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VOCATIONAL TRAINING

REPORT, DEC-2015
PROJECT INCHARGE:
.

SUBMITTED BY:
PANKAJ MODI
3rd YEAR STUDENT
DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
BHOPAL (M.P.)

TRAINING DURATION:
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03 DEC. 2015 TO 30 DEC. 2015

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would sincerely like to express my gratitude for
BHEL Bhopal, for providing me the opportunity of
pursuing my vocational training in this renowned
industry and endowing me with an unparallel
experience and deep understanding of a wide array
of processes and manufacturing methods taking
place in different workshops of the industry.
I would also take this opportunity to thank our
training in-charge, Mr. A.K. Dhimaan whose
guidance and motivation went a long way in our
understanding of different sections of the industry.
Furthermore, I would thank my institute, MANIT
Bhopal, for giving me opportunity of visiting this
industry and increasing my practical knowledge.
Last, but not the least, I would also like to
acknowledge the immense pleasure, brought about
by my friends as they pursued their training along
with me. We shared some unforgettable moments
together.
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Thank you all.


PANKAJ
MODI
BHEL OVERVIEW
BHEL was established more than 50 years ago when its
first plant was setup in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous
Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry in India.
BHEL is largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise
in India in the energy related/infrastructure sector. BHEL was
established more than four decades ago ushering in the
indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India.
BHEL has built over the years, a robust domestic market
position by becoming the largest supplier of power plant
equipment in India, and by developing strong market presence
in select segment of the industry sector and the Railway.
Currently, 80% of the Nuclear power generation in the country
is through BHEL sets.
A dream which has been more than realized with a well
recognized track record of performance it has been earning
profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a turnover of
Rs 2,658 crore for the year 2007-08, showing a growth of 17
per cent . Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited is countrys
Navratna company and has earned its place among very
prestigious national and international companies. It finds place
among the top class companies of the world for manufacture of
electrical equipments.
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BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz.,


Power Generation's & Transmission, Industry, Transportation,
Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, Defense, etc. BHEL
has already attained ISO 9000 certification for quality
management, and ISO 14001 certification for environment
management and OHSAS 18001 certification for
Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems. The
Company today enjoys national and international presence
featuring in the Fortune International -500 and is ranked
among the top 10 companies in the world, manufacturing
power generation equipment. BHEL is the only PSU among the
12 Indian companies to figure in Forbes Asia Fabulous 50
list.
Probably the most significant aspect of BHELs growth
has been its diversification .The constant reorientation of the
organization to meet the varied needs in time with a philosophy
that has led to total development of a total capability from
concepts to commissioning not only in the field of energy but
also in industry and transportation.
In the world power scene BHEL ranks among the top ten
manufacturers of power plant equipments not only in spectrum
of products and services offered, it is right on top. BHELs
technological excellence and turnkey capabilities have won it
worldwide recognition. Over 40 countries in world over have
placed orders with BHEL covering individual equipment to
complete power stations on turnkey basis
BHEL has
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Installed equipment for over 90000MW of power


generation-for utilities, captive and industrial users.
Supplied over 225000MW a transformer capacity and
other equipment operating in transmission and
distribution network up to 400Kv (AC& DC).
Supplied over 25000 motors with drive control system
to power projects, petro chemicals, refineries, steel,
aluminum, fertilizers, cement plants etc.
Supplied traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power
over 12000kms railway network.
Supplied over one million valves to power plants and
other industries.

BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major


product groups and caters to core sectors of the Indian
Economy viz., Power Generation & Transmission, Industry,
Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, etc.
The wide network of BHEL's 14 manufacturing divisions, four
Power Sector regional centers, over 100 project sites, eight
service centers and 18 regional offices, enables the Company to
promptly serve its customers and provide them with suitable
products, systems and services -- efficiently and at competitive
prices. The high level of quality & reliability of its products is
due to the emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing
to international standards by acquiring and adapting some of
the best technologies from leading companies in the world,
together with technologies developed in its own R&D centers.

BHEL has acquired certifications to Quality


Management Systems (ISO 9001), Environmental
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Management Systems (ISO 14001) and Occupational


Health & Safety Management Systems (OHSAS
18001) and is also well on its journey towards Total
Quality Management.

BHEL vision is to become a world class engineering


enterprise, committed to enhancing stakeholder value.
The company is striving to give shape to its aspiration
and fulfill the expectations of the country to become a
global presence:-

Vision:
A world class engineering enterprise committed to
enhance stakeholder values.
Mission:
To be an Indian multinational engineering providing
total business solution through quality product system and
services in the field of energy, transportation, industry,
infrastructure and other potential area.
Values:

Ensure speed of response.

Foster learning, creativity and team work.

Respect for dignity and potential of individuals

Loyalty and pride in company


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Zeal for the change.

Zeal to excel.

Integrity and fairness in all matters.

Strict adherence to commitments.

BUSINESS MISSION
To maintain a leading position as supplier of quality
equipments, system and services in the field of conversion,
transmission, utilization, and conversation of energy for
application in the area of electric power, transportation oil and
gas exploration and industries. To utilize companys capability
and resources to expand busyness in to allied area an priority
sector of economy like defense, communication and
electronics.
BHEL OBJECTIVES
A dynamic organization is one which keeps its aim high,
adopts itself quickly to changing environment, so we are in
BHEL. The objectives of the company have been redefined in
the corporate plane for 90s.
Growth
To ensure a steady growth by enhancing the competitive
edge of BHEL in existing busyness, new area and international
market so as to fulfill national expectation from BHEL.
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Profitability
To ensure a reasonable and adequate return on capital
employed, primarily through improvements in operation,
efficiency, capacity utilization & productivity and to generate
adequate internal resources to finance the companys growth.
Focus
To built a high degree of customer confidence by
providing increased value of his money through international
standards of product quality performance and superior
customer service.
People Orientation
To enable each employee to achieve his potential,
improve his capabilities, understand is role and responsibilities
and participate and contribute to the growth and success of the
company.
Technology
To achieve technological excellence in operation of
indigenous technologies and efficient absorption and adoption
of imparted technologies to suit business.
Image
To fulfill the expectations, which stack holders like
government as owner employee, customer and the country at
large have from BHEL.
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BHEL BHOPAL PROFILE

Heavy Electrical Plant, Bhopal is the mother plant of


Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, the largest engineering and
manufacturing enterprise inIndia in the energy-related and
infrastructure sector, today. It is located at about 7 kms. from
Bhopal Railway station, about 5 kms. from Habibganj Railway
station and about 18 kms. From Raja Bhoj Airport. With
technical assistance from Associated Electricals (India) Ltd., a
UK based company, it came into existence on 29th of August,
1956. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime minister of India
dedicated this plant to the nation on 6th of November, 1960.
BHEL,
Bhopal
with
state-of-the-art
facilities,
manufactures wide range of electrical equipments. Its product
range includes Hydro, Steam, Marine & Nuclear Turbines, Heat
Exchangers, Hydro & Turbo Generators, Transformers,
Switchgears, Control gears, Transportation Equipment,
Capacitors, Bushings, Electrical Motors, Rectifiers, Oil Drilling
Rig Equipments and Diesel Generating sets.
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BHEL, Bhopal certified to ISO: 9001, ISO 14001 and


OHSAS 18001, is moving towards excellence by adopting
TQM as per EFQM / CII model of Business Excellence. Heat
Exchanger Division is accredited with ASME U Stamp. With
the slogan of Kadam kadam milana hai, grahak safal banana
hai, it is committed to the customers.
BHEL Bhopal has its own Laboratories for material
testing and instrument calibration which are accredited with
ISO 17025 by NABL. The Hydro Laboratory, Ultra High
Voltage laboratory and Centre for Electric Transportation are
the only laboratories of its in this part of
theworld.
BHEL Bhopal's strength is it's employees. The company
continuously invests in Human Resources and pays utmost
attention to their needs. The plant's Township, well known for
its greenery is spread over an area of around 20 sq kms. and
provides all facilities to the residents like, parks, community
halls, library, shopping centers, banks, post offices etc. Besides,
free health services is extended to all the employees through
350 bedded (inclusive of 50 floating beds) Kasturba Hospital
and chain of dispensaries.
BHEL BUSINESS AREAS
BHEL today is the largest Engineering Enterprise of its
kind in India with excellent track record of performance,
making profits continuously since 1971-72.
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BHEL's operations are organised around three business


sectors, namely Power, Industry - including Transmission,
Transportation, Telecommunication & Renewable Energy - and
Overseas Business. This enables BHEL to have a strong
customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and respond
quickly to the changes in the market.

Power

Industry

Transportation

Transmission

Defenses etc.

The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and


committed 42,600 employees. Every employee is given an
equal opportunity to develop himself and grow in his career.
Continuous training and retraining, career planning, a positive
work culture and participative style of management all these
have engendered development of a committed and motivated
workforce setting new benchmarks in terms of productivity,
quality and responsiveness.
POWER SECTOR
Power is the core sector of BHEL and comprises of
thermal, nuclear gas, diesel and hydro business. Today BHEL
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supplied sets, accounts for nearly 66 % of the total installed


capacity in the country as against nil till 1969-70.
BHEL manufactures boilers auxiliaries, TG sets and
associate controls, piping and station C & I up to 500 MW
rating with technology and capability to go up to 1000 MW
range. The auxiliary products high value capital equipment like
bowl and tube mills, pumps and heaters, electrostatic
precipitators, gravimetric feeders, fans, valves etc.
BHEL has contracted so far around 240 thermal sets of
various ratings, which includes 14 power plants set up on
turnkey basis. Nearly 85 % of World Bank tenders for thermal
sets floated in India have been won by the company against
international competition.
BHEL has adopted the technology to the needs of the country
and local conditions. This has led to the development of several
technologies in house. The fluidized bed boiler that uses low
graded high-ash abrasive Indian coal is an outcome of such an
effort. With large-scale availability of natural gas and the
sudden increase in demand, BHEL began to manufacture gas
turbines and now possesses two streams of gas turbine
technology.
It has the capability to manufacture gas turbines up
to 200 MW rating and custom built combined cycle power
plants. Nuclear steams generators, turbine generators, sets and
related equipment of 235 MW rating have been supplied to
most of the nuclear power plants in India. Production of 500
MW nuclear sets, for which orders have been received.
BHEL has developed expertise in renovation and
maintenance of power plant equipment besides specialized
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know how of residual life assessment, health diagnostic and life


extensions of plants. The four power sectors regional centers at
New Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata and Nagpur will play a major
role in giving a thrust to this business and focus BHEL's efforts
in
this
area.
As part of Indias largest Solar Power-based Island
Electrification Project in India, Bharat Heavy Electricals
Limited (BHEL) has successfully commissioned two GridInteractive Solar Power Plants of 100 KW each in
Lakshadweep.
With this, the company has commissioned a total of
eleven Solar Power Plants in the Lakshadweep islands, adding
over 1 MW of Solar Power to the power generating capacity of
the coral islands in the Arabian Sea.
BHEL has proven turnkey capabilities for executing
power projects from concept to commissioning and
manufactures boilers, thermal turbine generator sets and
auxiliaries up to 500MW.
It possesses the technology and capability to procure
thermal power generation up to 1000MW.
Co- generation and combined cycle plants have also
been introduced.
For the efficient use of high ash content coal BHEL
supplies circulating fluidized boiler.
BHEL manufacturers 235MW nuclear sets and has also
commenced production of 500MW nuclear turbine
generator sets.
Custom made hydro sets of Francis, pelton and kepian
types for different head discharge combination are also
engineering and manufactured by BHEL.
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In, all 700 utility sets of thermal, hydro, gas and nuclear
have been placed on the company as on date. The power plant
equipment manufactured by BHEL is based on contemporary
technology comparable to the best in the world and is also
internationally competitive.
The Company has proven expertise in Plant Performance
Improvement through renovation modernization and up rating
of variety of power plant equipment besides specialized know
how of residual life assessment, health diagnostics and life
extension of plants.
POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION (T&D)

BHEL offer wide-ranging products and systems for T &


D applications Products.
manufactured include power transformers, instrument
transformers, dry type transformers, series and shunt reactor,
capacitor tanks, vacuum and SF circuit breakers gas insulated
switch gears and insulators.
A strong engineering base enables the Company to
undertake turnkey delivery of electric substances up to 400 kV
level series compensation systems (for increasing power
transfer capacity of transmission lines and improving system
stability and voltage regulation), shunt compensation systems
(for power factor and voltage improvement) and HVDC
systems (for economic transfer of bulk power). BHEL has
indigenously developed the state-of-the-art controlled shunt
reactor (for reactive power management on long transmission
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lines). Presently a 400 kV Facts (Flexible AC Transmission


System) project under execution.
A wide range of transmission products and systems are
produced by BHEL to meet the needs of power transmission
and distribution sector. These include:

Dry Type Transformers


SF6 Switch Gears
400 KW Transmission Equipment
High Voltage Direct Current System
Series and Shunt Compensation Systems

In anticipation of the need for improved substations, a 33


KV gas insulated substation with micro processors base control
and protection system has been done.
INDUSTRY SECTOR
BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and system to
important industries like

Cement
Petrochemicals
Fertilizers
Steel papers
Refineries
Mining and telecommunication

BHEL has indigenously developed the state-of-the-art


controlled shunt reactor (for reactive power management on
long transmission lines). Presently a 400 kV FACTS (Flexible
AC Transmission System) projects is under execution.
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The range of system and equipment supplied includes:

Captive power plants


High speed industrial drive turbines
Industrial boilers and auxiliaries
Waste heat recovery boilers
Gas turbine pump, valves, seamless steel tubes
Heat exchangers
Process control etc.

The Company is a major producer of large-size thruster


devices. It also supplies digital distributed control systems for
process industries, and control & instrumentation systems for
power plant and industrial applications. BHEL is the only
company in India with the capability to make simulators for
power plants, defense and other applications.
The Company has commenced manufacture of large
desalination plants to help augment the supply of drinking
water to people.
TRANSPORTATION
BHEL is involved in the development design,
engineering, marketing, production, installation, and
maintenance and after-sales service of Rolling Stock and
traction propulsion systems. In the area of rolling stock, BHEL
manufactures electric locomotives up to 5000 HP, dieselelectric locomotives from 350 HP to 3100 HP, both for
mainline and shunting duly applications. BHEL is also
producing rolling stock for special applications viz., overhead
equipment cars, Special well wagons, Rail-cum-road vehicle
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etc., Besides traction propulsion systems for in-house use,


BHEL manufactures traction propulsion systems for other
rolling stock producers of electric locomotives, diesel-electric
locomotives, electrical multiple units and metro cars. The
electric and diesel traction equipment on India Railways are
largely powered by electrical propulsion systems produced by
BHEL. The company also undertakes retooling and overhauling
of rolling stock in the area of urban transportation systems.
BHEL is geared up to turnkey execution of electric trolley bus
systems, light rail systems etc. BHEL is also diversifying in the
area of port handing equipment and pipelines transportation
systems.

65 % of trains in Indian Railways are equipped with


BHEL's traction and traction control equipment. These
include:
Broad Gauge 3900 HP AC / DC locomotives
Diesel Shunting Locomotives up to 2600 HP
5000 HP AC Loco with thyristor control
Battery Powered Road Vehicles and Locomotives

TELECOMMUNICATION
BHEL also caters to telecommunication sector by way of
small, medium and large switching system.
Renewable energy
Technologies that can be offered by BHEL for exploiting
non-conventional and renewable resources of energy includes:
wind electric generators, solar power based water pumps,
lighting and heating systems.
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The company manufactures wind electric generators of unit


size up to 250 KW for wind farms, to meet the growing
demand for harnessing wind energy.
International operations
BHEL has, over the years established its references in
over 50 countries of the world, ranging from the united-states
in the west to new-Zealand in the far-east. These references
encompass almost the entire product range of BHEL, covering
turnkey power projects of thermal, hydro and gas based type
sub-station projects, rehabilitation projects, besides a wide
variety of products, like switch gear, transformer, heat
exchangers, insulators, castings and forgings. Apart from over
1100MW of boiler capacity contributed in Malaysia, some of
the other major successes achieved by the company have been
in Oman, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Egypt,
Bangladesh, Azerbaijan, Sri lanka, Iraq etc. execution of
overseas projects has also provided BHEL the experience of
working with world renowned consulting organizations and
inspection agencies.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT(R&D)
To remain competitive and meet customers expectations,
BHEL lays great emphasis on the continuous up gradation of
products and related technologies, and development of new
products. The company has upgraded its products to
contemporary levels through continuous in house efforts as
well as through acquisitions of new technologies from leading
engineering organizations of the world.

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Research and product development centers at each of the


manufacturing divisions play a complementary role.
BHELs investment in R&D is amongst the largest in
the corporate sector in India.
BHEL's vision is to become a world-class engineering
enterprise, committed to
enhancing stakeholder value.
The company is striving to give shape to its aspirations and
fulfill the expectations of the country to become a global
player.
The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and
committed 42,600 employees. Every employee is given an
equal opportunity to develop himself and grow in his career.
Continuous training and retraining, career planning, a positive
work culture and participative style of management all these
have engendered development of a committed and motivated
workforce setting new benchmarks in terms of productivity,
quality and responsiveness.
BHEL has a corporate R & D center supported by R & D
groups at each of the manufacturing divisions. The dedicated
effort of BHEL's R & D engineers have produced several new
products like automated storage retrieval system automated
guide vehicles for material transportation etc. Establishment of
Asia's largest fuel evaluation test facility at Tiruchi was high
light of the year. This facility will enable evaluation of
combustion, heat transfer and pollution parameters in boilers.
Major R & D achievement include:

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Design manufacture and supply of countries first 17.2 MW


industrial steam turbines.
Development of 4700 HP AC / DC loco for Indian Railways.
Development of largest capacitor voltage transformers of
8800 PF 400 KV rating.
Development and application low cost ROBOTS for job
loading/unloading.

According to ex- CMD Mr. R.K.D. Shah, "BHEL is


spending Rs. 60 Crores on Research and Development. Earning
from product which has been commercialized has gone up 26
% to Rs. 760 Crores."
PRODUCTS
Thermal Power Plants
Steam turbines, boilers and generators of up to 800 MW
capacity for utility and combined-cycle applications ;
Capacity to manufacture boilers and steam turbines with
supercritical system cycle parameter and matching
generator up to 1000 MW unit size.

Steam turbines, boilers and generators of CPP


applications; capacity to manufacture condensing,
extraction, back pressure, injection or any combination of
these types of steam turbines.

Nuclear Power Plants


Steam generator & Turbine generator up to 700 MW
capacity.
Gas-Based Power Plants
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Gas turbines of up to 280 MW (ISO) advance class rating.


Gas turbine-based co-generation and combined-cycle
systems of industry and utility applications.

There are other products given as follows


Hydro Power Plants, DG Power Plants, Industrial Sets, Boiler,
Boiler Auxiliaries, Piping System, Heat Exchangers and
Pressure Vessels Pumps, Power Station Control Equipment,
Switchgear, Bus Ducts, Transformers, Insulators, Industrial and
Special
Ceramics,
Capacitors,
Electrical
Machines,
Compressors, Control Gear, Silicon Rectifiers, Thyristor
GTO/IGBT Equipment , Power Devices, Transportation
Equipment
Oil Field Equipment, Casting and Forgings, Seamless Steel
Tubes, Distributed Power Generation and Small Hydro Plants.
TECHNICAL COLLABORATIONS
PRODUCT
COLLABORATIONS
# Thermal Sets, Hydro Sets, Motors &
Control Gears.
# Bypass & Pressure Reducing Systems
Ltd.

Prommashexport
RUSSIA
Sulzer Brother

SWITZERLAND
# Electronic Automation System for

Siemens AG.
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Steam Turbine & Generators

GERMANY

# Francis Type Hydro Turbines

General Electric
CANADA

# Moisture Separator Reheaters


# Christmas Trees & Conventional Well
Well

Baloke Duerr
National Oil
Head

Assemblies, USA
# Steam Turbines , Generators and Axial
Condensers
# Cam Shaft Controllers and Tractions
Current Control Units

Siemens AG.
GERMANY
Siemens AG.
GERMANY

MAJOR CUSTOMERS OF B.H.E.L

Supplied to all major utilities in India :


National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
PGCIL
NJPC
NHPC
NLC
NPCIL
NEEPCO
APTRANSCO
APGENCO
JPPCL
ALL State Electricity Boards (SEBs)
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Abroad:
TNB,Malaysia
PPC,Greece
MEW,Oman
OCC,Oman
GECOL,Libya
Trinidad & Tobago
New Zealand
Tanzania etc

MAJOR COMPETITORS OF BHEL


Ansaldo
2.
Asea Brown Boueri
3.
Beehtel
4.
Block & Neatch
5.
CNMI & EC
6.
Costain
7.
Electrim
8.
Energostio
9.
Electro Consult
10. Franco Tosi
11.
Fuji
12. GEC Alsthom
13. General Electric
14. Hitachi
15. LMZ
16. Mitsubishi
17. Mitsui
18. NEI
19. Raytheon
1.

Italy
Switzerland
USA
USA
China
U.K.
Poland
Russia
Italy
France
Japan
U.K.
USA
Japan
Russia
Japan
Japan
U.K.
USA
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20.
21.

Rolls Royce
Sanghai Electric Co.

Germany
China

DIVISIONS OF BHEL
There are 20 Divisions of BHEL, they are as follows:

HEEP, Haridwar
HPEP, Hyderabad
HPBP, Tiruchi
SSTP & MHD, Tiruchi
CFFP, Haridwar
BHEL, Jhansi
BHEL, Bhopal
EPD, Bangalore
ISG, Bangalore
ED, Bangalore
BAP, Ranipet
IP, Jagdishpur
IOD, New Delhi
COTT, Hyderabad
IS, New Delhi
CFP, Rudrapur
HERP, Varanasi
Regional Operations Division ARP, New Delhi
TPG, Bhopal
Power Group (Four Regions and PEM)

MANUFACTURING UNIT OF BHEL


First Generation Units
BHOPAL

Heavy Electrical Plant


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HARIDWAR

Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant

HYDERABAD

Heavy Electrical Power Equipment

TIRUCHY

High Pressure Boiler Plant

Plant

Second Generation Units


JHANSI

Transformer and Locomotive Plant

HARDWAR

Central Foundry and Forge Plant

TIRUCHY

Seamless Steel Tube Plant

Unit Through Acquisition and Merger


BANGALORE Electronic Division
Electro Porcelain Division
New Manufacturing Units
RANIPAT

Boiler Auxiliaries Plant

JAGDISHPUR

Insulator Plant

RUDRAPUR

Component and Fabrication Plant

BANGALORE

Industrial System Group


TRANSFORMERS
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A transformer is a device that transfers electrical


energyfrom one circuit to another through inductively coupled
conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through
the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the
secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling.
If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow
in the secondary winding, and electrical energy will be
transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to
the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the
secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage
(Vp) and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as
follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a


transformer thus enables an alternating current (AC) voltage to
be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped
down" by making Ns less than Np. The windings are coils
wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers
being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized
coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge
units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions
ofpower grids. All operate on the same basic principles,
although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies
have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic
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circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic


devices
designed
for household
("mains")
voltage.
Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power
transmission, which makes long-distance transmission
economically practical.
BASIC PRINCIPLES

An ideal transformer. The secondary current arises from


the action of the secondary EMF on the (not shown) load
impedance.
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that
an electric
current can
produce
a magnetic
field(electromagnetism) and second that a changing magnetic
field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of
the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in
the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed.
The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary
coil.
An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure.
Current passing through the primary coil creates amagnetic
field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around
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a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that


most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary
winding, the load current and voltage will be in the directions
indicated, given the primary current and voltage in the
directions indicated (each will be alternating current in
practice).
Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be
calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of


turns in the secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through
one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the
product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through
which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the crosssectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic
field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary.
Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary
and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous
voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives


the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary


functional characteristic of any transformer. In the case of step29

up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the


reciprocal, Ns/Np.
Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible
fraction or ratio: for example, a transformer with primary and
secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said
to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element


If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows
current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary
circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is
perfectly efficient. All the incoming energy is transformed from
the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary
circuit. If this condition is met, the input electric power must
equal the output power:
giving the ideal transformer equation

This formula is a reasonable approximation for most


commercial built transformers today.
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If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased


by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed
by the square of the turns ratio.For example, if an
impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary
coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of
(Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the
impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to
be (Ns/Np)2Zp.
Detailed operation
The simplified description above neglects several
practical factors, in particular, the primary current required to
establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to
the field due to current in the secondary circuit.
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of
negligible reluctance with
two
windings
of
zero
resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a
small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of
the core.: The current required to create the flux is termed
the magnetizing current. Since the ideal core has been assumed
to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is
negligible, although still required, to create the magnetic field.
The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive
force (EMF) across each winding. Since the ideal windings
have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and
so the voltages VP and VSmeasured at the terminals of the
transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary
EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is
sometimes termed the "back EMF". This is in accordance
with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always
opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
31

Core form and shell form transformers

Core form = core type; shell form = shell type


As first mentioned in regard to earliest ZBD closed-core
transformers, transformers are generally considered to be either
core form or shell form in design depending on the type of
magnetic circuit used in winding construction (see image). That
is, when winding coils are wound around the core, transformers
are termed as being of core form design; when winding coils
are surrounded by the core, transformers are termed as being of
shell form design. Shell form design may be more prevalent
than core form design for distribution transformer applications
due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding
coils Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more
economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form
design for high voltage power transformer applications at the
lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or
equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and
power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more
prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra high
voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more
labor intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are
32

characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio,


better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity
to transit damage.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Transformer equivalent circuit,


impedances referred to the primary side

with

secondary

The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can


be calculated from the results of two transformer tests: opencircuit test and short-circuit test.
INSULATION DRYING
Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the
insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried before the
oil is introduced. There are several different methods of drying.
Common for all is that they are carried out in vacuum
environment. The vacuum makes it difficult to transfer energy
(heat) to the insulation. For this there are several different
methods. The traditional drying is done by circulating hot air
33

over the active part and cycle this with periods of hot-air
vacuum (HAV) drying. More common for larger transformers is
to use evaporated solvent which condenses on the colder active
part. The benefit is that the entire process can be carried out at
lower pressure and without influence of added oxygen. This
process is commonly called vapour-phase drying (VPD).
For distribution transformers, which are smaller and have
a smaller insulation weight, resistance heating can be used.
This is a method where current is injected in the windings to
heat the insulation. The benefit is that the heating can be
controlled very well and it is energy efficient. The method is
called low-frequency heating (LFH) since the current is
injected at a much lower frequency than the nominal of the
grid, which is normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency reduces
the effect of the inductance in the transformer, so the voltage
needed to induce the current can be reduced. The LFH drying
method is also used for service of older transformers.
TERMINALS
Very small transformers will have wire leads connected
directly to the ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of
the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have
heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage
insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large
bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide
careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the
transformer leak oil.
BUSHINGS

34

A bushing is a hollow electrical insulator through which a


conductor may pass. Bushings are used where high voltage
lines must pass through a wall or other surface,
on switchgear, transformers, circuit breakers and other high
voltage equipment.
DESCRIPTION
The bushing is a hollow insulating liner that fits through a
hole in a wall or metal case, allowing a conductor to pass along
its centre and connect at both ends to other equipment. The
purpose of the bushing is to keep the conductor insulated from
the surface it is passing through. Bushings are often made of
wet-process fired porcelain, and may be coated with a semiconducting glaze to assist in equalizing the electrical stress
along the length of the bushing.
The inside of the bushing may contain paper insulation
and the bushing is often filled with oil to provide additional
insulation.
Bushings
for
medium-voltage
and lowvoltage apparatus may be made of resins reinforced with paper.
The use of polymer bushings for high voltage applications is
becoming more common. The largest high-voltage bushings
made are usually associated with high-voltage directcurrent converters.
35

Capacitor types
Some of the higher voltage types (layers of conductive
paper, film, ink or aluminum foil are used with an insulating
medium) are called capacitor bushings because they form a low
value capacitor between the conductor and the wall. This is
done to disperse the electrical field stress and thus reduce the
peak stress that could cause breakdown.
BUSHING FAILURE
Bushings
sometimes
fail
due
to partial
discharge degradation in the insulation. There is at present great
interest in the electricity supply industry in monitoring the
condition of high voltage bushings.
APPLICATIONS

electrical substation showing 220kV/66kV transformers,


each with a capacity of 185MVA
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage
before transmitting electrical energy over long distances
through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical
energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current
through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a highvoltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and
36

back
again
afterward,
transformers
enable
economical transmission of power over long distances.
Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply
industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from
points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the
world's electrical power has passed through a series of
transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to
step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low
voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically
isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of
amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and
record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers
allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation
over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a
signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced
voltages to ground, such as between external cables and
internal circuits.
The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely
used for characterisation of soft magnetic materials, for
example in the internationally standardized Epstein
frame method.
MANUFACTURING SECTIONS
INVENTORY
It is the section of storage of raw material.
FABRICATION
37

Fabrication is nothing but production.It is basically a machine /


preparation shop. This section has following machines:

Pacific Hydraulic Shear & pressure: Hydraulically


operated machine to cut to sheet of different
thickness. It contain pressure holder which is used
to flatten the sheet.
CNC (Computerized Numerical control) Flame
cutting machine: Used to cut complicated shaft item
using OXY-ACETYLENE flame. Maximum 6
torches are used in it. Cutting is done on the basis of
computer programming.
Rolling Machine: used for making cylindrical shape
from a sheet.
Bending Machine: Hydraulically operated machine
used to bend the job.
Hydraulic power press: Has the capacity of 100 tons
used to flatten the object.
Nibbling Machine: used to do various tasks like
straight cutting, circle cutting, nibbling, slot cutting,
circular and square punching.
Hydraulic Guillotine Shear: It is to cut the sheet
which has maximum cross section area of (3200*13
sq.mm).
Butler machine: used for facing, tapering, & slot
cutting.
Plasma Cutting Machine: used for non ferrous
metal.

ASSEMBLY SHOP:
It is an assembly shop where different part of tank
38

comes . Hear welding processes are used for assembly, after


which a rough surface is obtained and is eliminated by
grinding. Grinding operates at 1200 RPM.
It is assembly shop dealing with making different objects like.

Tank Assembly
Tank cover assembly
End frame assembly
Cross feed assembly
Core Clamp assembly
Pin & pad assembly

Before assembly, short blasting is done on different part of jobs


to clean the surface before painting.
After assembly some tests are done as non-destructive tests
like.
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

Ultrasonic Test: To detect the winding fault on


CRO. At the fault place high amplitude waves are
obtain.
Die Penetration Test: Red solution is put at the
welding and then cleaned. After some time white
solution is put. Appearance of red spot indicates a
fault at the welding.
Magnetic crack detection: magnetic field is created
and then iron powder is put on the welding. Sticking
of the iron powder in the welding indicates the fault.
X-Ray Test: It is same as human testing and a fault
is seen in X-ray.
Air / Vacuum Test: the air is filled inside the body of
transformer, than soap solution is produced outside
the body. If the holes appear, it is indicate the fault.
39

MACHINE SECTION:
To operation to form small components of power and
traction transformer are done is this section. The shop consists
of following machines.

CENTRAL LATHE: It consist one tail stock, head


stock. Lower part of tail stock is fixed and tail stock
spindle is moving. On this machine is facing,
turning and threading is done.

TURRET LATHE: Its function is same as central


lathe machine but it is used for mass production.
Here turret head is used in presence of tail stock
because turret head contains many tailstocks around
six.

CAPSTAN LATHE: It is belt driven.

RADIAL ARM DRILLING MACHINE: Used for


drilling and boring.

HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE: It is


computerized and used for making bore, facing etc.

MILLING MACHINE:
a.

HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE:


Used for making gear and cutting operations.

b.

VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE: The


machine does facing, slot cutting and T-slot
cutting.
40

COPPER SECTION:
o
o

o
o

Tube slitting Machine: used for cutting the tube


along its length and across the diameter.
HYDRAULIC SHEARING MACHINE: It is
hydraulically operated and its blade has V-shape and
a thickness 15 mm.
WATER COOLED BRAZING MACHINE: It
contains two carbon brushes. The sheet is put along
with sulfas sheet and the carbon brushes are heated.
A lap joint is formed between the sheets as the
sulfas sheets melts.
LINCING BELT MACHINE: It creates a smooth
surface.
SOLDER POT MACHINE: It has a pot that
contains solder. Solder has composition of 60 % Zn
and 40 % Pb.

TOOLING MACHINING:
In this section the servicing of tools is done.
Blade sharp machine
Mini surface grinding Machine(used for grinding
purpose)
Tool and surface grinding Machine(used to grind the
tool)
Drill grinding Machine (to grid the drills)

WINDING, COIL AND MOULDS SECTION


TYPES OF WINDING
Reverse section winding
41

Helical winding
Spiral winding
Interleaved winding
Half section winding

The type of winding depends upon the job requirement.


Also, the width and thickness of conductors designed and
decided by design department.
TYPES OF COIL
1.
2.
3.
4.

Low voltage coil


High voltage coil
Tertiary coil
Tap coil

THE MOULDS ARE OF FOLLOWING TYPES


1.
2.
3.

Belly type
Link type
Cone type

LAMINATION AND PUNCHING SHOP


The lamination used in power, dry and ESP transformer
etc. for making core is cut in this section. CRGO (cold rolled
grain oriented) silicon steel is used for lamination, which is
imported in India from Japan, U.K and Germany. It is available
in 0.27&0.28 mm.
For the purpose of cutting and punching the core three
machines are installed in the shop.
Slitting machine (used to cut CRGO sheets in different
width)
42

CNC cropping line pneumatic


CNC cropping line hydraulic
INSULATION SHOP

Various type of insulation are:

AWWW: all wood water washed press paper. The


paper is 0.2-0.5 mm thick cellulose paper is bound
on conductor for insulation.
Pre-Compressed Board: this is widely used for
general insulation and separation of conductors in
the form of blocks.
Press Board: this is used for separation of coil e.g. LV
from HV. It is up to 38 mm thick.
Fiber Glass: this is resin material and is used in fire
prone area.
Bakelite
Gasket: used for protection against leakage.
Silicon Rubber Sheet: It is used for dry type
transformer.

Insulation between windings


The great majority of transformers are constructed with
two or more windings which are electrically insulated from
each other. In some cases a single winding is employed, parts
of the winding functioning as both primary and secondary.
These transformers are called autotransformers. They are
frequently used when the voltage ratio is small.
Autotransformers should never be used for high voltage ratios,
as the low-voltage winding is not insulated from the highvoltage one, so that in case of trouble it would be dangerous to
both life and equipment.
43

Machine used for shaping the insulation material are:


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Cylindrical machine
Circular cutting machine
Bending machine
Punching press machine
Drilling machine
Guillotine machine
Bench saw
Jig saw
Circular saw

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

44

CORE ASSEMBLY

Power Systems transformers are of the Core Form design.


All cores are stacked, using high-quality grain-oriented
silicon steel laminations, purchased slit-to-width and coated
with carlite to increase the interlamination resistance and to
reduce eddy current losses. Where loss evaluations justify its
use, laser or mechanically scribed or plasma treated silicon
steel will be used.

All cores utilize the step lap principle in the corner joints to
reduce losses, magnetizing current and sound level. The
cores are fully-mitered on all joints in order to improve the
flux distribution.

Ultra modern computerized core shears supply fully-mitered,


high-efficiency cores. These machines are able to shear the
maximum width of core steel currently available.

Some machines automatically stack the legs and yokes to


minimize steel handling and mechanical stresses, helping to
guarantee the designed loss level.

45

The laminations are stacked in steps, resulting in a circular


core shape which gives the windings optimum radial
support, especially during short-circuit conditions.

The exposed edges of all finished cores are bonded with low
viscosity, high-strength epoxy resin on the legs and bottom
yoke to help lower the sound level. The temperature rise of
the core is designed to be low and is controlled, if necessary,
by careful placement of vertical oil ducts within the core
packets.

The core is clamped using structural steel clamps which


provide high strength under both static (lifting and
clamping) and dynamic (short-circuit) mechanical loads. The
clamps are very lightweight for their strength and provide a
smooth surface facing the winding ends, eliminating regions
of high local electrical stress.

Under this process bonded core design is used to eliminate hold


notching clamp and to minimize fixed losses and magnetizing
current. The clamping frames for top and bottom yokes are
incorporated into the still age but this must also provide support
rigidity for the limbs until the core has been lifted in the
vertical positions for assembling of the winding.
COIL WINDINGS AND INSULATION ASSEMBLE
Coil winding is of two Types:
The precise details of the winding arrangements will be varied
according to the rating of the transformers. The general
principles remain the same throughout most the range of
46

transformer. The copper or Alluminium strips/wires used in


winding are meticulously selected for its quality to give the
best output.
1. L.V.Coil
2. H. V. Coil
1. L. V. COIL WINDING:
The Low Voltage coil is designed to approximately match the
current rating of the available low-voltage (LV). The L.V. coil
is normally wound on robust tube of insulation material and
this is almost invariably of synthetic resin-bonded paper. This
material has high mechanical strength and is capable of
withstanding the high loading. Electrically it will probably have
sufficient dielectric strength to withstand the relatively modest
test voltage applied to the L.V. winding during the repairing
without any additional insulation.
2. H. V. COIL COIL WINDING:
The second process is H.V. Coil Winding, which are wound
with strip conductor and it usually consists of continuous disc
type. The coils are usually created in layers and ideally all the
joints are extremely well brazen and insulated in order to
withstand difficult service conditions and tests.

47

The LV windings are made from Paper covered Copper


Strip and placed nearest to the core. The HV winding are
wound with Super Enameled Copper Wire or Aluminium wire
or Paper covered Round wire or paper covered Strip depending
upon the rating of the transformers. The cross section of the
conductor is also chosen to keep the thermal gradient in the
winding to a minimum and thus increase the life.
The coils are assembled with the best insulating material avail
and they are adequately clamped by the use of permawood
rings where necessary to give required mechanical strength.
The tappings are provided o the external HV windings. The off
circuit tapping swich is gang operated type and good contact is
maintained by means of floating spring pressure. Teh tapping
swich can be looked in ay desired position. The transformer
preferably off capacity 2000 KVA and above can be supplied
with on load tap changer alongwith the desired controls as per
the requirement.

TESTING

The testing room is climatically controlled and is fully


equipped with facilities for conducting all routine tests and
temperature- rise tests. The transformers are tested at various
stages of manufacture and various rating transformers are
48

tested at independent institution to establish short circuit and


insulating capacity of the transformers and also the impluse
withstanding withstanding capacity.
Prior to shipment, all transformers manufactured BHEL are
tested in accordance with the latest applicable standards
according to customer specifications. All industry standard and
optional tests with the exception of short-circuit tests, can be
performed in-house by trained personnel using accurate and
modern test equipment.

Impulse Testing
A state-of-the-art digital impulse recording system, the Haefely
HIAS system, provides the most accurate analysis of impulse
results available today. Electronic recording of the impulse
current and voltage waveforms allows quick mathematical
comparisons to be made, including the difference between the
two waveforms under scrutiny. Accurate printed and plotted
final results are quickly available. If required, photographic
transparencies from the impulse oscilloscope can be supplied.
The construction of the test area incorporates a complete
copper mesh ground mat system, with extensive grounding
points provided. This eliminates high impedance grounds and
provides exceptionally clean test records. The impulse
generator is rated at 200 kV per stage for a total of 2.8 MV,
with 210 kJ total stored energy. For precise triggering, this
generator is equipped with a pressurized polytrigatron gap in
each stage. For chopped wave tests, a Haefely multiple
chopping gap is used. Our plants are fully capable of
performing lightning impulse, switching impulse and front-ofwave tests as required.
49

Induced Testing
For induced testing, a variable voltage alternator, rated
1500/1000 kVA, 3/1-phase, 170/240 Hz, is used. Voltage
control is by solid state automatic voltage regulator, and solid
state speed control of the 1000 kW DC driving motor. During
the induced test, partial discharge measurements both in pC and
V are taken and equipment is available to locate internal
partial discharges by the triangulation method.

Loss Measurement
Power is provided to the loss measuring system by a 5/10 MVA
regulating transformer feeding three single-phase 10 MVA
variable ratio transformers and a 110 MVAR capacitor bank.
Losses are measured by an automated system using CTs for
current and gas capacitors for voltage. This system has a fully
automated digital readout and printer.

AC Testing
A test supply with an output voltage infinitely adjustable from
3-350 kV is available for high voltage AC testing. To measure
the applied voltage level, a digital peak-responding RMS
calibrated voltmeter capable of measuring up to 1600 kV is
used.
WATER TURBINE
A water turbine is a rotary engine that converts kinetic and
potential energy of water into mechanical work.
50

Water turbines were developed in the 19th century and were


widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids. Now
they are mostly used for electric power generation. Water
turbines are mostly found in dams to generate electric power
from water kinetic energy.

THEORY OF OPERATION
Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner,
creating a force on the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the
force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is
the definition of work). In this way, energy is transferred from
the water flow to the turbine
51

Water turbines are divided into two groups; reaction turbines


and impulse turbines.
The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the
supply pressure of water, and the type of impeller selected.
Reaction turbines
Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes
pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its
energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or
suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction
turbines.
Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in
low (<30 m or 100 ft) and medium (30300 m or 1001,000 ft)
head applications. In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in
both fixed and moving blades. It is largely used in dam and
large power plants
Impulse turbines
Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet
pushes on the turbine's curved blades which changes the
direction of the flow. The resulting change in momentum
(impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine
is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the
diverted water flow is left with diminished energy. An impulse
turbine is one which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the
rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to the
change in kinetic energy of the fluid.
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure
(potential energy) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle
and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the
52

turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for


operation.
Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for
impulse turbines.
Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/1000 ft)
head applications.
Power
The power available in a stream of water is;
where:

power (J/s or watts)


turbine efficiency
density of water (kg/m)
acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s)
head (m). For still water, this is the difference in
height between the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving
water has an additional component added to account for
the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head equals the
pressure head plus velocity head.
= flow rate (m/s)

STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a device which extracts thermal energy
from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a
rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by
Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.
Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly
suited to be used to drive an electrical generator about 90% of
all electricity generation in the United States (1996) is by use of
53

steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that


derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency
from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam,
which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible
expansion process.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND DESIGN


An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic
process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of
the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the
steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic,
however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20
54

90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a


turbine comprises several sets of blades or buckets. One set of
stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of
rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh
with certain minimum clearances, with the size and
configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the
expansion of steam at each stage.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Because of the high pressures used in the steam circuits and the
materials used, steam turbines and their casings have high
thermal inertia. When warming up a steam turbine for use, the
main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to
allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and
proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam
turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged when there is no steam
to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent
uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning
gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no
bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is
admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the
ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 1015 RPM (0.17
0.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine. The warm up procedure
for large steam turbines may exceed ten hours.
During normal operation, rotor imbalance can lead to vibration,
which, because of the high rotation velocities, could lead to a
blade breaking away from the rotor and through the casing. To
reduce this risk, considerable efforts are spent to balance the
turbine. Also, turbines are run with high quality steam: either
superheated (dry) steam, or saturated steam with a high dryness
fraction. This prevents the rapid impingement and erosion of
the blades which occurs when condensed water is blasted onto
the blades (moisture carry over). Also, liquid water entering the
55

blades may damage the thrust bearings for the turbine shaft. To
prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to
ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the
steam piping leading to the turbine.
Maintenance requirements of modern steam turbines are simple
and incur low costs (typically around $0.005 per kWh); their
operational life often exceeds 50 years.
LARGE ELECTRICAL MACHINES
The academic study of electric machines is the universal study
of electric motors and electric generators. By the classic
definition, electric machine is synonymous with electric motor
or electric generator, all of which are electromechanical energy
converters: converting electricity to mechanical power (i.e.,
electric motor) or mechanical power to electricity (i.e., electric
generator). The movement involved in the mechanical power
can be rotating or linear.
Although transformers do not contain any moving parts they
are also included in the family of electric machines because
they utilise electromagnetic phenomena.
CLASSIFICATIONS:
Permanent magnet machines:
PM machines have permanent magnets in the rotor which set
up a magnetic field. The magnetomotive force in a PM (caused
by orbiting electrons with aligned spin) is generally much
higher than what is possible in a copper coil. The copper coil
can, however, be filled with a ferromagnetic material, which
gives the coil much lower magnetic reluctance. Still the
magnetic field created by modern PMs (Neodymium magnets)
56

is stronger, which means that PM machines have a better


torque/volume and torque/weight ratio than machines with
rotor coils under continuous operation. This may change with
introduction of superconductors in rotor.
Brushed machines
Brushed machines are machines where the rotor coil is supplied
with current through brushes in much the same way as current
is supplied to the car in an electric slot car track. More durable
brushes can be made of graphite or liquid metal. It is even
possible to eliminate the brushes in a "brushed machine" by
using a part of rotor and stator as a transformer which transfer
current without creating torque. Brushes must not be confused
with a commutator. The difference is that the brushes only
transfer electric current to a moving rotor while a commutator
also provide switching of the current direction.
Induction machines
Induction machines have short circuited rotor coils where a
current is set up and maintained by induction. This requires that
the rotor rotates at other than synchronous speed, so that the
rotor coils are subjected to a varying magnetic field created by
the stator coils. An induction machine is an asynchronous
machine.
Induction eliminates the need for brushes which is usually a
weak part in an electric machine. It also allows designs which
make it very easy to manufacture the rotor. A metal cylinder
will work as rotor, but to improve efficiency a "squirrel cage"
rotor or a rotor with closed windings is usually used.

57

Reluctance machines
Reluctance machines have no windings in rotor, only a
ferromagnetic material shaped so that "electromagnets" in
stator can "grab" the teeth in rotor and move it a little. The
electromagnets are then turned off, while another set of
electromagnets is turned on to move stator further. Another
name is step motor, and it is suited for low speed and accurate
position control. Reluctance machines can be supplied with
PMs in stator to improve performance. The electromagnet is
then turned of by sending a negative current in the coil.
When the current is positive the magnet and the current
cooperate to create a stronger magnetic field which will
58

improve the reluctance machines maximum torque without


increasing the currents maximum absolute value.

TRACTION MOTOR
A traction motor is an electric motor used for propulsion of a
vehicle, such as an electric locomotive or electric roadway
vehicle.
Traction motors are used in electrically powered rail vehicles
such as electric multiple units and other electric vehicles such
as electric milk floats, elevators, conveyors, and trolleybuses,
as well as vehicles with electrical transmission systems such as
diesel-electric, electric hybrid vehicles, and battery electric
vehicles.

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Mounting of motors
Usually, the traction motor is three-point suspended between
the bogie frame and the driven axle; this is referred to as a
"nose-suspended traction motor". The problem with such an
arrangement is that a portion of the motor's weight is unsprung,
increasing unwanted forces on the track. In the case of the
famous Pennsylvania Railroad GG1, two bogie-mounted
motors drove each axle through a quill drive. The "Bi-Polar"
electric locomotives built by General Electric for the
Milwaukee Road had direct drive motors. The rotating shaft of
the motor was also the axle for the wheels. In the case of
French TGV power cars, a motor mounted to the power cars
frame drives each axle; a "tripod" drive allows a small amount
of flexibility in the drive train allowing the trucks bogies to
pivot. By mounting the relatively heavy traction motor directly
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to the power car's frame rather than to the bogie, better


dynamics are obtained allowing better high-speed operation
Windings
The DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on
both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams
and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. It consists of
two parts, a rotating armature and fixed field windings
surrounding the rotating armature mounted around a shaft. The
fixed field windings consist of tightly wound coils of wire
fitted inside the motor case. The armature is another set of coils
wound round a central shaft and is connected to the field
windings through "brushes" which are spring-loaded contacts
pressing against an extension of the armature called the
commutator. The commutator collects all the terminations of
the armature coils and distributes them in a circular pattern to
allow the correct sequence of current flow. When the armature
and the field windings are connected in series, the whole motor
is referred to as "series-wound".
Power control
As the DC motor starts to turn, interaction of the magnetic
fields inside causes it to generate a voltage internally. This back
EMF (electromotive force) opposes the applied voltage and the
current that flows is governed by the difference between the
two. As the motor speeds up, the internally generated voltage
rises, the resultant EMF falls, less current passes through the
motor and the torque drops. The motor naturally stops
accelerating when the drag of the train matches the torque
produced by the motors. To continue accelerating the train,
series resistors are switched out step by step, each step
increasing the effective voltage and thus the current and torque
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for a little bit longer until the motor catches up. This can be
heard and felt in older DC trains as a series of clunks under the
floor, each accompanied by a jerk of acceleration as the torque
suddenly increases in response to the new surge of current.
When no resistors are left in the circuit, full line voltage is
applied directly to the motor. The train's speed remains constant
at the point where the torque of the motor, governed by the
effective voltage, equals the drag - sometimes referred to as
balancing speed.
Rating
Electric locomotives usually have a continuous and a one-hour
rating. The one-hour rating is the maximum power that the
motors can continuously develop over a one hour period
without overheating the motors. Such a test starts with the
motors at +25 C (and the outside air used for ventilation also
at +25 C). In the USSR per GOST 2582-72 with class N
insulation, the maximum temperatures allowed for DC motors
were 160 C for the armature, 180 C for the stator, and 105 C
for the collector.[3] The one-hour rating is typically about ten
percent higher than the continuous rating, and limited by the
temperature rise in the motor.
In diesel-electric and gas turbine-electric locomotives, the
horsepower rating of the traction motors is usually around 81%
that of the prime mover. This assumes that the electrical
generator converts 90% of the engine's output into electrical
energy and the traction motors convert 90% of this electrical
energy back into mechanical energy. Calculation: 90% 90% =
81%.
INSULATION
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INSULATION CLASSIFICATION:Thermal classification of insulation depends upon the temperature


Withstand capability of the insulation.
Class Y

up to 90 C

Class A

up to 105 C

Class E

up to 120 C

Class B

up to 130 C

Class F

up to 150 C

Class H

up to 180 C

Class C

180 C up to 220 C.
INSULATION TESTING

Insulation:The bar is insulated with the given number of layers to build the
wall thickness of insulation subjected to the generating voltage of
the machine.
Impregnation and baking:a) Thermo reactive system:63

In case of rich resin insulation the bar is pressed in closed box in


heated condition and baked under pressure and temperature as per
requirement for a given period.
b) Micalastic system:In case of poor resin system the insulated bars are heated under
vacuum and the impregnated (dipped) in heated resin so that all
the air gaps are filled, layer by layer, with resin. Then extra resin
is drained out and bars are heated and baked under pressed
condition in closed box fixture.
VPI Micalastic system:The bars already lay in closed fixture and full fixture is
impregnated (dipped) in resin and then fixture with box is baked
under given temperature for given duration.
VIP Micalastic system:The individual (separate) bar is heated in vacuum and
impregnated in resin. Then bar is taken out and pressed in closed
box fixture and then baked at given temperature for given
duration.
Finishing:64

The baked and dimensionally correct bars are sanded-off to


smoothen the edges and the surface is calibrated, if required, for
the dimension.
Conducting varnish coating:i) OCP (Outer Corona Protection) coating:The black semi-conducting varnish coating is applied on the bar
surface on the core length.
ii) ECP (End Corona Protection) coating:The grey semi-conducting varnish is applied at the bend outside
core end of bars in gradient to prevent from discharge and
minimize the end corona.
Testing:a) Tan test:This test is carried out to ensure the healthiness of dielectric
(Insulation) i.e. dense or rare and measured the capacitance loss.
b) H.V. Test:Each bar is tested momentary at high voltage increased gradually
to three times higher than rated voltage.
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