch graphs of
the functions and graphs of the sums of the corresponding seiies
in their domains of definition.
x. Find the sum of the following series by means
2681. f(x)
of the
expansion obtained:
I+P+P+...
Find the sums of the following number series
2682. f(x) = x
by means of the expansion obtained:
2
1)
2683. f(x)
+7)2+ 32+
= eax
2684.
2^"
32
42
"!"
when
/(*)=
when
-^
x when
x when
ji
Expand the following

sines of multiple arcs:
2687. f(x)
2688.
2)
(x
=
0<;c^~
*
functions, in the
when
0<#^^-,
when
~n < x < n.
x(n
interval
(0,
K),
in
x).
= sin-|.
/(A;)
Expand the following functions, in the interval

sines of multiple arcs:
u
when
(0,
Ji),
in co-
Sec. 4\
__
321
Fourier Series
2690.
when
2691. / (x)
= x sin x.
cos x
when
cos x
when
< x^ ~
2693. Using the expansions oi the functions x and x* in the

in cosines of multiple arcs (see Problems 2681 and
it)
2682), prove the equality
interval (0,
2694**. Prove that
?L
Ji,
and
in
x}
the function /(x)
if
x\
f(~
then
its
n) represents an expansion
if
the function f(x)
the interval
Ji,
odd
is
is
it
Ji)
even and we have
is
Fourier series in
in cosines of
arid
/fy-f *) =/
expanded
in
the
interval
odd multiple
(y~*)
sines
of
arcs,
then
odd mul-
tiple arcs.
Expand the following functions in

cated intervals:
2695.
2696.
2697.
2698.
f(x)
= \x\
f(x)=*2x
f(x)
Fourier series in the indi-
!<*<!).
(0<JC<
1).
= e* (/<*</).
f(jc)=10
Jt
(5<jc<15).
Expand the following functions, in the indicated intervals,

in incomplete Fourier series: a) in sines of multiple arcs, and
b) in cosines of multiple arcs:
(0<*<
2699. /(*)=!
*
2700. /(*)
2701.
1).
(Q<x<l).
2702.
/M-{ 2 _-; ^n
2703.
T
(3
'
in
cosines
\
:
when -|<jr<2,
3_j^ when 2<jc<3.
1
11-1900
of
multiple
Chapter IX
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Sec. 1. Verifying Solutions. Forming

Curves. Initial Conditions
1. Basic concepts. An equation

F(x, y,
where y
Differential
Equations
of
Families of
of the type
(n)
y'
t/)
= 0,
(1)
y(x) is the sought-for function, is called a differential equation of

order n. The function y
y(x), which converts equation (1) into an identity,
is called the solution of the equation,
while the graph of this function is
called an integral curve. If the solution is represented implicitly, O(A, f/)~0,
then it is usually called an integral
Example 1. Check that the function t/ sinjt is a solution of the equation
Solution.
We
have:
and, consequently,
/"
+y
sin x -f sin x
The integral
*/,
Cp
....
Cw
0.
(2)
of the differential equation (1), which contains n independent arbitrary constants C t ..., C n and is equivalent (in the given region) to equation (1), is
called the general integral of this equation (in the respective region). By assigning definite values to the constants C,, ..., C n in (2), we get particular
,
integrals.
if we have a
family of curves
C n from the system of equations
Conversely,
eters Cj
= 0,
dx
-0.
....
(2)
and eliminate
the param-
*-0,
dx n
we, generally speaking, get a differential equation of type (1) whose general
integral in the corresponding region is the relation (2).
Example 2. Find the differential equation of the family of parabolas
y^C^x-CJ.
Solution. Differentiating equation
/'
= 2C
(*
Eliminating the parameters C, and

the desired differential equation
C 2)
(3)
(3)
twice,
and
C 2 from
(/"
we
get:
= 2C,.
equations
(4)
(3)
and
(4),
we obtain
Sec
It
is
Verifying Solutions
function
verify that tha
to
easy
323
converts
(3)
this
equation
identity.
2. Initial conditions.
differential equation
y
desired particular solution y
for the
If
= f(x,
(n)
y, y'
into
= y(x)
(n ~ l)
an
of a
(5)
the initial conditions
and we know the general solution
are given
y = <V(x,
then the
arbitrary constants
from the system
of
Cn
(5)
are determined
(if
this
which y(0)
Find the curve
y'(0)
have:
l.
We
Solution.
of the
family
in
formulas
(6)
2.
i/
Putting #
possible)
C lt .... C B ),
c ..... c ).
<?*(*<>.
*,
for
is
-cp(*o,
</o=
3.
C, .....
...,
equation
C n ),
equations
</
Example
C lt
of
'=
and
(6)
1=0,
we obtain
(7),
2-C
+ ^,
(?)
2C 2
whence
(:,=(),
and, hence,
C,=
= e~.
Determine whether the indicated functions are solutions of the

given differential equations:
2704. *//'== 2#,
2705. y
2706.
2707.
2708.
2709.
2710.
t2
(jc
= 5x*.
t/
= x*
h
//)
djc -h
JK
dy
= 0,
= ^=^
+ = 0, = 3sinjc 4 cos*.
~? +
= 0, x = C, cos <o/ 4- C sin CD/.
2j/'+0 = 0; a) y = xe* b) y = x
#"
//
(/
^/
a) jc
-(X.
y^*
Show
X/
2
2711. (x
-f
e.
that for the given

relations are integrals:
11*
//
//
differential
equations
the
indicated
_ _
324
Differential Equations
2712. (x
2713. (xy-x)y"
Form
differential
C lt
+ xy' + yy'
equations
Q,
2y'
y
\n(xy).
of the given families
(C,
C,, C, are arbitrary constants):
Cx.
2714. y
=
=
272l
9718
ii&.
971Q
2719.
n *.=
9799
*722.
fo' ? 3re P arameters >-
yr
2724.
2720.
& M-- = 2 + Ce"^.
2726.
Form
thej
+ay
0,- y .)'-2p*
-*
y
*-.
curves
of
a parameter).
</'
#//-plane.
'
+ = <:'.
2717. *'
2715. y
Cx*.
2716. *>=-.2C*.
[Ch. 9
</
2725.
differential
=
=
equation of
all straight lines in
the
2727. Form the differential

vertical axis in the ^y-plane.
2728. Form the differential
equation of
equation
of
all
with
parabolas
circles
all
in
the
xy-plane.
For the given families of curves find

the given initial conditions:
2729. x*y*
5.
C, 0(0)
2730.
2731. y
C sin
2732. y^C.e-x
=
y=(C^
=
the
lines
that
satisfy
= 0,
Sec. 2. First-Order Differential Equations
P. Types of first-order differential equations. A differential equation

the first order in an unknown function yt solved for the derivative y'
is
the form
t
y'
where f(x, y)
consider the
= f(*.
of
of
(i)
</).
the given function. In certain cases it is convenient to

variable x as the sought-for function, and to write (1) in the
is
form
x'=e(*,y)>
$--.
(i')
where
gfr
Taking into account that

(1)
and
(!')
may
0'
and
*'
j^
the
differential
equations
be written in the symmetric form
P(x, y)dx+Q(x, t/)<ty=0,
where
and Q
(2)
y) are knowri functions.

By solutions to (2) we mean functions of the form t/ cp(jc)
ihat satisfy this equation. The general integral of equations (1)
(x, y)
(x,
or
and
x=ty(y)
(I'),
or
equation
where
325
First-Order Differential Equations
Sec. 21
is
(2),
is
form
of the
2. Direction
The
field.
set of directions
tana = /(x,
y)
called a direction field of the differential equation (1) and is ordinarily

depicted by means of short lines or arrows inclined at an angle a.
Curves f(x, y)
k, at the points of which the inclination of the field
has a constant value, equal to k, are called isoclines. By constructing the
isoclines and direction field, it is possible, in the simplest cases, to give a
is
Fig
rough sketch of the
field of
intagral
105
curves, regarding
the latter
which at each point have the given direction of the field.

Example 1. Using the method of isoclines, construct the
as
field of
curves
integral
curves of the equation

y'=*x.
Solution.
rection field,
The family
By constructing the isoclines x~k (straight lines) and the diwe obtain approximately the field of integral curves (Fig. 105).
of parabolas
the general solution.

Using the method of isoclines, make approximate constructions of fields
of integral curves for the indicated differential equations:
is
2733. y'
2734.
</'
=
=
x.
-f-
2735. y'=l-ftf
2736.
y'=
2737. y'
8
.
326
(Ch. 9
3. Cauchy's theorem.
b < y < B}
If
U\a<x<A,
a function / (#, y) is continuous in some region

in this region has a
bounded derivative
and
(** y)> tnen through each point (*

y Q ) that belongs to U there passes one
and only one integral curve y y(x) of the equation (1) [cp (* ) #ol4. Euler's broken-line method. For an approximate construction of the
f'y
(*
integral curve of equation (1) passing through a given point
replace the curve by a broken line with vertices M,-(x/, #/), where
2.
(i'0,
Using Euler's method
find (/(I),
if
y(0)=l
(/i
1.
for the
We
t/
),
we
(one step of the process),
/i
/)
Example
2,
...).
equation
'
-0.1).
construct the table:
Thus,
/(!)=
1.248.
For
the
sake
of
comparison,
the
exact
value
is
T ss 1.284
Using Euler's method, find the particular solutions to the

given differential equations for the indicated values of x:
2738. y' = y, y(0)=l; find y(\) (A-0.1).
2739.
y'-x + y, /(!)-
2740. ^'
2741.
= -X_,
t/(0)
1;
find y(2),
= 2;
-, y(Q)=l;
find </(!)
find y(l)
= 0.1).
= 0.1).
(A
= 0.2).
(A
(/t
Differential Equations with Variables Separable
Sec. 3]
Sec.
First-Order
3.
Differential
Equations
with
327
Variables
Separable.
Orthogonal Trajectories
1. First-order equations with variables separable.

is a first-order equation of the type
An equation with
variables
separable
X (x) Y
(y)
Dividing both sides of equation

-
= f(x)dx
y'
= f(x)g(y}
dx
+ X, (x) Y, (y) dy = Q
(1)
(i)
(!')
by g(y) and multiplying
Whence, by integrating, we
get
the general
by
dx,
we
get
integral of equa-
tion (1) in the form
Similarly, dividing both sides of equation (!') by X, (x)

we get the general integral of (!') in the form
(y)
and integrating,
then the function y

is
ti Q
(r/ )=0,
yQ we have
directly evident) a solution of equation (1) Similarly, the straight
a and
will be the integral curves of equation (!'), if a and b
are, respectively, the roots of the equations X, (*)() and Y (*/)
0, by the
ieft sides of which we had to divide the initial equation.
Example 1. Solve the equation
If
for
also (as
lines x
some value y
is
y-b
'
3>
In particular, find the solution that satisfies the initial conditions
Solution. Equation
(3)
be written in the torm
may
dx~~
Whence, separating variables, we have
and, consequently,
In
|
where the arbitrary constant
In
x\
taken
antilogarithms we get the general solution
In C,
is
+ ln C
in
|t
logarithmic form. After taking
f
where
C=
When
C,.
dividi
dividing
by y
ila
contained in the formula
we could' lose
= 0.(4) for C
'
the solution
=0. but
the
latter
is
328
(Ch. 9
Utilizing the given initial

sired particular solution is
conditions,
we
get
C = 2;
hence, the de-
and,
J2
y ~~
'
Certain differential equations that reduce to

2
separable. Differential equations of the form
with
equations
variables
reduce to equations of the form (1) by means of the substitution u

is the new sough t-for function
3
Orthogonal trajectories are curves that intersect the lines of the given
a
right angle. If F (x, y, #')
(x, y> ort=0 ia is a parameter) at
family
is the difierential equation of the family, then
where u
is
the differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories.

Example 2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of ellipses
Solution Differentiating the equation (5),

tion of the family
Whence, replacing
if
by
^7,
we
find
the
duerential
106
get
the
differential
equation
orthogonal trajectories
~~
~~
integrating,
we have
*x*
(family
'
it'
of
equa-
0.
(/'
Fig.
we
parabolas) (Fig. 106).
of
the
329
Differential Equations with Variables Separable
Sec. 3\
4. Forming differential equations. When forming differential equations in

geometrical problems, we can frequently make use of the geometrical meaning
of the derivative as the tangent of an angle formed by the tangent line to
the curve in the pos'tive x-direction. In many cases this makes it possible
straightway to establish a relationship between the ordinate y of the desired
curve, its abscissa x, and the tangent of the angle of the tangent line (/',
that is to say, to obtain the difleiential equation. In other instances (see
Problems 2783, 2890, 2895), use is made of the geometrical significance of
the definite integral as the area of a curvilinear
trapezoid or the length of
an arc. In this case, by hypothesis we have a simple integral equation
(since the desired function is under the sign of the integral); however, we
can readily pass to a differential equation by differentiating both sides.
Example 3. Find a curve passing through the point (3,2) for which the
segment of any tangent line contained between the coordinate axes is divided in half at the point of tangency.
Solution. Let
(x,y) be the mid-point of the tangent line AB. which by
hypothesis is the point of tangency (the points A and B are points of intersection of the tangent line with the y- and *-axes). It is given that OA
2y
and OB Zx. The slope of the tangent to the curve at
(x, y) is
OA
dy_
dx~
This
is
y
x
OB~
'
the differential equation of the sought-for curve. Transforming,

d\
we
get
dy _ ~
~x
~T~~y~
and, consequently,
In
\nx-\-\ny
Utilizing the initial condition,
curve is the hyperbola xy
6.
Cor xy
C.
we determine C = 3-2
Solve the differential equations:

2
2
2742. tan A: sin y d* + cos x cot ydy
6.
Hence,
the
desired
= Q.
2743. xy'~ //
{/'.
2744. xyy' =-.
= a(l
2745. //
jq/'
x
fan ydx
2746. 3c
2747. y' tan *
//.
\x\
=
+*V). x
+ (l
sec*
ydy = Q.
Find the particular solutions of equations that

indicated initial conditions:
x
0.
2748. (1 +e ) y y' = e*\ //= 1 when jt
!
when x
2749. (xy* + x) dx-\-(x* yy)dy=* 0; //
2750. r/'sin x
= y\ny\ y~l
when
=
=
*=
-|.
satisfy
= Q.
Solve the differential equations by changing the variables:

2751. y' = (x+y)**
2752. i/
(8*42//+l)'.
2753. (2x + 3{/
l)dx-{ (4x
2754. (2x
y)dx (4x 2y
+ fo/
-
5) dij
= 0.
the
_ _
330
In
Examples 2755 and 2756, pass
[C/i.
to polar coordinates:
2755.
2756.
2757*. Find a curve whose segment of the tangent is equal
to the distance of the point of tangency from the origin.
2758. Find the curve whose segment of the normal at any
point of a curve lying between the coordinate axes is divided in
two
at this point.
2759. Find a curve whose subtangent is of constant length a.

2760. Find a curve which has a subtangent twice the abscissa
of the point of tangency.
2761*. Find a curve whose abscissa of the centre of gravity
of an area bounded by the coordinate axes, by this curve and
the ordinate of any of its points is equal to 3/4 the abscissa of
this point.
2762. Find the equation of a curve that passes through the

point (3,1), for which the segment of the tangent between the
point of tangency and the *-axis is divided in half at the point
of intersection with the y-axis.
2763. Find the equation of a curve which passes through the
point (2,0), if the segment of the tangent to the curve between
the point of tangency and the t/-axis is of constant length 2.
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the given families of curves (a is a parameter), construct the families and their orthogonal trajectories.
2
2764. x
2
2765. t/
+ y =a
= ffx.
2
2766. xy
2767. (x
Sec. 4. First-Order Homogeneous Differential
1. Homogeneous equations.
= a.
2
a)
t-f/
=a*.
Equations
P(x y)dx+Q(x,y)dy =
t
(1)
is called homogeneous, if P (AT, y) and

Q (x, y) are homogeneous functions of
the same degree. Equation (1) may be reduced to the form
and by means
it
is
of the substitution y
xu, where u is a new unknown function,
transformed to an equation with variables separable. We can also apply
the substitution
Example
1.
x-yu.
Find the general solution
to the equation
Sec. 4]
First-Order Homogeneous Differential Equations
Solution. Put y
we
Integrating,
get w
ux',
then
-f xu'
In In
that reduce to
or
whence
x In In
2. Equations
= eu + u
331
homogeneous equations.
If
'
and 6
I
#2^2
Ue
0,
then, putting into equation (2) x
+ a,
j/
= t;-fp,
where
the constants
a and P
are found from the following system of equations,
+ c, = 0,
a 2a
+ b$ + c = 0,
t
we
get a homogeneous differential equation in the variables u and v. If

u, we get an equation with variables
0, then, putting in (2) a,x 4- b^y
separable.
Integrate the differential equations:
2768. 0'
2769.
=1
277
1.
y^-^.
(x-y)ydx-x*dy = Q.
find the family

2771. For the equation (x +y*) dx
2xydy
of integral curves, and also indicate the curves that pass through
the points (4,0) andj_l,l), respectively.
2772.
=
+
2773. xdy
-\-ifdx.
ydx Vx*
2
2
0.
2774. (4x* + 3xy
jf) dy
f/ ) dx + (4y
3jvy
1
2775. Find the particular solution of the equation (x
=
x
2.
2xydy Q, provided that r/=l when
Solve the equations:
2776. (2x
9777 f/./
2/77.
3y*)dx+
2779. Find the equation of a curve that passes through the

point (1,0) and has the property that the segment cut off b\ the
tangent line on the r/-axis is equal to the radius vector of the
point of tangency.
2780**. What shape should the reflector of a search light
have so that the rays from a point source of light are reflected
as a parallel
beam?
532
_ _
[Ch. 9
2781. Find the equation of a curve whose subtangent is equal

mean of the coordinates of the point of tangency.
2782. Find the equation of a curve for which the segment
cut off on the y-axls by the normal at any point of the curve
is equal to the distance of this point from the origin.
2783*. Find the equation of a curve for which the area contained between the #-axis, the curve and two ordinates, one of
which is a constant and the other a variable, is equal to the
ratio of the cube of the variable ordinate to the appropriate
to the arithmetic
abscissa.
off
2784. Find a curve for which the segment on the y-axis cut
by any tangent line is equal to the abscissa of the point of
tangency.
Sec. 5. First-Order Linear Differential
Equations.
Bernoulli's Equation
1. Linear equations. A
differential equation of the
)-y^Q
form
(1)
(x)
of
degree one in y and y is called linear.

If a function Q(jt)=~0, then equation
).y
takes the form
(1)
=Q
(2)
and is called a homogeneous linear differential equation. In this case, the

variables may be separated, and we get the general solution of (2) in the
form
y = C-e
P P(X) dx
(3)
To solve the inhomogeneous linear equation (1), we apply a method that

called variation of parameters, which consists in first finding the general
solution of the respective homogeneous linear equation, that is, relationship (3). Then, assuming here that C is a function of x, we seek the solution
of the inhomogeneous equation (1) in the form of (3). To do this, we put into
(1) y and y' which are found from (3), and then from the differential equation thus obtained we determine the function C(x). We thus get the general
solution of the inhomogeneous equation (1) in the form
is
^/x -f
J
= C(x).e
Example
I.
Solve the equation

y'
Solution.
Solving
it
we
tan **/-}- cos
x.
The corresponding homogeneous equation

get:
C
^- r
*Î
1
(4)
is
333
Bernoulli's Equation
Sec. 5]
Considering
and differentiating, we
as a function of x,
dC
Putting y and y' into
dC
cos*
djc
we
(4),
A
dx
cos x
sin
fi'nd;
~
'
/,x>o2
2
x
cos
get:
sin*
cos 2 *
cos*
dC
-r-=
or
'
,
dx
whence
Ccos 2 *d*==i-* +
Hence, the general solution
of
equation
j
(4)
has the form
COS*
In solving the linear equation
we can
(1)
make
also
use of the substitu-
tion
uv
where u and v are functions of
x.
we require that
'
(1) will
have the form
+ v'u^Q(x).
\-P(x)u]v
[u
If
(5)
Then equation
(6)
+ P(jc)M = 0,
(7)
then from (7) we find M, and from (6) we find u; hence, from (5)
2\ Bernoulli's equation. A first order equation of the form
y'
+ P (<) y ^ Q
(x)
we
find y.
y\
where a 7=0 and a 7= 1, is called Bernoulli's equation

""*.
near equation
by means of the substitution z
the
or
substitution
the
y = uv
apply directly
It
r/
It
reduced to
is
li-
also possible to
method
of
variais
tion of parameters.
Example
2.
Solve the equation

y'
Solution. This
is
y+*
VH-
Bernoulli's equation. Putting
y=û>v,
we
ijet
u'v
+ v'u
To determine
uv
+x
the function u
y"uv
we
or
u'
~w-0
x
we have
u
Putting this expression into (8),
u
j
-f
v'u
require that the relation

u'
be fulfilled, whence
we
get
x*.
=x
V^taT.
(8)
334
_ _
whence we
[Cfi.
find v:
and, consequently, the general solution
is
obtained
in
the form
Find the general integrals of the equations:

2785.
ax
-=*.
x
+ = x*.
2786.
2787*. (\
2788. y*dx(2xy
Find the particular solutions that satisfy
the
indicated
con-
ditions:
+y
2789. X y'
e*
= Q\
y = b when x
1-- *
2790. y'
j-2-7
2791. y'
yianx =
= 0;
cos x
*/
y=
= a.
when x-0.
when
jt
= 0.
Find the general solutions of the equations:

2792. *l
dx
+ JLx =
'
Xyy*
2793. 2xy
x
2794.
0dx +
+x
2795. 3xdy--=y(l
sin A:
3y* smx)dx.
2796. Given three particular solutions y,
equation. Prove that the expression
What
^^
y lt y 2 of a linear
remains unchanged for
the geometrical significance of this result?

2797. Find the curves for which the area of a triangle formed
by the *-axis, a tangent line and the radius vector of the point
of tangency is constant.
2798. Find the equation of a curve, a segment of which, cul
off on the x-axis by a tangent line, is
equal to the square of the
ordinate of the point of tangency.
2799. Find the equation of a curve, a segment of which, cut
off on the y-axis by a tangent line,
is equal to
the subnormal.
2800. Find the equation of a curve, a segment of which, cut
off on the y-axis by a tangent line,
is proportional to the
square
of the ordinate of the point of tangency.
any
x.
is
Exact Differential Equations. Integrating Factor
Sec. 6]
2801. Find the equation of the curve for which

of the tangent is equal to the distance of the point
tion of this tangent with the x-axis from the point
335
the
segment
of
intersec-
M (0,a).
Sec. 6. Exact Differential Equations.

Integrating Factor
1. Exact
differential equations. If for the differential equation
P(x.y)
the equality
dU
is
:p =-^-
fulfilled,
dx+Q(x
y)dy = Q
then equation
(1)
may
(1)
be written
in
the
and is then called an exact differential equation. The gen= C. The function U (x, y) is detereral integral of equation
(1) is U (x, y)
mined by the technique given in Ch. VI, Sec. 8, or from the formula
form
(see
(x,
t/)
Ch, VII, Sec.
Example
1.
9).
Find the general integral

2
(3x
Solution.
This
+ 6Af/
2
)
an exact
is
5= i2 X y and,
dx
of the differential
equation
+ (6x*y + 4y') dy = 0.
differential
since
equation,
hence, the equation
is
of
the form
-J
K/
= 0.
Here,
and
whence
U=
(3^
+ 6xy*) dx +
q>
(y)
= x> + 3*V +
q> (y).
= x y + 4y* (by
y -f
(y)
=
and
hypothesis); from this we get
y* + C*. We finally get
(y)
f/(r, t/)-=
-f-3xV + +C consequently, x -f3^V + / = C is the sought-for
Differentiating
with respect
to y,
q>
jt
we
6jc
cp'
-y
= 4(/*
'(//)
find
q>
.V
.
C(
general integral of the equation.

2. Integrating factor. If the left side of equation (l)is not a total (exact)
differential and the conditions of the Cauchy theorem are fulfilled, then there
exists a function U,
U.(A', y) (integrating factor) such that
\i(Pdx+ Qdy) = dU.

Whence
it
is
found that the function
The integrating
factor
u,
is
u,
satisfies the
(2)
equation
readily found in two cases:
336
Example
Solution.
"
and
Solve
2.
equation
Here P = 2*y + rV-f-^
_
d#
or
dx
+ x*y + ~
2xy
'
hence>
r dx
cty
^^^ +
r
Q=x*+y*
"
Since
it
the
[C/t.
'
ft=
Q
x jB,
dx
follows that
1
fdP
^
JS
----dQ\
and
dx=dx
Q.\dy
dxj
-r
rffi
Multiplying the equation by
which
is
^.
\\
\i
= e*
an exact differential equation.
In
11
*
= ^,
11 = ^.
r
we obtain
Integrating
it,
we
get
the
general
integral
Find the general integrals of the equations:

2802 (x
+ 2z/)dy = 0.
t/)d^+(^
1
2803. (V + 1/
2x) dx + 2xydy = Q.
3
8
2804. (jc
S^ 8 + 2) dx (3x'y y ) d(/ = 0.
2805.
^-^=='
2806.
2807. Find the particular integral of the equation
which
satisfies the initial condition #(0)

2.
Solve the equations that admit of an integrating factor of the
form fi = M*) or M'
H'(y)
+ y*)dx2xydy = 0.
4-xy)dxxdy = Q.
2808. (x
2809. y(l
2810.
281
1.
(jc
cos
t/
y sin
r/) rfi/
+ (x sin
*/ -(
//
cos y) dx
= 0.
First-Order Differential Equation? not Solved for Derivative
Sec. 7]
Sec.
for
7.
337
Equations not Solved
First-Order Differential
the Derivative
1. First-order differential equations of higher powers.

F(x,
which
for example
two equations:
is
y,
two
of degree
!/')
in y',
y'=ti(x,y)>
If
an equation
= 0,
(I)
the.i
</'=/ 2
by solving
(1)
for y'
<*.</)
we
get
(2)
Thus, generally speaking, through each point

(xQt (/ ) of some region
of a plane there pass two integral curves. The general integral of equation
(1) then, generally speaking, has the form
0(AM/,
where
and
CÔM*,
C) 0> 2
{/,
C)
(x. y,
= 0,
(3)
the general integrals of equations (2).

2 are
Besides, there may be a singular integral for equation (1). Geometrically,
a singular integral is the envelope of a family of curves (3) and may be obtained by eliminating C from the system of equations
tl> 1

OJx,
or
by eliminating p =
t/'
0,
C)
= 0,
from the system
F(x
y,
(*, y,
0>c
F'
p)-0,
of
C)
(4)
equations
(x,y,p)=0.
(5)
We
note that the curves defined by the equations (4) or (5) are not
always solutions of equation (1); therefore, in each case, a check is necessary.
Example 1. Find the general and singular integrals of the equation
2
A'//'
Solution. Solving for y'
2A'j/'
-f
Q.
we have two homogeneous
equations:
do fined in the region

x
the general integrals of which are
or
Multiplying,
we
get the general integral of the given equation

(2*
+y
C)
2
(A-
+ xy) -
or
(a
we
(It
family of parabolas).
Differentiating the general
find the singular integral
may
integral with respect
be verified that y-(-jc=0
to
C and
eliminating C,
+ Jt-O.
is
the solution of this equation.)
Differential
Equations
(Ch. 9
by differentiating
possible to find the singular integral
with respect to p and eliminating p.
2. Solving a differential equation by introducing a parameter. If a firstorder differential equation is of the form
It
is
+ 2xp
also
#=
then the variables y and x

1
from the
be determined
may
system of equations
dq>
where p = t/' plays the part of a parameter.

Similarly, if y = ty( x #') tnen x and y are determined
>
from the system
of equations
Example
Find the general and singular integrals
2.
of the
equation
y=y' -xy'+^.
Solution.
we
Making the substitution t/'=p,
rewrite the equation in the
form
Diffeientiating with respect to x and considering

ft
dp
dp
p a function of
x,
we have
p-*p-p-*fx +*
or
-p(2p
x)**(2p
x),
or-j-
into the original equation,
l.
we have
Integrating
we
get p
= x + C.
Substituting
the general solution

or
</
=y
Differentiating the general solution with respect to C and eliminating C, we

x^
x*
obtain the singular solution: */
-r-. (It
may be verified that */ -r- is the
solution of the given equation.)

If we equate to zero the factor 2p
x which was cancelled out, we get
x
x2
into
the
which is the
and, putting p
given equation, we get y=-j
t
pay
same singular
solution.
Find the
general
(In Problems
curves.)
2812.
2812
and singular integrals

and 2813 construct the
(/''-^'-MÔ.
2
2813. 4y'
9JC-0.
of
the
field
equations:
of
integral
Sec
8]
The Lagrange and Clairaut Equations
Q.
2814. yy'*(xy+l)y' + x
2
2815. yij'
2xy'+y Q.
2816. Find the integral curves
339
that pass through the point
0,
the
of
equation
y'*
+y* =
Introducing the parameter y' = p, solve the equations:

2820. 4y = x*+y'\
2817. x=smy'+lny'.
2818. y
2819.
= y'*e>".
= y'*
/2
,*
9 91
'
Sec. 8. The Lagrange and Clairaut Equations
1. Lagrange's equation. An equation
of
the form
= *<P(P) + 1|>(P),
where p
= tf
(1)
called Lagrange's equation Equation (1) is reduced to a linear

equation in x by differentiation and taking into consideration that dy^pdx:
is
(p)] dp.
If
p^q>(p),
then from (1) and
(2)
we
(2)
get the general solution in parametric
form:
parameter and f(p)^ g(p) are certain known functions. Besides,

a singular solution that is found in the usual way.
2. C'lairaut's equation. If in equation (l)p^<Mp), then we get
where p
there
is
may
be
raut' s equation
^(C) (a family of .straight lines).

general solution is of the form y-Cx
is also a particular solution
(envelope) that results by eliminating the
parameter p from the system of equations
Its
There
x~
lJ:=
Example. Solve the equation

</~2t/'A'
Solution. Putting
ing
dy by pdx, we
y'^p we
+ i.
have //^2pv
(3)
get
p dx = 2p dx +
2.v
or
Solving this lineai equation, we will have
*=l
dp
different! a Ting
and replac-
__
340
__
^_
[C/t.
Hence, the general integral will be
=l(l
To
find the singular integral,
we form
f/-2px +
in the usual
the system
l,
= 2*-
way. Whence
*=
and, consequently,
Putting y into (3) we are convinced that the function obtained Is not
a solution and, therefore, equation (3) does not have a singular integral.
Solve the Lagrange equations:

2822.
y-'
=
2824. y
= (1 +y'
+ r=FT
2823. ,
,'
Find the general and singular integrals of the
tions and construct the field of integral curves:
2826. y
xy' +y'*.
2827. y
xy'+y'.
r
2828.
2829.
by
=
=
= Xy' + V \-\-(y')
y = xy' +
j,.
ij
Clairaut equa-
2830. Firid the curve for which the area of a triangle formed
a tangent at any point and by the coordinate axes is con-
stant.
2831. Find the curve it the distance of a given point to any

tangent to this curve is constant.
2832. Find the curve for which the segment of any of its
tangents lying between the coordinate axes has constant length /,
Sec. 9. Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations
2833. Determine the types of differential equations

cate methods for their solution:
=
=
2ju/ + *';
y'
b) (*-*/)//'
c)
d) y'
(f/-
</';
8)
and indi-
Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations
Sec. 9]
= (* 4+ y sin (x*
xy) y' = #';
i)
</'
j)
x cos f/'
k)
+ 2xy')dx +
+ (y* + 3*y dy = 0;
m) (x' 3xy) dx + (* + 3)dy = 0;
1)
</)';
1 ;
{/'
341
(x'
n)

2834. a) (x
ycos^
b) jcln
2835.
dy
xrfx=(^
y'^dy.
2836. (2xy*y) dx-\-xdy=-Q.

2837. xy' -\- y -^ xtf \nx.
2838. y
xy'
2839. f/
or/'
jc#'
2840. ^(
2841. (1
=
=
2842.
+
+
y'-y^^l.
2843. y^-((/'-l 2xe>)y'.

2844. //'-|-//cosAr=sin.tcosx.
2848. (x'y
2849.
x*
-\-y-l) dx
2845
'
2846
'
(l-^
^'-T-^ =
2847. y' (xcosy-'r a sin
2</)
= 1.
(xy + 2x3yQ)dy = Q.
=
y'
2850. ./"
d.v
= (x*y f 2)
<///.
+ y dy J-| dJf = 0.
286
=*
X
2862.
*.
= cosA:.
f/y'-hf/
2852. 2dx
2853..
i ,'
2854.
2863.
2855. xdy-\ ydxîfdx.

!.
2856. //' (j: |- sin //)
2857.
H? = -P + P
/
ff
= 2^'H-l/l
/
//'==
j (1 +lny
2864. (2e
d*- (x
2859. x
*/" -h
Zxyy'
2860.
^^H-\t
ln^).
dy
x
<je
y')
^-
+
2/'
+y
0.
= 0.
2865.
2868.
dx =
^ dydx =
/'
=2 f
(;(/'
4
f
2858. ^'
(-y'
v 4- 2
y-1 J
-1- 1 )
2867. a(xt}'
2868. xdy- y dx
= y* dx.
342
[Ch. 9
2869. (x*
)/
At,
dy +
(x*
+ 3xy V^-\) dx = 0.
2870.
2871. J/oM1
dy+ (x y
2872. xyy'*
(x* +y*)y'
= xy' +
(3* + 2;q/
= 3p
2873. y
2874.
2875.
Ya*
+x
dx = Q.
y'Jdx
+ f*
2xy
3y*)dy=--Q.
-t-4*/
2</p|
Find solutions to the equations
for the indicated
initial
con-
ditions:
2876.
#=
y'=^\
y
2881.
jc=l.
= \\ y=\ for *=1.

= 0.
y = 2; y = 2 for
=
=
=
for
0.
^
+ !) !;
= cos
= for * = 0.
#' +
for x = 0.
x*\ y =
2y =
y'
=
=
for * = 0.
y'+y 2x\ y
2877. e*- y'

2878. cot ;q/'
2879. e^(^
2880.
for
*/
jt
-f
A;;
{/
2882.
for x = 0.
2883. xy'=y\ a) //==! for jc=l; b) y
for x-0.
2884. 2xy'
y\ a) y=l for jc=l; b) y
z
2
for x-0; b)y=l forjc=-0;
2885. 2xyy'-\-x
0; a)
#
= Q for je= 1.
c) y
2886. Find the curve passing through the point (0, 1), for
which the subtangent is equal to the sum of the cooidinates of
the point' of tangency.
2887. Find a curve if we know that the sum of the segments*
cut off on the coordinate axes by a tangent to it is constant and
\
=
=
y-0
equal to 2a.
2888. The
sum of the lengths of the normal and subnormal

equal to unity. Find the equation of the curve if it is known
that the curve passes through the coordinate origin.
2889*. Find a curve whose angle formed by a tangent and the
radius vector of the point of tangency is constant.
2890. Find a curve knowing that the area contained between
the coordinate axes, this curve and the ordinate of any point on
it is equal to the cube of the ordinate.
2891. Find a curve knowing that the area of a sector bounded by the polar axis, by this curve and by the radius vector
of any
point of it is proportional to the cube of this radius
is
vector.
2892. Find a curve, the segment of which, cut off by the

tangent on the x-axis, is equal to the length of the tangent.
Miscellaneous Exercises on First-Order Differential Equations
Sec. 9]
2893. Find
the curve,
between the
contained
which the segment
of
axes
coordinate
of the
divided
is
343
tangent
into half by
the parabola if =--2x.

2894. Find the curve whose normal at any point of it is
equal to the distance of this point from the origin.
2895*. The area bounded by a curve, the coordinate axes,
and the ordinate of some point of the curve is equal to the
length of the corresponding arc of the curve. Find the equation
of this curve if it is known that the latter passes through the
point (0, 1).

2896. Find the curve for which the area of a triangle formed
vector of the point of
by the x-axis, a tangent, and the radius
2
is
to
a
constant
and
tangency
equal
2897. Find the curve if we know that the mid-point of the
segment cut off on the x-axis by a tangent and a normal to the
curve is a constant point (a, 0).
.
When forming
first-order differential equations, particularly in phvsical

frequently advisable to apply the so-called method of differenwhich consists in the fact that approximate relationships between
tials,
infinitesimal
h.crements of the desired quantities (these relationships are
accurate to infinitesimals of higher order) are replaced by the corresponding
relationships between their differentials. This does not affect the result.
Problem. A tank contains 100 litres of an aqueous solution containing
10 kg of salt. Water is entering the tank at the rate of 3 litres per minute,
and the mixture is flowing out at 2 litres per minute. The concentration is
maintained uniform by stirring. How much salt will the tank contain at the
end of one hour?
Solution. The concentration c of a substance is the quantity of it in
unit volume. If the concentration is uniform, then the quantity of substance in volume V is cV.
Let the quantity of salt in the tank at the end of t minutes be x kg.
The quantity of solution in the tank at that instant will be 100
/ litres,
problems,
is
it
and, consequently, the concentration
During time
c=
kg per
QQ
litre.
solution flows out of the tank (the

solution contains 2cdt kg of salt). Therefore, a change of dx in the quantity
of salt in the tank is given by the relationship
This
ing,
is
2dt litres
dt,
the
of
the sought -for differential equation. Separating variables
we obtain
ln* =
21n(100+0 + lnC
C
or
(100-M)
C=
x
The constant C
100,000.
100,000
-
At
is
the
.
..
found from the

expiration of
ft
f
=^ 3.9 kilograms of
and integrat-
salt.
fact
one
'
that
xvh^n f
0,
the tank
hour,
10,
will
that
is,
contain
_ _
344
[Ch. 9
2898*. Prove that for a heavy liquid rotating about a vertical

axis the free surface has the form of a paraboloid of revolution.
2899*. Find the relationship between the air pressure and the
2
altitude if it is known that the pressure is 1 kgf on 1 cm at
2
at an altitude of 500 metres.
sea level and 0.92 kgf on 1 cm
2900*. According to Hooke's law an elastic band of length
/ increases
in length klF(k
const) due to a tensile force F.
By how much will the band increase in length due to its weight
if the band is
suspended at one end? (The initial length of
the band is /.)
2901. Solve the same problem for a weight P suspended from
the end of the band.
When solving Problems 2902 and 2903, make use of Newton's
law, by which the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
difference of temperatures of the body and the ambient medium.
2902. Find the relationship between the temperature T and
the time f if a body, heated to T degrees, is brought into a room
at constant
temperature
(a degrees).
2903. During what time will a body heated to 100 cool off
and during the first
to 30
if the temperature of the room is 20
20 minutes the body cooled to 60?
2904. The retarding action of friction on a disk rotating in
a liquid is proportional to the angular velocity of rotation. Find
the relationship between the angular velocity and time if it is
known that the disk began rotating at 100 rpm and after one
minute was rotating at 60 rpm.

2905*. The rate of disintegration of radium is proportional
to the quantity of radium present. Radium disintegrates by one
half in 1600 years. Find the percentage of radium that has disintegrated after 100 years.
2906*. The rate of outflow of water from an aperture at
a vertical distance h from the free surface is defined by the
formula
where c0.6 and g is the acceleration of gravity.

During what period of time will the water filling
spherical boiler of diameter 2 metres flow out of
cular opening of radius 0.1
in the bottom.
it
a hemithrough a cir-
2907*. The quantity of light absorbed in passing through

a thin layer of water is proportional to the quantity of incident
light and to the thickness of the layer. If one half of the original
quantity of light is absorbed in passing through a three-metrethick layer of water, what part of this quantity will reach a depth
of 30 metres?
Sec.
345
Higher-Order Differential Equations
10]
2908*. The air
resistance to a body falling with a parachute

to the square of the rate of fall. Find the limit-
is
proportional
ing velocity of
2909*. The
is covered with
descent.
bottom of a tank with a capacity of 300 litres

a mixture of salt and some insoluble substance.
Assuming that the rate at which the salt dissolves is proportional to Ihe difference between the concentration at the given time
and the concentration of a saturated solution (1 kg of salt per 3
litres of water) and that the given quantity of pure water dissolves 1/3 kg of salt in 1 minute, find the quantity of salt in solution at the expiration of one hour.
2910*. The electromotive force e in a circuit with current i,
resistance /? and self-induction L is made up of the voltage drop
Rl and the electromotive force of self-induction

the current
and
Sec.
10.
time
at
= 0.
when
if
eÊsmat
(E
and
L^.
Determine
are constants)
o>
Higher-Order Differentia) Equations
1. The case
of direct integration.
If
then
Miles
2. Cases of reduction of order.

contain y explicitly, for instance,
then, assuming y'
we
p,
I.
If
differential
equation does not
get an equation ot an order one unit lower;
F(x, p
Example
I)
p')-0.
Find the particular solution
of
the equation
that satisfies the conditions
^
Solution. Putting
Solving
we
get
the
= 0,
f/'
#'=p, we have
latter
equation as
when
/ = p',
a
linear
= 0.
whence
equation
in
the
function p,
346
From
the fact that
y'=p =
[Ch
when x = 0, we have
=^
0,
i.e.,
Cj==0.
Hence,
or
___ ____
2
dx~~
'
whence, integrating once again, w? obtain
Putting
y~
solution
is
when x
0,
we
find
C 2 = 0. Hence,
*2
y^
2)
If
y'=p,
we
p-?->
y"
get
desired
particular
differential equation does not contain
then, putting
the
x explicitly,
an equation
of
an
for
instance,
order
one unit
lower:
Example
Find the particular solution
2.
provided that
/=!,
Solution. Put y'
We
#' =
=p
t
when
then
From
it,
we
the fact that f/'=p
equation
= 0.
tf^p-- and
have obtained an equation
the argument). Solving
of the
our equation becomes
of the Bernoulli
type in p (y
is
considered
find
when r/=l, we have C 1 =
1.
Hence,
P=y Vy^
or
Integrating,
we have
arc cos
Putting
y=l
and *=0, we obtain C 2 = 0,
=C
2,
whence
= cosx
or t/==secx.
Sec.
__
347
Higher-Order Differential Equations
10]
Solve the following equations:

291
2912.
2913.
/=1
2920. yy"
2921.
</"=-|T.
y"=\-y'\
2914. xy"
i/'
yif-y'
2922.
= 0.
= jfy' + y".
/"=
2923. (x
-f-
+ y') = 0.
(I
-p
!)</"
(x-[- 2) y'
+
2915.
// = {/".
*f/"
2925
y'+T^" =^"-
'
'
+ t/")=a/".
2918.
t/'(l
2919.
xy + x0' =
</"+ 1=0.
= 0.
= r/'ln^.
*
2924.
= 0.
2916. <//4- f/"

s
2917. (1 I- X ) </"
+ x+
2
1+x
2926. xy"
/"=
2927. y""-f y"*=l.
solutions for the indicated initial con-
l.
Find the particular

ditions:
2928.
(1
2*/'
-M')z/"
l
2929.
= 0;
l+t/'
2j/t/";
r/=l,
2930. ytf + i/"=*y"\
y=*l,
2931. xy"
0,
t/
t/'
y';
Find the general integrals

2932.
2933.
2934.
2935.
for
for
\
JC
x=
0.
= 0.
following equations:
f/
+ y" =
l;
i/V=l;
l,
xif=V\
(/'
= i.
= 0.
for
forjt
0=1, y'=\
for x=l; y=l
y=
Jt
-\-y'
for
A:
=e
s
.
+ -^'y' = 2 + \nx;y = -^, y' = tor

= -i, y'-l for jc= 1.
= 2 for x = 0.
y'y'' + y'(y\)=*Q; = 2,
=
=
for ^ = 0.
3/Y {/-(-i/" -F 1; y= 2, y'
=
=
foi x = 0.
0; (/=!,
-t-y"-2//''
= and = for * =
^j/' + /'*
yy" = 0; j/=l for
2939. y"(\-\-\nx)
2941.
= 0.
satisfy the indicated conditions:
2940.
forx=l.
for
of the
=3
y"-yy"=ify'.
J
= 0.
f/i/"-hf/' -y'lnj/
2937. yy"
2938.
j/'
yy^Vyîfy'-y'if.
yy' = y" +
Find solutions that

2936.
= 0,
=
y'
=
y'
j/
/-n-ln;
</'
(/
<
2942.
2943.
2944.
/'
J/
-|-
jc
1,
348
(Ch. 9
2949.
= Q\ y = 0, y' = 2 for = 2.
= 0; y=l, #' = 2 for * = 0.
2jr-3/ = 40 t/= 1, -0 for = 0.
= 0; #=1, y' = for * = 0.
2yy"-\-y*
I/"-*/' -*/; y=-l, y' = l for x=l.
2950.
/ + e>y-2^' = 0;
2945. 2y'
(y'
2946. y'y*+yif
*/'
2947.
A:
Gx)-y"
I
2948.
jc
*/'
*/'*
//-I,
y'
=e
for
^--
= 0; = 0, 0' = for*=l.
=
(H-00')/ (l+0'")0'; 0=1, 0'=1 for x =
(*+l)0" + x0 = 0'; 0=-2, 0'=4 forx=l.
2951.
H-//y"-f
2952.
y'
ff
2953.

2954. y'
2955. 0'
=
=
/2
2956.
y"
= 4y
//
2957. yy' y" --= y'*

y"* Choose the integral curve passing through
x
Q.
the point (0, 0) and tangent, at it, to the straight line y
2958. Find the curves of constant radius of curvature.
2959. Find a curve whose radius of curvature is proportional
to the cube of the normal.
2960. Find a curve whose radius of curvature is equal to the
.
+ =
normal.
2961. Find a curve
whose radius
of curvature
is
double the
normal.
2962. Find the curves whose projection of the radius of curvature on the //-axis is a constant.
2963. Find the equation of the cable of a suspension bridge
on the assumption that the load is distributed uniformly along
the projection of the cable on a horizontal straight line. The
weight of the cable is neglected.
2964*. Find the position of equilibrium of a flexible nontensile thread, the ends of which are attached at two points and
which has a constant load q (including the weight of the thread)
per unit length.
2965*. A heavy body with no initial velocity is sliding along

an inclined plane. Find the law of motion if the angle of inclination is a, and the coefficient of friction is p,.
(Hint.
plane.)
The
2966*.
is
frictional force is
We may
consider
to the
that
proportional
square
if the initial velocity
motion
where
ji/V,
^V is the force of reaction of the
the
of the
is
zero..
air resistance
velocity.
in free fall
Find the law
of
Sec. 11]
Linear Differential Equations
349
2967*. A motor-boat weighing 300 kgf is in rectilinear motion

with initial velocity 66 m/sec. The resistance of the water is proportional to the velocity and is 10 kgf at 1 metre/sec. How long
will it be before the velocity becomes 8 m/sec?
Sec. 11. Linear Differential Equations
1. Homogeneous
equations.
The
functions 0i
q>i(x), f/ 2
if there are constants
C,
==(P/iW are called linearly dependent

not alt equal to zero, such that
!/
=
f
q> 2 (A:)
C lf
...,
...
Cn
otherwise, these functions are called linearly independent.

The general solution of a homogeneous linear differential equation
+ P, (x) e/<"- +
=
coefficients P,-(x)
'>
//<>
th continuous
!,
(/
where
are linearly
...,/
(/,, y tt
(fundamental system of solutions).
2. Inhomogcneous
+ P n (x) y =
....
2,
independent
The general
equations.
is
n)
(1)
of the
solutions
form
of
equation
(1)
solution of an inhomogeneous
linear differential equation

(2)
with continuous coefficients
where
and Y
P,-
and the right side
(x)
has the form
f (x)
the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation (1)

particular solution of the given inhomogeneous equation (2).
If the fundamental system of solutions (/,, y % ..... y n of the homogeneous
equation (1) is known, then the general solution of the corresponding inhomogeneous equation (2) may be found from the formula
f/
is
is
=C
(x) y,
where the functions Cj(x)

ing system of equations:
'[ (*)
</i
+ C'
(*'
+C
(*)y*
:;w</;
!,
2,
(x)
y2
+C n (x) ya
.... n) are
+ C'n (x)
determined from the follow-
/,
= 0,
+...+c;(o;=o.
0)
(the method of variation of parameters).

Example. Solve the equation
(4)
_ _
350
[C/i.
Solution. Solving the homogeneous equation
*ir+if'=o
we
get
(5)
Hence,
it
be taken that
may
yl
and the solution
of
equation
Forming the system

the equation
is
(4)
(4)
and
(3)
= \nx
may
taking
t/"+~ =
and # 2 =
be sought in the form
into account
that the reduced form of
we obtain
jt,
Whence
and
>l
and, consequently,
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
2968. Test the following systems
of
functions for linear rela-
tionships:
a) x,
b)
ing
x\
1,
d) x,
x+1,
x +2;
2969.
Form
a linear
a)
b)
c)
d)
g)
h)
x'\
e *, e**\
sin *, cos A:, 1;

2
2
sin x, cos *, 1.
homogeneous
differential
equation, know-
fundamental system of equations:
= sin x,
y 2 = cos x\
==xe*\
y
2
yê*.
2
y^x* # 2 = *
e*
f)
c) 0,
its
x\
e) *,
1;
2x
<
f/,
= ^x
y*
= ^x
sin ^,
f/ 8
= ^ cos
A:.
2970. Knowing the fundamental system

homogeneous differential equation
find its particular solution
y that
of solutions of a linear
satisfies the
initial
conditions
Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients
Sec. 12]
351
2971*. Solve the equation
its
knowing
particular solution y
-^.
2972. Solve the equation
x*(\nx-l)y"-xy' 4-y = 0,
particular solution y =x.
knowing its
By the method of variation of parameters, solve the following
inhomogeneous linear equations.
}
2973. **(/"
3;t
xy'
2
2974*. x*y" + xy'
y=x
2975. y'" -f (/'-sec A:.
Sec.
12. Linear Differential
Equations of Second Order
with Constant Coefficients
t. Homogeneous equations. A second-order linear equation with constant

and q without the right side is of the form
coeflicients p
U)
k
If
and
fc
are roots of the characteristic equation

.Q
then the general solution

three ways:
1)
2)
3)
of
equation
(/-CVV + C.e*-* 6, and

= *,;
y-eV(C, + CV)
*,
-^(^cnspx-HC^mpA)
if
kz
(1)
is
(2)
\vritten in one
are real and
/?,
of the following
k.\
if
(/
2. Inhomogeneous
equations.
if
*,=a + p
and * a -=a
The general solution
of a
pi (p 76 0).
linear inhomoge-
neous differential equation

y"
+ py' + w=fW
(3)
be written in the form of a sum:
may
where y
the general solution
of the corresponding equation (I) without

determined from formulas (1) to (3), and Y is a particular
solution of the given equation (3).
The function Y may be found by the method of undetermined coefficients
in the following simple cases:
a
e *P n (x), where P n (x) is a polynomial of degree n.
1. f (x)
If a is not a root of the characteristic
equation (2), that is, (p (a) 96 0,
then we put Y
e**Q n (x) where Q n (x) is a polynomial of degree n with
undetermined coeflicients.
If a is a root of
the characteristic equation (2), that is, <p(a)
0, then
r ax
ritfht
is
and
side
Y=x
2.
Qn
/ (*)
\\here r is the multiplicity of the root

*
[P n (*) cos bx+ Q m (x) sin bx\.
(x) t
a(r=l
or r
= 2).
352
__
[Ch. 9
If
cp(a
^ 0,
bi)
then we put
Y = e ax
[S N (x) cos bx
+ T N (x) sin bx],
where S^(x) and Tu(x)

But if cp(a
&/) = 0, then
are polynomials of degree
K = x re ax
where
r=l).
is
fc
the
is
[Stf (x) cos 6*
+ T N (x) sin to]
the roots a
of
multiplicity
N-max
bi
{n,
m},
second-order
(for
equations,
In the general case, the method of variation of parameters (see Sec. 11)
used to solve equation (3).
2
Example 1. Find the general solution of the equation 2y" y' y 4xe *.
2
&
l=u has roots fc,~l and
Solution. The characteristic equation 2&
(first
type)
homogeneous equation
e* + C 2e
The right side of the given equation is/ (x) =
Y e zx (Ax + B), since n=l and /=0. Difleren(x). Hence,
twice and putting the derivatives into the given equation, we
is
==C
f/
=4xe zx =t ax P n
tiating
obtain:
the corresponding
of
%,** (4 A X
+ 45 + 4^) __ e i* (2Ax + 25 + A)
2
e *
(Ax H- B)
4xe zx
zx
and equating the coefficients of identical powers of x arid

Cancelling out e
the absolute terms on the left and right of the equality, we have bA=4 and
4
28
744-5fl
= 0,
whence 4
and 5
-=-
2A
Thus, K^
oH
-g-*
anc^
-.
Jo
ne gei] eral solution of the given equation
Find the general
+ =
is
solution of the equation y*

xe*
y
2y
2
characteristic equation k
has a double root
2/f-f- 1
x
ft=l The ri^ht side of the equation is o! the form f(x)xe
here, 0=1
and n=-l. The particular solution is Y =x*e* (Ax
B), since a coincides \nHth
2.
the double root k=-\ and, consequently, r
Diilerentiating Y twice, substituting into the equation, and equating the
Example
2.
Solution. The
coefficients,
we obtain
/l
fl
equation will be written in the
= 0,
Hence, the general solution of the given
form
*
Find the general solution of the equation */*-f y=

2
The characteristic equation
and
-j-l=r() has roots /?,
The general solution ot the corresponding homogeneous equation
3, where a~0 and P = l| be*
Example
fc
3,
Solution.
i.
will |see
The right side
fe
is
of
the form
/'
Sec.
12]
0, 6=1, P n (jc)=0,
particular solution Y,
where a
#=1,
Q OT
= *.
(*)
To
353
this side there corresponds the
= 0,
fc=l, r=l).
twice and substituting into the equation, we equate the
coefficients of both sides in cos*, xcosx, sin*, and xsmx. We then get four
44 = 1, from which we deter0,
0, 4C = 0, -25 + 20
equations 2A + 2D
1
1
X2
X
mine A
cos * -f- -j- sin *.
0, C
0, D
Therefore,
(here,
Differentiating
=
=
3. The
is
= C, cos + C
jc
x2
2
sin
is
principle of superposition of
the sum of several functions
and K/(/
l,
then the
sum
3,
y'+py'+w^-fiW
y
is
the solution of equation
A:
sin *.
-7-
solutions.
If
the right side of equa-
corresponding solutions of the equations
are the
.., n)
cos
-j-
tion (3)
2,
44
K=
(<
i.
2 ..... n).
= Y + Y +...+Y n
n
(3).

2982. y" + 2y'
2976. tf
5y'6y Q.
0.
2983.
2977. if
4y'
9y
2984. y" + ky
2978.
0.
2985.
2979. iT
y
0.
2980. ^_2i/ +2j/
2981.
+ 40' +130 0.
yy'^Q.
=
+
y=
=
=
Find the particular solutions that satisfy the indicated conditions:
2987. y"5tj'-\-4y
2988. y"+ 3tf' +20
2989. 0"
2990. 0^
2991.
= Q\
= 0;
= 0,
y=5
= 8 for * =
for jc0.
y=5
0' =
= 2 for x = 0.
t
y'
1,
+ 40 = 0;
+ 20' = 0; 0=1, 0'=0 for ^ =
= a, 0' = for x = 0.
f
/=;
2992. 0"
2993. 0"
+ 30'=0; =
= 0; =
+
f
ji
for x
for
jc
=
=
and
and
=
=
for
x=l.
type of particulai solutions

inhomogeneous equations:
2994.
a)
Indicate
0"-40 = A:V
b) 0"
12-1900
90
the
x
;
= cos 2x\
= 3.
for
for
the given
_ _
354
[Ch. 9
= sin 2x + e**\
x
d) y" + 2y' + 2y = e sir\x\
- 5</' + 60 = (x* + l)e* + xe**\
e)
y"2y' + 5# = xe* cos 2x #V sin 2x.
c) y"
4y' -f 4y
</"
f)
=
/ ^ +# = +
^ + + = ^.
+
/
2995. y"
jc
4i/'
4(/
2996.
*'
6.
2997.
2^'
^
2998.
8^ 7^=14.
2999. y"yê*.
3000.
3001.
3002.
3003.
f
3004. t/'
3005. y"
2y'-{ 5y
3006. Find the solution of the equation y"
0.
satisfies the conditions y=l, */'= 1 for x
+ 4y =
sin x that

W2y
3007.
2)
^-2
+ x=/l
o)
Consider
sinp/.
the
cases:
1)
p-co.
3008.
3009.
3010.
3011.
3012.
3013.
3014.
3015.
3016.
3017.
/
t/"
y"
y"
2y'
y"
2(/'
y"-\-y'
8y = e
= 5x + 2e x
^_y'^2;c-~l
8cos2*.
.
3e
x
.
+ 2r/ + y = ^ + ^ x x
2y + lQy=s\r\3xi-e
/_4f/' + 4f/ = 2^ +
if
3y' =
/
{/"
f/"
3018.
3019. Find the solution to the equation
that satisfies the conditions /=-, f/ /==l for ^

3020. (/"
3021. j/"
3022.
3023. tf
3024.
3025.
y = 2xsmx.
2x
4(/==g
sin2A:.
/ H- 9y = 2x sin
2y'=e
= 0,
tx
o>;
Sec.
12]
=
+
=
=
355
3026. tf2y'
3y x(l+e' ).
3x 2xe*.
3027. y"
2y'
x
3028. */"
4y'+4y xe*
2xe-'*
3029. y"
3y
2y'
(x^ l)e*.
3030*. y"
y 2x cos x cos 2x.
3031. t/'
2y 2xe*(cosx
sinx).
+
+ =
=
Applying the method
variation
of
following equations:
3032. y" + y
ianx.
3033.
3034.
3035.
=
y" + y = cot x.
= -.
y"
2y'
y" + 2y' + y =
3036.
of
parameters, solve
<
the
3037.
3038. a)
-(-*/
</"
b) y"
y = tanh
A:.
x
2y = 4x*e \
3039. Two identical loads are suspended from the end of a

spring. Find the equation of motion that will be performed by
one of these loads if the other falls.
Solution. Let the increase in the length of the spring under the action
in a state of rest be a and the mass of the load, m. Denote by x
the coordinate of the load reckoned vertically from the position of equilibrium in the case of a single load. Then
of
one load
where, obviously, k
tion
is
x=C
and
d*
-77
Tt
=
:
cos
when
I/
/
= 0;
and, consequently,
- 1
+C
I/
sin
whence C
=a
t.
7*7*
The
^ ~" ^ *
initial
The
general
conditions yield
solu-
Jt
=u
and C a = 0; and so
3040*. The force stretching a spring is proportional to the

increase in its length and is equal to 1 kgf when the length
increases by 1 cm. A load weighing 2 kgf is suspended from the
spring. Find the period of oscillatory motion of the load if it
is pulled downwards slightly and then released.
3041*. A load weighing P
4 kgf is suspended from a spring
and increases the length of the spring by 1 cm. Find the law
of motion of the load if the upper end of the spring performs
a vertical harmonic oscillation (/
2sin30/ cm and if at the
initial instant the load was at rest (resistance of the medium is
neglected).
12*
356
_ _
(Ch. 9
is attracted by each of two

3042. A material point of mass
centres with a force proportional to the distance (the constant
of proportionality is k). Find the law of motion of the point
knowing that the distance between the centres is 26, at the initial instant the point was located on the line connecting the
centres (at a distance c from its midpoint) and had a velocity
of zero.
3043. A chain of length 6 metres is sliding from a support

without friction. If the motion begins when 1 m of the chain
is hanging from the support, how long will it take for the entire
chain to slide down?
3044*. A long narrow tube is revolving with constant angular
velocity o> about a vertical axis perpendicular to it. A ball inside the tube is sliding along it without friction. Find the law
of motion of the ball relative to the tube, considering that
a) at the initial instant the ball was at a distance a from
the axis of rotation; the initial velocity of the ball was zero;
b) at the initial instant the ball was located on the axis of
rotation and had an initial velocity v 9
.
Sec.
13.
Linear
Differential
Equations
of
Order
Higher
than
Two
with
Constant Coefficients
1. Homogeneous equations. The fundamental system of solutions y lt

Un f a homogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients
n
y<
+ a iy n + + an _,y' +a n y =
(1)
#t
>
<
is
constructed on the basis of the character of the roots of the
characteristic
equation
Q.
(2)
1) if k is a real root of the equation (2) of multiplicity m, then to

this root there correspond
linearly independent solutions of equation (1):
Namely,
2)
then
if
to
the
p/ is a pair of complex roots of equation (2) of multiplicity

latter there correspond 2m linearly independent solutions
equation (1):
*x
y l e cos PX, #,
= e*x sin px,
yt
= xe* x cos PX,
2. Inhotnogeneous equations.
equation
y4
= xe* x sin PX,
m,
of
...
particular solution of the inhomogeneous

(3)
is
sought on the basis of rules 2
and 3
of Sec.
12.
Sec.
Euler's Equations
14]
__
357

3058. y /
13</"+12</'=0.
3045. y'"
3048. y' v
2J/"
3t"
3049. y'"
3050. y'v + 4y
= 0.
'
w'v' + Ô.
'
*054.
w' 1
sss-
^T
'
306 >- y' v

3062 y'"iJ
ai/ = b.
3060.
3053.
n(n-l) ,.
= x'
MS,---..
SB:
3067. Find the particular solution of the equation
y'"+2y"-{-2y'+y = x
that satisfies the initial conditions y (0)
14.
Sec.
Euler's
= y' (0) = y" (0)=-=0.
Equations
linear equation of the form

n
y^f(x)
(I)
a, b, A ..... <4,,_,, A n are constants, is called Enter's equation.

Let us introduce a new independent variable /, putting
where
ax
+ b-ê
1
.
Then
and
Euler's
is
equation
transformed
coefficients.
z
Fxample 1. Solve the equation x y"

Solution. Putting xê*. we get
into
linear equation
+ xy' +{/ =
1.
==e
Tr
~Sx
dx~z==e
(~di*~~~di)'
Consequently, the given equatioi takes on the form
whence
= C, cos + C, sin +
y = C, cos (In *) + C a sin (In x) +
y
or
1.
with constant
358
_ _
[Ch. 9
For the homogeneous Euler equation
the solution
(2)
be sought in the form
may
</
= **.
(3)
found from (3), we get a characteristic equaexponent k.

If k is a real root of the characteristic equation of multiplicity m then to it
correspond m linearly independent solutions
m- 1
k
2
Putting into (2)
tion from which
y'
(/,
...,
we can
(n}
find the
0i
If
= **.
a
is
p*
correspond
2m
0,
= **-ln*.
*/,
= ** (In*)
..., y m
y 4 =*Mnx.sin(plnx) .....
2.
We
into the given

characteristic equation
Solving
find
y^C
3069.
3070.
*'g + 3*| + = 0.
*V xy' 3(/ = 0.
xY-|-x(/'4-4(/ = 0.
<,
3071.
3072.
3073. tT
3074.
3075.
3076.
there
cos (p
+4l/=0.
equation, after
Hence, the general solution will be
3068.
it
= *a In x cos (P In *),
^m-i^*" (In*)*"
3Xy'
we
to
put
Substituting
it
Solve the equation
X *y''
Solution.
(\nx)
m, then
pair of complex roots of multiplicity

linearly independent solutions
(/ 8
Example
=x
^y_
46-1-4
= 0.
cancelling
out x k
we
get
the
Sec.
15]
Systems
of Differential
359
Equations
3077. Find the particular solution of the equation
+ y = 2x
conditions y = 0,
*V
that satisfies the initial
Sec.
xy'
15. Systems of Differential
Method
*/'
Equations
To find the solution, for

first-order differential equations, that
of elimination.
system of two
form
them with respect
the desired functions,

have, for example,
we
first
equation of the system
(1)
to x.
Determining z from the
instance, of
is,
We
solved for the derivatives
of
when *=1.
of
normal
system
differentiate
of
the
one of
and substituting the
value found,
A.. \
(3)
into equation (2), we get a

tion u. Solving it, we find
equation with one unknown func-
second-order
(4)
where C, and C 2 are arbitrary constants. Substituting function (4) into formula (3), we determine the function z without new integrations. The set of
formulas (3) and (4), where y is replaced by \|>, yields the general solution
of the system (1).
Example. Solve the system
+'-'-T*
Solution.
We
differentiate the first equation
with respect to
x:
^ + 2^dx^+ 4^-4.
dx*^
From
the
first
from the second
equation
we
will
dx
we determine
have -^
ax
-5-
&
**
-T-
+*+
-;
l+4x
-75-
&
dy
TT"T
ax
2y
and then
j
Put ting
and j- into the equation obtained after differentiation, we arrive at a secondorder equation in one unknown y:
360
[Ch. 9
Solving
it
we
find:
and then
We
do likewise
can
in
the case
of
system with a larger number of
equations.
Solve the systems:

dy
3078.
=z
JJ
3085.
dx
r/
= 0, z =
when
je
= 0.
when
= 0.
3079.
3086.
3080.
dz
= 0, y=\
dT
dx
3081.
4/_//
3087.
dy
dz
3088*.
dx
xy~
c)
3082.
da
__
dy __dz_
x-\-y~~~ z
dy __
yz zx
'
dz
xif
isolate the integral curve passing through the point (1, 1,

2).
dy
3089.
3083.
3084.
dz
3090.
.Sec.
Integration of Differential Equations by Power Series
16}
361
3091**. A shell leaves a gun with initial velocity u at an

angle a to the horizon. Find the equation of motion if we take
the air resistance as proportional to the velocity.
3092*. A material point is attracted by a centre
with a
force proportional to the distance. The motion begins from point A
at a distance a from the centre with initial velocity
perpendicular to OA. Find the trajectory.
by Means
Sec. 16. Integration of Differential Equations
of
Power Series
not possible to integrate a differential equation with the help of

elementary functions, then in some cases its solution may be sought in the
If
is
it
form of a power
series:
00
'(*
y=2
n=
n
*o)
0)
The
undetermined
series (1) into the

of the binomial x
are found by putting the

coefficients c n (n
\, 2, ...)
equation and equating the coefficients of identical powers
x on the left-hand and right-hand sides of the resulting
equation.
We
in the
can also seek the solution of the equation
form
of the
Taylor's series
y(*)
^ ^^ (*-*)"
(3)
and the subsequent derivatives y (n) (x )

where y(x Q) = y Q
t/ )
y' (x ) = f (*
are
found
successively
by differentiating equation (2) and by
(n- 2, 3, ...)
,
putting X Q in place of x
Example
Solution.
1.
Find the solution
We
put
of the equation
whence, differentiating, we get

y"
= 2.\Ct + 3.2c x+...+n(n-\)cn x n -* + (n+l

s
+ In + 2)(rt-t-l) <:+,*"+...
Substituting y and y" into the given equation,
Collecting
powers
together, on
of x
the
left
of this
and equating to zero the
we
arrive at the identity
equation, the terms with identical

of these powers, we will
coefiicients
362
[Ch.
have
cs
^~
and so
forth.
Generally,
3.4-6. 7-...
(k
=1,2,
3,
...).
Consequently,
(X*
c =f/
and c = y'Q
Applying d'Alembert's
where
for
< x < + oo
Example
2.
3.4-6.?..
.-3* (3fc+
1)
+ '" )*
(4)
oo
X^
X1
+ 3T4 + 3.4.6.7 + '" +

test,
it
is
readily
seen
that series (4) converges
Find the solution
of the
equation
y'
Solution.
We
We
put
= + = Differentiating equation y' = x + y, we succes/=! + ^=1 + = 2, y'"=y\ /o" = 2, etc. Consequently,
have y =\, i^
sively find
l.
(/',
For the example
at
hand, this solution
*-l
The procedure
may
x) or
be written in final form as
= 2e*
x.
similar for differential equations of higher orders. Testing the resulting series for convergence is, generally speaking, complicated
and is not obligatory when solving the problems of this section.
is
With the help of power series, find the solutions of the equations for the indicated initial conditions.
In Examples 3097, 3098,
3101, test the solutions
3099,
obtained for convergence.
2
3093. y'
y x
y
3094. y'
x
1; y
2y
= +
= 2 for * = 0.
= +
= y for x=l.
= y for x==a
0' = / + *;
= for * = 0.
y' = x*
y*\ #
for
(1
x)y' = l+x
y\ y =
\
3095.
3096.
3097.
f/
Sec. 17]
363
= for x = 0.
=
for * = 0.
0\ 0=1, #'
+ = 0; y=l, */'=0 for =
+ = 0; 0=1, 0'=0 for x =
= 0; * = a; ~ = for = 0.
= 0;
3098*.
3099.
3100*.
/'
3101*.
= 0,
y'
Jt
*/
*/
3102.
Sec. 17. Problems on Fourier's Method
To
find the solutions of a linear
partial differential equation
homogeneous
by Fourier's method, first seek the particular solutions of this special-type

equation, each of which represents the product of functions that are dependent
on one argument only. In the simplest case, there is an infinite set of such
solutions M (tt=l, 2,...), which are linearly independent among themselves
in any finite number and which satisfy the given boundary conditions. The
desired solution u is represented in the form of a series arranged according
rt
to these particular solutions:
u=
Cn u n
(1)
C n which remain undetermined
The coefficients
conditions.
Problem. A transversal displacement u

u(x
with abscissa x satisfies, at time *, the equation
from the
are found
t)
initial
of the points of a string
_
~~ a
where a
string).
-?
(T Q
the
is
Find the form
tensile
of the
and Q
force
string
(2)
dx*
dt*
at
time
the
is
if
its
linear
ends
x=
density
of the
and * = / are
2
Fig.
fixed
and
=~*
at the initial
(/
Solution.
x) (Fig.
It
that satisfies the
is
instant,
107) and
required
its
= 0,
107
the string had
the form of a parabola
points had zero velocity.
to find the
solution
= u(x,
t)
of
equation
(2)
boundary conditions
a(0,
0-0,
!!(/,
0=0
(3)
_ _
364
\Ch. 9
and the
initial conditions
(*,0)
We
^ *(/-*),
;<*, 0)
= 0.
(4)
seek the nonzero solutions of equation (2) of the special form
=X
u
Putting
this expression into
(x)T(t).
equation
and separating the variables, we get
(2)
ZL(0--*1W
a 2 7tO~~
(5)'
l
'
(x)
Since the variables x and t are independent, equation (5) is possible only
the general quantity of relation (5) is constant
Denoting this constant
X 2 we find two ordinary differential equations:
when
by
=Q
)*-T(t)
and X"
(x)
+ K*X
(x)
= 0.
Solving these equations, we get
= A cos a\t + B sin aKt,

(*) = C cos Kx + D sin X*.
(t)
X
where A, B, C,
From
are
X(0) =
cannot be equal to
this reason,
XA
= -p
we do
To
Let
constants.
arbitrary
we have
(3)
(since
sinX/
For
condition
where k
is
and
zero
at
an integer.
determine the constants.

and
X(/) = 0; hence, C =
the same time as C is zero).
us
It
will readily be seen that
not lose generality by taking for k only positive values

every value h k there corresponds a particular solution
kan
kan
Ak
(, cos-j-
whose sum obviously
equation
A k and B k
choose the constants

satisfy the initial conditions
knx
kant\
knx
-7- + ^sm-y-J sm-j-
cos
satisfies
We
and the
so that the
(2)
boundary conditions
sum
of the series
Since
(4).
CD
du
& =2*
it
kan (
~\~ A
follows that, by putting
= 0,
sm
kant
we obtain
kant\
-p + ^cos-y-J
and
0)
2, 3,...).
(3).
kant
tj sin-y-
Ihat satisfies the boundary conditions

We construct the series
(k=\
kan
sin
knx
-^
(3).
should
Sec.
17]
Hence, to determine the

a Fourier series,
.
du
..
function
A k and B^
coefficients
is
it
365
necessary to expand in
= ^-
sines only, the function u(x, 0)
in
_
x
(lx)
and
the
^ ^n
(x, 0)'
0.
at
From
familiar formulas (Ch. VIII, Sec. 4,3)
we have
/
ft
if
&
is
Ak
odd, and
if
&
is
knx
32h
even;
/
kast _
The sought-for solution
=
*
will
jix
fA
Osin
,
d*
T- J
A
= 0,
be
cos
/
sin
3103*.
its
ends,
sin
At the initial instant

x=
and * = /, had
and the points
form of the string

3104*. At the
string
0<jt</
at
A
= 0.
fl*
time
initial
the
form
string, attached at
of the sine curve
had zero velocity. Find the
it
t.
time
= 0,
of
(2/i-f \)jtx
= 0,
receive a velocity -~
the
1.
points of
a straight
Find the form
of the
l are
and x
string at time t if the ends of the string #
fixed (see Problem 3103).
3105*. A string of length /=100 cm and attached at its ends,
and *=-/, is pulled out to a distance A
2 cm at point
x
*=;50 cm
then released without any

impulse. Determine the shape of the string at any time /.
3106*. In
longitudinal vibrations of a thin homogeneous
and rectilinear rod, whose axis coincides with the jr-axis, the
of a cross-section of the rod with
t)
displacement u = u(x
abscissa x satisfies, at time /, the equation
at
the
initial
time,
and
is
cû_
~~ a 2
d/ 2
f
where a
<Pu
dx*
(E
is
Young's modulus and Q
is
the density of the
rod). Determine the longitudinal vibrations of an elastic horiand pulled

zontal rod of length /= 100 cm fixed at the end *
back at the end *=100 by A/
l cm, and then released without
impulse.
366
_ _
'
[C/i.
3107*. For a rectilinear homogeneous rod whose axis coincides

with the Jt-axis, the temperature u = u(x, t) in a cross-section with
abscissa x at time /, in the absence of sources of heat, satisfies
the equation of heat conduction
di
where a is a constant.
for any time t in a rod
Determine the temperature distribution

of length
100
cm
if
temperature distribution
u(x, 0)
= 0.01
A;
(100
x).
we know
the initial
Chapter
APPROXIMATE CALCULATIONS
Sec.
1.
1. Absolute
The absolute error of an approximate number a which

number A is the absolute value of the difference between
them. The number A, which satisfies the inequality
error.
replaces the exact
is called the limiting

the limits a
absolute
A^/lâ + A
error.
or,
more
The exact number A

A
briefly, A=a
is
located within
2. Relative error. By the relative error of an approximate number a

0) we understand the ratio of the absolute
replacing an exact number A (A
error of the number a to the exact number A. The number 6, which satisfies
>
the inequality
\*-l ^*
-,
(2)
is
called the
of the
limiting relative error
actual practice
Aâ,
we
number
often take the
number
approximate
6=
for
a.
Since in
the
limiting
relative error.
3. Number of correct decimals. We say that a positive approximate

number a written in the form of a decimal expansion has n correct decimal
places in a narrow sense if the absolute error of this number does not exceed
half unit of the nth decimal place. In this case,
take, for the limiting relative error, the number
one
where k
is
the
first
significant
/
is
known
that
6^
I
,
i
,
places
definitely
has
narrow
77:
we can
number
a.
And
conversely,
it
if
then the number a has n correct decimal
1)
n correct
the absolute error

of the last decimal
If
unit
the
\10/
meaning
2(k-\in
>
of the
digit
\-i
when n
of
decimals
the
in
word.
the
In
particular,
narrow meaning
if
number a
the
"if I To)
approximate number a does not exceed a
for example, are numbers resulting
place (such,
of
an
from measurements made to a definite accuracy), then it is said that all

decimal places of this approximate number are correct in a broad sense. If
there is a larger number of significant digits in the approximate number,
the latter (if it is the final result of calculations) is ordinarily rounded off
so that all the remaining digits are correct in the narrow or broad sense.
[Ch. 10
Approximate Calculations
368
Henceforth, we shall
not otherwise
(if
assume that
all
digits in the initial data are
the narrow sense. The results of intermediate calculations may contain one or two reserve digits.
We note that the examples of this section are, as a rule, the results of
final calculations, and for this reason the answers to them are given as
approximate numbers with only correct decimals.
4. Addition and subtraction of approximate numbers. The limiting absolute error ot an algebraic sum of several numbers is equal to the sum of
the limiting absolute errors of these numbers. Therefore, in order to have,
in the sum of a small number of approximate numbers (all decimal places
of which are correct), only correct digits (at least in the broad sense), all
summands should be put into the form of that summand which has the
smallest number of decimal places, and in each summand a reserve digit
should be retained. Then add the resulting numbers as exact numbers, and
round off the sum by one decimal place
If we have to add approximate numbers that have not been rounded off,
they should be rounded off and one or two reserve digits should be retained.
Then be guided by the foregoing rule of addition while retaining the appropriate extra digits in the sum up to the end of the calculations.
Example 1. 215.21 -f- 14.182 -f 21 .4-215.2(1)
14.1(8)4-21 4-= 250.8.
The relative error of a sum of positive terms lies between the least and
greatest relative errors of these terms.
The relative error of a difference is not amenable to simple counting.
Particularly unfavourable in this sense is the difference of two close numbers.
Example 2. In subtracting the approximate numbers 6 135 and 6.131 to
four correct decimal places, we get the difference
004. The limiting relative
correct
in
stated)
0.001
error
6=
is
.J.
+1
0/XM
=-4 = 0.25.
j
..
,t
0.004
Hence,
not one of the
decimals
it
difference is correct. Therefore,
is
always advisable to avoid
subtracting close approximate numbers and to transform the given expression,
if need be, so that this undesirable operation is omitted.
5. Multiplication and division of approximate numbers. The limiting
relative error of a product and a quotient of approximate numbers is equal
lo the sum of the limiting relative errors of these numbers Proceeding from
Ihis and applying the rule for the number of correct decimals (3), we retain
in the answer only a definite number of decimals
Example 3. The product of the approximate numbers 25.3-4.12=104.236.
Assuming that all decimals of the factors are correct, we find that the
limiting relative error of the product is
of
the
Whence
result,
if
number
the
it
is
correctly, 25
final,
mth power
of
^0.01 +^0.01=^0.003.
decimals of the product is three and the
be written as follows: 25.3-4 12=104, or more
correct
should
3-4.12= 104 2
6. Powers and
of the
of
0.3.
roots of approximate numbers.
an approximate number a
relative error of this number

The limiting relative error of
Is
the
th
the
mth root
is
of
The limiting relative error

equal to the m-fold limiting
an approximate number a
part of the limiting relative error of the
number
a.
7. Calculating the error of the result of various operations on approximate numbers. If Aa lf ... Aa,, are the limiting absolute errors of the appro,
Sec.
1]
xitnate
numbers a t
an
then the limiting absolute error
S = /(a t,
may
369
AS
of the
resuU
..., a n )
be evaluated approximately from the formula
The limiting relative
error
is
then equal to
,**-
*Ji/r
".++
=
Example 4. Evaluate S ln (10.3+ V^4. 4 ); the approximate numbers

10.3 and 4.4 are correct to one decimal place.
Solution. Let us first compute the limiting absolute error AS in the
1
r
A& \
ln (a+ V ~b),
AS
Aa
We have
general form: S
Aa=A6=i=2Q; 1^4.4
the approximate
is
then equal to
2.0976...;
number y
is
'
^SOTT^JQ
^TT;
we
leave
equal to
we can
be sure
2.1,
=-
since the relative
-r=
error of
the absolute error
tne first decimal place. Hence,
U UUi>
0005
-
20
'
"2"
Thus, two decimal places will be correct.

Now let us do the calculations with one reserve decimal:
2.517.
log (10. 3+ |/4 4) =5= log 12 4-1.093, In (10 3+ V 4.4)=^ 1.093-2.303
And we pet the answer: 2 52
8. Establishing admissible errors of approximate numbers for a given
error in the result of operations on them. Applying the formulas of 7 for
the quantities AS or 6S given us and considering all particular differentials
U-M
quantities \-~Ac** or the M

equal, we calculate the
\dak
\da k
\f\
absolute errors Aa lt ...
Aa^, ... o the approximate numbers a t
admissible
..
,a n
...
that enter into the operations (the principle of equal effects).

It should be pointed out that sometimes when calculating the admissible
errors of the arguments of a function it is not advantageous to use the
principle of equal effects, since the latter may make demands that are
practically unfulfilable In these cases it is advisable to make a reasonable
redistribution of errors (if this is possible) so that the overall total error does
not exceed a specified quantity. Thus, strictly speaking, the problem thus
posed
is
indeterminate.
Example
5.
The volume
off a circular cylinder
(equal
to
=~2 R*
2R)
tan a.
at
an
by
angle
To what
of a
segment", that is, *a solid cut

passing through the diameter of the base
to the base, is computed from the formula
"cylindrical
plane
degree
of
accuracy
should
we measure
the radius
_ _
[Ch. 10
370
#=s:60 cm and the angle of inclination a so that the volume of the cylindrical
segment is found to an accuracy up to 1%?
Solution. If AV, A/? and Aa are the limiting absolute errors of the
quantities V, R and a, then the limiting relative error of the volume V that
we
are calculating
is
3A/?
2Act
R "Nnâ
...
We
assume
3A
-^ < m
1
and
_<2Aa
100"
Whence
cm
-=1
60
sin
mm;
2a
Thus, we ensure the desired accuracy in the answer to

and the angle of inclination a to 9'.
Ihe radius to 1
mm
1%
if
we measure
3108. Measurements yielded the following approximate numbers

that are correct in the broad meaning to the number of decimal
places indicated:
1207'14"; b) 38.5 cm; c) 62.215 kg.

their absolute and relative errors.
3109. Compute the absolute and relative errors of the following approximate numbers which are correct in the narrow sense
to the decimal places indicated:
a)
Compute
a) 241.7; b) 0.035; c) 3.14.

3110. Determine the number of correct (in the narrow sense)
decimals and write the approximate numbers:
a) 48.361 for an accuracy of 1%;
b) 14.9360 for. an accuracy of l%\
c) 592.8 for an accuracy of 2%.
3111. Add the approximate numbers, which are correct to the
indicated decimals:
3.10
0.5;
a) 25.386 + 0.49
2
41.72
0.09;
b) 1.2-10
3.124.
c) 38.1+2.0
3112. Subtract the approximate numbers, which are correct
to the indicated decimals:
a)
148.1-63.871;
b)
29.7211.25;
c)
34.22-34.21.
3113*. Find the difference of the areas of two squares whose

measured sides are 15.28 cm and 15.22 cm (accurate to 0.05 mm).
3114. Find the product of the approximate numbers, which
are correct to the indicated decimals:
a) 3.49-8.6; b) 25.1-1.743; c) 0.02-16.5. Indicate the possible
limits of the results.
Sec. /]
371
3115. The sides of a rectangle are 4.02 and 4.96

(accurate
cm). Compute the area of the rectangle.
3116. Find the quotient of the approximate numbers, which
are correct to the indicated decimals:
to
a)
5.684
5.032; b) 0.144
1.2; c)
216:4.
3117. The legs of a right triangle are 12.10 cm and 25.21 cm

(accurate to 0.01 cm). Compute the tangent of the angle opposite
the first leg.
3118. Compute the indicated powers of the approximate
numbers (the bases are correct to the indicated decimals):
a) 0.4158';
b) 65.2'; c)
3119. The
side
of
1.5
2
.
square
is
45.3
cm
(accurate to
mm).
Find the area.

3120.
Compute the values
of
the
roots
(the
radicands are
correct to the indicated decimals):

a)
1/27715; b) j/65^2
c)
KsTT.
3121. The radii of the bases and the generatrix of a truncated

0.01 cm; r= 17.31 cm
23.64 cm
0.01 cm; /
cone are #
3.14. Use these data to compute the
0.01 cm; ji
10.21 cm
total surface of the truncated cone. Evaluate the absolute and
relative errors of the result.
3122. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 15.4 cm

0.1 cm;
0.1 cm. To what degree of accuracy
one of the legs is 6.8 cm
can we determine the second leg and the adjacent acute angle?
Find their values.
3123. Calculate the specific weight of aluminium if an aluminium cylinder of diameter 2 cm and altitude 11 cm weighs
93.4 gm. The relative error in measuring the lengths is 0.01,
while the relative error in weighing is 0.001.
3124.
to 221
current if the electromotive force is equal

and the resistance is 809 ohms
1
ohm.
of oscillation of a pendulum of length / is
Compute the
volts
volt
3125. The period

equal to
where g is the acceleration of gravity. To what degree of accuracy

do we have to measure the length of the pendulum, whose period
is close to 2 sec, in order to obtain its oscillation period with a
relative error of 0.5%? How accurate must the numbers n and g
be taken?
3126. It is required to measure, to within 1%, the lateral
surface of a truncated cone whose base radii are 2 m and 1 m,
and the generatrix is 5 m (approximately). To what degree of
372
_ _
[Ch. 1Q
accuracy do we have to measure the radii and the generatrix and

how many decimal places do we have to take the number n?
3127. To determine Young's modulus for the bending of a
rod of rectangular cross-section we use the formula
to
*P ~~ 1
4
'
flL
'
d*bs
where / is the rod length, b and d are the basis and altitude ol
the cross-section of the rod, s is the sag, and P the load. To
of accuracy do we have to measure the length / and
the sag s so that the error E should not exceed 5.5%, provided
that the load P is known to 0.1%, and the quantities d and 6
cm?
are known to an accuracy of 1%,
cm,
what degree
/50
s2.5
Sec. 2. Interpolation of Functions
1. Newton's interpolation formula. Let * x lt ... xn be the tabular values of an argument, the difference of which h
0,l
Ax; (Ax/
*,-+,
x/; i
., y n are the correspond..., n
1) is constant (table interval) and #
y lt
ing values of the function y Then the value of the function y for an intermediate value of the argument x is approximately given by Newton's interpolation formula
,
where
o=
and A#
"7
= #,
A2
t/
= A#,
A#
...
are successive finite
the polynomial
diilerences of the function y. \\hen x
0, 1, ..., n),
x/ U
0, 1,
., n). As
(1) takes on, accordingly, the tabular values y { (/
particular cases of Newton's formula we obtain: for n=l, linear inter potation;
the
of
To
use
Newton's
for /i
2, quadratic interpolation.
simplify
formula,
it is advisab'ie first to set up a table of finite differences.
If y
f (x) is a polynomial of degree n, then
& n y.
= const
and A" +1 f//=^0
and, hence, formula (1) is exact

In the general case, if / (x) has a continuous derivative f ln + l} (x\ on the
x lt ..., x n and x, then the error
interval [a, b], which includes the points *
,
of
formula
(1)
is
| is some intermediate value between *;(/

practical use, the following approximate formula
where
=
is
I,
..., n) and
more convenient:
(),
x.
For
Sec, 2]
373
If the number n may be any number, then it is best to choose it so that

within the limits of the given accuracy; in other
the difference A" + {/
w
words, the differences A # should be constant to within the given places of
1
^0
decimals
Example
sin
1.
Find
sin
2615'
the
using
tabular
data
sin
26
= 0,43837,
27 -0.45399, sin 28 -0.46947.

Solution. We set up the table
Here,
/i
= 60',
26
15'
q--
Applying formula
have
sin
that
2615' = 0.43837
26
_!_
'
60'
(1)
and using the
0.01562
Let us evaluate the error R 2

if */
sun, then |*/ (/l '|*^l,
first
horizontal line of the table,
(0.00014) = 0.44229.
Using formula
we
will
we
(2)
and taking into account
have:
Thus, all the decimals of sin 2615' are correct.

Using Newton's formula, it is alsc possible, from a given intermediate
value of the function //, to find the corresponding value of the argument x
(inverse interpolation). To do this, first determine the corresponding value q
by the method of successive approximation, putting
and
?C'H
n\
2!
(i-O,
1,
2,
...).
Here, for q we take the common value (to the given accuracy!)
m + >. Whence x jt
cessive approximations q (m}
<;<
-{-<//!.
Example 2. Using the table
approximate the root
of
the equation
smhx
of
two sue*
374
Solution. Taking y
10
we have
4.457,
,_5-4.457
~
1.009
We
(Ch
0.543
5
î.oog
0.565-0.435
0.220
1.009
=0.538;
= 0.538 + 0.027 = 0.565;

:0, 538 + 0. 027 = 0. 565.
can thus take

*
= 2. 2 + 0. 565- 0.2 = 2. 2 + 0. 113 = 2. 313.
2. Lagrange's interpolation formula. In the general case, a polynomial of

0, 1, .... n), is given
degree n, which for *=*/ takes on given values yf (/
by the Lagrange interpolation formula
*!> (x
(x
__
x2)
(x
*o) (*
xn )
*,).
XQ) (x
(x
* 2)
(x
xn )
Xk ^) (X
.(X
'
'
'
'
"
'
3128. Given a table of the values of x and y:
Set up a table of the finite differences of the function y.

3129. Set lip a table of differences of the function y
x*
f
1
for the values *=1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. Make sure that
JC
5jc
all the finite differences of order 3 are equal.
3130*. Utilizing the constancy of fourth-order differences, set
10*' +2**
3jt
up a table of differences of the function y x*
for integral values of x lying in the range l^jt^lO.
3131. Given the table
log
1=0.000,
log 2 -0.301,
0.477,
log 3
=
=
log 4
0.602,
log 5 = 0.699.
Use
linear interpolation to
and log 4. 6.
log 3.1,
compute the numbers: log
1.7,
Iog2.5,
Sec. 2]
375
3132. Given the table

sin 10
sin 11
sin 12
= 0.1736,
= 0.1908,
= 0.2079,
sin 13
sin 14
sin 15
= 0.2250,
= 0.2419,
= 0.2588.
=
in the table by computing (with Newton's formula, for

2)
the values of the sine every half degree.
3133. Form Newton's interpolation polynomial for a function
represented by the table
Fill
3134*. Form Newton's interpolation polynomial for a function

Find y
for
3135.
= 5. 5.
function
Form Lagrange's
y
for
JC
= 0.
For what x will y =

is given by the table
interpolation polynomial and find the
value of
3136. Experiment has yielded the contraction of a spring (x

as a function of the load (P kg) carried by the spring:
mm)
Find the load that yields a contraction of the spring by
mm.
14
376
(Ch. 10
3137. Given a table of the quantities x and y
0.5 and for x

2: a)
the values of y for x
of linear interpolation; b) by Lagrange's formula.
Compute
by means
Sec. 3. Computing the Real Roots of Equations
1. Establishing initial approximations of roots.

roots of a given equation
The approximation
/(*)=0
of the
(i)
consists of two stages: 1) separating the roots, that is, establishing the intervals (as small as possible) within which lies one and only one root of equation (1); 2) computing the roots to a given degree of accuracy
on an interval [a, b] and
If a function /(A) is defined and continuous
of equation (1).
/(a)./(6)<0, then on [a, b] there is at least one root
or /' (x)
This root will definitely be the only one if /' (x)
when
<
>
a<x<b.
it is advisable to use millimetre

In approximating the root
paper and
construct a graph of the function y = f(x). The abscissas of the points of
intersection of the graph with the x-axis are the rools of the equation /(x)
0.
It is sometimes convenient to replace the given equation with an
equivalent
as the absequation (p (#)
if (A). Then the roots of the equation are found
cissas of points of intersection of the graohs y
q)(x) and y
ty (x).
2. The rule of proportionate parts (chord method). If on an interval [a, b]
of the equation f (A)
there is a unique root
O, where the function f (x)
is continuous on
b], then by replacing the curve y
f(x) by a chord
[a,
passing through the points [a, f (a)] and [b, f (b)], we obtain the first
approximation of the root
/~\
(2)
To obtain
we apply formula (2) to that one of

ends of which the function f (x) has
values of opposite sign. The succeeding approximations are constructed in the
same manner. The sequence of numbers cn (n=l, 2,
converges to the
.)
a
the intervals
second approximation c 2
[a,
c,]
or
[c,,
b]
at the
root
that
is,
Generally speaking, we should continue to calculate the approximations c,,

until the decimals retained in the answer cease to change (in accord
.,
with the specified degree of accuracy!); for intermediate calculations, take
one or two reserve decimals This is a general remark.
If
the function / (x) has a nonzero continuous derivative /' (x) on the
interval [a, b], then to evaluate the absolute error of the approximate root
c2 ,
crt ,
we can make
where
377
Computing the Real Roots of Equations
Sec. 3]
u=
use of the formula
min
<x<
(/' (x)
|.
and f" (x) ^

for
3. Newton's method (method of tangents). If /' (x)
a^x^b, where f(a)f(b)<0, f(a)f'(a)>Q, then the successive approximaof an equation f(x)=Q are computed
tions * (rt = 0, 1, 2, ...) to the root
rt
from the formulas

(3)
Under the given assumptions,
lim *
n -> oo
To evaluate
where u,= min

a
we can
the errors
<
1,
2,
...)
is
mono-
use the formula
\f'(x)\.
xQ
a=
<b
For practical purposes
where
sequence x n (n
the
tonic and
.,
= a,
is
it
more convenient
= *_,
which yield
the
a/^.,)
i/i
to use the simpler
same accuracy
l,
2,
formulas
...),
(3')
as formulas (3).
&.
f(b)f"(b)>Q, then in formulas (3) and (3') we should put x
4. Iterative method. Let the yiven equation be reduced to the form
If
= <PM,
(4)
where \y' (x)\*^r< 1 (r is constant) for a ^x^b. Proceeding from the iniwinch belongs 4o the interval [a, b], we build a sequence of
tial value *
numbers x lt x 2 ... according to the following law:
,
If
a<jc
rt
<6
(n
l,
2,
...),
then the limit
is the on/r/ roo/ of equation (4) on the interval [a, 6]; that is, xn are successive approximations to the root |.
The evaluation of the absolute error of the nth approximation to x n is
given by the formula
it
IS
_ xn
y
^^s
xn + l
j
Therefore,
if
xn and x n + l coincide
error for x n will be
-r
to
_r
xn
within
E,
then
the
absolute
limiting
In order to transform equation f(x)
Q to
(4),
we
replace the latter with
an equivalent equation
where the number
A,
is
chosen so that the function
-7-
[x
Kf
(x)]
f
1
Kf
(jc)
.378
__
should be small in absolute value in the neighbourhood of the point

example, we can put 1
X/'(x )=0].
Example 1. Reduce the equation 2x Inx 4=0 to the form (4)
initial approximation to the root * = 2.5.
Solution. Here, /(x)
lent
equation
values of A,;
|l_ A,( 2\
The
=x
this
X ]
initial
= 2x
In *
\nx
k(2x
number
U = 2.5 =0,
equation
/'(jc)
and
4)
close
is
that
4;
is,
10
[Cft.
= 2-~. We
(for
for
the
write the equiva-
take 0.5 as one of the suitable

of
the
to
root
the
equation
rÔ.6.
.6
close to
reduced to the form
is
=x
Inx
0.5 (2x
4)
or
Example
equation that
of
(5)
2.
Compute, to two decimal

between 2 and 3.
places, the root \ of the preceeding
lies
Computing the root by th

Example 1, putting x ? = 2.5.
iterative method. We make use of the result

We carry out the calculations using formulas
with one reserve decimal.
*f
=2+
*,
= 2 + 4-
And so 1^:2 45 (we can

Become fixed)
Let us npw evaluate the
Considering that
all
^2. 448,
In 2.450
*4 = 2
(p(*)
y In2.458ss2.450,
+ ~ln2. 448=^2. 448.

since
stop
here
error.
Here,
= 2 + ~lnx
approximations
to
and
xn
the
third
decimal
place
has
<P'(*)=^..
lie
in the
interval
[2.4, 2.5],
we
get
Hence, the limiting absolute error

remark made above,
in the
approximation to x 9
is,
by virtue
of the
A==
^-^-=0.0012 ^=0.001.
Thus, the exact root g of the equation

2 447
we can
lies
within the limits
< g < 2.449;
take g^2.45, and all the decimals

be correct in the narrow sense.
of
this
approximate number will
Sec. 3]
Computing the Real Roots
of
Calculating the root by Newton's method.
<x<3
Wee
We
Here,
>
On the interval 2
we have:
/(3)f (3)>0. Hence, the conditions
Equations
/' (x)
of 3 for
> 0; /(2)f(3)<0;
= 3 fare(x)fulfilled.
and
*
take
carry out the calculations using formulas
jtj^S
=2
4)
In 3
0.6(2-3
0.6(2-2 4592
0.6(2-2.4481
0.6(2-2 4477
= 2. 4592
= 2.4481
*,
* 4 = 2. 4477
*,
(3')
with two reserve decimals:
4592;
In 2
4592
In 2. 4481
In2. 4477
= 2 4481;
= 2. 4477;
4) = 2 4475.
4)
4)
At this stage we stop the calculations, since the third decimal place
2. 45.
We omit the
does not change any more. The answer is: the root,
evaluation o! the error;
5. The case of a system of two equations. Let it be required to calculate the real roots of a system of two equations in two unknowns (to a given
degree of accuracy):
f(*.
0=0,
there be an initial approximation to one of the solutions (|, r\) of

system Jt x ot y = y Q
This initial approximation may be obtained, for example, graphically,
by plotting (in the same Cartesian coordinate system) the curves f(x, #)
and by determining the coordinates of the points of interand tp (x, #)
and
let
this
section of these curves.

a)
Newton's method. Let us suppose that the functional determinant

dtf.jp)
d(x,y)
xx
Then by Newdoes not vanish near the initial approximation

y
Q1 y
ton's method the first approximate solution to the system (6) has the form
where a P O are the solution of the system of two.
a
x
f/
x,
= +
j/,
= +P
linear equations
The second approximation
is
obtained in the very same way:
= *!+<*!,
*,
where a p $ v are the solution
Similarly
we obtain
of the
^1
= ^1+ Pi,
system of linear equations
the third and succeeding approximations.
380
_ _
We
b) Iterative method.
the system of equations
(6),
[Ch
10
can also apply the iterative method to solving

by transforming this system to an equivalent one
* F(x.y).
=
\ y (D(*,
(
and assuming thai
|F>.y)| + |0;<x 0)|<r<l;
(f)
y)
\F'y (x, y)\
\<S> v (x.
#|<r<
(8)
in some two-dimensional neighbourhood U of the initial approximation (* y Q )

which neighbourhood also contains the exact solution (, rj) of the system.
The sequence of approximations (x n y n ) ( = 1, 2, ...), which converges
to the solution ol the system (7) or, what is the same thing, to the solution
,
x>f
(6),
is
constructed according to the following law:
= F(x
If
all
(*, y n ) belong
to
yz )
t,
then
*/,-c
lim
n
lim
-+ oo
y n =i\.
oo
The following technique is advised for transforming the system of equa*

tions (6) to (7) with condition (8) observed. We consider the system of
equations
a/
which
is
equivalent to
(x.
provided
(6)
a.
that
Rewrite
0.
it
in the
form
Y.
y)^F(x
Choose the parameters

functions F(v, y)
-jnd
a,
p,
O (x,
y, & such
y} will be
that
the
y),
derivatives of the
zero in the initial
approximate solutions
partial
equal or close to
in other words, we find

approximation;
system of equations
a,
Y.
fi,
o as
of the
,v
t/
= 0,
Condition (8) will be observed in such a choice of parameters a, P, Y

on the assumption that the partial derivatives of the functions / (x,
y) and
<p(A, y) do not vary very rapidly in the neighbourhood of the initial approximation (X Q // ).
Example 3. Reduce to the form (7) the system of equations
,
given the initial approximation to the root *
= 0.8,
= 0.55.
Sec. 3]
Solution.
fv (x*
the Real Roots of Equations
Computing
Here,
= 1.1;
<P*
y)-=x*
f (x t
(*<>.
= 1-92,
0o)
+ y*\
= 1.6,
y )
equivalent to the initial one)
,
is
a(* + // -l) + p(*'-i/)-0,

2
2
\ Yl* + -0-i-a(*'-</)=0
2
J
in the
i/ c )
1.
<fy(*
Write down the system (that

2
381
y)=x'-y- fx (x
q> (x,
__
/la, pi
VI Y. *l
form
For suitable numerical values of

system of equations
1
Y anc* ^ choose the solution
a, p,
of
the
+ 1.60+1.920 = 0,
l.la
p-0,
+ 1.925 = 0,
+ 1. lY 6 = 0;
1.6 Y
i.
y^
we put a =^0.3, p ^r 0.3,

Then the system of equations
e.,
which
=x
y=y
x
0.3(^
2
2
0.5,
b^QA.
1)
0.3(A-
2
r/
0.5 (* -{-#
1)
y),
+ 04 (x*y)
equivalent to the initial system, has the form (7); and in a sufficiently small neighbourhood of the point (x Qt y Q ) condition (8) will be fulfilled.
is
Isolate the real roots of the equations by trial and error,

of the rule of proportional parts compute them to
by means
and
two
decimal places.
s
x
1-0.
3138. X
4
*
05* 1.55 = 0.
3139.
+
8
4* -1--0.
3140. x
Proceeding from the graphically found initial approximations,
use Newton's method to compute the real roots of the equations
to two decimal places:
3141.
JC
3142. 2x
-\
_2jc
In*
5-0.
4
= 0.
3143. 2
3144.
= 4x.
logjc=y.
Utilizing the graphically found initial approximations, use the

iterative method to compute the real roots of the equations to
two decimal places:

8
3147. jc
x
3145. x'-5.*M 0.1=0.
2 = 0.
=
cos*.
3146. 4*
Find graphically the initial approximations and compute the
real roots of the equations and systems to two decimals:
3151. x- In*
14 = 0.
3* -(-1=0.
3148. A:'
8
2
8
=
x
3152.
2* + 3*
5
0.
3149. *
+3* 0.5 = 0.
2
4
3153. 4*
7sin* = 0.
3150. * +*
2*
2 = 0.
382
[Ch. 10
3154. x*
3155. e*
'
+ 2x
+ e- *
= 0.
= 0.
"
~~
" Lff
x*
157
+y
'
= 0,
\Qgx-l =0.
~~
3156.
3158.
Compute
the equation tan
3159.
jc
to three decimals the smallest positive root of
jc.
Compute the
roots of the equation x-tanh
x=l
to four
the
integral
decimal places.
Sec. 4. Numerical Integration of Functions
1. Trapezoidal formula. For the approximate evaluation
of
If (x)
[a,
is
a function
continuous on
into n equal parts
b]
= x + ih
Xi
a,
let
xn
with an absolute error
of
we divide the
[a, b]]
and choose the interval
= b,
of
interval of integration
calculations
h==
be the abscissas of the partition points, and

//
/(*/) be the corresponding values of the integrand
f(x). Then the trapezoidal formula yields
y
Let
(x
0,
2,
1,
..., n)
where M 2 = max f (x) when

To attain* the specified accuracy
|
is
That
h must be of the order

value so that
is,
when evaluating
the integral,
the
in-
found from the inequality
terval h
of
Vê
The value
of
h obtained
is
rounded
off to the smaller
a==
~~ n
h
be an integer; this is what gives us the number of partitions n.

Having established h and n from (1), we compute the integral by taking the
values of the integrand with one or two reserve decimal places.
2. Simpson's formula (parabolic formula). If n is an even number, then
should
in the notation of
Simpson's formula
h
Q-
K#o + #n)
+ 4 (y\ + #3+.. +yn -\) +

+0n-2)l
(3)
Numerical Integration
Sec. 4]
of Functions
383
holds with an absolute error of

(4)
M 4 = max
where
when
!
|
(x)
To ensure
the specified accuracy e when evaluating the

interval of calculations h is determined from the inequality
integral,
the
(5)
That
the interval h
is,
to the smaller value so
is
of the order
that n
J/JF,
is
The number h
is
rounded
off
an even integer.
Remark. Since, generally speaking, it is difficult to determine the interand the number n associated with it from the inequalities (2) and (5),
practical work h is determined in the form of a rough estimate. Then,
val h
in
after the result is obtained, the number n is doubled; that is, h is halved.
one to the number of decimal
If the new result coincides with the earlier
places that we retain, then the calculations are stopped, otherwise the pro-
cedure
is
repeated, etc.
For an approximate calculation of the absolute error R of Simpson's

quadrature formula (3), use can also be made of the Range principle, according to
which
where 2 and S are the results

h and // = 2/i, respectively.
of calculations
from formula
(3)
with interval
3160. Under the action of a variable force F directed along

the x-axis, a material point is made to move along the x-axis
4. Approximate the work A of a force F if a
to x
from x
table
is given of the values of its modulus F:
by the trapezoidal
Carry out
the calculations
the Simpson formula.
formula and by
3161. Approximate
J (3*
4x)dx by the trapezoidal
formula
putting rt=10. Evaluate this integral exactly and find the absolute and relative errors of the result. Establish the upper limit A
of absolute error in calculating for n=10, utilizing the error
formula given in the text.
384
\Ch. 10
i
3162. Using the
* *
calculate
Simpson formula,
to four
J *
decimal places, taking n== 10. Establish the upper limit A of absolute error, using the error Formula given in the text.
Calculate the following definite integrals to two decimals:
3,63.
3,68.
Ife.
(-!<,.
Jl
-~.
3164. C
3169.
317
>
3166.
[x\ogxdx.
8187.
Q | 7i
dr.
fcos* dX.
FT
\+X
Jcos*
,
3172>
3173. Evaluate to two decimal

a PPlyi n S the substitution
the
places
-7--
improper
Verify the calculations
ft
by applying Simpson's formula to the integral
is
chosen
,so
QO
that
7^722
<
integral
Jy
rr
~r x
where b
10
plane figure bounded by a half-wave of the sine curve

*-axis is in rotation about the x-axis. Using the
Simpson formula, calculate the volume ot the solid of rotation
to two decimal places.
3175*. Using Simpson's formula, calculate to two decimal
3174,
f/=sin^ and the
places the length ot an arc of the ellipse

in the first
y+
situated
quadrant.
Sec. 5. Numerical Integration of Ordinary Differential
1.
A method
of successive approximation
be given a first-order differential equation
subject to the initial condition
(Picard's
y'^f(x.y)
= # when x = *
Equations
method).
Let
there
<1)
.
Numerical Integration
Sec. 5]
Ordinary Differential Equations
of
385
The solution y (x) of (1), which satisfies the given initial condition, can,
generally speaking, be represented in the form
y(x)=
lira yi (x)
-* 00
(2)
where the successive approximations

y
*//(*) are
from
determined
the
formulas
(*)=#<>+
If
the right side f(x, y)
R{
and
in this
satisfies,
is
|x
yt-i (*)) dx
defined and continuous
in the
neighbourhood
Vi)-f(x. i/JKJ-ltfi-tfil
(L is constant), then the process

converges in the interval
of
I*
ft
(x.
neighbourhood, the Lipschitz condition

\f(x,
where
= min(a, ^
M/
\
and
successive
definitely
(2)
Af = max|/U,
/?
approximation
y)\.
And
the error here
is
/?
- y n W \<ML* ~
The method of successive approximation (PicarcTs method) is also applicable, with slight modifications, to normal systems of differential equations.
Differential equations of higher orders may be written in the form of systems
of
differential equations.
2. The Runge-Kutta method. Let

,
To do
it
be required, on a given interval
to find the solution y (x) of (1) to a specified degree of accuracy e.
we choose
this,
the interval of calculations /i=
the interval [*
X] into n equal parts so that h*
Xf are determined from the formula
,
X|
=x +M
(i=0,
1,
2,
< e.
..., n).
By the Runge-Kutta method, the corresponding values

function are successively computed from the formulas
1900
by dividing
The partition points
/;
(/
(x/) of
the desired
[Ch. 10
386
where
f
=0,
1,
2,
...,
n and
(3)
*i"
=/(*/ + A,,
correct choice of the interval h
To check the
it
is
advisable
to
verify
the quantity
e=
The fraction 6 should amount
to
few
hundredths, otherwise h has to be
reduced.
The Runge-Kutta method is accurate to the order of h 1 A rough estimate

Runge-Kutta method on the given interval [x X] may
be obtained by proceeding from the Runge principle:
.
of the error of the
Rn
y*m
Urn
'
15
where /i = 2m, y 2m and y m are the results of calculations using the scheme (3)
with interval h and interval 2/i.
The Runge-Kutta method is also applicable for solving systems of differential equations
y'
with given
= f(x,
y> z).
*'
= <p(x,
y,
z)
(4)
= z = 2 when x x
by the Milne method,
=(1)
X
we in some way find
conditions /
3. Milne's method. To solve
initial conditions y=^y when X
values
initial
yi=y(*i),
t/
Q,
y=0(*i).
subject to the
the successive
=*/(*)
of the desired function y (x) [for instance, one can expand the solution y (x)
in a series (Ch. IX, Sec. 17) or find these values by the method of successive
approximationôr by using the Runge-Kutta method, and so forth]. The ap-
proximations y t and y] for the following values of

successively found from the formulas
*=
\vhere
fi
= f(x
it
r/ t
(i=4,
5,
..., n)
are
+~(7"
y^ and7i = /(*i,
Hi)-
To check we
calculate the quantity

(6)
Numerical Integration of Ordinary Differential Equations
Sec. 5]
387
does not exceed the unit of the last decimal \(y m retained in the
y (x), then for f/ we take I// and calculate the next value y/ + 1
10~ w then one has to start from the berepeating the process. But if e/
ginning and reduce the interval of calculations. The magnitude of the initial
interval is determined approximately from the inequality h 4
10~ m
For the case of a solution of the system (4), the Milne formulas are
written separately for the functions y (x) and z (x). The order of calculations
remains the same.
Example 1. Given a differential equation */'=*/ x with the initial condition y(0)=1.5. Calculate to two decimal places the value of the solution
of this equation when the argument is x
1.5.
Carry out the calculations
If
e/
answer
for
>
<
combined Runge-Kutta and Milne method.
by
We
Solution.
choose the initial interval h from the condition /r*<0.01.

let us take h
0.25. Then the entire interval of
x
to jc=1.5 is divided into six equal parts of length
To avoid involved writing,
integration from
0.25 by means of points x f (i
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6); we denote by y f and y^
the corresponding values of the solution y and the derivative y'
We calculate the first three values of y (not counting the initial one) by
the Runge-Kutta method [from formulas (3)]; the remaining three values
we calculate by the Milne method [from formulas (5)]
1/4. */s
y&
The value of // will obviously be the answer to the problem.
We carry out the calculations with two reserve decimals according to a
definite scheme consisting of two sequential Tables 1 and 2. At the end of
Table 2 we obtain the answer.
#
#, x =^0, // =1.5
Calculating the value y r Here, / (x, */)
fl
/i
= 0.25.
A^
=i
(*<
= 4-D (0.3750 + 2-0. 3906 + 2.0.3926 + 0.4106) ==0. 3920;

(
0)
*(>
= / (*o.
=
/
/
0o) h
+~
)=s
0+
.5000)0.25-0.3730;
(0)
\
+ -y- j = (- 0.125+1.5000 + 0.1875) 0.25= 0.3906;
fc
Xo
/i
& (0)
*i
=n *o+y.
0o
\
+ -|-) ^ = (0 125+1.5000 + 0.1953)0.25 = 0.3926;
^=
0.25+1.5000 + 0.3926)0.25 = 0.4106;
(
= 1.5000 + 0.3920 =1.8920
(the
first
three
decimals
in
tins
approximate number are guaranteed).

Let us check:
20
|0.3906Q.3926|_ .1
= 0. 13.
10.37500.39061""
By
in
13*
we chose was rather rough.

values y t and y 9 The results are tabulated
this criterion, the interval h that
Similarly
Table
1.
we
calculate
the
156
388
Table
1.
Calculating^,,
f(x, y)
Calculating the value of

j/
=1. 5000,
^=1.5000,
Applying formulas
jr 2 ,
y9
We
have: f(x, y)
jf4 .
= 1.8920,
=
1.6420,
^'
(5),
we
by the Runge-Kutta Method.
y t = 2.3243,
r/,
[Ch. 10
^=1.8243,
/z
y,
= 0.25,
,== 2.8084;
= 2.0584.
find
-^
= 1.5000 + 4
A OK
(2-
1.6420-1.8243 + 2. 2.0584)
= 3.3588;
1+3.3588 = 2.3588;
=
02
+ ^(01
h y'
t)
.
hence, there
is
'
= 2.3243 +
3.3588-3.3590
no need
(2.3588
+ 4- 2.0584 +
.8243)
to reconsider the interval of calculations.
= 3.3590;
Numerical Integration of Ordinary Differential Equations
Sec. 5]
389
= =
We obtain i/ 4 y4 3.3590 (in this approximate number the first three

decimals are guaranteed).
Similarly we calculate the values of y^ and y^. The results are given in
Table 2.
Thus, we finally have
y
(1.5)
= 4.74.
4. Adams' method. To solve (1) by the Adams method on the basis of

the initial data */(x )
we in some way find the following three values
/o
g
of the desired function y (x):
[these three values may be obtained, for instance, by expanding y (x) in a

power series (Ch IX, Sec. 16), or they may be found by the method of successive approximation (1), or by applying the Runge-Kutta method (2)
and so forth].
With the help of the numbers X Q x it * 2 x t and */ y lt y zt ys we calcu,
late
</
q lt q 2
We
?, where
= h y' = hf (x
2
2,
// 2 ),
qs
= hy' = hf (x,,
3
then form a diagonal table of the finite differences of
V'=f(x,
I/O
f/2
i/5
y)
q:
_ _
390
The Adams method
Thus,
Adams formula
numbers
the
utilizing
we
= + --
A#,
it,
<7,
+ A*/
A? 2
</ 8
A<7 2 ,
calculate, by
in
table of differen-
consists in continuing the diagonal
ces with the aid of the
Hhe difference table,
[Ch. 10\
A 2 ?,, A 8
means
of
</
situated
formula
+ IZ A <7,+
2
-r^
A*<7
After
And when we know * 4 and #4
(7)
finding
diagonally in
and putting n-- 3
A//,,
we
calculate
we calculate q^~hf(x^ f/ 4 ),
difference table and then fill into it the
2
A 3<7,, which are situated (together with 4 ) along
finite differences A</,, A ^ 2
a new diagonal parallel to the first one.
Then, utilizing the numbers of the new diagonal, we use formula (8)
4 in it) to calculate A// 4 */ R and q t and obtain the next diagonal:
(putting n
A 2 <7,, A*<7 2 Using this diagonal we calculate the value of */6 of the
ft, A^ 4
desired solution y(x), and so forth.
The Adams formula (7) for calculating by proceeds from the assumption
that the third finite differences A 3 </ are constant. Accordingly, the quantity h
of the initial
interval
of calculations is determined from the inequality
4
/t
<10~ m [if we wish to obtain the value of y (x) to an accuracy of
#4
*/3
introduce
8-
*/ 4
A# 8 and
</
into the
].
In this
sense
the
Adams formula
Milne (5) and Runge-Kutta

Evaluation of the error
is
(7)
equivalent
to the
formulas of
(3).
for the Adams method is complicated and for

practical purposes is useless, since in the general case it yields results with
considerable excess. In actual practice, we follow the course of the third
finite differences, choosing the interval h so small that the adjacent differences A 8 <7f and A*</; +1 differ by not more than one or two units of the given
decimal place (not counting reserve desimals).
To increase the accuracy of the result, Adams' formula maybe extended
by terms containing fourth and higher differences of q, in which case there
is an increase in the number of first values of the function y that are needed
when we first fill in the table. We shall not here give the Adams formula
for higher accuracy.
Example
2.
Using the combined Runge-Kutta and Adams method, calcu(when #1.5) the value of the solution of the
x with the initial condition f/(0)
1.5 (see
late to two decimal places

y'y
Example
1).
We
use the values y lt y z //, that we obtained in the solution

Their calculation is given in Table 1.
We calculate the subsequent values //4 f/5 #6 by the Adams method (see
Tables 3 and 4).
Solution.
of
Example
1.
The answer to the problem is #4 = 4.74.

For solving system (4), the Adams formula (7) and the calculation scheme
shown in Table 3 are applied separately for both functions y(x) and z(x).
Find three successive approximations to the solutions

and systems indicated below.
differential equations
=
=
3176. y'=jf+y*\ y(Q)

Q.
3177. y'
x y
2, z'
y-z\ f/(0)=l, z(0)
3178. */"
-#; y(0) 0, y'(0)=l.
= + +
=
= -2.
of
the
Table
3.
Basic Table for Calculating

/(*,
</)
y4 y
= -* +
*/;
fc
by the
=y^0.25
Adams Method.
(Italicised figures are input data)
Answer: 4.74
Table
-1
153
Auxiliary Table for Calculating by the
Adams Method
Approximating Fourier
[Sec. 6]
Coefficients
393
/i = 0.2,
use the Runge-Kutta method to
approximately the solutions of the given differential
equations and systems for the indicated intervals:
3179. 0' =
x; 0(0) = 1.5 (
Putting the interval
calculate
3180.
3181.
=|
0'
0(1)
0';
y'=*z+
z'=0
1.
x,
(Kx<2).
0(0) = 1, z(0) =
(0<x<l).
combined Runge-Kutta and Milne method or

Applying
Runge-Kutta and Adams method, calculate to two decimal places
a
the solutions to the differential equations and systems indicated

below for the indicated values of the argument;
0.5.
3182. 0'=x+0; 0=1 when x=--0. Compute y when x
0. Compute y when x=l.
x*
3183. 0'
0; 0=1 when x
0. Compute
when x 0.5.
3184. 0'
3; 0=1 when x
20
x
3185. J0'
20+z,
=
=
=
=
=
+
z' = x + 20 + 3z;
Compute y and
3186.
f0'
3187. 0*
30
=2
3188.
y=
when
0V +1=0;
and
when x = 0.
when x = 0.
when x = 0.
0'
when jc=l.
=1.5.
A:(JI)
A:
0=1,
A:
^ + |-cos2/ =
3189.
=
= 0.5.
=
0'
z
2,
= 2,
0;
Compute y when
Find
z,
z;
when x=l.
Compute
when x = 0.5.
)2r'=y
and
Compute
= 2,
0;
x = Q,
Jc'
when
f=-0.
x' (n).
Sec. 6. Approximating Fourier Coefficients
Twelve-ordinate scheme. Let y n

of
the function y
and y Q
-f/ 12
We
~f(x n
(n
points
f(x) at equidistant
equidist
set
= 0,
1,
xn = -
...,
of
up the tables:
y* y\
yu
Sums
yz
y* y*
y\9 y> y*
(2j)
Differences (A)
Q u l uz
Iu
U* U 6 M 4
Sums
s l s 2 s,
Diilerences
tv
Sums
Differences
12)
be the values
the interval lU,2ji],
394
The Fourier
may
\Ch
coefficients a n b n (n
1, 2, 3) of the function
0,
y
be determined approximately from the formulas:
,
6t
a2
=s
&,
s,
+ 0.5(s,
&8
s 2 ),
= 0.50! + 0.866a + a
= 0.866 (1, + *,),
= a, a
2
10
= f(x)
8,
8,
(1)
where 0.866
We
have
f(x) zz
Other
'
30
10
schemes
are
also
used.
(an cos
nx +
Calculations
b n sin nx).
are
simplified
patterns.
Example. Find the Fourier polynomial for the function y

From formulas
(1)
by the use
of
= f(x)
we have
= 9.7; a, = 24.9;
=
13.9; 6 =
8.4;
6,
2
=i0.3; a a = 3.8;
6,
= 0.8.
Consequently,
/ (x)
^ 4.8 + (24.9 cos x + 13.9
sin x)
+ (10.3 cos2x
8.4 sin 2x)
+
Using the
for
(3. 8
+
cos 3*
+ 0.8 sin 3x).
12-ordinate scheme, find the Fourier polynomials

the following functions defined in the interval (0,2:rc) by the
Approximating Fourier Coefficients
Sec. 6]
tables of their values that correspond to the
395
values
equidistant
of the
.
argument.
3190. </ =
7200
= 4300
=
5200
y =
=
9.72
y,
= 8.97
=
8.18
y,
= 1.273
y = 0.788
y = 0.495
#,
4
=
=
6.68
y,
= 9.68
- 2.714
=
3.042
y,
= 2.134
3191. y
t/,
3192.
J/
/2
f/ 4
t/ s
4
s
= 7400
- 2250
=
y,
/,
= 3850
= 7.42
y,
=
6.81
y,
= 6.22
yg
</ 8
= 0.370
=
0.540
y,
=
0.191
y,
y,
= 7600
= 4500
^, = 250
0,
</,
=5.60
/ 10 =4.88
/ n =3.67
y.
y,
=-0.357
= 0.437
n = 0.767
#,
t/
3193. Using the 12-ordinate scheme, evaluate the

Fourier coefficients for the following functions:
a)
f(x)
(x>
first
several
ANSWERS
Chapter
1.
then a
b) + b
+ \b\. Whence (a
= & a (^ 6 \<\ab\
& ^ a
Hence, |a
|a
\ab
= |a/ + |6 3. a) -2<x<4;
\a-b = |a +
b) |<|a| + -6|
< x < 0; d) x> 0. 4. 24; 6; 0; 0; 0; 6. 5.
3, x >
c)
.; ~; 0.
(*)= --x +
a=(a
Solution. Since
>|a|
and
\b\
Besides,
|.
<
b) x
1;
|.
|.
1;
7.
b)~oo
<*< + oo.
/2<*< +
be 2
+*
*
but
16.
19.
oo
2<0,
this
22. q>(*)
= 2^
i.
5* 2
10. i|>(x)
a)
T = JI,
T=
Periodic,
e)
y=
*-|-KO,
or
e.,
should
either
x<l,
15.
18.
a)
Even, b)odd,
= i[f (x) +
/ (x)
(-x)}
7 =ji,
c) periodic,
0<x<c; = 6
t/
if
even, d)odd,
+ ![/ (x)-f (-x)}.
2n
r = -r-,
c)
2,...).
1,
3^ + 6x23.
if
i.
Arji<A:</ Jt + ~(/2 = 0,
21.
x,
<*<
2^0,
K*<2.
\<x<
2<x<2.
2
n, b) periodic,
-^
u
nonperiodic. 27.
is,
oo
13. a)
l<;t<2. Solution. It
2)<0. Whence
(A:+ 1) (*
Thus,
impossible.
0<*<1. 17.
20 K*<100.
e) odd.24. Hint. Utilize the identity
26.
that
14.
l<x<2-
e.,
+00).
2), (~-2, 2), (2,
2<0;
is
1,
-4-< <
00,
*=0,
|jc|^ K2.
2
or ^
<^<
Jt
12.
b)
x'^0,
A'+lÔ,
Jt^*2,
oo;
d) periodic
C<
m q^ when
=
m
+q
qil +q
/Â;^/,-!-^;
28.
= îî + ^2(^
when
+ /2<^</, + + =
-'i)
/1
37.
-^-;0;
7-. 38.
a)
/.
=2
x=
29. (p[x|)(jc)]
=Q
when
2l 2
2Jf
;^[(p(x)]
1,
>
= 2^
(x
2)
30. x. 31. (x
when #
>
1,
when
+ 2)
y <Q
2
= when x =
when jc<
and * = 2, / >
when
1 <x< 2,
1; b)
< when oo < x < 1 and 2 < x < -f oo; c) z/>0 when oo<x< -|- oo;
when x = 0, x =
]/~3~and A;= /" "3, r/>0 when
V%< x<0 and
d) j/ =
1
i/
i/
oo);
b)
and
l<x<-f
x=V y +
y<0 whenO<^<!
oo,
and
39. a)
= -- (y
3)
Answers
c)
if
y lanyf
= arc tan
43. a)
c)
*/
#=
y=u
= arc
l
a)
^=--;
d)
VlogT;
when
d)
= 2-10>
oo<#< +
oo);
e)
* = # when
oo<0<0; x=/l/ when
= 2x 5; b) # = 2a = cos.r, c) =
u
u=
x
42. a) # = sin x; b)
sinw, a = 3
</
y = 2(x*
!/""<
t/
c)
= -cosjc
oo);
40.
<y<^\
41.
oo<#< +
397
JC
|
oo<x<0 and
1)
and
|x|<l,
if
b) y = log (10
=
y x when 0<x< + oo.
< 1/2S;
10*),
46.
|*|>1.
if
-oo<x<l;
Hint. See Appen-
\j
dix VI, Fig. 1. 51. Hint. Completing the square in the quadratic trinomial
2
we will have y y
and yQ (4ac b 2 )j4a.
a(x * ) where *
b',2a
Whence the desired graph is a parabola y ax* displaced along the *-axisby
See .Appendix VI,
53. Hint.
XQ
and
the
t/-axis
along
yQ
by
= +
The graph
is
See
Hint.
58.
2.
Fig.
a hyperbola
Appendix
y=
shifted
VI,
along
Fig.
the
3.
*-axis by
Hint.
61.
X Q and along
2
the t/-axis by
(
x+
yQ
Taking the integral
Hint.
62.
\ (Cf. 61*). 65. Hint. See
Appendix VI, Fig.
part,
4.
we have y=-~
o
--13
9
/
'
67.Hint. See Appendix VI,
Appendix VI, Fig. 6. 72. Hint. See Appendix VI,

Appendix VI, Fig. 8. 75. Hint. See Appendix VI,
Fig. 19 78. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 23. 80. Hint. See Appendix VI,
Fig. 9. 81. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 9. 82. Hint. See Appendix VI,
Fig. 10 83. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 10. 84. Hint. See Appendix VI,
Fig 11. 85. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 11. 87. Hint. The period of the function
5 sin 2x with amis T
2njn. 89. Hint. The desired graph is the sine curve y
plitude 5 and period n displaced rightwards along the x-axis by the quantity
5.
Fig.
Hint.
71.
Hint.
Fig. 7. 73.
See
See
90. Hint. Putting
a=A cos
cp
and
b= A
sin
--- V
In our case,
cp,
we
will have
y=A
sin (x
cp)
where
=-
Hint. cos x
V& + b
and
(p
arctan(
4 = 10,
cp=0.927. 92.
= -jr-(l+cos2jc). 93. Hint. The desired graph the sum of the graphs
= sinjc. 94. Hint. The desired graph the product of the graphs
= sinx. 99. Hint. The function even For x>0 we determine
and 3) y =\. When x
at which
>+<,
# = 0; 2) y =
is
yl
yl
=x
=x
the
and
and
points
t/
is
is
i/ 2
y+\.
1)
\\
101. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 14. 102. Hint.

103. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 17. 104. Hint.
17. 105. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 18. 107. Hint.
Hint.
18. 118. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 12. 119.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
15.
Fig.
12.
120.
See
See
See
See
Appendix VI,
Appendix VI,
Appendix VI,
Appendix VI,
Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 13. 121. Hint. See Appendix
132. Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 30. 133. Hint See Appendix VI,
Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 31. 138. Hint. See Appendix VI,
Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 28. 140. Hint. See Appendix VI,
VI, Fig.
13.
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
134.
139.
Fig. 25.
141. Hint.
Answers
398
Form
a table of values:
Constructing the points (x, y) obtained, we get the desired curve (see Appendix VI, Fig. 7). (Here, the parameter t cannot be laid off geometrically!)
142. See Appendix VI, Fig. 19. 143. See Appendix VI, Fig. 27. 144. See
Appendix VI, Fig. 29. 145. See Appendix VI, Fig. 22 150. See Appendix VI,
x 2 It is
1^25
Fig. 28. 151. Hint. Solving the equation for y, we get
now easy to construct the desired curve from the points. 153. See Appendix VI, Fig. 21. 156. See Appendix VI, Fig. 27. It is sufficient to construct
y=
the points
(x, y)
to the abscissas x
corresponding
= 0,
a.
157. Hint.
-^
*]
the equation for x, we have *

10 \ogy
Whence we get the
y
points (x, y) of the sought-for curve, assigning to the ordinate y arbitrary
values (*/>0) and calculating the abscissa x from the formula *
Bear in
oo
as y -+ 0. 159. Hint. Passing to polar coordinates
mind that log y -*
(
Solving
haver=
cos 8
>
q>
+ sin
r="
x = 0.4
:2.9,
0002;
f)
= -2,
*2
2.5;
=i=
166.
= 0.86.
=2
= 2, ^ = 5; * = 5,
a) *!
^ = 2,^ = 3;^ = 3, y = 2; c)
2
A^=9;
0.0002.
a)
3.6,
4; b)
I.
172. 1.
169.
A^
c)
Xl
/i
>
logAr<
a)
Use the formula

182.
0.
192.
oo.
183.
193.
oo.
~~.
173.
+2
184.
2.
194.
174.
0.
3.1;
y,25s
A-
=.,
yi
10; c)
^=2.7, y z
= 2;
x,=--2,
^2
9;
Sit
**=
167.
32.
/i
>
W = 99;
b)
f/
168. 6
when
x>X(N); c)\f(x)\>N when \x\>X(N).

171.
8C
l,
163.
will
//
165.
;
^^=
d)
> -~
V
a)
c)
32)
= rsincp, we
161.
F = 32 +
^=
32)/
Fig.
ft
e)
'
Appendix VI, Fig

and
.),,-'
/2
when
y,
_1^
2
1=JV.
=15
*);
^=-2;
*,=_;
VI,
Appendix
KK
r = e? (see
= rcosq,
have
will
coordinates
polar
x=1.50;
e)
we
(p
1M.
.1
b)
= 0.6* (10
162.
b)
tancp=~
Hint. Passing to
3sin cp cos cp
160.
d)
and
YX* -f- y*
1.
175. 3.
+i = -g
2
-f
185. 72.
oo.
195.
186. 2.
196.
170.
1.
+ l) (2/i+
3a a
188.
197.
a)
a)
002;
>N
when
(e<l).
0<*<6(AO;
176.
187. 2.
0;
177.
b) 2*
b) 1; c) 2; d)
178.
j.
oU
Hint.
180.0. 181.
1).
179. 0.
oo.
189. 0. 190. 1. 191. 0.
3* 2
198.
-1.
199.
^-
1.
Answers
200. 3. 201.
i-
202.
-1
203.
204.
399
12.
205.
-- i
206.
207.
1.
-|
208.
=:. 209.
x
215. 0. 216.
a)
228.
A.
1.
4o
236.
217. 3.
b) 0.
224.
218.
225. cos
ji.
A:.
244.
245.
251.6.252.
e*.
ji.
i-
239.
a)
e" 1
Solution,
1.
-m
233.
).
a)
241.
1.
247.
lim (cos*)
221.
0;
lim [1
1.
1.
242.
-i
4
249.
"*.
cos x)]
(1
X-0
X-+0
1.
b)
234.
e" 1
248.
227.
240.
Jt.
214.
246.
0.
I(rt
-|.
250.
238.
--JL
226.
232.
I.
237.
2 19. 4". 220.

o
230. 0. 231.
Jt
243.
22'
---.
213.
~:j4=.
235.
212.
j/jt
sin a.
229.
211.
-^s\n2\
z
222. cos a. 223.
--
210.
2sin a
"m
Si nee lim V
2 lim
2-1- lim
=e
that lim (cos*)
1.
b)
*->o
(see
follows
it
the
in
preceding
lim
lim (cos x)*
a),
As
Solution.
"/==-.
e
7=0,
V
i
case
^n
X-+Q
=e
Since lim
X-+0
= _J_,
2
2 lim
=
Put
lim (cos*)*
1.
256.
1.
--
257.
6*^1=0,
1.
where a-^0.
Hint. Put
263. a)
267. a) 0; b)
1.
1;
b)
268.
= a,
-i
a)
259.
264. a)
1;
b)
-1;
b)
1.
258
'
Utilize the identity a
Ina. Hint.
-*
where
=<?
Hint
260. In a
262.
that
*-).o
lOloge. 255.
253. In 2. 254.
follows
it
269.
(see
1.
a)
Example
265. a)
1;
b)
-1;
1.
b)
259)
1.
270. a)
= e na
a
261.
266. a)
6.
1; b) 0.
oo; b)
+00.
Answer*
400
271.
Solution.
but
if
when x=l;
whenx = 0;i/ =
l<x< + oo.
280
x=l
x>
when
when
276.
281.
kn (fe=0,
then cos 2
&
If
/Swi,
x>0.
277.
^g.
6=0;
1
1
compound
c)
>
x\
1000. 289. |x
1|<0.005;
b) |x
= 0.01;
b) 6
c) 3.
293
299.
3.
6)
a)
300.
x
|
kn, where k
316.
a)
/(0)
x+ A*
= n;
b)
when
^* 2^
b)
A:)
is
<,\
we
/(0)1;
310. a)
an integer
I
c) /(0)
313.
= 2;
7=
301.
292.
a)
1.
= 0.1;
1;
2;
b)
298.
1.
Hint.
0.98(09804);
1)
d)
Take
3.167(3.1623)
c)
have
Hint.
< 0.05;
a)
15. 297.
296.
b) 4; c)
2;
309.
|
3.875(3.8730);
4)
jx
1 ~
0.985(0.9849);
Ax
<|
Ax
No
295.
a)
U|>100;
b)
-^-=6;
10.954(10.954).
d)
y^zT
curve
a)
2|<
|x
Second, b) third.
a)
the
|*|>10;
a)
\&x\<x
cos
285
=x
279.
si.
"
0<e<l;
d) 2; e) 3.
when
(x-f- AJC)
j/
proportionality factor (law of
290.
0.0005
l^"x)<| Ajc|/V^x.
integer; b) x
inequality
-5-
U|>
0.0095(0.00952);
inequality |cos
<
+1;
3)
Ax+
the
is
when
291.
c)
when x<0; # =
= 4"
of
asymptote
0.043(0.04139). 303,
then
Ax|/(V A:+
288.
<~
7)
the
is
1.03(1 0296);
=3
> 0,r
-i
a)
072(0.7480);
= 0.001.
b)
1;
c)
1.03(1.0309);
If
c)
)/"lO= l/"9Tl
2)
Q t = Q<fkt
interest);
1;
-!
where k
0<x <
278.
lim <4C n
n-Mo
284.
nj
*
.
y=x
line
j/
x 2 -*oo.
fL
straight
Q/^^Qo
287.
274.
y=x
when
0=1 when 0<x<l;
275.
the
= |x|.
*,-*---;
282.
4-
J/
cos*x<l and y=0;
then
...),
272.
/=!.
273.
2,
1,
and
1.12(1.125);
5)
Hint.
307.
J/x-fAx-- /"il
advantage
+kn, where
the
of
is
an
311. Hint. Take advantage of the

l.
315. No
>l=4. 314. f(0)
= 2;
kind. 318. x =
d) f (0)
e)
=
= 0;
/ (0)
f)
/(0)
1.
317. x
2 is a discontinuity of the second
1
is a removable dis2 is a discontinuity of the second kind; x=2 is a removable
continuity. 319. x=
320. x
is
is a discontinuity of the first kind. 321. a) x
discontinuity
a discontinuity of the second kind; b) x=0 is'a removable discontinuity. 322. x=0
is a remo vable discontinuity, x
kn (k=\, 2, ..) are infinite discontinuities
323.
x=2jifcy
(fc
= 0,
1,
2,...)
are
infinite
discontinuities.
x^kn (=0,
is a
1,
2, ...) are infinite discontinuities. 325. x
1
is a removable discontinuity;
discontinuity of the first kind. 326. x
1
is a point
of discontiauity of the first kind. 327. x
1 is a discon-
324.
x=
Answers
401
x=0
is a removable discontinuity. 329. x=l

tinuity of the second kind. 328.
of the first kind. 330. x
3 is a discontinuity of the first
is a discontinuity
is a
1
kind. 332.
discontinuity of the first kind. 333. The function is
continuous. 334. a)
is a
discontinuity of the first kind; b) the function
kn (k is integral) are discontinuities of the first kind.
is continuous;
c) x
335. a)
k
(k is integral) are discontinuities of the first kind; b) x
is integral) are points of discontinuity of the first kind. 337. No, since
(k
the function y
E(x) is discontinuous at x=l. 338. 1.53. 339. Hint. Show
that when * is sufficiently large, we have P ( x ) P (x ) <0.
x=
x=0
x~k
II
Chapter
341.
344.
3;
a)
a)
0.21;
b)
1560;
624;
2ft
c)
+A
0.01;
b)
342.
0.1;
a)
100; c)
3;
b)
c)
0.000011. 345. a) abx; b) 3x*&x
1;
-.;
2*(2-_l)
e)
g^'-i);
A*
jt+Ax-f-J^x
2;
354.
a)
~-
lim
A!?
A/-H)
At
lim
"^
d)
^ =E =
AJ^-Ô
sin 2 x
a)
12
"~
c)
]im f(x
A*-*O
the
L^
0.16;
/ (x)
time
at
time
t.
at
time
t.
A =^
b)
t.
at
substance
21 -
Ax
temperature
of
347>
+ Ax)
turn
of
angle
quantity
0238;
21
2
357.
Ax cos x cos
"
is
"" h;
(x)
the
is
l;
_ _
2
"
35l
0.25.
= J^- = sec x.
cos x
(x+ Ax)
1
Solution.
359.
-.
the
is
356.
Ax
lim
Ax->o cos x cos
cp
where
Ax
0.249;
lim
lim
AJC-M)
201
'=
where
Ar
>
Ax
where
b)
l;
/(*+Ax)~ /(x)
2,
lim
Af-M>
b)
Ax
c)
b)
rX =
dt
355.
dt
353. a)
JP=
b)
Ar
~~
a)
IT)
348. 15 cm/sec. 349. 7.5. 350.

352. a)
346>
AX
c)
(x-f-
Ax)
a)
3x 2
358.
n8)=
Solution.
sec x.
AX
b)
lim
Ax
*o
-4
x*
^ (8
c>
7=
2 V^
A ^~^
(8)
Ax
A*-M>
+ Ax 8
= hm
Ax
AA:Ô Ax
8
8
[ J/ (8 + Ax) + ^/ (8 + Ax) + j/
]
= Hm
= 1. 360. r(0) = -8, r(l) = 0,
=
12
Ax-ô 3/(8+ Ax) +
2^/8 + Ax+4
=
=
=
For
the given function the equation
x
Hint.
3.
0.
361.
0,
x,
/'(2)
= x 362. 30m/sec.
2.
364.
363.
/'(*)=:/ (x) has the form 3x
=
365. nx
^. 366 L 2 tanq>=3. Hint. Use the results of Example 3
8
..
_-
xo
and Problem
1.
1,
365.
367. Solution, a)
f'(Q)^ lim
Ll
!_=
lim
Ax
AJC+OJ^/
AX
4- oo;
Answers
402
1^15^=
Ax
/'(!)= lim
b)
lim
2fe+l
lim
sinAxl
=1.
Ax
A*->+o
5x
*+A
371.
'
3x
-l
+n-1
6ax
= x x* = x
9y2
^
A
sin/.
y'
= 0.
390.
sin 2
xe x
391.
xV(x-f-7).
x 2 e x 396. e x
sin x). 395.
^-x
cot x
387.
/ârc sin
3x 2 lnx.
398.
402
_ tanh2x
403
toco.h^dnh*
cosh x
2
2x 2
405.
x
407.
x
411.
Vx
12fl6+18^
-|-2x arc
(1x
412.
//.
fex2
.
>X
16x(3
+ 2x
2 8
)
"~
420. 2
419.
2
2 sin x
15 cos
xln 2
sin
x sinx.
_2cos^
sin>
3cosx)
arc sin
....
414.
2(l+Jt )Vârctanjc
_3jari!*)l
/"l
x*
x2
/I
1-tan
+ tan
COS 2 X
.Hint. x
3 cos x
cos*x
Ssin^^
I)
418.
y.
2
3a fax-}-b\
fax
b \
424>
cos 4 x
L
!
-f-
tanhx
421.^^^---
423>
(1
427.
xsmh 2 x
sin 8 2/
422.
425.
cot x
+ x coshx.
sinh x
-3(xln* + sinh*cosM
413.
In
401.
*~ 1)
.
x /
* (21n
397.
2 2
)
-.1/j/l;-!.
X
f
416.
8 2
v5
*>y*
393.
(2x
41B
^f-.
"
X2
j/~i
arcsinx-f-
*\ arc coshx
cos x)
(sinx
arc sinh x
406.
I)
384.
2x
388.
.
'
4()4
1
1
^1
x In 10
x
1+1H/-A.400.
x
x
x
399.
on
4***
x 2 (2x
392.
x+
wy
1*
383.
sin
386.
394. e* (cos x
3 sinx.
2)
380.
OOU.
+ 5)
5x
377.
5 cos x
fW-4-9ft
VJA
-7- z-o
(x
ji
374.
JL
Hint. y
373.
2x 8 370.
2. 382.
7=
x arc tan x.
389.
rn
/2*-fl
l + 2x
369.
2 (1
2
+ 2.
o*7A
OIS7.
379.
r,
1
x
376. -*
+ dx)
(c
12x 2
8
.
+ b(m-\-n)t
U*U.
Y
385.
3x- 4
l/x
r^
1.
5x
/'-
c)
sin Ax
~ LîJLJ=-l;
,.
lim
5x 4
368.
-JL
2x
375.
==00;
\\
*JL
'=
mat m
372.
^_
lim
= sin- +
2
+ 2 sinx
2 V^lSsinx
lOcosx
1
'
2 1^1
>
'
x 2 >^1-|- arc sinx
^
'
(1
+ x ) (arc tan x)
Answers
403
429.
430.
cos(x
-.
5x+l)
2*
1)
-}-
asin(ax +
433.
(2x-5) X
4 32.
434.
p).
sin(2/+q>).
X 2 COS 2
X
""*
?21i
435.
436.
sin
n2
x cos 2x 2 sin 3x 2
437.
438.
Solution.
a
l
(2x)'
,-
V^l
"~ 2
lA
(2x)
439.
4x
x/V
442.
10xe~*
443.
-p^jf
440.
446.
sin2
+2
450.
t
/
cos 2 In
453.
(1
-j-
In x) x
455. Solution, y'

3
H- sin
5x2 cos
4x
456.
(1 -j-x
(sin
5x)' cos
2 -
sin --
tanx
x
6
10).
cot x log
4 arc sin x)
-}-5sinx
e.
VI
454.
x\
x f
-^
449.
arc
+ x In
(1
x
(e
+x
452.
xlnx
1
.
2xi0 2 *
448.
^^
451.
x2
441.
447.
2.
445.
In 5.
pX
t
"~
2 J^jc
2*5~* f
444.
2x \ In x-jx \
2
'
+ sin
5x
cos 2
= 15 sin
= 3 sin
-=-
6 J)
x2~sin
5xcos5xcos 2
5x cos 5x5 cos 2
xx
3
5xcos
-r-
sin --
x 2 -f4x
3
457.
x'
.
458.
459.
463.
4x 3 (a
465.
2x 3 ) (a
5x 3 ).
474. sin 3 x cos 2 x.
sin
479.
.
476.
x cos 4 x
10tan5xsec 2
3cos*cos2*. 480. tan'*. 481.
-- 1
484.
sin
arc sin x (2 arc cos x

-
-f
]/"l
x2
.
'
478.
3/
sin
2/.
482 .
arc sin x)
xcosx 2
477.
5x.
2
.
OB
485.
K a
sin 2
+p
AQC
V^x
cos 2 x
486.
'
1+x 2
487.
491.
1^2x
xa
492.
arc sin
...
25x 2 arc
sin
5x
Answers
404
494.
- -
495.
1+cos 2 *
a w *lna. 502.
f
e-*cos3x. 505.
504.
(1
Psinhpjf)'. 539.
542.
/?*
499..
506.
548.
l(/tanx
-^-
544.
545.
sinx
y+
I1^3
-.
5
V (0)= =^;
/'+
(0)
tion.
or
567
do not
We
sin ' x
.
+ l/Tosxln a).
1
,' =
549.
when x
have
c)
6n. 554.
553.
/I (0)=
exist. 555.
y'
xy'=y(\x)
= e" x (1
566.
*
/_
/+
d) /'_ (0)
=/'+
(0)
+ (0)-0;
1,
a)
/'
x.
556. 2
+ ^-.
=^
557.
(0)=1;
(0)
< 0;
y' (0)
does
f'W-
= -1,
xarctanhx
546.
y'
550.
^L
x2
{
552.
(1
2coth2x. 541.
540.
y'=l when x>0;
a)
'-,*,.
b)
exist;
tanh 2 2x)
(1
cos2x
547. xarcsinhx.
sin 2xe
500.
x
p sin pO- 503. e" sin p*.
e*(acos p/
2xMna).
+ 4 sin*
_)/.
6tanh 2 2x
543.
x y In 2 x
not
"""
1+*-
^-'a-^fn
496.
2xcosa + xt
= 0,
1.
b)
/.
(0)
e) /'. (0)
558.
2
,
and
561. Solu-
= -(lx)
(1 +2x)(l +3x) + 2(l+x) (1 +3x) + 3(x + l) (1 +2x).
~
x).
Since e' x
it
follows that y'

2
Answers
40S
-24
573 '
>-
574.
'n*.
575.
*
2!li
+ cos x Inx
SIn
578.
576.
'
- sin * tan x)
(cos * In cos *
(cos x)
58
'
581.
"
.-- 4'<(2 "" <t)
586.
590.
594. tan^. 596.
601.
tity.
,;
603.
-.
2
Yes, since the equality

604.
2j/)
arc tan 2
=^63
(-2, -12).
45.
623.
26'.
626. (1,
-3).
620
624.
627.
</
arc tan
b)
d)
y-5 = 0;
^2y
=
x
+ 2 = 0.
l=0;
34 = 0.
13
= 0,
GA;
(3,0):
t/
2x
y=l
1;
x\
616.
xy
a) 0; b)
~^r 36
1=0; y = 0.
the
for
625.
21'.
633.
(0,20);
= 0;
6x
Jt
2//
x
2f/-fl=0
f-i
o
point
1,
1).
6;
t/
= 0.
at the point (2, 0): (/=
639.
14;c
638.
634.
At
x-f-2; y
(1,
15);
-1^
lo
2^
for the point (1, 1);
7x
= 0.
637.
45-.
y=2
a)
635.
5y-f 21=0.
622.
0.
c)
+y
= **- *+ 1.628. k = ^.629.
+ y2 = 0; c)
3 = 0;
e) 2x + y
1=0
= -Ilf
= 2x
632.
3 cosy
10
11
631.
r
10
615.
y,
6 08
an iden
is
605.
_=_
\nx-xx
-*-.
593.
-.
l-f3ju/ -f4(/
yVx*+y*
589.
f.
={
599. No. 600.
oo.
-.
602.
ex
tan
-tan^.592.
597.
1.
fir-*- ra.
588.
W.
a);
+x*)arctanx
585.
(arc tan x)X
=x
0;
636.
the
2\
point
(1,0):
at the point
41
=0.
Answers
-406
640.
The equation
Hint.
of the
tangent
Hence, the tangent
^-{-^-=1.
2y Q
is
ZXQ
crosses the x-axis at the point A (2x 0) and the y-axis at B (0, 2f/
the midpoint of AB, we get the point (* y Q ). 643. 40 36'. 644.
at
the
at
bolas are
and
intersect
point
(0, 0)
tangent
The para-
arctan-i=^88'
648
652
'
'
the
at
= 2jia
/1+4JT 2
t
--
~.
arc tan
=a
fl
-^-in/sec.
The
2u g/sina
+g
To determine
system. The range
on
velocity
the
Sf =
'
S,
= a;
cm /sec;
0;
656.
2jt.
q>
is
the
of
slope
657.
The equation
660.
range
2 8
5,,= -^;
of the trajectory
*
sin
\sy=x tan a
2a
The
vector
velocity
cm /sec
is
velocity,
cosa
axes
the
~
'
are
and
The magnitude
j-
the velocit y vector
of
the velocity
CO8
cm
40
of
he
2
360
at
the
g,
density
x2
681.
5* g/crn,
is
+~~210,Y
4
.
u = 5;
x*)
.
671
+ 2).
i*
cosh
682.
a
vl
//
6 79. y"'
= 6.
680.
~64sin2x
684. 0;
1; 2;
2.
of the rod
the density
2 cos 2x
669.
2 arc tan x
672.
is 0,
674
(1
The mass
666.
the density at
x*
668.
e
(4^
3(1
y cm/sec
m'/'sec. 665.
56x 6
667.
60g/cm.
2(1 ~"* 2)
.
673.
JT
at
is
670.
Q
,
- '6. 8 cm/sec, the area, at a rate

diagonal increases at a rale ol
2
664. The surface area increases at a rate of
2ji m /sec,
/sec
the volume, at a rate of 0.05

is
is
directed along the tangent to the
is
~
663.
the trajectory, eliminate the parameter t from the given

is the abscissa of the point A (Fig. 17). The
projections
Hint.
of
655
'
tan|i=
2_|_p2.
uj
tanî
angle
S,
-y +2(p
}/~l-|-4ji
658. 15 cm/sec. 659.
654.
--
rt
~
n -~
>
647.
(1,1).
an
'
653.
point
Finding
).
685.
/'"(3)
The velocity
The acceleration, a 0;
0.6. 686. The law
0.006;
the
is
x
acoscof; the velocity at time / is
point M,
2
acD cos(of. Initial velocity, 0;
awsincof; the acceleration at time / is
aw 2 velocity when *
initial acceleration:
is
-aco; acceleration when
The maximum absolute value of velocity is aa>; the maximum
*
is 0.
2
n
(n)
(n+l
value
of
acceleration
absolute
is aw
687. y
n\a
688. a) n\ (1
\
x)~
is
of
4997;
motion of
4.7.
b)
_ ir +
i
.
689
=
=
Answers
407
d)
2 n jc
691
^(OJ^-tn
692.
1)1
a) 9/
8
;
b) 2/
+ 2;
XU+*-);
b)
sin
693. a)
---.
$
<
=.
696.
708.
-o
711.
x=\
718.
721.
725.
^b)
3
a)
and
AJC
No.
719.
dy= 45
^~^-
=l-
697.
f- .712. Ar/
714
d//
cf(/
= 0.009001;
=.
A:
M+
(AA')
720.
7,0.
d(/
when
717. For *
16
713. cf(l
^5 = 2Âx, A5 = 2^ Ax +
722.
"J
256
//
d/-0.009.
^=^-0.0436.
0.0698.
'
709.
2
2
ft-4-.
'
726.
-j;
4o
"
707.
694 a > 0; b) 2e>al 695 - a)
777
4a
/"T^?.
c)
= 0.
= ;=i 0.00037.
723.
2xe~**dx. 727. \nxdx. 728.

x
y*xe
735.
738.
740.
~dx.
IJ
737. a) 0.485; b) 0.965; c) 1.2; d)
0.045; e)
5"=^ 2. 25;
739.
565_cm
^^4.13; ^70^=8.38;
200=5=5. 85. 741. a) 5;
/70=^4.13;
J/
^/10=^2.16;
.
"""
d) 0.9.
742.
1.0019.
743. 0.57.
744. 2.03.
748.
~(^)
sin,ln, +
fc).
753.
2
.
-.754.
(d **'
iy
(1
750.
~ + 0. 025^0
^)*/i
^640=^ 25
b)
749.
3.2"
sin
3.
l.l;c)0.93;
*( dx ?
.
(1
(dx)*. 752.
751.
81.
X2 )
-e
/a
__
Answers
408
755.
xcosa
sin(*sina + na)-(d*)
758.
No. The point
763.
(2,
765.
4).
2(
3U'
C<8,<1.
0<B<1.
0<6<
c*
770.
sin
error
(
_ = H
x \
(1 --
2!L_
8
= 77:.
get:
x \
-f
where
|2
where
J,,
= 8 *,
2
?-6*,
775.
both cases g
We
Solution.
6jc;
have
factors in
powers
of
#,
in
__L
^ + -_x -- x.
^1-f-)
40
Expanding both
= 0.
~ sin
x-^- +
sin g 2 ,
-L
.
&
_i_
*
we
*=
than =7
5!
762.
x=(x- l)-i (*-l)
b)'
less
is
exist.
j_
a
In
not
function.
769. sin
1.
~ + ^-
The
773.
768.
0<0<
x = x-
the
of
does
(2)
/'
=i+x + J+|J. + ...+ ^lL.+5jeS
772. Error: a)
1.
b)g = -~.
since
No,
discontinuity
|= +6 (x- 1),
^ = 8,*, 0<9 <1;
where
757.
is
=^;
a)
where
1)8>
x = ~x
/l
-^~^1H
//T"
y
---
-x \
8
1
J
y*
^~9~2-
Tne n
expanding
powers
778
oo
788.
1.
we
779.
~.
788.
same polynomial
get the
780. 3.
n<l.'
for
802
of
789.
793. 0.
781.
790*.
1.
795. -1
804.
Find
lini
-^
u ~>0
791. a.
0.
796.
805.
where S
hh
783.
792.
797.
806.
oo
1.
IT
sin a)
(a
807.
>
799.
1.
1;
for
800.
808.
1.
the exact
is
784. 0. 785.
oo.
for
^77.
810.
1.
expression
for
801.
e*.
R2
= -~-
x
x
=^rlH---r-n~-2
\2
782. 5.
803.
the
l;
1.
Hint.
area
3"^
of
the segment (R
is
the radius of the corresponding circle).
Chapter
(00,
III
812. (
increases; (2, oo), decreases.
oo, 2), decreases;
813.
814.
increases.
(2, oo), increases.
oo),
0) and (2, oo),
increases; (0, 2), decreases 815.
2) and (2, oo), decreases. 816.
1),
817.
increases; (1, oo), decreases.
2),
8) and (8, oo), decreases.
818. (0, 1), decreases; (1, oo), increases.
819. (
and (1, oo), in00,
1)
811.
2),
(00,
(00,
(00,
creases;
creases;
1,
1),
decreases
oo
820.
increases. 822.
j,
(00,
(00,
(2,
00,
(2,
oo),
0),
increases
increases. 823.
821.
(0,
oo,2),
],
de-
decreases;
409
Answers
(0,
824.
increases.
oo),
(2,
oo), increases
decreases; (1,
1),
and
00, a)
(a,
*=-
when
0)
and
828.
No
(00,
825.
decreases.'
oo),
827. ymax
1296 when x = 6.
extremum. 830. t/m in = when x=Q; t/ mln =0 when x= 12; t/max
when x= 1; t/ mfn =^ 0.05 when
0.76 when x=5=0.23; i/ max =
831. t/min^
2
833. #max =
832. No extremum.
x=^1.43. No extremum when x = 2.
-
when *=0;
|/
= 3/3
when x =
i/
840.
[/
=2
x=
when
837.
j/
2,
845.
y mln
when x = 2
value
is
m=
when x =
Af
75-
^= 12
for x
fjkJ:^
c
f/
= ~;// min ==0
min
for
when x =
1;
j- (fcÔ,
for x
2,
1,
is
is
(2fe
r
".
(fe-^0,
1) JT
when x =
844.
f/
m?n
-.
-l when
4
when x = 0;
No extremum.
M = 7rwhen
value,
= 5.
//max--2
m^=0 when
852.
1; M = 27 when x = 3.
m = 1579 when x =
Each
side
whose
863>
-f-
1)
= l; M=JI
854.
-j-
when
m-
a)
M = 3745
when
be equal to
--
10;
864. The
Isosceles.
865.
850.
\.
The
side
The altitude must be
866.
terms must
of the
Smallest
849.
when x = (2fc
m=~
851.
must be twice the other
of
tlit
half
the
-g-
altitude
-^L
y3
the radius of the given sphere.
mln
-7--
Altitude of the cylinder,
where
f/
=6
= --
x=\
square with side
cut-out square must be equal to

867. That
848.
...).
b)
861.
4.
<7
side adjoining the wall
868.
846.
= g when x=l.
x~
greatest
= 10; M = 5
2,
when
842. y mln
= /2
s/"3 when
y mta =
839.
max
when x = 2K
K^3"
x=1
when
1.
y min
r/
max =
*,
The rectangle must be
base.
= 0.
t/
when
y min=l
Ji;
835.
836.
^==^
9rr
^ n; ^/max^^cos
l
when
853. /n=s
when x=l; M=-^2o6 when x = 5;
862.
when
fcjT
p=
when x = 3.2.
yg
x== _l.
856.
=9
x=
x=12.
#max
= 3/3"
min
ymln ==0when
and x
f/
(/
847.
834.
= V"3 when x = 2^3;

*=1; ma x = when x =
w ^n
t/max^^-
=2
max
841.
...).
^L;
yO
*=12
Scos^when
843.
when
m ax-= 5 when
1,
mm -0 when
838.
is
to
equal
radius
869.
of
the
its
Altitude
diameter
base
of
R ]/
the
of the base
ro
where
cylinder,
870. Altitude of the cone,
i<
__
RV'2
--
410
__
Answers
where
is
where
is
the radius of the given
cone
-jr-r,
where
871. Altitude of the cone,
Radius
872.
sphere.
876.
The altitude
of the cylindrical
+ *yo = 1.
^* XQ
-^-
878.
879.
The
the vertices of the rectangle which
3 \
-j J.
881.
~Y=.,
arc cos
4-
885.
a)
and
t-y-.
P min = y%aqQ.
spheres,
the
impact
with
m*V
+w
b),=
=;
If
n=
"I/
(if
this
is
battery
number
the physical
points
^"3")
points
3),
oo,
6)
2,
J,
*.
^_
884.
886.
not an integer or
is
meaning
M,
M lj2
concave up;
...);
oo,
-4r
,=
obtained
is
as
as close as possible to the
concave
2),
0),
(4/e
+3)
0)
1/~3,
(|/*
0)
and
-^, (4
Af 2 ( 6,
down;
0(0,
+ 5)~
l)it,
2&Ji),
f(2fe+l)y,
concave down(fe=0,
sas of the points of inflection are equal to
xkn.
0).
895.
|-V
and (1^3,
points of inflection,
concave up; ((2k
not a divisor of
(2,
oo),
892.
(6, --|Vo(0,
^3), concave up;
(0,
is
of the solution
must be
of
inflection
of
^L
inflection.
(00, oo), concave up.
12),
point
concave down, ( 3, oo), concave up; no points of inflection.
and (0, 6), concave up; ( 6, 0) and (6, oo), concave down;
inflection
and
-jr-
1,
M (2,
oo,
of
I/ ^M-
a divisor of TV). Since the internal resistance
is
(-~-a;
of
follows: the internal resistance of the battery

2
external resistance.
889. y
h.
891. (
o
893.
894.
coordinates
\f~Mm. Hint. For a completely elastic impact of two

imparted to the stationary sphere of mass m after
sphere_of mass m 2 moving with velocity v is equal to
v
concave up;
where
887.
the
6J/~2,
equal to the greatest of the numbers
AM=a
883.
7V,we take the closest integer which

of
is
The
velocity
888.
880.
that
zero;
= \l*
a^Tand
on the parabola
lie
The angle
882.
arc tan
of the ellipse.
the crossthe sector
is,
must be
part
sides of the rectangle are
a and b are the respective semiaxes
/HI
jr, that
angle of
the vessel should be in the shape of a hemisphere. 877. h
is,
R,
of the base of the
the radius of the base of the given cylinder. 873. That
is
whose altitude is twice the diameter of the sphere. 874. q>

section of the channel is a semicircle. 875. The central
/~2
-^
oo),
896.
concave
down
oV
(00,
concave down;
(&
897. (2/m,
1,
898.
i2,
[0,
\
...);
the abscis),
V&J
concave
Answers
[7^,
down;
;
899.
oo
V/>
concave
up;
0),
concave
up;
900.
(00,
3)
_JL
^=
(0,
oo),
and
(1,
W)
(Y*
oo,
inflection.
411
a point of inflection.
is
concave down; 0(0, 0)

concave up; (3,
a point
is
oo),
of
concave
1),
=
901.
of inflection are M (
3,
T and M (
=
=
= 0. 902. *=1, x^=3, =
x=
903.
904.
x.
2, y=
*,
905.0
= right 907. jc-=
= x, right. 906. =
left,
left,
y=-x, left,
= 2, left, y-=2x 2, right. 909. 0^2 910. jt-=0.
= *, right
908.
911. * = 0, 0=1.
912. i/Ô.
913. *-=!.
0=1, left, = 0, right.
= x n, left; y = + right. 915. y a. 916. ma x = when x 0;
914.
4 when x = 2\ point of inflection, Af,(l, ~~ 2
917 ^/max^
when
min =
r
= 0; points of inflection Ai l|f
when
jf=V 3; m
~)
== 4 when x =
918.
y min = Q when je=l, point of inflection, M, (0, 2).
m ax
919- f/max^ 8 wnen ^ =
2,
m n = when = 2; point of inflection^ M (0, 4).
when A'^0;
of inflection
920.
M lt2 (Y5, 0) and
points
//min^
down; points
A'
1,
J.
1.
iy
1,
1,
l,
JC
JT,
)-
r=:
in
jc
1,
1;
//
Jt
\,
totes, x
923.
924. (farm
0=-xl.
~
1,
= 0.
= 0.
when
Ai
J2/"3,
lf
of
point
= --J;
Ai(5,
\
of
0(0,
inflection,
jc^=
*---
1;
0min
and /^(4,
(8,
and
4)
3,
940.
938.
= 0;
m n=
x
s
asymptotes,
x
0,
=4
when x =
V%
0max=
935.
2.
when jg=
^nax^
936f
~YH
max
when x =
of
points
= 0.
when
Asymptotes,
941.
= 3.
jc=
1;
1;
4;
max
j
ym n
=y
942.
and
max
\\
4r J
0.
y
=l when
x-^4;
929.
Point
0.
--97
930.
nnx =
4 when
max =
'16
,
931.
= Q and
=2
f/
= 3v
933.
;c
0(0,
/I
0).
932.
(8,
934.
(0,
End-point,
A(Y$* 0), 0(0. 0)

inflection, M (1^3 -f 2 f^J,
point of
(Q
x
t
m =
M 1>2 (1,
= 0,
points
of
and M f (1,
(when x = 0)
0);
1)
in
~~
=2
= 0,
2)
and
4)
End-points,
when
inflection,
asymptote,
939.
max -=2
K 2); asymptote,
4 wh'en x==4; point of inflection, 0(0,
~~
^
3 /
4
4 when x
when x
2, 0mi n
inflection,
when x =
'
and
=
x
asymptotes,
r
asymptote,
0);
M lt (\
\
x--2 and
= 0.
and
and
937. Points of inflection,
0).
asymptote,
943.
0);
V
M, t(l,
when
=2
x~\\
vvnen
m in^=
0);
x.
=4
928.
2 V 2 when
2) are end-points;
ma x
are end-points. Point of inflection,
B(Y$*
0=^
0);
asymptotes,
-;
=-
points of inflection, 0(0, 0)
asymptotes, x
77-];
y
T2); asymptote
O.
asymptote, AT
1/2,
when x--0; asymptotes,
asymptote,
when
when x-=2; asymp-
inflection,
m jx ==l whenx=l;
-^)'.
inflection,
M(
of
points
926. # ma x-~
^2
mm
inflection,
= 0,
min
(l,
f/
of
/y
inflection M,
lt
4 when i=l;
of
1;
point
wnen
0max~'Qo
925.
asymptote,
and
Points
922.
when jc=l;
when xÔ;
^max^
when x
max
=3
927. y m n
921
when
944.
= 0;
0min^
= 4;
=K
asymptote,
T7=
1/2
0.
0);
when
x=2.
Answers
412
J/max
1/~JT
TT= when
V 2
-o-
of inflection,
of
M,
x
3a,
= 4;
949.
=2
rnax
of
point
/min=
953.
=g
min
f/
2
2,
of
= 0;
when x = g;
*-
as
1+0
-- ,0
jc
points
j n+
2Jfeji;
t/
~+
fare cos
On
the
*=n;
M, 4
nal
2fen
[0,
(fe
= 0,
= 0, # =
1;
n + kn,
-j-
~^-J+2fejx,
m in
2 20,
2it],
ji,
...);
i/
max
when
2A5Ji
(fc
t/
max
Odd
of
when
of
x=
Asymptote,
x oo).
2;
points
defined on
max
the
=
2,
...);
function
with
1,
Periodic
inflection,
~;
V$
M k (kn,
ml n=0.71
when * =
86;
^=0.37);
J
when
and
0)
961. Periodic function with period
1;
956.
m in =
(0.57,
periodic function with* period
when x = 0;
^=
2n. y m n
inflection,
x=
= 0,
39
# = 0.
"""472)-
x (as
period
j Ji-f2/5Ji;
-y
not
is
asymptote, A:-
1^0.63;
with
960.
points
yg )^l5j.
962.
jc
the function
*=
when
when ^ = 0; points
0.95).
when
max
and
(-rr==
~V,
(e
t/
ê ^ 7
= 0.
when
74
2,
ji],
J.
Oj.
1,
950.
1,
y m{n =
j+
wn en
y
asymptote,
);
f\ e
function
interval
i/
inflection,
^3
y mln ==
2ji.
Ai
inflection,
of
948. f/max 1111162
f
lf 2
= -F ^0-54
max = ^2" when A:=
Mk
of inflection,
= 0.
asymptotes, x=*l.
(when x-+
oo) and y
period
max
Points
'
~\
inflection,
959. Periodic
point
1.33);
Asymptotes,
when
Nk
of
when x=l;
inflection,
(limiting end-point). 955.
interval
x=
f/
inflection,
1>2 (1.89,
957. Asymptotes, r/
Q.
958.
of
point
point
point
asymptotes,
point of
0)
when x = 6;
/2
max =
t/max^
0.70);
0(0,
3
= -0-7=
947.
-n-l,
951.
^14.39,
954.
*/
M^J
^ = -4=.,
wnen
x-*0.
946.
(e"'*
3,
/ 8 ^ 2 i/"~
^2
when ^ = 0.
asymptote, y
inflection,
>:
j-
a,
2 (
Af,
= Q.
asymptote, y
and
-j-
when * = 0;
-^
of
w min
when
y-+Q
/iooy
inflection,
952.
945.
j^r=V, asymptote, x = 2
when
jc=l;
when
x=l
/12,
points
//
/min
5-
inflection,
asymptotes,
J ')
(3
3,
*.
2;i.
2xc.
when
0.13) and
On
inter-
i/max=l when
__
Answers
Ji
^nin
'
When * =
=l
(1.21,
when
= 2n;
M,(2.36,
0.86);
A4 e (5.50, 0).
of
points
with
function
when * =
3
asymptotes, x=-r-Ji
Even
965.
=
c
^+
Mk
inflection,
+ ^Jt
kn,
^min
skill:?,
function
A:
= arccos
^zr
(/
lO^
with
m
J^
(jtârcsin
On
2it.
the
when x^Ji;
0(0,
0);
M k (kn,
function,
//
and
Odd
m in =
n + 1 +2^n when
*-*+oo).
inflection (centre of
974. Odd
Oj
Even
966.
when
^min=--F-
n]
t/
(/j
ma x
M!
t/max^
-y
Oj;
-i/g)-
0,
2,
1,
57
Odd
969.
when
...).
A:
function.
t/
JI
A;
(/
+-fr
+ oo). Point of inflection,

+ ?JT when
max = -^-
when
972.
(/
JC==1;
symmetry)
of
points
/JJT;
2,
1,
(as
inflection,
2fcrc);
when x =
^max=
(0, Ji);
"
-^-^
--
asymptotes,
...).
(as
971.
x-*
Even
and
oo)
(node); asymptote, y
Whe "
X=S ~" I;
y = x + 2n
(left)
P oint
and
l.
y=x
= 1.856 when
-=
M
of
0,
inflection,
+ (when
asymptotes,
point
-^y
and # = * In2.
(as ^-^+00). 975. Asymptotes, # =
oo) and y = -^
(right).
l;
function.
t/
m in=1.285 when
f
^-^
(1,
function.
[0,
^= when
2k 4-
=^.^1
#==
oo)
970.
j JI+/JJT.
vvhen
0.34).
= -J +
1
asymptotes, x^-y -^ (6 = 0,
= 0; asymptotes, =
t/mln^ when x
+ /en;
-j-
1,
=
-
of
points
interval
inflection,
57)
n;
...);
[0,
fejt)
(fcjt,
'
asymptotes, x\.
2,
1,
the
of
points
(2
graph
= 0,
^-)
when
inflection,
interval
function. Points of inflection, M*

Even function. End-points, 4, 2
83,
Af J(1.54
(cusp); points of inflection,
lf
of
0.86);
(- (-/I)-=
-.(/S-i/S)'
Odd
points
of
-=.
= arccos
967.
968.
Limiting
(4.35,
= 0whenx-n;t/ mln =
when
max
0.86);
period
On
when
AiÔ.36,
asymptotes, *
...);
2n
wnen ^==0; points
period
= -F=
(fc
#min
V~2
~
ym n = L
2n.
+ 2foi
2,
1,
period
t/
arccos-^;
= arccos --7=)'
(arc
periodic
with
when ^ =
rr^s
Af t
= 0,
(fc
-y- J
0.86);
period
ji
inflection,
964. Periodic function with
function
periodic
*=
wnen
M 4 (3.51,
0);
Periodic
963.
= ^- 7
ymax
413
JC=1;
t/
t/
max
ji
Answers
414
976.
j/
*=1;
m n =1.32 when
i
2jt.
period
t/
min
asymptote, x
when
x=^-ji
-g-
= 0.
+ 2&JT;
t/
...); points of inflection,
2,
1,
arc sin
and
^- +
2;ri
i/^ + 2/m, UlA
M^ Urcsin
wnen * =
max ^=e
= 0,
(fc
with
977. Periodic function
978.
(2fe+l)n,e
4(0, 1)
End-points,
^
B(\, 4.81). Point of inflection, M(0.28, 1.74). 979. Points of inflection,
4.81 (as *-*-|-oo).
0.21 (as x -+
(0.5, 1.59); asymptotes, #
oo) and r/
980. The domain of definition of the function is the set of intervals (2kn t
where fc
Periodic function with period 2ji.
...
0,
1,
2,
2/jJt-f-ji),
A^
and
t/
when * =
max
The
981.
domain
of
Points
-^-
(/e
r/=1.57;
lf
2,
1,
2/jJi
i/-^
1
y mln
as
-*
Domain
of
(limiting
period
+ kn.
i/
min
Limiting
asymptotes,
...);
definition,
increasing
<~
2/jn
]x
y mm =l when
2jr
984.
Asymptote,
985.
End-points,
^ 0.69
2ji.
period
monotonic
0;
with
986.
987.
>
end-point).
when ^^0.
^-^ +
2,
1,
definition,
with
function
Periodic
kn.
of intervals
= 0,
asymptotes,
...);
asymptotes,
...);
the set
function
Periodic
1.57
(fe
983.
as
-+
0)
(2fcji,
0.
2,
p0.37; y
integer.
1,
57);
an
is
of
...).
= 0,
,(1.31,
*=
Mk
asymptote,
(fc~0,
is
2,
1,
Domain
982.
2fejt.
0,
(&
definition
inflection,
function;
2&Ji
of
where
(2fc+-jrjJi
x=
when
4 (+0,
end-point,
Q);
t/max^ 6
^ 1-44
when # = e=^2.72; asymptote,
(/
of
point
!;
inflection,
when / = (0 = 3); y mm = 1
M, (0.58, 0.12) and M 2 (4 35,1 40). 988. Jc inln =
when / =
(x^3) 989. To obtain the graph it is sufficient to vary / from to 2jt.
a (cusp) when
^min^ awhen^-ji(// = 0); ^max = awhen / = (#-0); min 1
t/
+-2-
3T
inflection
when
fl
(cusp)
when
<
7--
V'Se
\
when
8
,
-y
U = 0);
points of inflection
7jT
-j-
*=
I/" 2,
i.e.,
to=
^)l
^max =
XJ.
i.e.,
44
r wnen
m in=
Jf
ma x
5jl
r4
990.
3jT
= -j-
when
(x;
= 0);
-TT=;
i/
= 2x
when
_ /"^"t
asymptotes, jc=0 and y
(cusp); asymptote,
wn ^n
-*
= 0.991.
+ oo.
992.
l(jK:
= e);
and when
points of
t=
xmin =l
i/
m in =
andymln =i
when
= 0.
Answers
$93. ds
cosa =
dx,
415
<*>
where
=
x
sin
tanh
998. ds
-.
997.
= 2asin~rff;
cos
ds
sin--;
cosa=
cos/; sin
sin
=a
sin/. 1000. ds
"(p;cosp=
cos
dx:
d^;
= cosh
cos
1002.
a=
-~-
999. ds
cosp
V^l +(p
ds^
995.
tit
I/
(X
~3asin ^ cos/
62
Ka 2
c=-
d<p;
ds==
dcp;
tp*
cos*
1003.
=
an2z
zzz
K^36.
1006.
4^
/(-=
1010.
^"3^2"
1007.
1012.
both
at
1005.
"
vertices.
&2
;
'
ds==
KB =
1011.
(
^).,0,3.
(-!"*..
,=
a sin 2t
1016.
!023.
.
|
â
-ilfl,
3)
1019.
-8.
-^-
a cos
1017.
-pK
= ~(X
p)
and
sin
= cos 29.
K^
[
-f-
R^-
= |a/|.
1018.
1020.
1026.
1009.
1014.
-^-
f k2
d(p;
3
1015.
1004.
cos-|-.
/?
(2,2).
l025 -
(semicubical parabola). 1027.
_
8
^c
8
,
where
=-a 2
2
.
Chapter IV
In the answers of this section the arbitrary additive constant
ted
for the
sake of brevity. 1031.
aV.
1032.
2x 3
+ 4* + 3*.
2
is
1033.
omit-
416
Answers
1037.
'-+--
--'
a 2 x---a'x
1038.
J.
j/
<*
''---~.
'*'---
JC .
3x 2
3x*
fi
1040.
'
13
4//2
1042.
+
1043.3=
In
-4=
2/10
1044.
= sec
-x;
b)
1045.
ln(x+
/4 + x
1048*.
tanhx. Hint. Put tanh z
b) x
1;
/"lO
-^~ln (x+ /x ^).
1047. arc sin
x-cothx.
^j~
1050.
'
_i
J
Solution.
numerator
the
|.
^
1063.
1065.
--^-.
cotx
1052.
we
1057.
c--l|.
Inlx
1059.
|.
~~'
3*- 2
]/
_Jiy(a_-
1062.
y.
1066.
^=
2
).
In
/7 + 2
+ b + x V ab
+ V7 + 8x
1064. 2
~.
.
fll
,,
-L arc tanx
get
1054.
I06li
:ln
In
1049. a)
Solution, f
In (2
1073.
2/2
*
1
1067.
Put
denominator,
~+
(x+W
/x +l.
Hint.
Solution.
1056.
1060.
"
1058.
the
by
-I' + T
sin-
r-j
Dividing
arc
1053.
1055.
x.
tan
arc
1046.
).
x=l
1051. a in
tanx
a)
1009.
1068.
1072.
/"2
arc
-~=
tan
arc sin x
Answers
1075.
^ In (a * +
2
1079.
V^=
31n|x +
1077.
2
ft
=l n
5
1078.
1080. -i arc sin
^.
^*
1). 1076-.
-ln|jt
arc tan
)-}-
417
^-
1081.
are tan
1082.
1083.
1|.
^(arcsmx)
1086.
\-e~
1090.
2
1092.
1084.
,/
-H-
r?
3 Ina
i
1095.
In
1097.
e*
1|
+ 3)
In (2-
3 In 2
1102.
1098.
1109.
Xcos(logA:)
Hint. See
arc sin
HOI.
__
!. Hint. Put
in
1109
lilt.
sin
jc=
~ tan
sin
(fljc
cos 2).
tan(x
).
1117.
-^-cos(l
^'.1119.
Xln
sin
1122. 5 In
sin
4-
1125.
In
1120.
.
|
-^ cot x
ln|sinx|.
1121.
21n|cos/"x|.
1123.
1.
tan*
1118.
r).
ln|cosx|.
ft
--
1110.
tan
1
lOx
1112.
ft).
a In
1116.
+ ^)-
In
1108.
/"x.
~(1
008(0
ax
1113.
arc tan (a*).
jJ
1104.
e*
^-cos2ax. 1107. 2
1106.
hint
'
!n~5"
1100.
_^L_J.
1103.
2sni -^r.
1096.
Hint.
-Jr
V
1099.
(a
1105.
1126.
^.
|sin
1124.
(a
ft)X
1127.
1129.
1128.
4a
1130.
sin
1132.
1131.
-^-tan -^.
U33.
-|
5
1134 .
_3^_lJL.
14-1900
M55.1
U 36.
tan
j).
+
2au.)
l(ln tanf
|
23
Answers
418
4- In
3a
ocot3x|
tanh
1140. In
1144. In
-r-
sinhxl
ln(x
1152.
lr
1155.
1153.
In
tan x
fls n
n49
1147.
arc tan
J/
1150.
In
ln|x*-4x+
Incoshx.
1143.
ln|tanhx|.
1146.
"-
1148.
Xarc tan
1142.
*/(5=x^.
1145.
1139.- +-
2arctane*.
1141.
1138.
_. -------
1137.
| )-
]/
1151.
sec
1156.
1)
'
1157
*. 1158.
arc sin (x 2 ).
1159.
&
in
1160.
taniw-x.
/(^
Vx
2 In cos
1165.
1172.
sln
1168.
1169.
1170.
-lârcsinÂ
1173.
1175.
\n(e*
^21n
1171.
tan
1167.
tan^-l.
K.
=.
-i-ln
1166.
a
f
1181.
/"l
<40 -
1187.
2
jc
- 1=r:
7
1182.
1185.
arc sin
ln(secx+
arc tan
/tanx\
I
== }
1183.
-2cot2x.
1
l/~sec x-i- 1).
1186.
.-
2).
= In
-p=.
+ 2arctanx.
ln|x|
1174.
Ve*x
tan
jr
ln|tanox|.
arc cos -^
1184.
V 5 -f
sin
2x
sin2x
.
Hint.
=
x
1189.
s inh(x
1190.
-Latanh*.
1191. a)
-~=arccos^
when x
> ^2;
b)
In (1
+*-*);
Answers
(5*'-3)';
c)
d)
2arctan \e*
1195.
V 2x4-1
aarccos
arccos
1204.
if
> 0,
and arccos
In*
1201.
-.
-~ V2~x -^ V2-x
1202.
1196.
1.
Putx =
Hint.
TT arc sin x.
ln(sinx+- J/"l+ sin**)-
e)
1194. In
419
In
21n Inx-f
|
--
2
.
~J
x<0*)
if
Hint.
'
Put
= ~-
substitution x
be used in place
may
~
x arc
1216.
sin x-}-
x2
1217.
^r~-
1214.
^T^Y-
the
of
(9x
In (1 -|-x
x--^
*
xcosx.
sinx
12 18.
x arc tan
3*
st
1215.
Note. The
substitution.
trigonometric
1212.
x.
^
o
igf
y
of undeter-
xV*dx = (4x 2 + Bx + C) e*x
= (Ax + Bx -f C) 3e + (2Ax -f B)e9X

2
3Jf
* and
Cancelling oute
equating the coefficients of identical powers of
3
122
B=
whence ^
-^-;
=Q
(x)e
ax
where P
polynomial
Hint.
*)
is
).
after differentiation,
X 2e* x
6x-f- 2). Solution. In place
by parts we can use the following method
of repeated integration
mined coefficients:
or,
xlnx
1211.
a|.
1213.
1206.
good
See
rt
of degree
Problem
c=
2f
= 3C +
In
the
x,
we
get:
6eneral
^ orrn
p n to e ax dx =
is the given polynomial

of degree n and Q n (x) is
n with undetermined coefficients 1219.
e~* (x 2 -f-5}
(x)
1218*.
1220.
-3e
"(x-h9x
+ 54x+ 162).
Hint.
See
Henceforward, in similar cases we shall sometimes give an answer thai

for only a part of the domain of the integrand.
Answers
420
Problem
cos 2x
mined
1221.
1218*.
Hint. It
where P n (x)
polynomials
px dx
(x) cos
= Q n (x) cos PX + R n (x) sin
arc sinx
+ In
sin
-|-
1236.
x8
Inx
O^2
-^
(x+ V^l+x
Ay2
Âr
tan ~^
2
arc sin x
-j
4
2,
e* (sin x
1232.
xcotx-f
1230.
'
1228.
sinx
cos x)
x2
ft
+2 V
,
get
+ -^ In (1 + x
rt
1246.
1+
- -- -- ,
In
cos 2x
]/T=Ixx
""
xcos
2
<rt
'
x2 x
and
+2 V
1248
'
(2 In x)
'
2xsin (2 In x)
10
a=x
du = dx
x (arc sinx) 2
1244.
).
xtan2x
._
1247.
X
2
In x
2 In x
~^-^--
^ arc tan 3x-^ + ô In(9x +l). 1243. ~-^X
1242.
/ cos2x -2sin2x
1240.
x.
fy-*
1238.
-1).
Inf-^-x.
+X
1245.
2x.
1237.
1,
1239.
x arc tan x
x2
-/m -_
+ -3x.
1).
arCMn *
Xarcsinx
Xarcsin
1234.
(x*+
[ln(lnx)-l].lnx.
X (arc tan x) 2
we
1225.
1250.
1218*).
"
cos (In x)J.
x In
1229.
x*.
1238.
1241.
(x) are
ln *
arc tan x
1227.
1231.
and R n
Problem
(x)
(see
ij(,
l/T
-|-
undeter-
of
Qn
2xlnx + 2x.
xln x
1224.
/"xlnx
method
the
apply
the given polynomial of degree rc, and

degree n with undetermined coefficients
is
of
^-Inx--^.
y
o
1226.
1222.
form
1223.
2x
also advisable to
is
coefficients in the
Pn
sin
4^8
Whence
^ ( x ~r
x dx
and
x*dx
2(x +l)
1)
125K
Hint.
xy a
^x* + -s-
a=-
Utilize
arc sin
the
identity
Solution. Put
j..
x;
we have f }/aa
a ~2
1252.
= Ka x and
-x'dx = x â -^-
xa
f -/-^2
\
Ka
=.
,f
x 2 dx+a2 l
dx
whence
-;
a*
x 2 ].
â2
Answers
Consequently, 2
y~a*x
l257
Fn
arctan
x*
2
-fa arc
Problem
1258
TTT
-ln
1259.
~.
sin
1252*.
Problem 1252*. 1255.
Hint. See
Va
See
Hint.
arc sin
-|
o
2
dx = x
421
4A
^~-
/
f ~<T=
ln( *
1260. x
2).
arc tan
7=-.
Larcsin^P^.
^
,262.
x-f31n(x
1261.
arc tan
1263. arcsin(2jc
1).
(jc
--T
1256.
2t
arc tan (x
(x
-~
1254.
arc tan
'
~ V& +**
1253.
(A:3).
1264. In
1/2
1265.
-2 V -x-x* -9 arc sin
1266.
4jc-f5.
=^
In
1267.
'71
5/"1
1268. In
?=. 1270. arc
arc sin
1269.
x
arc sin
1271.
"*
,273.
9
arc sin
+ 2*
2 In
1272.
sin -
y$
+5).
1274.
2x4-1
-
arc tan
1276.
1278.-ln|cosx + 2+
~'
y\
1279.
1281.
jc
In 2 x
4 In x
+ 31n|x
1283. In
2 arc sin
l!L~.
1280.
o
3|
31n|A;
2|
5*
+ In
1284.
1282.
(x-4)'
- -b
x
\
+a
.1285.
1+*
(*-!)'
1286.
30
27
1288.
1290.
11
4-j
1289.
2U-3)
-^-r
.
49
5)
49 (x
+ 2)^4*
x~5
x-f-2
1292.
1293.
ln|
x-3|-
In
U~l +
[
In
Answers
422
X arctan(* + 2).
x*-x V
arc tan
In
1300.
+ji-i*-
_|arctanx- TT^-jT -^
1305.
1304.
5=41.
arc tanx.
In (x
1310.
y ln|* +H
7
ln|x|
FT
^/(a* +
6)']
1315.
56
X -6
-3
In
In
1324.
(A:
1
|
2 arc tan
-J-
x7
1)
tan x
_ J_ J
'
Sx^Sx*
2 arc tan
1317.
-^=.
1322.
I)
arc
+1)-ô
^3
Xarctan]/|-.
=il.
3 In
7(jc
(l+/l.
3^/1-6 ^/"x
1320.
l)"
(A:
._-
4(x
9(jc_l)>
= (*
arc tan
1312.
1313.
1
.
i
Put
Hint.
*+l
tan (x-^1).
1311.
1306.
X[2
1303.
4r (8
+ 21n
'+4^
arc tan
1298.
1299.
1302.
arc tan x
,,.,
1297.
In
1295.
K"-\
+ arctan(*+l).
-
= arc tan
In
1294.
1316.
1318.
1319.
+ J/l + 6 arc tan

|
*/l.
arc tan
^1-x.
1323.
(jf_2)+-I
In
where
423
Answers
=7+l).
1327.
*-li
-+i
1329.
-arc sin -^
1330.
1331.
4/7=1
-* + l).
-retan
-2
-cos.,.
(*
1340.
1334.
where
1337.
1332.
+1)
,336.
1
.
1338.
sin
1339.
g-sin'x.
-cosx+-jtos>
1342.
*J^-**. |841.4eo.|-^|.
>-.-.+
--^=
cot*
_
7 i_sin6x.
144
1347.
__-.
35
,849.
-1
21
._.
._
, 344 .
3 In
tan x
cot
jc
Jt
1348.
tan x
tan
+ -^
o
+2lnt.n.
+ To tan
1351.
^.
1350.
1353.
COS 2
"[
ln
,357.
3 cos*
*+i
t,n|
_S2*lf_in|sinx|.
1354.
1358.
cot'
sin 4 A:
In
8siu*x
+ cot x + x.
1361.
1362.
xlB
-1 J/55?x + -| J/cSS*-^ J/cw
SrRj{"^
.
-cosx.
,366.
.369.
arc tan
^'
.
1367.
,370.
11
-tan! --f
1359.
!. 1363. 2 J^twix. 1364.
where I
" iain
-+3-.
1365 '
.368.
lE_^M+<P).
J-J^
cos-
137 ,.
!!H +
Answers
424
5*
sin
sin
7*
^
Jo
tan
-!-
1374.
tan
In
-f
*
1373.
1376
--
tan|
cos 4* --5- cos 2*.

^ cos 6* -^
z4
o
lo
1372.
'
*
In
1377.
1378. arc tan (l

\
tan
We
3 cos x
Solution.
Whence
4- P (2 sin* -{-3 cos*)'
12
5
.,,
Q
a= !3'
r
iiC
-f-
arc tan
1381.
5>
have
lO
-^^
fraction by ccs 2 x
= j2^_
<.
In
||*--^
lo
id
2 cos x
===
+ 2p = 2
p3sinx + 2crs*
= 3,
3^
(2 sin x
3a
and,
,
2^77+3^7^
J
rfx
Si
1379.
3 sin x
put
2u
We
P== -!3-
+ tan 4V
^
2sin *
3 cos x)
consequently,
12
==
13
5
2
ln
1380.
In |cosx
situc(.
1*3
Hint. Divide the numerator and denominator of the
-=- arctan
1382.
See
Hint.
V*
Problem
See
Hint.
Problem
1384.
1381.
1381.
4 In x
1387.
V2
/" 2 -f
sin
Vi
sni2*'
~~"
/\
r~~~
/"
t388.
4-ln^^^.
arc ian
1
.
Use the identity
sin*
sin*)
sin
In
cos*
-.
r
cosh *
!
1396.
2coth2*.
12
or
-j=.
O
arc tan
1394.
5)
+m+
1401.
-JT-
In (cosh
1397.
If
sinh*
*)-^^
2
1399. arc tan (tanh*). 1400.-~=.arctan
* iA-?\l
(f V
Hint.
'
*
,
cos*
*
*
-j-sin
cnth 8 *
coth*
1398. *
identity
+ 21n
'
tan
1393.
tanh
the
arc tan
x+cos*
1-j-smx
^>
1395.
1390.
sin*
Sm
1392.
Use
Hint.
sit
(2
1389.
sinh *
^
*
sinh 2x
r
*
^^
5
,
.,
..
..
...
Hint. Use the identity
cosh*
-^ (sinh*
%
-J*
cosh*).
'
1402.
-7=1 In (/" 2 cosh* 4-
^2
^ cosh 2*).
425
Answers
1403.
~ ^2 + x + In (x +
2
1404.
H06.
1405.
-
J/"ÎT~2
1407.
|~
1408.
3+ Kx
8ln| x
In
6x
2x
+ +2
1
1410.
7|.
+ yV
^ VV
1409.
In
17)
4|*
6x
JT
97
**
1413.
--Uarctan.
2
-54-~']
1416.
1419
1423.
4-
4 sin 4x4-c<
c s4x:\
sin
_~Z + o
._.
142
*!
a1)
V>
2*
+2
|arctan(2x+l).
1436.
,.
V\+x*)2 V\
arCCOS (5x "~ 2)
/.^-x'.-
2x+10-9...
4 arc tan (x
.434.
n
cosxsin -'x
l428 '
1430.
...
1432. In
arcta "
+,3
2?
tanx.
e*
1425.
sin2x
xln'(x+
1424.
1426
-TT (2
1422. x
lnk*-l|4--O
-25.v'-3.
Y*
1415.
1418.
'
1417.
1421.
1412
L=ln
1414.
1-x
1411.
1).
1431.
1).
_+
1433.
j In
1437.
1435. 2 ,
arc tan
In
x'
Answers
426
l-x 2
2
'"
'
2x
arc tan
1439
l439
-^r
1440.
3
1442.
l"\
In
/2X-45VJ/(2jc)
1443.
J/5^x
x 2 4T,'
4 In
I)
^lVr>_ 9 _
arc sin (8*
(8x--l)
1458.
----
arc tan
,r-
where
cott-
1462.
*
cos5<
1463.
3cos5x
tan
T^ In
~sin2x.
1467.
X arc tan
+2
In
+ secjc|-i-cosecjc.
2
A.n|\
-^ ).
>
ax
y 2
1473.
In
tan *
'
r-^-^.
ax).
1477.
1475.
ûu-1).
~ (cos
|~cot
*-
cos 2
6)
t^ +
tanS *
1470. arc tan (2 tan
an
1472.
^"tan
x tan
1478
x+\).
T -r=X
1
-^= xarc
j/
+ 2+
-
tan x
,465.
-= arc tan
1469.
hi
In
ln| tanjc
Xarctanl
X In (sin
tan 2
1)
=
1461.
J/JT^t).
1453.
1471.
(1
1450.
1452.
1466.
J/x+1
-1
1448.
X arc sin
--5-^
1444.
1446.
tan
3*+--
?=?
|A3
tan
1479.
^74. J_ x
a
In |cos 3x
le-.
1476.
fin |O=5-
427
Answers
1480.
1483. .n
J481.
^-?
+ ln
sinhxl
1485.
4- 1" cosh 2x. 1487.

5
1486.
x.
gL-^ + lln |e*
1488.
|l+cot*|-co tje .
1489.
2|.
*coth*4
i-arctan^^-
-1 */(?
1490.
x^-'+fir
1494.
In
1496.
(coslnx
lcos5*~
t499
'
+ sinlnx).
|sin5*V
1497
1498.
x2
2) arc
tan
1 [(^
y x sin 5x + 3x cos 5x +
-|
^^r
'
1500.
In (2
-'
,
Chapter V
1501.
vjg~.
1502.
a.
fc
x=\
Hint. Divide the interval from

tervals so that the abscissas of
metric
progression:
sina
Problem
See
Hint.
xl
x =^l,
the
=x q
in
2)
at?
1512.
-f- cos
x
1,2,
sum
-.
x
5-^ = 2 sinh*.
**
1516.
gral
in o
/i
cos
1513. *
1517.
.,
xn
= x$ n
Hint.
'
'
Solution.
1\
+ ~~T" J
,
'
formula
3da
1)
1511.
1518.
the
1508.
1,2,3, ...). 1514. In
sin x.
In.
1506.
Utilize
156.
the x-axis into subindivision should form a geo-
cos n-}--^ a
^~
2
V
2; J
1510.
1/1,2,
^r-^V^=+ 7T +
X on the interval
of the function /(A:)
1505.
on
cos*.
In*.
1509.
x b q*,
_l
2sin
=5
points of
x2
1504.
3.
to x
1507.
1505.
+ sin2o+...+sin/io =
- r -;
1503.
2.
The
be
sum
as
mtc -
lim
Therefore,
[0,1].
may
~~
1515.
sn
-*oo
-^
2
1519. In 2. Solution.
--o-+."H-- \ may
M\ 1+1arH
[
The sum
i+Ji
n
n /
s"
n
= -i- H
n+1
/i
\-^ +
+2
. . .
H
/I
be regarded as the integral
+M
sum
of
428
__
Answers
the function /(x)
form
the
t520.
p
1526.
xk
=l+ n
= arc tan
tanh
;
1
1552.
1555.
-=.
1556.
1524
"T
4
^2- =
f
J
1525
^r
o
-1=
-4o
arc tan 2
~.
1533.
|o
15 38.
~.
1543. sinh
^-r
if
1557.
Diverges.
= -i-
p^l.
p>l;
2ji.
(*
1549.
if
1547. Di-
p<l.
f(x)dx+{ f(x)dx where
(jc)
= x^-
1564.
l + ~ln3
3
x)?"
(1
n.
Diverges.
1565. 3
1569. Converges. 1570.
1566. Diverges 1567. Converges 1568. Diverges
verges. 1571. Converges. 1572. Diverges 1573. Converges. 1574. Hint. B(p
1563.
~.
2
1554.
1559.
e J
1550.
Diverges.
diverges,
1558.
1546. 2.
cosh
2 \
+ -|-sinh
Diverges.
t560. ,-!-. 1561. Diverges. 1562. -i

k
Ina
~.
1534.
1539.
In 2.
^-
if
diverges,
1553.
1.
tang
1545.
In 2.
H-*
1529. arc tan 3
-^-
p<l;
if
1537.
1542. arc
(In 2)
1551. Diverges.
1532.
^.
%-+\-.
4
o
^7= + ir.
9^36
1541.
1548.
1531.
1523
35~-321n3.
ln-|
oo
1528.
1536.
tanh(ln3)
verges.
sn
oo
lim
Therefore,
= 334-
152
1522.
In
1530.
~ In
1544.
2 ..... n).
!,
where the division points have
[0,1]
n ->
1527.
1540. 0.
-|- 1
-jln-|
1535.
on the interval
(&
1521.
j-7
--
--
1
;
since
lim
/(x)x
Con%
q)=
-^=l
and lim
^)
(1
"^/(x)=
1,
both integrals converge when
p<\ and
q<l,
-> i
that
is,
when p>0 and
-x p
~l
Hint. ?
1575.
(/>0.
(p)=\f (x) dx+(
where
(x) dx,
e~*. The
first
integral converges
when p>0,
when p
the second
is
IL
2
1577. 2 /~~2
arbitrary. 1576. No.
("
In
/7rff.
1578
00
1580.
1584.
C^f1+'
f !?"**#.
1
J
2~
1585.
1589. 4
n.
1581. x
-^
1586.
1/5
1590.
~ 1"
o
= (6
a)/+a. 1582.4
-^
2 1^1
H2.
1591. In
4-^
^-|y
1587.
21n3. 1583.8
1~~.
4
1592.
1588.
~ + T^
^JT.
21^3
/""S-
1593
nr
o
Answer^
1594.
--
-Z
1599.
600
^rr^
o
1601.
1-
429
+ l^.
4-(^
2
1 6(>2.
1603.
1.
00
1604.
1605.
z\
b z-
606
r(p+l)=C
Solution.
we put *P
the formula of integration by parts,
~
du = px. p l
e~ x dx
U,
v=
dx,
xPe~*
dx.
= dv.
Applying
Whence
e~*
and
If p is a natural number, then, applying formula

account that
we
p times and taking into
(*)
get:
"
1>35
(2fe
2-4-6
2
,
n=
ii
2k-\-
number;
an odd number
is
even
an
is
246
2k
1-3-5 ... (2k

/
t608
^7 V
...
128
_
"
1609.
'
3l5
_ 63jt
10
~"
^,
^B
'
512
Hint.
'-Hr^
Put
1610. a) Plus; b) minus; c) plus Hint. Sketch the graph of the integrand for
values of the argument on the interval of integration 1611. a) First; b) second;
c)
1612.
first.
1617.
Hint.
1624.
2</</"5.
1618.
The integrand
1.
1613.a.
1625. --
|-</<l
10
4O
1639. ab[2
1641.
2a2<r 1
1636.
In 3.
~.
In
1642.
(2+
2n + -
and
1631.
na8
1640.
-g-
1643.
6n--|
1620.
t638
1632. -~-p
2
.
= 32
1626.
4~
1633.
4-i
1623
%< l <-^-12.
0</<~
-
= 2(coshl -1).
^+~~2
6
/~~3)).
-â
naa
~~4-O
1637.
15n.
1644.
See Appendix VI, Fig. 23. 1647. a2 f 2

1648.
^jt</<yJi.
of the sign of the function.
1630.
2 arc sin -i.
1616.
-|
1619.
Take account
Hint.
1635. 4.
V"l
1615.
increases monotonically. 1621.
1627. 2. 1628. In 2. 1629.

1634.
~.
1614.
1049.
Hint. See Appendix VI, Fig. 27.
yln3.
+ ~-V
^ji-i|-?
1645.
Hint. See
and
1.
1646. 3jra2 .
Hint.
Appendix VI, Fig. 24.
~ n+ p
1650.
Answers
430
1651. 3na2
1655.
-|na
Hint. See
Pass
Hint.
1664.11)^2.
VhT^tf.
1667.
l/T+ln(l+/n
1673.
1674. 2a
1687.
1691.
1696.
b)
(5
t;^
= ~;
&
^(15
2
6jia;
,705.
+4
c- 2 ).
av
16 In 2).
^. 1710.
~a
o
s
.
na 2 /"p^.
V5
1)
2n6 2 -f
(eccentricity
of
Ao "P
ellipse).
8
.
1695.
1U
1701. a
10
1703.
-na.
1707.
}.
nabh (
1704.
4U
1708.
+ -ôC /)
nabc.
1713.
5
1715.
1717.
Do
1719.~rta 2 1720.
.
^tfx*.
8
~nh*a.
1699.
no*.
1690.
1694.
1688. -1
lUi)
1712.
nln.
+
+ 4) = ^(2
+ sinh2).
z
1722.
*.
i[5^T-8].
torus.
^^.
z
na'.
1721. 4n*ab Hint. Here. y

b
external surface of a torus; taking the
face of a
Jia
n(5-^T) +
17l8.^(e*-ff
4
1711.
je
0]. 1682.
1685.
In 3).
10
1706.
+l).
1676.
V2" + ln ( 12"+
1693.
1698.
1678. I6a. 1679.
1689.
1716.
1702.
+$ +fl 6).
DOT -!;
1714.
2n a.
1697.
+
*(x*
^
4-JW
&
(9n -16).
c)
-Ji
= 2n. 1692.^^.
o
1709.
1688.
1672. ~-(e
fc=ln
4- [4 +
1684 .
ln(2+VT)
^^
1680. 8a. 1681. 2a
JQ!.
, 68 3.
^(10/161).
a= 1.
sinh 2
cosh q
ln~
1675.
Fig. 29. 1677.
1665.
V'"?11!). 1671.
/T".
Appendix VI,
See Appen-
See Appendix VI,
Hint.
coordinates.
polar
Hint. See
~.
1659.
the
the lo P
1668.
1670. In (e
l-f-lln-|.
aln.
to
For
See Appendix VI, Fig. 22.
1656. 8jtV. Hint.
Fig. 28.
.
Hint
fl2 -
0<+oo
1658. a2
1654.
Hint. Utilize the formula
1666.
1669.
6na2
1653.
Appendix VI,
1657.
Fig. 30.
VI,
+ 2ab).
varies within the limits
parameter
dix
1652. n(b*
-^(e1
Taking the plus sign, we get the

minus sign, we get the internal sur-
arc sine; 2) 2na

1723.
a)
-\
81|-^
In
where
~~~8
b) 16n
a 2 ; c)
~
a
Answers
~jia 2
1724.
1725.
2ita
(2-
J=y = y.
M x =M K =-~a
1730.
a 24-sinh2
1729.
= y = ~a.
1737< *~=Jia
^^SB-
I736t
^ss-
<
2na 2
1731.
1732. x
^=|-
M x =- V
M X =M K = ^-
1727.
M & = ^.
asina
._00
na 2
1726.
/2~).
M = ~-
1728.
43 1
=
4a
,__
1738>
Divide the hemisphere into elementary spherical slices of area da by

horizontal planes. We have da
2jiadz, where dz is the altitude of a slice.
tion.
az dz
2ft f
Whence
z=
2nfl
tance of
-j-
=
z
Ct
Due
-?r.
from
altitude
symmetry, x = y = Q.
to
vertex
the
the
of
cone.
At
1739.
dis-
Partition the
Solution.
cone into elements by planes parallel to the base. The mass of an elemen2
tary layer (slice) is dm,YftQ dz, wnere Y * s * ne density, z is the distance
the
of
from
plane
cutting
vertex
the
of
the
cone,
= -J-Z.
Whence
h
Jt
1740.
h.
0;
0;
+-g-
_^
a )-
Due
Solution.
to
symmetry.
we partition the hemisphere into elementary

#~=0. To determine
layers (slices) by planes parallel to the horizontal plane. The mass of such
an elementary layer dm
^nr^dz, where Y s tne density, a is the distance
2
2
is
2
the
of the cutting plane from the base of the hemisphere,
5T-=
r= â
[a
radius of a cross-section.
11
"33
1742. I a
1745.
= -z-ab*\
/=yjt
concentric
the
moment
/?J).
The
circles.
of inertia 7
have:
zdz
o
3
=-Q-a. 1741. /==jta
11
4""
I b =z-â
(#J
We
b.
1743.
7=-/?& 8
1744.
15
Solution.
We
mass
each
of
= 2nCrdr =
partition
such
y n(/?*
= JW&
"4
--
the
ring
element
IW
b
into
= -T na*b.
4
elementary
dm = y2n.rdr
#J);( Y ==1). 1746.
and
^nR*Hy.
Solution. We partition the cone into elementary cylindrical tubes parallel

the axis of the cone. The volume of each such elementary tube is
dV 2nrhdr, whe r e r is the radius of the tube (the distance to the axis of
to
the
cone),
=H
s-
is
the altitude of the tube; then the
moment
of
Answers
432
/=Y
inertia
ia
cone. 1747.
2jttf (
Ma 2
cylindrical
volume dV
dr
^lr^
the
Then the moment
where y
is
radius of
= |- Ma
lows that y
of inertia I
V--=2n 2 a 2 b\
1748.
= 4nay
I/
S--=4n 2 ab.
4
f/^-rr
b) x==(/
= T7-n.
sen
that
1U
so
centre of
1750. a) x^=0,
the
the
circle; b)
^=4o
cone obtained from rotating
where b
is
the base, h
rem, the same volume

of
trom
gravity
is
1749.
= ~^/?
//
a2
=A
na'v,
a)
fol-
ita'y, it
7-=//~=4
o
Solution.
The volume
about
of
its
the
base,
is
\\hence
base.
of the solid
is
triangle.
where x
-z-b'i.
and the origin
diameter
the
1753.
x=<Mua>t:
The elementary
Hint.
a;
the
double
--
equal to V
rft/i
By the Guldm
distance
of
the
is
force
of
(force
centre
tlu>
H
-
D flt,=
theo-
1751.
vt'
^
-lnl+--.
1752.
The coordinate axes are cho-
Hint.
the altitude
the
"
71
with
a triangle
2Jtx
I/
f
coincides
jc-axis
M=
---
elementary
L./-*dr
of the
An elementary
h = 2a
a tube,
and since the mass
e density of the sphere,
densit y
into
sphere
a
is its altitude.
the
is
the given diameter.
is
the
is
where
'
partition
which
axis of
2nrhdr, where
We
Solution.
the
tubes,
^)
-f
1754.
is
gravity)
the
equal to
the volume of a layer cf thickness dx, that is, dF =

where y is the weight of unit volume of water. Hence, the elex} dx, where x is the water level.
mentary work of a force dA ynR'* (H
weight
= ynR
1757.
of
water in
dx,
A=ryR
2
.
l^&
1759.
A = ynR*H.
on
mass
is
1760.
equal to
of the earth. Since for r
1758.
^=
F= k
=R
A ---^ R*TM
tn0h
j-
where
A=
When/i = oo we have A
The
kgm.
force
acting
the distance from the centre
r is
F=mg
+
R
m^-
Solution.
/lo.-mg/?.
we have
sought-for work will have the form
^Q 79-10* -0 79- 10
it
follows that
kM=gR
The
h.
kr-dr
*
= mgR.
1761.
kmM
1.8-10
{ -^-
\KK-\-nJ
ergs.
Solution.
__
Answers
The
force of interaction of charges
is /
433
= î
work
dynes. Consequently, the
-J-=S
Jd.x
= *o*i(/ --- \ = 1.8-10

X
X /
isothermal process, pw = p
1
*'
4
4=800 nln2
1762.
ergs.
kgm. Solution. For an
tV The work performed
in the
expansion of a gas
v\
from volume v
volume v
to
A=
is
p di>=p
In
i>
1763.
UQ
an
For
Solution.
adiabatic
the Poisson
process,
i>i
*^1.4,
holds
A=
Hence
true.
=5=
15,000
kgm.
^0
(
J
law
pv
= pj>^
where
-Ms
-^dvk
k
v
4=~jiu.Pa.
1764.
the pressure
Solution.
on unit area
If
of the
the base
the radius of
is
support p
p
z
The
3ta a
by
frictional
forces
Therefore,
on
of
revolution
complete
A=^x
work
the complete
force
-^~rdr. The work per-
is
one
in
ring
frictional
2uP
ring of width dr, at a distance r from the centre,
formed
them
of a shaft,
r*
dr
is
JifiPa,
Solution.
j M#
= ^~da where
dK=^L2
1765.
<D
from
the
axis
of
The
da
rotation,
kinetic
an element
is
the
is
of
of
energy
particle
area, r
surface
of
the disk
the distance of
is
= -^j.
density,
it
Thus,.
Whence
1767.
K = ^/?
co
= 2.3-10
K-^J,-*-^
8
kgm. Hint. The amount
to the reserve of kinetic energy. 1768.
1770.
P = abyxh.
1772. 633
Igm
1771.
P = ^-_
1773. 99.8 cal.
p = -^-.
o
(the vertical
1774.
M^~
1769.
of
766
work required
p^fo +
component
gf
* = | X M*W.
fe
^fr)
1776.^-
__
1777
15-1900
Solution.
Q==
cm. 1775.
^^-^
2
10>r
(k
is
the
Q= (v2nrdr =
.
^n
equat
,
directed upwards).
is
gravitational constant).
is
a6
2
f( a
UJ A
Hlnt
r*)rdr
Answers
434
along the large lower side of the rectangle, and the y-axis,
perpendicular to
ua
it
in
middle.
the
S=\J
Solution.
1778.
on the other hand,
dv,
7^=a,
at
vt
t'a
whence
1780.
dt
dv,
M*=:
and
acceleration time
the
consequently,
(xt)ktdt + Ax=j(l'x*).
/=l- = S.
is
1781.
Q =0.12 TRI*9
S=
Hint.
cal.
Use the Joule-Lenz law.

Chapter VI
V=
1782.
2
(i/
x 2 )*.
1783.
(x
/"4z
t/)
Oje//
1786.
/<*,
x2 )
= \+x-x
replace
by
x.
_,
Then
.
It
1=^;
1789.
f (x,
y)
in the
form
^ Ri
Solution.
o~~^
= x~\+V"y.
* === (a
In
Hint.
2
~|-
and,
Solution.
the
Then
and
y.
+1
and
+ y~u,
1790. / (a)
*=1+/(VT
/(w)=:w
When *=1
a)
= l/V
Designate
v, x
identity
hence,
f (x)
/(-=M= I/
remains to name the arguments u and
then
1788.
(xy) 2
UV
^=
Hint. Represent the given function
/?
1787.
-}-3
_...
-f.
j^S.
we
1791.
-}-2a.
have
the
"
1)
put
/(</)
identity
Single circle
with centre ai origin,
*; c) halfincluding m the circle (x

y
1); b) bisector of quadrantal angle #
#==0 (x y>Q)\ d) strip contained
plane located above the straight line *
lines (
between the straight lines (/=
1, including these
e) a
1 and
/= 1, includsqua're formed by the segments of the straight lines
l<t/<l); f) part of the plane adjoining the
ing its sides
x including these lines and
*-axis and contained between the straight lines
when x
x when
0,
excluding the coordinate origin
and
2,
2<i/<2;
2<i/<2
h) the
*<0); g) two strips x^2,
2
2
2
2
2
2
a and x -ff/
2a including the
ring contained between the circles * -r-i/
boundaries; i) strips 2/uK jc
1) n, r/^0 and (2n+ 1) Ji<x<(2n
(2/i
2) it,
where n is an integer; j) that part of the plane located above the
K#<1);
#=
(Kx^l,
(x^y^x
<
y=
*<
>
x<t/<
_ __
Answers
435
~y > 0); ,k) the entire j/-plane; 1) the entire *t/-plane,

x*(x*
parabola y
with the exception of the coordinate origin; m) that part of the plane located
above the parabola y* x and to the right of the (/-axis, including the points
of the t/-axis and excluding the points of the parabola (*:^0, y > V x)\
0; o) the
n) the entire place except points of the straight lines *=1 and t/
x2 + y 2
n (2k + 1 ) ( = 0, 1, 2, ...).
family of concentric circles 2n k
1793. a) First octant (including boundary); b) First, Third, Sixth and Eighth
octants (excluding the boundary); c) a cube bounded by the planes x=
1,
1, including its faces; d) a sphere of radius 1 with centre
y~ 1 and z
<
<
1794. a) a plane; the level lines are

at the origin, including its surface
0; b) a paraboloid of revostraight lines parallel to the straight line *-f */
lution; the level lines are concentric circles with centre at the origin;
a hyperbolic
hyperbolas;
paraboloid; the level lines are equilateral
c)
d) second-order cone; the level lines are equilateral hyperbolas; e) a parabolic
0;
t/rf- 1
cylinder, the generatrices of which are parallel to the straight line x
the level lines are parallel lines; f) the lateral surface of a quadrangular
pyramid; the level lines are the outlines of squares; g)_level lines are parabz
C ]fx i) the level Ifnes
olas y^-Cx
h) the level lines are parabolas y
2
2
2*. 1795. a) Parabolas
are the circles C (*
(C
y )
0); b) hyper2
2
C 2 d) straight lines y ax-{-C;
bolas xy^C(\ C
1);
c) circles jt -f*/
lines
y-=Cx(x^Q). 1796. a) Planes parallel to the plane
c) straight
0,
x-\-y-\-z^=Q\ b) concentric spheres with centre at origin; c) for u
one-sheet hyperboloids of revolution about the z-axis; for u
0, two-sheet
hyperboloids of revolution about 2 the same axis; both families of surfaces
2
za
are divided by the cone * 4-r/
1797.
(u
0).
b) 0;c) 2;
a) 0;
k
not
limit
does
limit
e
does not exist. Hint. In Item(b)
exist; f)
d)
e)
coordinates
In
Items
and
to
consider
the
variation
of x
(f),
(e)
pass
polar
kx and show that the given expression
and y along the straight lines y
may tend to different limits, depending an the choice of k. 1798. Continuous.
1799. a) Discontinuity at je
0;
0,
y
b) all points of the straight line
of
line
of
is
the circle
x
c)
(line
y
discontinuity);
discontinuity
2
the
tines
of
the coordinate axes.
l;
d)
discontinuity are
|<
>
y^Cx*
>
<
1800
is
Hint. Putting y
=y
continuous everywhere,
when
<p2
f/ 1
q^MÔ.
^0,
2v u
(y) =
is
since
we
for
get the function (?,(*)
yl
discontinuous at the point
the denominator * 2
when
Similarly,
jt
From
everywhere continuous.
is
function z
=^ const,
(0, 0)
= *, = const,
-|-f/
the
^0, and
function
the set of variables x, y, the
since there
is
no limz. Indeed,
X
which
-*
r cos cp,f/
r sin <p), we get z~ sin 2<p, whence it is
passing to polar coordinates (x
>
if x
and y -+ in such manner that (p const (Os^qx; 2rc),
2(p. Since these limiting values of the function z depend on the
direction of cp, it follows that z does not have a limit as x and y -+ 0.
evident that
then z -* sin
1801.
~^3(jc 2
1803.
^=
1805
dx
ay),
^ = 3(#
dy
=
(
x*
l*'
dy
Answers
436
.-s,î/
ox
xy*
x*
dz
V2x'-2y*
yx*
cos^.
dy
ln
,810.
ox
dz
V2x*-2y*
oz
4813.
1815.
-- -
1820.
/;(1,2,
= 4,
0)
1821. r.
5^-.
1828.
-.
tan p
x-=zxtf2*"
-5-=x2*"ln2,
-r-=i/2*'ln2,
tan Y =-~- 1829
1827.
cp (x).
2-^
tana = 4, tanp=co,
1)
^=y *
= arc tan ^ +
1826. z
^(1,2,0) = !
= ~,
fy (\, 2, 0)
1,
1814. r
1'
If^T'
to see that the function is equal to zero over the entire x-axis and
the entire i/-axs, and take advantage of the definition of partial derivatives.
1831. A/
Be convinced that f'x (0, 0) ^(0, 0) 0.
4Ax+ A(/ 2Ax 2
2
4dx
&\
-f 2AxAi/-t-Ax Ar/;
a) A/
b) A/
df
dy\
d/=- 0.062.
df
2
1833. dz'^3{x*y)dx
3(y*x)dy. 1834. dz 2xy*dx 3x*y dy. 1835. de
Check
2
\**
i. 2
(xy
dxx
y dy). 1836. dz
= sin 2xdx
sin 2(/di/.
1837. dz
y.
18401 dz
=
+
= 0.
1838. dz
1841. d0
=-
(xdx
+ ydy).
dx
1839.
^=
1842.
d/(l,
1)
dx
sin
x
1843.
du =
1845.
du=xy +
t/z
dx
+/x dy + xy dz.
y^.
(5dz
3dx
1846.
1844.
4di/).
1848. d/
live to inner dimensions).
r/dx
:74
= 0.062
1850.
(x
dx
y dy
+ z dz).
zdx+\-xzdy +
dw-
du
-r-
+ xdt/--dz.
1847. d/ (3, 4,
cm; A/==0.065 cm. 1849. 75
cm. Hint. Put the differential
cm 3
5)-
(rela-
of the area
the sector equal to zero and find the differential of the radius from that.
1851. a) 1.00; b) 4.998, c) 0.273. 1853. Accurate to 4 metres (more exactly,
of
4.25 m).
1854.
n ag ~Ef.
1855.
da==-^
77
(dy cos
dxsia
a).
1856.
^=
Answers
-sin*
In sin*). 1861.
d*
-.
=_.;
x'-l-y
= 0.
<!/+
(
z)[^(x,
i/.
y)
1865.
l867 -
S=^
-j)
dx
=W:
*
dx
ty'v (x,
^l-
.l.
_
221
66
+ /^(*,
1862.
dx -,--,.
1+x 1
= 2x/,
1863.
1864
437
( *-
The
1873.
y)<f' (x)].
>+<
"
increases
perimeter
at
a rate of 2 m/sec, the area increases at a rate of70m*/sec. 1874.
20/52 V5 km/hr.
1875.
- 9 ^3
1876.
1877.
1878.
1.
J^..
1879.
<fc
68
c) (7,2,1).
1884.
cosa=s-r-,
o
cos p
cp
-^QQOQ-r
^=83 37.
9/-3/
j (5/-3/). 1886. 6/-f 3/ +
1885.
COSY =
1891.
I7
1/1
9 = -7=.
y 10
=
1894.^=0.
1895.^
^ xd^
^x
dy dz
A
= mn;
0)
v (0,
and
tiation
the
,,
irp-yi+î
[~2
that For x
ticular,
fj,,(0,
2
f/
cos
(0.
0)
/y
= /i(n
and
for
0)=
of
+ yvj
(when
any
1.
1899.
2jc sin (xy).
(jry)
definition
4\
grad a|=6;
1889. tan (p^= 8. 944;
,897.
^yi^
^-;=
^'
'
1898.
1887.
1888. cos
-O-.
^
^=
lfiol
2A?.
(/,
1902. Hint.
1).
partial
A'
/^ (0,
Similarly,
1
J/
y.
MO.
Whence
find that
0)
verify that
f",IJC
and
= m (m
Using the rules
derivative,
?4 0)'
y)^
we
(0,
of
differen-
f'
x (x,
1;
in par-
0) = 1.
1903.
"i-i-
-g^r--/ii\".
1904.
-if
/("'
0)
+ 4*0/
Jll ,
(M,
y)4-*
w (,
y) =3
consequently,
fxlt (Q, y)=
\Q,
1);
u).
o);
438
Answers
1905.
= q>W +
t915.
+ * (y). 1916. d*z=e*y x
(*, /)=*cp
d*u = 2(xdy dz + ydzdx + zdx dy).
1917.
+ x dy)* + 2dx dy].
Y* X
1919. dz =
d*z = 4<t"(t)(xdx + ydy)* + 2<f'(t)(dx* + dy*).
1914. u(*.
I(y
1>(</).
!/)
((/)
dx
1918.
(f
= a M (a, o)
x
x
1921 dz = (ye*f'v + eVf"uu + <2ye +yf'nv + y*e* w dx* +
+ 2 (&f'u + e*f'v + xe*yfuu +e x + y +xy f + ye* x fo dx dy +
1922.
d'z = e* (cos y dx* + (xeyfu + x*e*yfuu + 2xe*+yfuv + e**Q dy\
1923.
d'z =
3 sin y dx dy
3 cos y dx dy + sin y dy
# cos x d*
1924. d/(l, 2) = 0; d f(l, 2) =
3sinxdx*dy 3cosy dxdy + xsiny dy*.
2
1920. d z
.
f'
(\
tlv
).
d 2/
1925.
+ C.
1926. xy
^?+p + C.
1931.
1927.
y ln(^ +
1929.
a=
1932.
1,
|/
0)=
0,
(0,
+ 2arc
6=
1,
^,=
1938.
1.
Hint.
Xdx+Ydy.
expression
condition
1939.
f^f'y
of
1940.
+C
'
l933
total
xy
C.
JC
2
//2
+ y + 2 +C
f
1937.
the
~+
1930.
2z-j-C. 1935.
t/z
the
+ C.
tan
+ 2^ + 3x2 + ^
1936.
+ + + c.
Write
1928.
8
1934. x
~ + sin x + C.
x't/
for the
differential
a=f(z)d2 + C.
1941.
-^y
;ri=
dx2
a2
Î=-T-I.
dx*
a*y*
2
a5^1;
y*
of straight
equation of a pair
r
dx 2
1946
1943
1945
=3
The equation
M
defining//
&
^= ^
ln
-1;
or
x^ *
1944
*%2
=8
is
the
=
^
dx y
_
or
-8.
axy'
dz_x
<9jc
1943.
lines.
(\-y)*
dy
^42.
xf/
'
%~~
dx
(axy)*
dz_Gy
yz
z
'
dx 2
2
3xz2
(xt/
'
a
)
^^
dz_zsinx
'
dx 2
cosy
x2
dz
'
dx
cosx
t/sinz*
d/y
'
Answers
d*z
d*z
:
dx*~
a*b*z>
dxdy
*;*;
1954. d2
439
1953.
dy*''
dx
2
dw;
*
i/
-^^dr/
2*
f
.
1955. d2
= 0;
d 2 2=
).
Tc(^
IO
1961.
-r-
2
rf
l/
l956
)-
T"
r-^
1;
dy);
=00;
dxfy
dz
11111
"^"*
= 0.
T~9
1964.
dw
:^;
1965.
=-
,966. a)7
dz
c cos y
1967.
,-
sin
|).
1971.
a)
-20;
pp^-.
sina
1974.
q,^.
1969.
=F;(r,
cos
q>
9)^.
- +
+ Ô.
b)
g-0.
~=0.
1975.
tt
cp)
cos
<p
dz
1968.
dx
1970.
1972.
~-. z== 0.
1976.
Answers
440
3*
1983.
+ 4j/-H2z
/ a 2 -f &2
169
= 0.
+ 4y + 6z =
1985. x
21
1986.
the tangent planes are

the points (1,
1. 0),
-f
and (2, 0, 0), to the j/z-plane.
parallel to the xz-plane; at the points (0, 0, 0)
There are no points on the surface at which the tangent plane is parallel to
c
Ai
1987
the x#-plane. 1991.
-^
*
Projection on the
on the xi/-plane:
1994. Projection
._w_ )=0
<
/z-plane:
_
~n
1.
3y*
on
Projection
I^Q
the
xz-plane:
=
|
3x 2
4-z
A
1=0.
,
Hint. The line of tangency of the surface
with the cylin-
projecting this surface on some plane is a locus at which the tangent

plane to the given surface zis perpendicular to the plane of the projection
2
ax + 2bxy
1996. /(*
k)
/t,
y
cy*-{- 2(ax + by)h + 2(b* + cy) k i-ah
2
2
1997.
(xH-2)
/)=!
/(*,
2(jc-f2)(t/~l)-f3((/
-f 26/ifc-K/z
1)2,
der
i/)
= 2/i + fc-M + 2/i/e-f/i
-_1)H2(*-1)
(2
/(^
2001.
z)-f
(/,
A/(x,
1998.
+
=
2[/i(x~t/
*.
1999.
2005
>
[(jt
+
=
I)
4-
+ k,
I)
(//
z+/)
z)
.
1)
f(x
+
(y
2003.
Dl
Un?^
a)
= (x
+ H,
/ (x, y, z)
2000.
-z) + k(y-x
2004.
1).
(*/-!)--(</-- l)(z-l).
+ x,+.2002.
-!)(!/-
b)
Hint. Apply Taylor's formula for

2006. a) 1.0081;
b)J).902.
r
in the neighbourhood of the point (1,1);
the functions: a) f(x,y)=\ x
y* in the neighbourhood of the point (2,1). 2007. z= 1 -}-2(x~-l)
b) f (x, y)
2
when x=l,
10 ( X -l)(y-l)-3 (y- !)'+.. 2008. z mm
-(t/-l)~-8(x~l)
2010.
z min -=
2011. z max =108
1 whenx=l, 0=0.
i/=0 2009. NocxVcmum.
(3 n z_4M)p2j
yy
= 3,t/ = 2.20l2. z min =

There
is
when x =
no extremum
Y^ y =
for
1^2
x=j/ = 0.
when
and
2013.
2 max
at the
jc
= = 0.
i/
1"\ at points
2017.
min
T^
2015.
y==
a"d
""Ff
zm i n
of the circle
4
3-
and*=
X^-TTL, t/---^
points
when
*2
when x =
y==
'~'Vf'
x=0 = 0;
wne "
21
+y =
2
-j
1.
2016. zmax
2 14 '
F?'
nonrigorous
= 1^3 whenx=
z=l.
ab
* ==
at
3
the points
2018.
w min
;?Tnax
"=1
maximum
1,
=4
1.
when
=Y
J/1' z== ^ 2019. The equation defines two functions, of which one
has a maximum (z m ax
8) when *=1, f/=2; the other has a minimum
2jwhenx 1,0 = 2, at points of the circle (x 1) 2 + (t/ -f 2 2 -^ 25,
(Zimn =
JC
functions has a boundary ext-emum (z

3). Hint.
tions mentioned in the answer are
explicitly defined by the
eacn
of
these
The
func-
equalities
__
Answers
e=3
441
2
1^25
(x\)* (f/-f2) and
consequently exist only inside and on
2
2
the boundary of thecircle (x
25, at the points of which both
I) -|- (l/
2>
functions assume the value 2
3. This value is the least for the first function
and is the greatest for the second. 2020. One of the functions defined by the
the other has a
2,
1,
r/
equation has a maximum (*max"-~~~ 2) for x
minimum (2 min 1) for x
2, both functions have a boundary extremum
1, y
at the points of the curve
*=#=-.
2023.
=5
2022. 2 max
12*
4i/
x=l,
for
for
imta
4jt
= 2;
2 min
2024.
max
f/
~.
^~.
+ 16r/
33=0.
5
----
for
(f
2,
1)
j/
fl
2)
=2
x==
for
/"T
^^ T
I/
-IT;
b) greatest
= 0,
2030.
2).
1,
= 0.
2=
j/
value
1.
ll
m,
m 2 -f m,
i>
-rp
3
of
~T
the
ellipsoid.
2046
Major
for
/""2"
value
= =
for
for
smallest
y-^0;
1,
t/
(in-
j/2V,
44
a
2b
^2V*
s=s3i
j/
= 6,
-|- J
The dimensions
2 Q43.
of
the
= = 26+2V,
2a
Isosceles
2041. Jgaa
2c
2044. *
2036.
"T^' where
V 3
axis,
--
>/a. 2039. Ai
\/a
>
~p,~/>, and
7^-*
3
J/2V,
\/a
\/a
2Q42
axes
*=
for
x==
for
y=l;
,
*2a
parallelepiped are
TFT
= 0,
y-~Q (boundary minimum).

= 2, y = 1 (boundary maximum); smallest
(boun(internal minimum) and for x = 0, y =
Cube. 2038. a
1a
-i-
z== "~
2032. Greatest value 2
are
2040. Sides of the triangle
fe
2031. a) Greatest value
value
2034. Cube. 2035.
dary minimum).
27
for
smallest
t/=
2 for x
triangle. 2037.
2.
f T)'--(f
=3
Greatest value
2025.
r/
a)
ternal maximum); smallest value

13 for x
2033. Greatest value 2
value
I/
f T)=
2,
(1,
"3
for x
= 5 + *:i,
/
/^
\
#--2
1,
b) smallest value 2
I)' (41,
(2,
for
=-j
= 2, 2 =
= 2, 2= 2, "max^ 9
*=1,
= 2 = 0; Wmin^C for x = t/=0 2^C.
*=
at the points
.6Mor x = 2, y=4, 2=6. 2028. u max -4
1,
2026.
MMIX -=fl 2
2.4
2027. w max
for
2 max
-j/
2021.
minor
b,
a,
and
= --
axis, 26
= 2.
are
2045.
Hint.
the
x=
semi-
The square
of
the distance of the point (x,y) of the ellipse from its centre (coordinate origin)
2
2
The problem reduces to finding the extremum of the function
is equal to x -f-r/
2
2
9. 2047. The radius of the base of the cylinder
5t/
x*-\-y* provided 5*
Bxy
.
Answers
442
is
|/2 + -~=,
the altitude
must connect the point
sphere. 2048. The channel
with
the
^
14
2049.
1^2730.
the ray passes

a
cos
the ray
J
of
the
of
point
sin
BM=^
of the function /(a,
a=p.
function
/^/ji/^
2052.
7 2 , / 8)
f (/
must
lie
ft
which
at
between A, and B t ;
to finding
* the
01
t/2
-5t\2
AI
~ provided that a tan

COS p
-5-
Find
Hint.
the
minimum
a + b tanp = c.
minimum
the
of
Kl
= /J/?; + /*# +
that
provided
second kind
/J/? t
The isolated point
M,
is
B^M = b tan p. The duration of motion
-- --
UjCOS
2051.
length
The problem
reduces
r
-5
y 2 cosp
|J)
its
into the other,
A,M =a tan a,
a, cos
Uj
-- --
is
"T
7 V^L
-
5 \
1 1
Hint. Obviously, the point
medium
one
the radius of the
is
the parabola
(-o-
of
-^-
EE^^!
2050.
frm
line
straight
--^=, where
|/2
+/ +/
/!
-/.
2055. Tacnode (0, 0). 2056. Isolated point (0, 0). 2057. Node (0, 0). 2058. Cusp of first
kind (0, 0). 2059. Node (0,0). 2060. Node (0, 0). 2061. Origin is isolated point
it
if a>6;
is a cusp
of the first kind if a
and a node if a
b.
6,
2062. If among the quantities a, b, and c, none are equal, then the curve
does not have any singular points. If a
b<c, then A (a, 0) is an isolated
c, then B (b, 0) is a node; ifa^fc^c, then A (a, 0) is a cusp
point; if
2053.
2054.
(0, 0).
of
Cusp
(0, 0).
<
a<b =
of the
2
-f-
/3
kind. 2063.
first
y=x.
/ ''.
2067.
whose equations,
2068.
if
2064.
2066. **/
pair of conjugate equilateral hyperbolas,
x#^=-^-S.
the axes of symmetry
coordinate axes, have the form
y^R.
2065.
y ^2px.
of
the
ellipses
xy~
2069. a)
are
taken
as
the
The discriminant curve
the locus of points of inflection and of the envelope of the given

y
of the envelope
is the locus of cusps and
family; b) the discriminant curve y
Q is the locus of cusps and is not an enof the family ;c) the discriminant curve y
velope; d) the discriminant curve decomposes into the straight lines: *
(locus
is
of nodes)
2073.
x^ a (envelope).
and
1/~3V
1).
2074.42.
2079. a) Straight line; b)
2082. 4/
(*
for
f:=0,
A;
= 2cos_^,
0=1/^13
z?=-2y+3ft,
f/
for
y=~
*8
2075.
parabola;
+l). 2083. ^ = 3 cos
= 4/ 2084.
+ 2ycos/-l-3Ar;
2070.
#=4
c) ellipse;
= 2sin/,
any
w=
/;
2i;
for
XQ
+Z
Q.
= 3/
^^-
11
2080.
= Q, v--=4j, w=.
(screw-line);
-2/cos
2072.
2077.
d) hyperbola.
(ellipse); for
w=
i
^
2076.
5.
sin
2071. 7
2v 2
2ysin
t\
u=
3/; fo
2/sinH
w2tor
any
Answers
x=cosacoso);
2085.
co/ sin
of
sin
uy
a>
2
2088. 0"|/ a
screw
(*
-y-
= --
[(sin
a cost
are
2090. T
sin
cos
(*
x + 2z
COS(T,
0./J*.
acos/
,
sin
cos p
==
+ 4r/-f-12z
114
2096.
(normal
|,
(4,
.
ing
(tangent);
j
-_
cipal normal);
2V
=y+ =
plane);
(tangent); x
(tangent);
(principal normal);
-,
1
z=
/2
of
= sin/;
plane);
(tangent);
plane).
(pri "~
t
cosv,
= 0.
îlx*
(binormal);
cosp 2 =
=-=;
cos|J 1
=_ 2 ^
/4
(oscuâting
TT~
^-~j-
cosines
(osculating
~T?T
= _
^.=^l = i^l
2097.
= cos/;
6r/-f-z
cos Y
=
__t>r
12*
plane);
=
j
=^T
*"T
...
(rectifying plane). 2095.
(binormal)
directi on
The
a cos
2093.
asint
normal)'
a
=--===
k]\
/\
- zbt
VI
/;
cos(v,z)=0.
^r&cos/r =
y
^ sin
-;
"; P^=.
/5
/105
..
1^3^
2)
a>/
cos t)J
The direction cosines of the principal normal are cosa,

1
z
2094. 2*
0.
cos YI
(normal plane); y
art
cof
+ *);
(sin
^
cos
cos a sin
cousin a cos
the angular speed of rotation of the
is
(o*
[(cos
^--
smt
tangent
2aa>u sin
.,
y-
cos
\
*>
(tangent);
/
x -acost
v=
a cos CD/
(circle);
2
co /
|;
^"
co
where w = -
+ cosO /+(sin
the
/i
T= --
2091.
fc).
2092. t
cos
V aV + u
2089.
=
u=K
CD*
2086.
= sincof
w
+
sin acoscof; z
y
cos
cofc
443
jc
"""3"'
+ = (osculat= + 2- = z--2
i/
i/
-g
2098. a)
(normal plane); b)
__
(tangent); x
(tangent);
+ # + 4z-10 =
2_>^3
2|/*2^=0.
r/
a)
6 2 )ejz
-=
c)
^|
2/*3z =
2101.
c) b*x\x
a*yly + (a
~ =
ing plane);
(normal plane);
(a
6 2 ).
==
~~A""J:
f 3
+ y = 0. 2100. x
=
18 = 0;
6y + 2z
2102. 6.r8/z + 3 =
(osculat-
(normal plane); 2099. x

9x
0;
# z 9
b)
4*
=a6
=^"' 2
(P rinci P al normal);
Answers
444
* +6
J
3y
=o
binormal )
(osculating
TSBS
= 0.
\i
fl>
2107.
when
M
.
/=!,
=
=u
'
>
(principal normal);
/+ *
v== /
>
J7*
K=
99
/C=4-1/T7
/
r
14
w,
2jc
=*
= 0,
/"To
2106
2108. a)
When
i
w w =2;
V~i\ b)
a)
2112.
plane);
|7^=i
19z~27
2111.
*=0
bx
(binormal). 2103.
= -^=.,
oy x
2,
=2
wn
= 0,
/~TQ
I/
'
"^ j^
Chapter VII
9
2113.
2120.
x=l;
9^
44.
O
-.
O
2114.
= ^r
*=-!;
2125.
= 0; t/=y25
= 2.
J*Jf(*.
f/
2117. 50.4. 2118.
6;
x = 0;
It
00
y)d(/.
= 2.
= 3.
2122.
2126.
2129.
=x
r/
2JC
JC
+3
2Af
72
f (x,
12
'
2I32
'
/ (x,
2130.
1
2119.2.4.
21
00
f(x,y)dy.
t/
^^
J dj/ J
12
J/^
dy
^2
ix
=
JdxJ/(*.
00
10
00
42
2131.
i/)rfx
y\
2127.
11
2128.
x=2
1;
TT/7*
44
2116.
\JL
= 3.
~.
2115.
L**
2121. ^
7t
ln~
,/T
y T
t/
= + 9;
A:
Answers
2133.
dx
Vl -
f (x,
""
i/)d</
d*
y)dy =
f(x,
-K 4 -*
+J
d</
"
dx
*,
dy
J
~
dx
r
dy
-V*--tp
c/
~yr^p
vr~^y~*
V* -X*
y)dx +
f(x,
*
-
2134.
/(*,*/)
x*
+j
445
Kl+
JC
/(Jt,
f(x,y)dy=
J
V* -n*
!/)
^+
U. y)d^+
dy
-vihT
I-A:
2135.
1+ Kl
(x,
r
e) \
\)
+ 2aa
r
dy
48
2136.
dx. 2137.
'
l dlj
jc
f (x,
y)
dy=
*j
i/
f(*>y)** +
f (x t
%)
81
dy
f (x,
y)
dx
_
1
y*
dy
JL
12
2138
o^
ao
Ji
Vu
Vx
22
f (x, y)
dt/
20
ax
oo
w
"
y) dx\ d)
dx
-V
i^Kr~7^
/a
/(AT,
rfy
Jf
-4f/ a
y) dy
Vci* - v*
i-#
/ (*,
_o^
r~;
- x?
dx
a)
f(x,y)dy-
-^rn?
]*y
Va?
y*
f(x.y)dx.
d[/
(x t y) dx*
t/)
444
__
Answers
*=0
bx
(binormal). 2103.
(osculating
plane);
'
>
__ Q
(principal normal);
v,y.
30
= 0.
192-27
2107.
9100
2109.
21
2108. a)
- n -K-e
.1
a)
fl
flfj*
when
OC
2113.
4~.
2120.
~,
1*
2114.
2121.
= ^-
#=3
2123.
2125
t/
2115.
= x\
= 0'
y\
/=10
r,
1^*25
x*'
11
t/
=
</
= 0;
y = 4.
= 0*
=3
2122.
TT/7.^
2124.
y)d</.
2119.2.4.
2
;c
t/
= * + 9;
= ~\
=x
z'
= 2x;
21
=
/U.
00
dr
y) dy.
2-0
oo
2130.
y)dy.
2126
V)<te
2129.
^y
/
ZX + 9
dx
/ (x.
2X
72
12
y_
y = 2.
6;
10
00
42
= 2,
oo
= 0,
12
*/(*'
00
jc
*/(*. </)dx = d*/(x,

o
7=
-nM
b) P
R-Q-
2127.
2128.
Chapter VII
Q
2116. -~
2117. 50.4. 2118.
x=2
1;
= 3.
jc
~
jf
Ing.
K=
^=
/=!,
jc==l;
When
2112.
iî
^=2;
K~=-
>^2; b)
a)
f(x,y)dx.
r
2131.
dy
/(^,
i/)^+
f(x,y)dx=
dx
-i
f(x
y)dy+
-*
12
/.
2132.
dx
Ja
2JC
f (x,
y)dy=\dy
f (x t
y)dx.
Answers
445
2133
4-
J<*x
i
J
"
~~
*
dx
(x.
dx
f (dx
c/
y) dy
dy
+J
"
y) dy
/ (x,
y) dy
/(*,
y)dy =
dx
/(x, y)
dx+
dy
dy
f(x,
rr
f (x,
f(x,
y)
y)dx +
t/
i/
+J
dx
Vl + *
f (x,
dx
y)
/ (x,
V9 -X*
dx
V&~^
/
j
-vr^*>
2134.
+J
dy
/ (x, y)
dy
/(x,
\y
f (x,
2135.
y)dx.
a)
- x*
dx
b)
y)
dy
dy
/ (x,
[/
48
2136.
2138.
f dy
dy
/ (x, y)
'
!L
- x*
f(x>
dx. 2137.
+j
ta
dy
2(j
dy
2a
SI
<
dx
*. ffMir.
Ji
y)
12
f (x,
Vx
d*
y) dx c)
JL
2a
y) dxt
y) dx; d)
ax
oo
+ 2u
f (x.
Jdy J
f (Xt
-1
Ki~^
dy
y)
f (x,
-t/'
*
~a
'a
Va*
a
f (x>
_L.
EHi
2
dx
f (x,
y) dx
\
2
dy
JL
3
/ (x,
y) dx.
/ (x,
y) dXr
Answers
446
+
dy(f(x,y)dx
J
(
J
2139.
2
fl
a
20
za
/(*, */)dx
+ jd*/
o
2141.
yf1
10J
f(x,y)dx +
2d
20,
2a
di/
j
o
a+Vtf^H*
11-*
f(x,y)* + jdxj
dx
VT
2
i/
2~~
[dy
f(x,y)dx.
c/
Va*
_ ]/ aG a2 _ y*
yl
2140
dy
V8
a_
00
VT
f(x,
dx
2142.
y)*.
VT^lfi
Î*
VR*-y*
/(A:,
2143.
t/)efy.
/ (x,
J
j
00
f(*,y)dx.
dy
arc sin
jt
2144.
fdf/
arc în
2149.
2153.
-p
/(A:,
f/)dx. 2145.
2146.
~ a.
2147.
2148.^-
-^
-g-
y
15jt
1.
2150.
6.
In 2
2151.
a)
dx
2154.
2152.
-|
xr/dt/
b)
16
;
c)
1"
2155.
2JT/?
//
Hint,
2156.
|-Ji/?'.
//
dx
==
dr/
/?(1-COS/)
*Jl
(S)
C dx
cosO^
/?(!
ydy> where
the
last integral
is
obtained from
D4
the preceding one
2159.
by
flf
the
substitution
+i--
216
x=R
(*
sin t).
2157.
2158. --
Jt
T"
sin q>
^T
no
T
[(p
r/(rcos9, rsin(p)dr.
2161.
J
o
cos
(p
Answers
jn
sin
sin
*Ji
sin (p
a /COS
2164.
(tan
r/ (r cos
r sin q>)
cp,
r dr.
dr
5Jt
a /COS
dq>\
a cos
2165.
f
J
f
J
2171.
~nab.
r/ (r cos
dcp
r2
Hint.
-sin(pdr=-^.
2166.
The Jacobian
= abr.
is
1.
= u(\
u
as
2172.
v)
and
cfu
The
0);
the
when
c,
/(w
of u:
when x
limits of integration are
wy,
uv}udu.
Jacobian
x=r-0,
Limits
is
uvâu
(1
t;),
2173.
2~y
dv
Of
whence
fr
\
-TT
variation
of
the
define
whence
of
since
v:
1;
= ^-^
+a
for
= ftx
we
find
dw
"1
(2
'
"~9~)^
Hint '
ablf? 2
L\/i
-r]arctan^-r-
k2 J
ter
chan S e
variables, the equa-
tions of the sides of the square will be u
2174.
= u. We
4-
We
Solution.
u(l~u)=0,
y--ûv\
functions
follows that
wrâxjt
u=r-r-5
dr.
i-
+p
q
(since
q>)
P
i
2167
4-*-
r sin
<p,

<p)
2) dcp
n_
4
4-
oo
2163.
r/(rcosq>, rsinq>)dr.
(f
cos 2
<p
d<p
sin
t_
2162.
447
bli
+ -Ahk
= v;
Solution.
+ u = 2;
The equation
= 2;
of
u
the
w.
curve
448
__
Answers
r4 **/*
rj-cos*(p-- rrsin
4ht upper
follows that
we
r= y
limit,
cos 2
p-
to the
sin
pDue
to
sin 2
T^
cp
^2
cp
limit
whence
0;
the
entire
of
first
quadrant:
dxdy = 4
a)
4-g-;
-;
a)
^dy
2
b)
dx
~
jJia
2184.
Vy
+ ^dy
a *-
2177
T5.
2180.
2183.
6.
2188.
1(6
o
1188.
,.96.
2202.
2205.
2209.
Hint.
2214.
*.
^dx
2179
flZ -
a-- + -.
dy.
Hlnt
2182.
Change the variables
x2y = u,
I(R
o
a )ln-.
2187.
a).
2193.
A.
abrdr.
~.
2194.
^.
2195. ~-
2197.
iia'(a
J.
2,98.
2206.
.19..^. 2200.^. 220,.^.
^"2"~ 1)-
2207.
nafrc.
2^'
|-
IB (!--). 2210.
Change
~^
2203.
P).
^.
4(m
2l78
u=di/(l-^^=:C^r(l-x)dy.
the
1
ft)/?
2217. 8aarcstn
3
.
2218.
-~ a
-i
O
2204.
(6
J~
2211.
yT
xt/
= u, ~=f.
-1^(3
/"T
o
to polar coordinates. 2221.
1).
2212.
|-jw
\(
(2
~-
2213.
2219.
"2
1).
â
Hint. Integrate in
'
2208.
5).
ft
variables
2215.
Paas
a)(p
IX
^-^-
dx\ b)
Hint.
lOjt.
sin'cp
aVa*~x*
2181.
2185.
ourselves
_j>
Vy
1175.
- b*
-

symmetry
we can compute
axes,
lower
the
J,
2
rr cos
q>
ak
have fan<p^7-r-
whence
cp
2 2
/"a 6
KT-1).
+6 c +c a
2 2
the j/z-plane. 2216.
8a 2
1+5LV
2220.
3na2
2
.
Hint.
Hint. Pass to
__
2222.
coordinates.
polar
-5-
2223. 8a arc tan
8aa
Hint. Pass to polar coordinates.
and
fl
T T
V2
L
Integrate by parts, and then
ya
9
2
x'
=?
9
2
+c
8fl
arc sin
\r
^^
variable
the
change
2
Vb* + c*-a }/a + c
^-
ady
Hint.a=\J dx\J
-^5
the answer. 2224
449
a1
/.__
Answers
sin
In
Iransform
t\
'-=)
Hint.
Pass to polar coordinates

-
H=0.
2228
/x
2231.
2226.
^ ^=
=4
2232.
2229
/t
a)
"'
^J;
lz
^=
'
L.
2225.
2227. *==*?,""
o (4
J*
*-;lr-o.
(D*-d4 );
b)
a4
2234.
|-
-3-
/=- f
Hint.
a*.
2230.
/^
Voj?
2233.
JT)
-KÎ
16 In
2235.
x
is
(/
29 ~
d=
to
equal
V
of the straight line.
The distance
Hint.
-JL and
2
2236. 7
is
by means
found
^fca
of the point (x, y)
[7
/~T+3
In
from the straight lint
of the
normal equation
(}^"2~+l)],
where k
is
the
proportionality factor. Hint. Placing the coordinate origin at the vertex, the
distance from which is proportional to the density of the lamina, we direct
the coordinate axes alonjj the sides of the square. The moment of inertia is
determined relative to the x-axis Passing to polar coordinates, we have
jt_
_jt_
a sec
/x =
oo
I
d)
dr
dq>
n_
jia
4
.
VR*~^7*
2242.
a
-1
Hint. For the variables of integration take
( dx
)
-*
dr 2237. /
Jg
Jifl
4
.
T
2239.
y (see Problem 2156). 2240.
2241.
(r sin q>)V
<p
kr
dy
x
\
/ (*,
0, x)di
and
Answers
450
VT=T*
2243.
^1 -*'-/,
dy
/(*,</,
-y
-i
2244.
2248 .lln21
4n#
15
_^
2254.
2258.
=f-
2253..
2252. -jutfc.
2257.
2249.
|.
-~a2
2255.
/?.
??fl%.
9
2259.
10
2256.
~ Jia
2260.
?c
|-r
3
Selut ion.
2acos(p
C dx
40
dz
= 2fdq>
L
20 COS
r'dr
"25"
00
-T^^T-
<p
f(2acoscp)*
2na 8
nnot
226h
Hint.Pass
19
2263.
4).
=0;
t/
the cylinder
the jq/-plane
_
=0;
^(a + b +
2265.
2266.
c).
=0, 2=0.
Introduce
Hint.
a.
2269.
~
iz
coordinates.
a2
^(6c
6 2 ).
(3a
coordinates.
spherical
4/i ).
Hint.
For
the axis of
we t^ke the z-axis, for the plane of the base of the cylinder,
The moment of inertia is computed about the x-axis. After
the
passing to cylindrical coordinates,
rdydrdz
to cylindrical
2=-^D
-
*=~,
o
2268.
nabc.
2264.
_
x
Pass
-^-jt.
~(3jt
2267.
Hint.
2262.
coordinates.
to spherical
from
the
x-axis
is
equal
to
square of the distance of an element

r z sin 2
+z
q>
2
.
2270.
(2/z
+ 3a
2
).
Hint. The base of the cone is taken for the xr/-plane, the axis of the cone,
for the 2-axis. The moment of inertia is computed about the x-axis. Passing
to cylindrical coordinates, we have for points of the surface of the cone:
r
= j-
2);
(/
and the square
of
the distance of
the element
2
2271. 2jtfcQ/i (1
the x-axis is equal to r 2 sin cp-f z 2
proportionality factor and Q is the density. Solution.
.
cos a),
rdydrdz from
where
The vertex
is
the
cone
is taken for the coordinate origin and its axis is the z-axis. If we
introduce
spherical coordinates, the equation of the lateral surface of the cone will be
a,
\|)r=--
and
the
equation
of
the
plane
of the
base will be
2t
From
the
follows that the resulting
r=-sin
-.
ip
stress is directed along the
symmetry
The mass of an element of volume dm = p/ 2 cos dcp dtydr, where Q
the density. The component of attraction, along the z-axis, by this element
it
z-axis.
is
of the
of unit
tj)
mass lying at the point
is
equal to
sin
ip
sin
i|?
cos
ty dtp dq>
dr.
Answers
451
L-a
The resulting attraction
oo
equal to
is
h cosec
27i
dq>
\f
Q sin
d\|?
\f
cos
dr.
\|>
2272. Solution. We introduce cylindrical coordinates (Q, cp, z) with origin

at the centre of the sphere and with the z-axis passing through a material
point whose mass we assume equal to m. We denote by % the distance of
2
be the disfrom the centre of the sphere. Let r= >^Q 2 -h(|
z)
tance from the element of volume dv to the mass m. The attractive force of
the element of volume dv of the sphere and the material point m is directed
this point
along
and
equal to
numerically
is
kym
density of the sphere and dv

qd^dQdz
jection of this force on the z-axis is
._,
dF
/\
kmydv
y=
where
the
The
pro-
-^
...
dQ
kmy *^~
is
la
the element of volume.
is
c s (rz)
dz.
d
2275. a)
2273.
for
>
a; c)
(p
> Q);
Hint. Differentiate
L. 2277.1.
3
n2
dye~ x
y*e~*y
-^-^
A
!'?
d)
P~1~P
> 0)
(p
00
2276.
---
b)
0);
?.
*5
C-^f/=
J
2278.
twice.
ln~.
a
2279. arc tan
--
arc
tan
2282. arc cot
2280.
n (l+a).
-^l
2,
2284. -1
2285. -5.-
24
AW
AW
2283.
4--
1.
polar coordinates.
from S
In
-^
2288.
~
o
coordinate
the
consider 7
2287.
x*
-^
4a-
2286.
'
a2
its
that
e-neighbourhood,
+ y*dxdy, where the eliminated region
is
at
JJ
o6o
\d(p
Whence
\ r
the
Passing to polar
origin.
271
Inr
lim 7 8
e->o
dr=
--=.
round the straight
we have
coordinates,
JL^
-5-
In r
le^JJ rfcp~2jt(-j~-Q-lnen
rrfr
\ *
-T-).
* /
-5L. 2290. Converges for

2
line
is,
a circle of
(S 6 )
radius e with centre
Pass to
Hint.
1).
2289. Converges. Solution. Eliminate
with
together
origin
2281.
(/
=*
with
a>
narrow
1.
strip
2291. Converges. Hint. Sur-
and
put
- =a
J.'
(S)
K(*
K
v
2
I/)
y/
Answers
452
i-
2292.
2297.
l-2-^! arc
2301.
1).
~ll
|-[(I+4Ji
2298.
tan
M*
2302. 2jra
^(lOVTO
2303.
/7~
a*V 2. 2300.^(56
2299.
Hint.
1).
ftl
be interpreted geometrically as the area of a cylindrical sur-
may
y)ds
flu
\
5m
fot
Converges
c
face with generatrix parallel to the z-axis, with base, the contour of integra
tion, and with altitudes equal to the values "of the integrand. Therefore,
o
S=
xds, where
the
is
OA
arc
parabola t/=--x
8
of the
e
(0, 0)
and
a V~3. 2305. 2
(4,6). 2304.
V^ + u
2306.
2308.
2ita
f ji
fl
a)
+ 4jTu
âTT^
"
-5-;
b) 0;
c)
2309.
Use the parametric
To
,/
(a
+&
equations of a
fl
(-q
.o a
2311.
cases 4. 2314.
all
2315.
circle.
2jta
2
.
30
4;e)4. 2313. In
d)
2307.
2310.40-
h*\
fl
"*"
4-|rln
10
4
2312.
l/~a 2
arc sin
b*-\
that connects the
a *b
/
points
-r-a&
o
2316.
Hint.
2rc.
sin 2.
xa
2317.
2318.
0.
a) 8;
12;
b)
c)
2;
d)
e)
\n(x
+ y);
//a
+ J{
ty (y)
dy-
2319.
2322.
a) 62;
b)
+ ln2;
c) -L
1;
d)
f 9(jc)rfjc-f
J
f)
2.
2320.
y\
Vl-fft
e*~ y (x +
.
c)
2325.
fi-
y)
+ C\
d) ln|Jt
+ j^"M
//,
2328.
JJ
x2
a)
8
-
+ |/| +
2326
4o
+ 3xy
a>
2329
2f/
C.
+ C;
b)
2na(a +
2323.
~ 20
b>
0^
233
^r-^
1;
c)5
4--
x8
x y-{-x
2
2
n/? cos
b). 2324.
d) 0.
2;
2331
2327. /
2332
a ) Ol
(S)
2/iJi.
Hint In Case (b), Green's formula is used in the region between the
b)
contour C and a circle of sufficiently small radius with centre at the coordinate origin 2333. Solution. If we consider that the direction of the tangent
coincides with that of positive circulation of the contour, then cos(X,n)==
= cos(y, 0=/.
as
is
hence,
<cos
J
(X, n)
ds= J
ds = <P dy = Q
4
J
as
the area bounded by the contour C. 2335.
not applicable. 2336. nab.
2337. -| Jia
2
.
Hint. Green's formula
4.
2338. 6jia
2334. 2S, where
2
.
2339.
-|a
*
2
.
Hint.
is
Put
__
Answers
45$
for
2341. n(R + r) (/? + 2r); 6n
y=tx where t is a parameter. 2340. ~.
R r Hint. The equation of an epicycloid is of the form x = (R -f r) cos f
r
~rcos^JL. *, y = (/?-f-r)sin/ rsin^J^/, where / is the angle of turn of
2
radius
the
2342. Ji(/?
is
cycloid
Problem
2345.
V
c)
of
r)(#
~ nR
2r),
drawn
circle
stationary
2
for
-^-(a
where k
),
work,
mgz,
potential,
mg(z
is
2 2 );
L(jc
of
the
+ + *)
work, 4r (#
2346.
= -ii-,
potential,
epicycloid
2344. mg(z,
FR.
factor,
proportionality
b)
tangency.
the hypo-
of
corresponding
2343.
of
point
The equation
Hint.
'=-7-
obtained from the equation

2341) by
replacing r by
the
to
(see
z 2 ).
Potential,
a)
-
work,
2
2347.
).
-|jta*.
2348.
2353.
2354.
a.
/J*"
/i*.
51)
10 (5
2355. a)
0;
b)
-{(
(cos
+ cos p
2356. 0. 2357.
na\
2358.
4;i.
2359.
2360.
a*.
(V)
2365. 3a4
2366.
-^
2
2378. grad(rr)
/'(/)
the vector
=---
COS
2385. a)
>r)
^=0
r ot
r) t
2387.
2388. div grad
2392.
2a)/i
U=
2
a)
5^
for
j~Ji/?
(/(r)<7)
,
where
57
= lgrad(y|
= ^-^cxr.
is
The
3y
3Jfe;
c)
b)
div
rot (/r)
a=^
2380.
/ (r)
~=
/'
(r).
-^-;
2386. div tf=-0;
c)
div
rotv = 2co,
where
unit vector parallel to the axis oi rotation.
2
);
when a = 6 = c.
2383.
div(r^)-=~,
b)
+ 2//
points except the origin.
= c 2 2376. grad (/ (>1)=9/

x = y = z.
2377. a) ~; b) 2r
,
2382.-?-.
IJ_r.
^+^+^
//(3/?
the level surfaces are planes perpendicular to
7^,
/i
2371. Spheres; cylinders.
2363.
= xy\
= c;
divr=3, rotr=0;
= LW( Ct
co=co/f
2379.
c.
+/=c
*
d)
Jia
2373. Circles, x 2
2372. Cones.
2367.
rot
~ n/?
//
grad
2
(
flux is equal to
U = 0.
+ 2//
2
).
2391.
2393.
4jtm. Hint.
3;i/? //.
divF=Oat
When
all
calculating
454
__
Answers
the
flux,
use
theorem.
the Ostrogradsky-Gauss
2394.
_ ~~TtD
2395.
2n*h*.
2396.
/=f
rf(r) dr. 2397.

.
2398.
-L.
2402.
24 8
potential;
U=xyz + C',
b)
2400. Yes.
Chapter
2401
No
a)
2403.
VIII
2404.
2405. -
24 06.
2416. Diverges. 2417. Converges. 2418. Diverges. 2419. Diverges. 2420. Diverges.
2421. Diverges. 2422. Diverges. 2423. Diverges. 2424. Diverges. 2425. Converges. 2426. Converges. 2427. Converges. 2428. Converges. 2429. Converges.
2430. Converges. 2431. Converges. 2432. Converges. 2433. Converges. 2434. Diverges. 2435. Diverges. 2436. Converges. 2437. Diverges. 2438. Converges.
2439. Converges. 2440. Converges. 2441. Diverges. 2442. Converges. 2443. Converges. 2444. Converges. 2445. Converges. 2446. Converges. 2447. Converges.
2448. Converges. 2449. Converges. 2450. Diverges. 2451. Converges. 2452/Di2455. Diverges.
2453. Converges.
2454. Diverges.
2456. Converges.
verges.
2457. Diverges. 2458. Converges. 2459. Diverges. 2460. Converges. 2461. Di2462. Converges.
2463. Diverges. 2464. Converges. 2465. Converges.
verges.
2466. Converges. 2467. Diverges.
k- >
!
2468. Diverges. Hint,
2470. Con-
verges conditionally. 2471. Converges conditionally. 2472. Converges absolutely 2473. Diverges. 2474. Converges conditionally. 2475. Converges absolutely.
2477. Converges absolutely. 2478. Converges
2476. Converges conditionally.
absolutely. 2479. Diverges. 2480. Converges absolutely. 2481. Converges conditionally. 2482. Converges absolutely. 2484. a) Diverges; b) converges absolutely; c) diverges; d) converges conditionally. Hint. In examples (a) and (d)
CO
consider the series
( a 2k-i
+ a zk)
anc
in
examples
and
(b)
(c)
investigate
2486
Converges
fe=i
00
separately the series
2a
k=i
00
2k-\ and
2 a^'
k=i
2485<
Diver ^ es
absolutely. 2487. Converges absolutely. 2488. Converges conditionally. 2489.

Diverges. 2490. Converges absolutely. 2491. Converges absolutely. 2492. ConCD
verges absolutely. 2493. Yes. 2494. No. 2495.
7.9*1
f9n_iv
^T
3/2
converges. 2496.
n=l
converges.
2497. Diverges.
2499.
Converges. 2500. Converges.
fi=i
Hint. The remainder of the series
geometric
progression
may
exceeding
be evaluated
this
by means
remainder:
Rn
'
of the
an
"9*
sum
,
of
__
Answers
455
--
-'' 2504.
m + "-=~
-f
2505
For tne
<.<.
iven series
it
is
Solution.
to find the
easy
exact value of the remainder:
Solution.
We
multiply
-:
by
*"+ 2
M+
"
Whence we obtain
is
nv nv
.
=n
\ zn
VTj
v n+
*
.
"**,
.
'
= / + 16
T5
4 /
+\
}_
16
From
this
the series
we
find the
above value
Rn
of
Putting /i=0, we find the sum of
2507. 2;
2506. 99; 999.
S-=(pY-
3;
5.
2508.5=1.
Hint.
when x < 0; S-=0 when

> 0, S=
2511. Converges
diverges for x<
Converges absolutely for x>
for 0<x<l,
diverges for
for
conditionally
x>l,
converges
absolutely
^"
for
conditionally
forx>*,
converges
2512
absolutely
Converges
<x < oo..2514. - oo <*<.
2513. or X <\.
*c, diverges
verges for^
2515. Converges absolutely for x > 0, diverges for x<0. Solution. 1)
<~; and when x > the series with general term ^.converges; 2)^5^1
^~
x = Q. 2510.
an
2509.5-1 when
1.
1,
x.
oo, since from cosn*->0

xsÔ, and cos n.x does not tend to zero as n
thus, the necessary condition for converwould follow that cos 2n.v -*
when 2/m < x <
gence is violated when x<0. 2516. Converges absolutely
for
it
it diverges.
1,
2, ...); at the remaining points
<(2fc + l)ji(fc=sO
1
for x ^ 0. 2519. x
2518.
absolutely
Converges
Diverges everywhere.
f
2517.
> x<
2523.
x < 4,
2520.
x>3, x<l.
x>l,x<-l.
2521.
2524.
x^l,
x<l.
-Kx<
i-,
2522.
x^5j,
y<x<l.
Hint.
1.
For these values
00
of x,
both the series
x k and
the series
converge>
When '^l^
__
456
and
when
=-
the
Kx<0,
2525.
Answers
term of the series does not tend to zero
general
0<x<l.
l<x<K
2526.
\<x<\ 2529. -- <x<-~

2
2528.
1<X<1.
< x < 4.
3<x<3.
2532.
2536.
2540.
2530.
!<*<!. 2531. !<*<!
2
2535.
oo<*<oo.
2534. x^=0.
~ <*<
2538.
-5-
2542.
<x<2. 2539.
< x < Solution.
2
\<x<{
2541.
2<x<2.
2527.
K
V
oo<x<oo.
2533.
2537.
_
1
<x<e.
The diver-
x
1
of the series for
is obvious (it is interesting,
however, to note
that the divergence of the series at the end-points of the interval of converthe aid of the necessary condition
is detected not only with
1
gence
gence
x=
by means
of convergence, but also
d'Alembert
of the
<
When|x|
test).
we
have
lim
n\
nIn
lim
|(rt+l);t
|<lim(Ai+l)|jcr==
rc-- co
oo
lim
n-* oo
readily obtained by means of 1'Hospital's rule).

2543.
l<;x^l Hint. Using the d'Alembert test, it is possible not only
to find the interval of convergence, but also to investigate the convergence
of the given series at the extremities of the interval of convergence. 2544.
Hint. Using the Cauchy test, it is possible not only to find the
interval of convergence, but also to investigate the convergence of the given
series at the extremities of the interval of convergence. 2C45.
2
x
4. 2548.
2.
2547.
2549.
2546.
(this equality
is
l<x<l.
< <
2<x<8.
2550. x
2554.
3<x<e
3<x<
2558.
0<x<4. 2553. - ~ < x < ^

2<x<0. 2556. 2 < x < 4 2557. 1<*
< x < +-I6 Hint. For x=
the
G
7<x<
2551.
2555.
3.
2559.
2<x^8.
4<x<
l<x<3
2552.
-j^^
~
\
series
2561.
2566.
diverges,
lim
n -+
oo
(~-l< x <l)
-ln(l-A:)
ll n
lf(|xl)
2579.
.
arc
2577.
tan x
sum
2586.
^ farctanx--
In
x
of
3.
the series
2587.
ax
\^}
|<
(|xl<1)
(\x\<
1).
2585.
2580.
.
<

2384.
ye
1<*<3 2562. l<jc<5. 2563. 2<x<4. 2564. |z| <
z
2/
< 3 2567. \z\< V^ 2568. 2 = 2569. z \< ao
2576.
2578.
since
...
(see
Problem
_ 00<x<00
2579)
for
2688. sin
jc=~^=:
x
'
Answers
xsm
cos (jc-|-a)=cos a
2589.
457
**
gating
the
)""
+ --^5S
A
-j-
~2<x<2.
Hint.
When
investi-
7*
use
remainder,
theorem
the
on
integrating
power
series
2592
_ l\"-
on-i
n=o
oo
< *<
e**=
2595.
oo
+V
oo< x <
oo
2596.
n=i
(_-oo
oo
<x<
<x<
2599.
(-!)"
2600.
2608.
oo)
oo
(-3<x<3).
rn-
T (-0" H
04/1-S y2n
2609.
(-OO<AC<CO).
1 -4-
*
2611. 2-f
22^11
+3
2610. 8
-|.._ +
2601.
(2rz) |
**
2s 32
-
...
2591
o.
+(-o^
3Z
^Z + TTi-"
x*
^ cos a + %r sma+'-rr cos a
2!
"*"
2W
-4-
3"
""
^ (=
W
JC
(~oo<x<oo).
I)""
vn
458
Answers
<-<
<X <oo).
2612.
+V
f|
(l+2- n )
l)
+ o7rFT
*"
'
~ 2 < * < 2)
'
2614.
).
2615. ln2
Ti
2616.
(-.i<jc<l).
V(-.l) x
=o
(-D n+I
2018.
(I*KD.
'"
2622.
e(
T+S-;2624.
219.
c+
1-^4-...).
262S
-(^+75+^+---)
!+
2623.
+...
+ x* + jx>+... 2626. Hint. Proceed= &sin<p, comthe ellipse x = aco$<f,
ing from the parametric equations of

i/
pute the length of the ellipse and expand the expression obtained in a series
2
of
2628.
*'
e.
2x*
5x
2= 78 59 (x-H) 14(x
of
powers
2629. / (je
5x 8
4* 2
4)
(
oo<At<oo).
(x
A)
z
*
oo
h
oo).
+
+ =
+ +
< <
2630.
Ar
n -1
V(
l)
^"^
(0<JC<2).
2631.
n=i
00
2632.
1)" (*
1)"
(Q
< x < 2).
AI=O
00
(n
6<x<
(x
1)
2).
+ \) n
< x < 0).
2633.
2634.
/l=0
(,<.
1.3(^-4)'
r 4-6
2
L3.5(*-4)
4.6-8
2"
2J(-D"
n=i
n=i
(0<x<oo).
2637.
4-i
"T---TI
JL
(2 ttll)!
2636.2+^-1^
1.3.5...(2n-3)(x-4)
4.6-8...2n
O^K
00 )-
""^
*""
2638.
~+
Answers
Make
Hint.
the substitution
45J>
and
expand
\RI<<1.
2641.
2642.
\nx
in
of
powers
R \<
t.
2643.
p r ve that
exceed 0.001, it is necessary to evaluate the remainder by means of a geometric progression that exceeds this remainder. 2644. Two terms, that is,
7
X2
1
TT.
x*
Two
2645.
terms,
2647. 99; 999. 2648.
*J<
0.7^68.
2659.
-"
/y
\2
.
0.005. 2650. 2.087. 2651.
<0
0621
2656.
+ V (-l)JfZ^L.
2660.
R \<
x |<0 39; \x\
0.608
2655.
2646. Eight terms, i.e.,
2649. 4.8
U|< 0.22. 2652.
0.39;
2fi54.
1.92
i.e.,
~-
~~ 03
Z
2657.
0.2505
V-L
jL*
2658.
0.026.
(2/0'
00
2661.
V
n=
JO
2662.
1-1-2
x)";
(//
l-^-y +
ry
i/1
<
Hint.
x^
2663.
geometric progression
Hinl.
lJC
= (l-.^)(l-y).
yW
|T^^=- +
!
(_
2664.
~~
K//<1).
Hint, arc tan

-j
2665.
/ (Jt
\-2bh-\-ck
/i,
#+
2666.
A;)
~^-=arc tan x + arc
tan (/(for
A^y
= ax* + 2bxy + cy* + 2 (a* + fy) + 2 (bx + cy)

/i
f(\+h,
2-\-k)
f(\
2)
=9/i
21/r -f3/i
-2^.2667.
2669.
l+x+-
-+...
n\
\x"< 0.69;
-^ 0.4931.
\ o
o
<x<oo; ~oo <t/<oo).
(-00
18 2653.
1-f
2670.
Answers
460
%-l
n=o
(n)=^=%.
^ + 4^(-l)";S(
2873.
n)
= n. 2674.
n=i
[^-
L2a
x ^4
V tr^!
+ <*a*
+
(fl
cos n*
sin
n*) 1
rt
l>fl
l)
|tlyl
m
nf
a*
S (+
Ji)
= cosh an.
2 Sln
2675.
is
nonintegral; sin ax
if
is
an integer;
gn
5(n) = 0.
n=i
2676.
Ji
2a
S(
integer;
2678.
Jl )
+ jL*
y _i )B
(
if
or
n=i
= cosan.
is
nonintegral; cosa*
t\r
J
2677.
=
:
CO
2680.
tin
sin
"-
if
is
an
Answers
2689
461
slnn/t
.
2691
i_
2694.
4n-l
Solution.
2 P
--
1)
2a
= -~
f /(*) cos 2/i* dx
(*
-jj-
cos 2/ix d
Ji
/ (x)
cos 2nx dx.
we make
If
the
substitution t**-=
in
the
first
Jl
integral and
identity
(n = 0,
=x
second, then, taking advantage of the assumed
in the
/(-^+<
1,^2,
= -/
will
<
(^
&,
(y +
/ (^) sin
=/
2nx dx =
2697.
~. T
sin
Sin
-|-
Case
as in
(\^
(1),
with
account taken
^ leads to the equalities 6 2II
of
the assumed
(/i=l,
2, ...).
'
/cos
sinh
o 2n =0
The same substitution

Identity
that
be seen
...);
n
2)
readily
[t
/IJTJC
> (-1)"
2698.
cos
sin-
_8_
where
1
^
nx
-16\\-1)"-'
-~,
(2'?
1^1
_-!?
,(2'H-l)Jix
o
-il
2702.
b)
1)2
n=i
_ A V ^ J 2 1+
1
n=o
!)
n*
2'mx
rs
mx
Answers
462
Chapter IX
2704. Yes. 2705. No. 2706. Yes. 2707. Yes. 2708. Yes. 2709.
no.
Yes;
a)
b)
= 0. 2716.
= 0. 2715.
2xy' = Q. 2717.
=
=
x
2xyy'. 2720. xyy (xy*+ 1)=
y' = y. 2719. 3y
= 0. 2724. /
2721. w=-xr/'ln~. 2722. 2xy" + y'=Q. 2723.
2725. #"
3f/V -^0.
^"'Ô. 2728. (1 +y' )y"'
+ = 0. 2726. = 0. 2727.
2X
= cos*. 2732. r/==
2730.
2731.
x = 25.
2729.
y = xe
^^.r^Sg-^
+ g^ 4g 2X 2738. 2.593 (exact value y = 2739. 4.780 [exact
o
= 3(e 1)]. 2740. 0.946 (exact value y=\). 2741. 1.826 (exact value
value
2742. cot //-tan x + C. 2743. ^=
y = 0. 2744.
Yes.
2710.
2714. /
0. 2718.
xi/'
;u/'
2{/
r/
1.
(/"
2r/
i/'
I/
2//'
f/"
t/
//
e).
).
i/
..
= lnCx
2745.
= a + -^-.
2746. tan y^=C (1
-~
2748. 2e
=1^6 (l+e x
7|
= C.
ment
2760.
2762. if
8x
5x
2752.
2754.
*=2px. 2761.
t/
= 0. 2747. = C sin
i/
jc.
2751.
y=l.
2750.
or
hyperbola #
+^
2
J/
= ax
Hint.
to
respect
x,
2758
^2
2
-
I/
By
hypothesis
we
get
The
Hint.
seg-
= C. 2759. =
r/
differential
equation.
-*.
y=V 4
^2
+ 21n-
Family
of circles x
2764.
Pencil of lines y^=kx. 2765. Fa-
+ y = C 2766. Family of hyperbolas x y = C.

=~ ~
2769.
+ (y b) = b 2768. = xln~.
x
x
&
z
mily of similar ellipses 2x*

2767.
+ 2y+l=2tan(4x + C). 2753.

+ 10y + C = 31n lOx 5y + 6| 2755.
f/^Cx
t/
with
twice
equal to
is
i+^srrf-j.
2749.
).
2757. Straight line
Differentiating
2763.
= C.
of the tangent
= Ce a
+ if
f/
r/
X
.
= Ce y
2771.
+ ln|(/|=C.
2775. y
xl
C)
2773. y=5
x.
C,
(x
2776.
2778.
2
t/
=C
2
;
^-;
(x
+y
ln|4jc +
8t/
(x
2)
= 0.
2
//
= 4;
2774.
= (xy + 3).
+ 5| + 8j/-4;t = C.
!)
(;
i/
(x*
jc.
2772.
+ y*)* (x + y)*C.
2777.
2779.
x 2 =l-2[/.
__
Answers
463
2780. Paraboloid of revolution. Solution. By virtue of symmetry tUe soughtfor mirror is a surface of revolution. The coordinate origin is located in the
source of light; the x-axis is the direction of the pencil of rays. If a tangent
at any point
(x, y) of the curve, generated by the desired surface being cut
by the xi/-plane, forms with the x-axis an angle q>, and the segment connecttan 2q>
(x, y) forms an angle a, then tan a
ing the origin with the point
= y The desired differential equation is

2=
= 2Cx-\-C*. The plane section is a para2jq/' and its solution is y*
The desired surface is a paraboloid of revolution. 2781. (x y) 2 C*/ = 0.
Hint. Use the fact that the area
x 2 )-=Cx
x = C(2# + C). 2783.
But tana
tan 2 q>
tancp
^
j/'.
*/*/'
bola.
2782.
(2(/
X
is
to
equal
~--* 4 +
y dx.
2787. x
t>x and ~.
respect
2793.
r/
= Cx
2784. y
In
|x
+ + cos y = C.
2
= Q/
f/
= xln-.
2789.
x
(y
+C
+ C)
x(
2C|/)
=x
2808.
2799. x
= 01n
is
lnU|
with
2790.
singular
.v
1/
= C.
is
no
singular
2
/
2801.
2812.
= 0.
2810.
2813.
= 0.
2815.
integral.
General
integral
"o"""^~ r"^
General
integral
1/^3
2816.
C2 +
(A
HO singular integral. 2814. General integral

there
1.
x*' =
2806.
~ + ~==C.
2809.
integral
+-=
2803.
2
singular integral x
^2Cx;
t/
linear
2800.
(xsiii[/-j-f/cost/~ sin^)c =tC.
= 0;
there
~+C J=0;
ry2.|-C
=2
2811.
c.
is
y=^+
2 arc tan-
//
2786.
2
2794. x ^=
= C.
ab
+ arc sin x)
= 0.
?807.
= Cx + x
The equation
Hint,
!/
2788. x
2785.
|.
f/^-^cosxi
-~-
sin x. 2817.
- + C,
Singular
2821.
In
solution:
V p
t/
= 0.
2820.
+ + arctan~ = C,
2
i/
4y = x
x^\n
+p
1
,
In |p
p
.
Singular
x|
= C+
solution:
y=e
Answers
464
2822.
2823
g-C*+;
y=2*.
L=4
l* =
nlPL-zIl'sin P + C '2825.<
from which x
equation
=
*
y=xu\
j/
2829.
= Cx + C;
*/
= Cx +
The
Hint.
defined as a function of p
is
2827.
+ y*=\.
and the family of

geneous,
equation;
2824.
homogeneous. 2826.
is
no singular solution
2
-g
= 4*.
2830.
differential
2828.
JO/-C
2831.
circle
astroid x*"
a z i>. 2833. a) Homoy*i>
uv\ c) linear in y\ y
uv, d) Bernoulli's
with variables separable; f) Clairaut's equation; reduce
tangents. 2832.
b) linear in x\ x
its
The
y = uv\_e)
to y^xy'
V^y^l g) Lagrange's equation; differentiate with respect to x\ h)
Bernoulli's equation; y = uv\ i) leads to equation with variable? separable;
u--x-}-y\ j) Lagrange's equation; differentiate with respect to x\ k) Bernoulli's equation in r, x=uv\
1) exact differential equation; m) linear; y = uv\
n) Bernoulli's equation;
+ = Q/
4
2
2835. x
(/
2836.
= uv.
/=i~.
lnC; singular solution,

solution,
y = ~.
2840.
3//
2842. y
2834. a)
i/
2837.
In
sin-^
xi/(C-~
f- (x+l)
jc|
In
+ C;
x)=
x^y-
b)
2838.
1.
y=-Cx+ VaC\ singular

2841.
***-^ -arc tan y~
2839.
+ L~1J = C.
ln
= x(l+Ce*).
2843.
y=
Ar=</*(C-e-> ).
2844.
X -f2847.
x = Ce
sIn
^-2a(l+sini/).
2848.
i + Sx + y + ln [(x-3)
10
1
y-
8
1
|
= C.
-= In Cx.
2849. 2 arc tan
2852.
l- +
r
cos*.
+ 4o
-l.
2860.
2863. y
ln|x|
2855.
xy
2858. x
= C.
= C(y
2850.
2853.
1).
(/
**=! ---\-Ce
= * arc sin (Cx).
2856. x
y
.
2851. x 3
2854. y i ^Ce" ix
= C^-- (sin y + cos
= CeV-</-f,'-,/-
=-Ce^
2859.
/).
y
sin
2857.
jc+
py-
-0.
2
y x
ij
2879. f/-0.
y^Cx + -~,
2873.
i/
= ~^/2?.
+ 4# ^Q/ 2876. 0=-=*

2880.
2881. y =
(sin x + cos x).
i/^-^=
=
2. 2883. a) y
x; b)
Cx, where C
^C.
2875.
1.
-i-
2874.
2877. r/-=x. 2878.
(2x
x'-f-x
+ 2x + l).
*/
= 2.
2882.
2x
is arbitrary; the point (0,0)
t/
2
singular point of the differential equation. 2884. a) y 2
x\ h) #
2px;
2
2
2
2
2
(0,0) is a singular point. 2885. a) (x
C) 4-(/ -=C b) no solution; c) x
-=x;
t/
---=e-*
is
2891.
2-=0
8
i/
e~ x
--1
-C
f
.v
A:
that
the
area
is
to
equal
:c
y dx
and
arc
the
length,
to
x=^^--f
Cf/.
2897.
//
H^l/ 2
-^^
<>
2896.
a singular point. 2886. // --e". 2887. y^(V~2a

Kx) 2 2888. f/ 2
2889. r-=Ce^. Hint. Pass to polar coordinates. 2890. 3y 2
2
2
2892. x 2 -|- (//
2893. // 2 [- 16x^0. 2894.
6) -_6
Hyperbola
r-^/fq)
2
2
2
--C or circle x i-j/
2895. t/--i- (e-v
e- x ). Hint. Use tha fact
is
(0,0)
- 4C (C
-j-
x).
2898. Hint. Use the fact that tha
resultant of the force of s>ravit\ and the centrifugal force is normal to the surface.
'lakmg the r/-axih as the nxis of rotation and denoting by co the angular velocity "of rotation, \\ e get for the plane axial cross-section of the desired surface
the differential equation g-'-'==o) 2 x.
2899. p_^ e --*<wi7*.
Hint,
The
prts-
sure at each level of a vertical column of air may be considered as due solely
to the pressure of the upper-lying layers Use the law of Boyle-Mar otte, according to \\hich the density is proportional to the pressure. The sought-for
differential
equation
.-.kw-dx.
2901.
is
s=/>-j--a;
~
/
one hour.
2904.
kpdh. 2900.
dp
will decay in 100 years. Hint.
=^35.2
dQ==
sec.
kQ
Equation
Hint. Equation n(/i f
dfi.
Qo
2905.
m^ = mgkv
~=
*f~V
a)e~
Q-=Q (4-)
as
;v=
2910.
ds
Equation
ki
In
2903.
the initial quantity
of
~V udf.
=n
2908< u "~^
2909. 18.1 kg. Hint. Equation
4 2?6
^ =kQ.
2fc)d/i
(y)"*
tionality factor). Hint. Equation
16-1900
rpm.
Hint.
Tâ + (T Q
2902.
(o^lOO(-g-J
s^klw.
2906.
2907.
"^
'
n^-
is
__
=^=
Hint,
g~tanh ft
I/
~)
[(/? sin
wf
Answers
466
+ L~ = E sinco*.
Hint. Equation Ri
].
2912.
+C
z.
2914.
#=<:,
+ {;, In
2915.
= C ed?
2916.
2918.
(x
C,)
i/
/=
2913.
2911.
r/
= aln
: 2 ;y
= C.
+C
in~|
2021.
2923.
</-
(singular solu-
2925. y
tion).
= C x(x
2929.
=C
x=C
2935.
2930.
1).
sin(C,
=x+
x^^
2933.
2y
4x z
2934.
=\.
y=^x
2941.
2944.
-'e-r
2947.
x=
2950.
2954. w
--e"^ 2
= + Cj + D
x2
n-
(î
2951.
No
solution.
2932.
~
2939
^8
-2)
(i/-|
2948.
x.
//-C,
//
In
2938.
"--*
2943.
//
2028. y
//=-*-]-!.
2945.
1-e'
t/^sec
.
x=
2942.
t/-
= Cx
Jt^C,
2937.
ln|
2940.
2931. y
l.
2936.
2926.
(singular solution).
y=
2927.
r/-^=
= ~- + C
2946
1
-
e*
/y
-"
2949.
2952. y
= ex
2953.
//-2
In
--
A'
|
+C
o-Cj^+l)*
C 2 )A: + C 2
2.
Singular solution,
y^
4-
2959.
(x
(x.
Singular solution,
^
;
r/
= C.
2955.
+C.
2956.
2957.
-singular solution, t/=-
2960. Catenary,
2
)
r/
= 2at/~ a
=a
2
.
2958.
cosh
Cycloid, x
Circles.
Circle,
=a
(t
(x
sin /).
y = a (1
C^-\-kC\
C,)
= a2
cos
2961.
/).
<7
O. 2963. Parabola. 2964.
^-e""* +
2962.
</
"^
-0.
Parabola,
__
Answers
4- C*
x.
Xcosh
The
differential
=g(sina
-fC 2 lnx.
2973. y
the
= A + Bx
the substitution
2967. In
No, b) yes>
2972.
= C,x-f
f/
Hint. Particular so-
AT
/2
---
method
the
By
x3
C ^~-\-A, C z
find:
\"*/
= */,.
//
we
-}
y< 2968. a)
= --!- 4 * + ^L
2974.
-{-x\
homogeneous equation r/j.v,
variation of parameters
Use
Hint.
3y"+4i/~ 2//-0
y'"
(C,sm x-}-C 2 cosx).
2966. s
2969. a) t/'-{-y
Q\ b) y"
2y' -f f/-=0;
3jt
5x f
2x 8 2971. //-=
2970. j/
no, g) no, h) yes
f)
mg
m-r^
at*
Hint*
E(l uation of
'
cos a)
u,
300 d~x
~A~Z~
Hint. Equation of motion,
2x//'4-2f/-0, d)
2965
s^^- (sin a
motion,
of
^'
^\T)'
Hint. Equation of motion,
).
d) yes, e) no,
yes,
A-
tn/
6.45 seconds.
c)
= 77
^22
= a.
constant horizontal tension, and
is
Law
jiicosa).
c)
equation
I/
Xlncoshf/
where
|-C 2t
467
2975.
-\-B
the
of
= A-\-
=
+
2X
Ccos x-Hn|sec x-f-tan Î-f-sinx In cos v| xcosx. 2976. f/ C,e -h

C 2 sin x.
2977. //^-C,e" 3 * {-C 2 e 3V 2978. // -=C t -|- C 2 e x 2979. */
C, cos x
v
2980. //--e' (CicosA'-l-C 2 Sin A-) 2981. y=~ e~** (C t cos 3v-|-C 2 sin 3x) 2982. y
-|
sin x-\
8
H-C'jC
2983. i/-.--e- (C,e r
(Cî-Cx)^-*
*
- CV*
-r
C,e"
.//-4tf
2992.
//=-
sin
^4cos2v
/J
y(A\ -\-B\i-C}
4- xe
av
^-i-3A
2998.
-I
//
--.
C 2 sin
C,c*
7 'v
I-
C2
sin x.
t>
(/;
C a x)
2995. [/^(C.-j
2xJ
nx
+2
-{-
--
f)
3001. y
16*
cos 2x 4-
C 2 sin
2x)
//
= a cosh
+
+
4 cos 2* h
e)
;<
x \-F)x
'
+ 4x
(2x
a x)
-f-
3003.
!,
2996. y
3).
P~ X -[-{-
= ^ (C
ic
<>**.
~ xex
3000. y
= C, cos x-f-
2
-p-
(3 sin 2x-|-cos 2.v). 3002.
i/
== (C 1
3005.
sm2x).
1
sin 2x.
f/-
0,
sin
+ C, sin
i/=l. 2991.
x
e
A;
= C,+C e- x + ~x + ^r.(2cos2x
X
J-
a)
= C,e* + C e~ 2X
.
C, cos
- C,<?* H- C^"*
3004.
C2
-[-
>
ft
i/"TT
/
I
= sin 2x. 2990.
= (C, -f C
J^^fex
If
xe** (Ax*
Bx C); b)
fl sin x),
d) g* (^ cos x
xc* [(Av -j- fiv
C) cos 2x+ (>x*-f
+1
2999. y
ax
2997.
r/
2994.
);
2984.
).
j/-=C, cos
+ CvV
2v
sin
+ C^~* rl
2986. //=.g
2988. f/-=e~*. 2989.
2993.
c)
X sin
-|-C 2 e
+ e lv
/y-0
-|-/Jsin2x;
(C t e
0,
---x
2
*
2
(/=*
<
if
2985.
3006.
//
cos 2x -f
-^-
(sin
(/=
+ sin 2x).
__
Answers
468
$007.
1)
=C
cosco/
+ C 1 sinci)f + -j
-^slnp/;
2)
= Cj cos w/ + C, sin
$/
3010.
y^CfV + CStx**. 3009. ^ =

2X
= **(<:! + C x + x 3011. = C + C e +
-|x.
yA-e
=
^ + 4-(
3cos2x + sin2x
3013.
y
o
-f.cosorf. 3008.
2Jf
).
t/
3012.
CD/
)-
~
= (CjCos3jc + C sln3A;)gx + ~
= C, + C e * ~ (cos* + 3 sin*)
3018.
+ C x + *V w + ^4-^.
1U
o
X*~* + |-e*.
= (C
3017. y
cosx.
+C
ie(4x + l)-^-^ + j.
3021. y
sin
= C 6" * + C
1
2x
(3 sin 2*
-|-
2xcosx). 3024.
i/
3x)+~(2x
(2
x)e
8X
.
= C e~~ x
+ 2cos2x).
2x
^. (sin
3023.
8;f
I)e
j(3x
= C, + C c
IJC
the
(2x
x -f
cos x
-j-
*/
(5, cos x
t/^C, cos 3x-
3028. y
+ x)^^ +
sin
cosines to the
of
product
ex
-x
2jce*-~ x
sin
3022.
3026. t/^
= C e-* + C ^-
y = Cj cos x + C 2
|/
x)e*. 3025.
3027. y
Transform
Hint.
-f r^sinSx.
IJC
+ 2 cos2x) + -j
3029.
8030.
3020.
= C e x H-C e- x + ~ (%
+
*/
3019. y
= C, cos 2x
_^_*.
xslnx
3016.
<
-^-
sum
of cosines.
+ C ex +xe*sin x + e* cos x. 3032. = C, cos x + C

=
tan ~
+ --- 3033
+ cos;cln cot
x
x
x
3035.
3034. y = (C + C x)ex + xe \n\x\.
x
t/=^(C + C x)e-~ + xe^
-=
3036.
3037.
y = Cj cos x C sin ^ + x sin x + cos x In cos x
C, cos x +
=
+ C sinx *cos* + sinxlnjsin*|. 3038. a) y C e* + Cf-* + (e* + e~*)x
V
1/t
Xarctan^; b) = C,^
+e*'.
+Cf-*
3040._EquatIon of motion,
3031. y
t/
\Ti
-f-
|.
(/
2#
-= -5
sin30/
t/
60
-~^
g^sin
900
"^7 cm
sec.
|
.
ff
x-
rec koned
'
3041.
from the position of
4
k (x g
is the distance of
l), where x
-jjt"=*4
the point of rest of the load from the initial point of suspension of the spring,
rest of the load,
is
the length of
then
the spring at rest;
+ xy
therefore, k (*
/)
= 4,
hence, -i^L*
k(x
y),
where *-4, ^ = 981 cm/sec
1
.
3042.
d*x.
dt*
= k(bx)k(b + x)
Answers
and x = ccos
)
J
6~
In (6+ 1^35).
3044.2a)r=
^35). 3044.
~=r=gs;
-gs;=: j/
y -In
3043. 6
e~ wi Hint. The differential equation of motion

+ e-"*); b) r = (e
= o)V. 3045. y = C, + C,e* + C e 12X 3046. y = C, + C <T * + C e*.
ll)t
(e'tf
2
is
469
2,(H
^
or
C 4 e" x 2 3049.
3048. i/ -= C,
C 2 x C,e* 2
C 2 sin x) +e~ x (C 3 cos x -\3050. // c_e* (C, cos x
C 4 x) sin 2x
3051 y
(C,
(C, -j- C 2 x) cos 2x
^ /
i/T
3065. w--_C e" x

1
3066.
//
= Cj
4-
+C
y=-e~
-\-e
sin
3068. y -- (C,
3073.
3075.
3077.
j/
C2
In x)
C, cos (2 In x)
3070. y
3071.
-I-
= C,JC-hC
~
+C
x 2 |-C 3 x 3
r/^Qx-H-
2
.
3074.
-1
sec x
|/-j
cos
3069.
8 /
+ cos x In
i/-j
xH-
I/"Q-
~
\ 4
p^sin ^r- x
cos v
tan x sin x
|
+ x sin x.
\
)
2
/
/3
y
C,x + -%
2.
-|-x
sin (2 In x).
4
3072.
/=- C,-|-C 2 (3jcH-2)-
f/^Q cos
(In x)-f
C 2 sin
/3
(In x).
= (^+l)MC + C ln(jc-H)] f (x-}-l)

= C x + C x +-o * 3076
2
= x(lnx + ln x). 3078. y = C, cos x + C sin x, z = C cos x C sinr
x
y = e~ (C cosx + C
2
i/
!/
f/
3079.
-^*
C 4 sin x)
c,sinjcH-g
c(;sx-l
C 2 cos x-\-C 3
-
3067.
3080. y
(C,
Cj
Qx) e
Answers
470
3081. x
=C
I/-,-
2
e
(^C
3082.
I/"Q~
cos^* + C sin-^
x^CV'
=
= C + C + 2sinx, z= 2C,
2C x)<r* 6jt+14,
y = (C
2C,
tj,
3083. y
3084.
3085.
e~ x
2x(3 + 4e-*),
= 10^~8e ~^ + 6/-l; y=
0=14(1
3086. x
b) In
+ = arc
f/
dz
hence,
y%
..
2
r
Vx +y
2
we
^2
the
find
xdx -\-udy
v=
==C 2
Z
|f
c)
+ (/-|-z
..
..
whence dx + dy+d*
+ +z
2
-=
dx
we have
-- Q and,
In (*
v
J/
9
2
+
,
-ryw
Hint.
6.
dz
cf/y
y_ 2 z _ x
consequently, x + + z = C
>
jc
]/
-f
x __y
9v
2
)
/
we have
of derivative proportions,
//
homo-
In
integral
A;
10.
Hint. Integrating the
Whence lnz^=
of derivative proportions,
properties
r
r
t
&+ 12/+
first
....
0,
f x (5 + 4^-
*"*)
(1
%&* + &** +
Then, using the properties
y dy
/
+i/
+ C,.
= -; xdx r=
+C
--
geneous equation
= arcxtan
tan
8t
]^x
C 2 (2A:+ 1) 3 sin x 2 cos *.

z^Q-fCj,*) e-* + 5x 9;
A;
+ ln C, and,
,
the
Applying
= dx+dt/-\-dz
x dx
1
Similarly,
x dx -\- if dy ~\- z dz
n
z(x
y)
2
C 2 Thus, the integral curves are the circles x + // + z C ,;t 2 -f// 2 -}-z 2 Co
4-z
From the initial conditions, Jt=l (/=!, z
2, we will have C l = 0, C 2 = 6.
y(zx)
.
3089.
/==
z=
3090. y
C
1
*2
2C.A;
~^
+
+ -| (3 In * + In x2
f-
1).
= C^ V
Solution.
mjj-kv x m~-^kvy
\
mg
for the initial conditions:
when
Answers
x
0,
0,
I/Q
+ mg = (kv
kv v
sinTr
t,
Vm
2-2*
3093. [/-
x2
3097.
X2
^
z
+
*%
x
r/
-j
^~
x'
3101. //m
_|
~~t
o
4
t
lions:
3104.
u(0,
//
-.2
JT
-]-~t
o
3105. u
= -4-
"(^.
--qi~~ x
the
(x,
JfH-~
9
-
^ ie
'
method
for
conver ^ es for
serics
undetermined
of
'
"-"
coefficients.
series converges for
oo<x<-}-oo.
undetermined coefficients.
of
SCneS
the
..
.}
3103.
0- -0,
(/.
M (x, 0) -=
cos /m) sin
(1
Conver 6 es
^-
sin
sin
x-
3102.
M-^cos^sin^.
for
'l<-
v
l
l~oT*
~r-
Hint. Use the condi-
-^-
Hint.
Use
the
conditions:
u(x,
~y
cos
~T"
sin
~T~
"
Hint
n-\
du
undetermined coefficients.
of
sin
1)
O-o,
^~
,'+...
tt<"/l 2
= 0.
2ig+ '"'
^""
0----0. "
w(0,
+ r
-}-
method
Hint. Use the

2
Hint. Use the
equations of motion:
...' the series converges
Use the method

x
u~
^=-,1,
X4
77
Hint.
= acos
3092. x
differential
.\ e 2
X3
3099. //--I
3100. r/--'
y=(y +
3094.
+ o4 +
+ pr-r
Z*3
'
3098. f/-^x
<x< -j-oo.
The
^
^^ 1^
.-.I^+-
3096. /t
+ mg)e m
Hint.
vx
mu 2
yl + lx +
3095.
s\na
1.
-\
a-
we obtain
Integrating,
Q
ft
sina.
i>
'"
= -~
UV
cosa,
i;
Xo
471
'
^ se
llie
conf^ tlons:
forO<x<~,
0)
3106. u
=--t A n cos
n=o
^~ r
^
""
sin
n **
^"^
where
the
coefficients
/!=
Answers
472
(2
,*. f
"+ 1)JtJf dx.
Hint. Use the conditions
^-sin
.
400
7 >u===
\^
_2^
,,
-
(1
<,.a)*
-o.
0=0.
to,
nnx
cos rui) sin
Hint. Use the" conditions: u
(0,
ioo a
e
j-rrr-
/)-=0,
u (100,
Chapter
= 0,
(x, 0)
= 0.01
x(100
x).
<1
<1
3108. a) <1"; <0.0023/

mm; <0.26/
gm; <0.0016/ .
c)
b)
3109.
0.0005; <1.45/
0.005; <0.16/
c)
b)
a) <0.05; <0.021/ ;
8
since the number lies between 47,877
3110. a) two decimals; 48-10* or 49- 10
and 48,845; b) two decimals; 15; c) one decimal; 6*10 2 For practice1 -purposes
2
3111. a) 29.5;
there is sense in writing the result in the form (5.90.1)- 10
2
or
18.5
1.643.2.
3112.
10
18470.01;
84.2;
b)
c) the result of
a)
c)
b)
subtraction does not have any correct decimals, since the difference is equal
with a possible
absolute error of one hundredth.
to one hundredth
2
Hint. Use the formula for increase in area of a square.
3113*. 1.80.3 cm
2
19.90.1
3115.
3114.
0.30.1.
30.00.2;
43.70.1;
c)
b)
a)
3116. a) 1.12950.0002; b) 0.1200.006; c) the quotient may vary between
48 and 62. Hence, not a single decimal place in the quotient may be considered certain. 3117. 0.480. The last digit may vary by unity. 3118. a) 0.1729;
2
3
s
3120. a) 1.648; b) 4. 025 0.001;
b) 277- 10 ; c) 2. 3119. (2.050.01)- 10 cm
s
cm 2 Absolute error, 65 cm 2 Relative error,
c) 9.0060.003. 3121. 4.01- 10
0.2 cm; sina
0.440.01, a-2615'
0.16/ 3122. The side is equal to 13.8
3125. The length of the pendulum
35'. 3123. 270.1. 3124. 0.27 ampere
should be measured to within 0.3 cm; take the numbers ;t and q to three
decimals (on the principle of equal effects). 3126. Measure the radii and the
generatrix with relative error 1/300. Take the number n to three decimal places
(on the principle of equal effects). 3127. Measure the quantity / to within
and s to within 0.7/ (on the principle of equal effects).
0.2/
3128.
;
<
<
Answers
473
J129.
3130.
the
4
Hint. Compute the first live values of y and, after obtaining A {/o^24, repeat
number 24 throughout the column of fourth diilerences. After this the
remaining part of the table

from right to left).
is
tilled
in
by the operation
of
addition (moving
Answers
474
b) 0. 229; 0.399; 0.491; 0.664. 3132.
3131. a) 0.211; 0.389; 0.490; 0.660;
=~
1822;
x*
x*. 3134. y
x4
0.1993; 0.2165; 0.2334; 0.2503. 3133. \+x
oe
QC
JC
x2
20 for x^5.2. Hint. When computing
8; J/^ 22 fr x
5.5;
^T
T2
x2
20 take
11. 3135. The interpolating polynomial is y
A; for
10x4- 1;
0=1 when x 0. 3136. 158 kg! (approximately). 3137. a) 0(0.5)-= 1,
+ +
0(2)=11;
= -,
b) 0(0.5)
J/t 2
)^
3138
I-
325
1.01.
3139.
3140.
019. 3143. 0.31 and 4
0.25; 2.11. 3141. 2.09. 3142. 2 45 and
1.86;
3144. 2.506. 3145. 0.02. 3146. 024. 3147. 1 27
3148.
35; 1 53
1.88;
3149. 1.84. 3150. 1.31 and
0.67. 3151. 7.13. 3152. 0.165. 3153. 1.73 and 0.
3154. 1.72.
3155. 138
3156. x
0.56
0.83;
0.83; i/=
056;
1
1997
3160. By the trapezoi3157. *=1.67;
22. 3158. 4 493. 3159.
dal formula, 11.625; by Simpson's formula, 11 417. 3161.
995;
1; 0.005;
3164. 0.79.
3163. 069
1.3-10- s
AÔ.005. 3162. 0.3068; A
0.5/
3166. 0.28.
3167. 0.10.
3168. 1 61.
3170. 0.09.
3169. 1.85
3165. 0.84.
3171. 0.67. 3172. 0.75. 3173. 0.79. 3174. 4.93. 3175. 1 29. Hint. Make use
of the parametric equation of the ellipse x
cost, 0-= 0.6222 sin/<:nd trans-
x-
0=1
_JT
foim
is
the
formula
of the arc length to the
the eccentricity of the ellipse. 3176. y l (x)
x7
xn
x 15
-
63
v3
o?9
3177
59535-
Qy2
T+T""*
-2.
+1:
3178.
'
x2
W=~
T~
iW^ - 2
3x
= x,
(x)
f/ 2
=x
'
e 2 cos 2 /-d/,
}/~l
y2
(x)
xs
3x 2
*T T
'
W-|
=x
(x)
|,
2x 2
where
= xT + x^
uo
x3
y3
(x)
To +
~
J X3
yl
22
= 3.36.
form
+ 3x-2,
Zl
(*)=-i
^(x)-x~ + ^.
=
3180.
3181.
z (1)==2. 72
0.80.
3.72;
0(2)
0(1)
3 15.
0-1.80. 31S3. 3.15. 3184. 0.14. 3185. 0(0.5) -3 15; z (0 5)0.18. 3187. 1.16. 3188.0 87. 3189. x (n) -3.58;
0(0.5)^0.55; z (0 5)
3190.
x' (ji) -=0.79.
429+ 1739 cos x 1037 sin x 6321 cos 2x -f- 1263 sin 2x
3191.
96cos x-j-2. 14 sin x
1242cos3x 33sm3x.
1.68 cos 2x
0. 53 sin 2x
1.13 cos 3x
0.04 sin 3x. 3192. 0.960
0.851 cos x
0.915 sin x -|608 sin x [-f-0. 542cos2x 4-0. 620sin2x -[-0.271 cos 3x -|-0. 100 sin 3x. 3193. a)
0.414 cos x 4- 0.1 11 cos 2x |-0.056cos 3x.
4- 0.076 sin 2x4- 0.022 sin 3x; b) 0. 338
3179.
3182.
3186.
0(1)
6491
APPENDIX
I.
II.
Greek Alphabet
Some Constants
476
Appendix
III.
Inverse Quantities, Powers, Roots, Logarithms
Appendix
477
Continued
478
Appendix
IV.
Trigonometric
Functions
Appendix
V.
Exponential, Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions
479
480
Appendix
VI.
Some Curves
(for
Reference)
-f
1.
-/
4.
2.
Parabola,
Cubic parabola,
Graph
3.
Rectangular
hyperbola,
-/
of a fractional
5.
The witch
of Agnesi,
function,
6.
Parabola (upper
branch),
7.
Cubic parabola,
481
Appendix
Semicubical
8/7
parabola,
2
8a.
=x
^
*
or
Neile's p arabola,
2
(
y-^-c'
x^t*
or
9.
Sine curve and cosine curve,
10.
--sin
.v
and
//
Tangent curve and cotangent curve,

and /
cot#.
Appendix
482
11.
Graphs
of the functions
//-=secx and
y=arc
f/
sin x-
yârc cos
Ji
'
A
*
arc cos
\
>
y arcsinx
Graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions

# = arc sin x and y~ arc cos x.
483
Appendix
13.
Graphs
of the
//
= arccot#.
14.
Graphs
f/
of the exponential
= g*
and y
= e~*.
cot
"V \^^ arccot
inverse trigonometric functions
//=-arc tan x and
arc cot
functions
486
Appendix
25.
Bernoulli's lemniscate,
24. Strophoid,
*
u2
y
= ATs^-M
ax
!
27.
Hypocycloid
i
\ y
or
26. Cycloid,
= a(f
(1
(astroid),
a cos 3
fl
sin 8
-f/y
/,
=a v
sin*),
cos
28. Cardioid,
= a(l+coscp).
/)
29.
Evolvent (involute)
of
the circle
sin*)*
{;::
487
Appendix
31.
^30. Spiral of Archimedes,
32.
Logarithmic
r
= *'?.
33.
spiral,
Hyperbolic spiral,
a
Three-leafed rose,
r
a sinSip.
34. Four-leafed rose,

r
asiti2(p.
INDEX
B
Absolute error 367
Absolute value
number
of a real
Bending point 84
11
Absolutely convergent series 296, 297

Acceleration vector 236
Adams' formula 390
Adams' method 389, 390, 392
Agnesi
Witch
of 18,
Bernoulli's equation 333

Bernoulli's
lemniscate
Beta-function 146, 150
155,
Binormal 238
Boundary conditions 363

Branch of a hyperbola 20, 480
Broken-line method
Euler's 326
156,480
Algebraic functions 48
Angle between two surfaces, 219

Angle of contingence 102, 243
Angle of contingence of second kind
243
Antiderivative 140, 141
generalized 143
Approximate numbers 367
addition of 368
division of 368
multiplication of 368
powers of 368
4
roots of 368
subtraction of 368
Approximation
successive 377, 385
Arc length
Arc length
Archimedes
of a curve
of a space
158-161
curve 234
spiral of 20, 65, 66, 105, 487

Area in polar coordinates 155, 256
Area in rectangular coordinates 153,
256
Area of a plane region 256
Area of a surface 166-168, 259
Argument
11
Astroid 20, 63,
105,
Asymptote 93
horizontal 94
inclined 94
right horizontal 93
right inclined 93
left
left
vertical
93
486
Cardioid 20, 105, 486

Catenary 104, 105, 484
Catenoid 168
Cauchy's integral test 295
Cauchy's test 293, 295
Cauchy's theorem 75, 326
Cavalieri's "lemon" 165
Centre of curvature 103
Change of variable 211-217
in a definite integral 146
in a double integral 252-254
in an indefinite integral 113
Characteristic equation 356

Characteristic points 96
Chebyshev's conditions 127
Chord method 376

Circle 20,
of
of
104
convergence 306
curvature 103
osculating 103
Circulation of a vector 289
Cissoid 232
of
Diodes
18,
485
Clairaut's equation 339

Closed interval 11
Coefficients
Fourier 318, 393, 394
Comparison test 143, 293, 294
Composite function 12, 49
486
Index
Concave down 91
Concave up 91
probability 19, 484

sine 481
tangent 481
Concavity
Cusp 230
Cycloid 105, 106, 486
direction of 91
Conchoid 232
Condition
Lipschitz
489
385
Conditions
boundary 363
Chebyshev's 127
Dirichlet 318, 319
initial 323, 363
D'Alembert's test 295

Decreasing function 83
Definite integral 138
Del 288
Conditional extremum 223-225

Conditionally (not absolutely)
convergent series 296
Contingence
angle of 102, 243
Continuity of functions 36
Continuous function 36
proper lies of 38
Dependent variable
Convergence
circle of 306
interval of 305
radius of 305
region of 304
uniform 306
Convergent improper
270
Convergent series 293
Coordinates
integral
of centre of gravity 170

generalized polar 255
Correct decimal places in
sense 367
Correct decimal places in
a narrow sense 367
Cosine curve 481
Cotangent curve 481
143,
broad
Coupling equation 223

Critical point of the second kind 92
points 84
Cubic parabola 17, 105, 234, 480
Curl of a vector field 288
Critical
Curvature
centre of 103
circle of 103
of a
curve 102, 242
radius of 102
second 243
Curve
cosine 481
cotangent 481
discriminant 232, 234
Gaussian 92
integral 322
logarithmic 484
11
Derivative 43
left-hand 44
logarithmic 55
nth 67
right-hand 44
second 66
Derivative of a function
in a given direction 193
Derivative of functions
represented parametrically 57
Derivative of an implicit function 57
Derivative of an inverse function 57
Derivative of the second order 66
Derivatives
of higher orders 66-69
one-sided 43
table of 47
Descartes
folium of 20, 21, 232, 485
Determinant
functional 264
Determining coefficients
first method of 122
second method of 122
Diagonal table 389
Difference of two convergent
series
298
Differential
of an arc 101, 234
first-order 71
higher-order 198
principal properties of 72
second 198
second-order 72
total,
integration
of
202-204
Differential equation 322

homogeneous linear 349
inhomogeneous linear 349
Differential equations
first-order 324
forming 329
higher-order 345
linear 349, 351
490
Index
Differential equations of higher powers

first-order
337
Differentials
method
343
and higher orders 72
Differentiating a composite function
47
Differentiation 43
of implicit functions 205-208
of
of third
tabular 46
Diocles
cissoid of 18, 485
Direction of concavity 91
Direction field 325
Dirichlet
conditions 318, 319
function 40
series 295, 296
theorem 318
Discontinuity 37
of the first kind 37
infinite 38
removable 37
of the second kind 38
Discontinuous function 270
Discriminant 222
Dicriminant curve 232, 234
Divergence of a vector field 288
Divergent improper integral 143, 270
Divergent series 293, 294
Domain
Domain
11
of definition 11
Double
in
integral 246
curvilinear coordinates
in polar coordinates 252

in
rectangular coordinates
253
246
coupling 223
differential 322
Euler's 357
exact differential 335
first-order
differential
324
homogeneous 330, 351, 356

homogeneous linear differential 332,
349
inhomogeneous 349, 351, 356

Lagrange's 339
Laplace's 289, 291
linear 332
of a normal 60, 218
of a tangent 60
of a tangent plane 218
with variables separable
Equivalent functions 33
Error
absolute 367
limiting absolute 367
limiting relative 367
relative 367
Euler integral 146
Euler-Poisson integral 272
Euler's broken-line method
Euler's equation 357
Even function 13
Evolute of a curve 103
Evolvent of a circle 486
Evolvent of a curve 104
Exact differential equation
Exponential functions 49,
Exkemal point
Extremum
327,
328
326
335
55,
483
84
conditional 223-225
of a function 83, 83, 222
Double point 230

Factor
Elimination
method
of
359
Ellipse 18, 20, 104, 485
Energy
kinetic 174
Envelope
equations of 232
of a family of plane curves 232
Epicycloid 283
Equal
effects
principle of 369
Equation
Bernoulli's 333
characteristic 356
Clairaut's 339
integrating 335
Field
direction field 325
nonstationary scalar
potential vector 289
scalar 288
solenoidal vector 289
Field (cont)
stationary scalar or
vector 288
Field theory 288-292
First-order differential
First-order differential
Flow
lines
Flux of
Folium
288
vector 288
71
equations 324
288
a vector field
of
or vector
288
Descartes 20, 21, 232, 485
Index
Force lines 288
491
logarithmic 49
transcendental, integration of 135
trigonometric 48
trigonometric, integrating 128, 129
Fundamental system of solutions 349
Form
Lagrange's 311
Formula
Adams' 390
Green's 276, 281, 282
Lagrange's 145
Lagrange's interpolation 374
Leibniz 67
Maclaurin's77, 220
Newton-Leibniz 140, 141, 275
Newton's interpolation 372
Ostrogradsky-Gauss 286-288
parabolic 382
Simpson's 382-384
Stokes' 285, 286, 289
Taylor's 77, 220
trapezoidal 382
Gamma-function
Formulas
reduction 130, 135
Fourier- coefficients 318,
Fourier series 318, 319
Four -leafed rose 487
146,
150
Gaussian curve 92
General integral 322
General solution 359
General solution (of an equation) 323
General term 294
Generalized antiderivative 143
Generalized
255
polar coordinates
Geometric progression 293, 294
Gradient of a field 288
Gradient of a function 194, 195
of a function 12
Greatest value 85, 225, 227
Green's formula 276, 281,
Guldin's theorems 171
Graph
393,
394
282
Fraction
proper rational 121
Function 11
composite 12, 49
continuous 36
Hamiltonian operator 288
Harmonic
continuous, properties
decreasing 83
Dinchlet 40
discontinuous 270
of
38
even 13
of a
Homogeneous
function 12
implicit 12
increasing 83
Lagrange 223, 224
multiple-valued
periodic 14
single-valued
vector 235
11
11
Functional determinant 264

Functional series 304
Functions
algebraic 48
equivalent 33
exponential 49, 55, 483
hyperbolic 49, 484
hyperbolic, integration of 133
inverse
series 294, 296, 297

Higher-order differential 198
Higher-order differential equations 345
Higher-order partial derivative 197
Holograph of a vector 235
Homogeneous equations 330, 351, 356
12
Functions (cont)
inverse circular 48
inverse hyperbolic 49
inverse trigonometric 482, 483
linearly dependent 349
linearly independent 349
linear
differential
equation 332, 349
Hyperbola
17, 18, 20,
485
rectangular 480
Hyperbolic functions 49, 484
integration of 133
Hyperbolic spiral 20, 105, 487

Hyperbolic substitutions 114, 116, 133
Hypocycloid 283, 486
I
Implicit function 12
Improper integral
convergent 270
divergent 270
Improper multiple integrals 269, 270
Incomplete Fourier series 318, 319
Increasing function 83
Increment of an argument 42
Increment of a function 42
Independent variable 11
Indeterminate forms
evaluating 78 79
t
492
Index
Infinite discontinuities 38
Infinitely large quantities 33
Infinitely small quantities 33
Infinites 33
Interpolation formula
Lagrange's 374
Newton's 372
Interval
of calculations 382
closed 11
Infinitesimals 33
of higher order 33
of order n 33
of the same order 33
Inflection
of
of
Interval (cont)
points of 91
open
Inhomogeneous equation 349, 351, 356

Inhomogeneous linear differential
equation 349
363
322
convergent improper 143
definite 138
divergent improper 143
double 246
Euler 146
Euler-Poisson 272
general 322
improper multiple 269, 270
line 273-278
particular 322
probability 144
singular 337
surface 284-286
triple 262
Integral curve 322
Integral sum 138
Integrating factor 335
Initial conditions 323,
Integral
Integration
basic rules of 107
under the differential sign
direct 107
by parts 116, 117, 149
path of 273, 274, 280
1 1
interval 372
circular functions 48
functions 12
hyperbolic functions 49
interpolation 373
trigonometric functions 482,
483
Jacobian 253, 264
Kinetic energy 174
109
of differential equation
of power series 361, 362
Integration of functions
Integration
by means
differential
Integration of total differentials 202-
204
Integration of transcendental functions 135
Interpolation
of functions 372-374
inverse 373
table
Inverse
Inverse
Inverse
Inverse
Inverse
Involute of a circle 20, 106, 486

Involute of a curve 104
Isoclines 325
Isolated point 230
,
Iterative method 377, 378, 380
region of 246-248
by substitution 1 13
numerical 382, 383

Integration of ordinary
equation
numerical 384-393
convergence 305
monotonicity 83
Lagrange's equation 339

Lagrange's form 311
Lagrange's formula 145
Lagrange's function 223, 224
Lagrange's interpolation formula 374
Lagrange's theorem 75
Laplace equation 289, 291
Laplace transformation 271
Laplacian operator 289
Lamina
coordinates of the centre of gravity
of a, 261
mass and static moments of a 260
moments of inertia of a 261
Least value 85
Left-hand derivative 44
Left horizontal asymptote 94
Left inclined asymptote 94
Leibniz rule 67, 269
Leibniz test 296, 297
linear 13, 372
Lemniscate 20, 105, 232

Bernoulli's 155, 486
Level surfaces 288
quadratic 372
L'Hospital-Bernoulli
rule
78-82
493
Index
of
385,
Limit of a sequence 22
Limiting absolute error 367
Limiting relative error 367
Limits
Minimum
Mixed
of inertia 169
static 168
straight 17, 20
Line integral
Monotonicity
application of 276, 283

of the first type 273, 274, 277, 278
Line integral of the second type 274,
275, 278-281
Linear differential equations 349, 351
Linear equation 332
Linear interpolation 372
of a fa nation 13
Linearly dependent functions 349
Linearly independent functions 349
Lines
flow 288
vector 288
Lipschitz condition 385
21,
105,
point
of a function 151
Mean-value theorems 75,

Mean rate of change 42
Method
1
150
389, 390, 392
chord method 376

of differentials 343
of elimination 359
Method
nth derivative 67
Nnbla 288
Napier's number 28
Natural trihedron 238
Necessary condition for
for
convergence
an extremum
106,
Newton-Leibniz formula 140, 141, 275

Newton's interpolation formula 372
Newton's method 377, 379
Newton's serpentine 18
Niele's parabola 18, 234, 481
Maclaurin's formula 77, 220

Maclaurin's series 31 1, 313
Maximum of a function 84, 222
Adams
trident of 18
derivative 55
functions 49
Mean value
11
Multiplicities
root 121
Newton
curve 484
spiral 20,
intervals of 83
Multiple-valued function
293
Necessary condition
222
force 288
Maximum
point 84
partial derivative 197
Moment
one-sided 22
Line
Logarithmic
Logarithmic
Logarithmic
Logarithmic
487
successive
approximation 381,
389
of tangents 377
of undetermined coefficients 121, 351
of variation of parameters 332, 349,
352
Minimum of a function 84, 222
Pascal's 158
Limit of a function 22
Limit on the left 22
Limit on the right 22
(cont)
Euler's broken-line 326

iterative 377, 378, 380
Milne's 386, 387, 390
Newton's 377, 379
Ostrogradsky 123, 125
Picard's 384, 385
reduction 123
Runge-Kutta 385-387, 390
Node 230
Nonstationary scalar or vector
Normal 217
to a curve 60
equations of 218
principal 238
Normal plane 238
field
288
Number
Napier's 28
real
11
Number
series 293
Numerical integration of functions 382,
383
Numerical integration of ordinary
differential
equations 384-393
One-sided derivatives 43
One-sided limits 22
Open
interval 11
494
Index
Operator
Hamiltonian 288
Laplacian 289
Order of smallness 35
Orthagonal surfaces 219
Orthagonal trajectories 328
Osculating circle 103
Osculating plane 238
Ostrogradsky-Gauss formula 286-288
Ostrogradsky-Gauss theorem 291
Ostrogradsky method 123, 125
Parabola 17, 20, 104,

cubic 17, 105, 234
105,
Niele's 18, 234, 481

safety 234
semicubical 18, 20, 234,
480, 485
481
Parabolic formula 382
critical 84
stationary 222, 225
Polar subnormal 61
Polar subtangent 61
Potential (of a field) 289
Potential vector field 289
Power
series
305
Principal normal 238

Principle
of equal effects 369
Runge 383, 386
of superposition of solutions
Probability curve 19, 484
Probability integral 144
353
Product of two convergent series 298

Progression
geometric 293, 294
Proper rational fraction 121
Proportionate parts
rule of 376
Parameters
variation of 332, 349, 352
Parametric representation of
a function 207
Quadratic interpolation 372

Quadratic trinomial 118, 119,
Quantity
Partial derivative
hirheg-order 197
"mixed" 197
second 197
infinitely large 33
infinitely small 33
Partial sum 293

Particular integral 322
Particular solution 339
Pascal's limaôn 158
Path of integration 273, 274, 280
Period of a function 14
Periodic function 14
Picard's method 384, 385
Plane
normal 238
osculating 238
rectifying 238
tangent 217
Point
bending 84
the second
(of
discontinuity 37
double 230
extremal 84
critical
of
of inflection 91
isolated 230
maximum
minimum
84
84
singular 230
stationary 196
of
tangency 217
Points
characteristic 96
123
kind)
92
Radius of convergence 305

Radius of curvature 102, 243
Radius of second curvature 243
Radius of torsion 243
Rate of change
of a function 43
mean 42
Ratio (of a geometric progression) 294
Real numbers 11
Rectangular hyperbola 480
Rectifying plane 238
Reduction formulas 130, 135, 150
Reduction method 123
Region of convergence 304
Region of integration 246-248
Relative error 367
Remainder 31
Remainder of a series 293, 304
Remainder term 311
Removable discontinuity 37
1
Right-hand derivative 44
Right horizontal asymptote 93
Right inclined asymptote 93
Rolle's theorem 75
Root multiplicities 121
495
Index
four-leafed 487
three-leafed 20, 487
Rotation (of a vector field) 288
Solenoidal vector field 289

Solution (of an equation) 322
general 323, 359
particular 339
Rule
Spiral
Rose
Leibniz 67, 269

1'Hospital-Bernoulli 78-82
of proportionate parts 376
method 385-387,
principle 383, 386
Runge-Kutta
Runge
of
390
Safety parabola 234

Scalar field 288
Subnormal
Scheme
twelve-ordinate 393-395
Second curvature 243

Second derivative 66
Second deferential 198
Second-ordeP differential 72
Second partial derivative 197
Segment of the normal 61
Segment of the polar normal 61
Segment of the polar tangent 61
Segment of a straight line 20
Segment of the tangent 61
Semicircle 20
Semicubical parabola
Archimedes 20, 65, 66,
18, 20, 1M4, -181
Series
convergent 296, 297

with complex terms 297
conditionally (not absolutely)
convergent 296
convergent 293
absolutely
Scries (cont)
Dirichlet 295, 296
divergent 293, 294
Fourier 318, 319
functional 304
harmonic 294, 296, 297

incomplete Fourier 318, 319
487
61
polar 61
Substitutions
hyperbolic 114, 116, 133

trigonometric 114, 115, 133
Subtangent 61
polar 61
Successive
method
approximation 377,
384, 385, 389
385
of
Sufficient conditions (for an
extremum)
222
Sum
integral 138
partial 293
of a series 293, 304
of two convergent series 298
Superposition of solutions
principle of 353
Surface integral of the first type 284
Surface integral of the second type 284
Surface integrals 284-286
Surfaces
level
288
orthogonal 219
Table
Maclaurin's 311, 313

number series 293
operations on 297
power 305
Taylor's 311, 313
Serpentine
diagonal table 389

of standard integrals 107
Table interval 372
Tabular differentiation 46
Tacnode 230
Newton's 18
Simpson's formula 382-384
point "of 217

Tangent 238
Tangent curve 481
Tangent plane 217
equation of 218
Tangents
method of 377
Taylor's formula 77, 220
Sine curve 481

Single-valued function 11
Singular integral 337
Singular point 230
Slope (of a tangent) 43
Smallest value 225, 227
105,
hyperbolic 20, 105, 487

logarithmic 20, 21, 105, 106, 487
Static moment 168
Stationary point 196, 222, 225
Stationary scalar or vector field 288
Stokes' formula 285, 286, 289
Straight line 17, 20
Strophoid 157, 232, 234, 486
Tangency
Index
496
Taylor's series 311, 313
Term
general 294
remainder 311
Test
d' Alembert's 295
Cauchy's 293, 295
Cauchy's integral 295
comparison 143, 293, 294
Leibniz 296, 297
Weierstrass' 306
computing volumes by means

evaluating a 265
of
268
in rectangular coordinates 262

Trochoid 157
Twelve-ordinate scheme 393-395
U
Undetermined coefficients
method of 121, 351
Uniform convergence 306
Theorem
Cauchy's
75, 326
Dirichlet's 318
Theorem
(cont)
Lagrange's 75
Ostrogradsky-Gauss 291
Rolle's 75
Theorems
Guldin's 171
mean-value
Theory
75, 150
288-292
Three-leafed rose 20, 487
Torsion 243
field
Tractrix 161
Trajectories
orthogonal 328
Transcendental functions
integration of 135
Transformation
Laplace 271
Trapezoidal formula 382
Trident of Newton 18
Trigonometric functions 48
integrating 128, 129
Trigonometric substitutions 114, 115,
133
Trihedron
natural 238
Trinomial
quadratic 118, 119, 123
Triple integral 262
applications of 265, 268
change of variables in 263
Value
greatest 85, 225, 227
least
85
mean
(of a function) 151, 252

smallest 225, 227
Variable
dependent 11
independent 11
Variables separable
an equation with 327, 328
Variation of parameters 332, 349, 352
Vector
acceleration 236
of binomial 238
normal 238
tangent line 238
velocity 236
Vector field 288
Vector function 235
Vector lines 288
Velocity vector 236
Vertex of a curve 104
Vertical asymptote 93
Vertices of a curve 104
of principal
of
Volume
Volume
of a cylindroid 258
of solids 161-166
W
1
Weierstrass test 306

Witch of Agnesi 18, 156, 480
Work
of a force
174, 276,
277

Demidovich Problems in Mathematical Analysis

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Demidovich Problems in Mathematical Analysis

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C.

G. Baranenkov* B. Drmidovich V. Efimenko, S. Kogan,

Translated from the Russian

Please send your suggestions to 2, Pervy Rtzhtky

Infinitely Small and Large Quantities

Sec. 3 The Derivatwes of Functions Not Represented Explicitly

and Higher Orders

9 The L'Hospital-Bernoulli Rule

THE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION AND THE GEOMETRIC

The Extrema of a Function

Standard Integrals Containing a Quadratic Trinomial

Integrating Certain Irrational Functions

Integrating Trigoncrretric Functions

Using Ingonometric and Hyperbolic Substitutions

Vanou* Transcendental Functions

Using Reduction Formulas

The Definite Integral

Evaluating Ccfirite Integrals by Means of Indefinite Integrals 140

Variable in a Definite Integral

Applying Definite Integrals

to the Solution of Physical

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Total Differential of a Function

Differentiation of Composite Functions

HigKei -Order Derivatives and Differentials

Integration of Total Differentials

The Tangent Plane and the Normal to a Surface

Sec. 17. Arc Length o! a Space

The Vector Function of a Scalar Argument

Integral in Rectangular Coordinates

MULTIPLE AND LINE INTEGRALS

Change of Variables in a Double Integral

The Ostrogradsky-Gauss Formula

Chapter VIII. SERIES

Sec. 2. Functional Series

Sec. 3. Taylor's Series

Verifying Solutions. Forming Differential Equations

Linear Differential Equations of Second Order with Constant

with Constant Coefficients

Integration of Differential Equations by

Problems on Fourier's Method

Operations on Approximate Numbers

Computing the^Rcal Roots

Integration of Ordinary DilUrtntial Equations

Inverse Quantities, Powers, Roots, Logarithms

of definite integrals, series, the solution of differential equations).

the authors have included problems on field theory,

approximate calculaiions. Experience shows that

1. Real nurrbers. Rational and irrational numbers are collectively known

2. Definition of a function. If to every value*) of a variable x, which

Determine the domain

of definition of the function

of the function is a set

4. Inverse functions. If the equation t/ /(x) may be solved uniquely for

of the function (2) is

a and b are real numbers then

Solve the inequalities:

/(2), /(3), /(4),

-arc cos (log x). Find

this function, if/(

the logarithm of the

to the base 10.

Find the rational integral function f(x) of degree two,

118. y--=arc sin.