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HowtoDoPowerStructureResearch
byG.WilliamDomhoff

BasicsofStudyingPower
HowToDoPowerStructure
Research
PowerStructureResearchand
theHopeforDemocracy

Someofyoumightwanttodoyourownstudiesofnationalorlocalpowerstructures.This
documentprovidesboththegeneralrationalesandthespecificstepsandsourcesfordoing
suchstudies.ItmaysoundtoosimplewhenIsaythis,butpowerstructurestudiesarereallya
combinationofnetworkanalysisandcontentanalysis.Bothmethodsareeasyenoughto
understandinprinciple,andtheyareveryrespectableinthesocialsciences.Theycanbeused
forlargeandcomplexstudiesbyemployingsoftwarethatwillbementionedasthisdocument
unfolds.Ifyoustartsimplewithasmallprojectanddothefirststepsbyhand,youwillhavea
goodintuitiveunderstandingofwhatisreallygoingonifandwhenyouadvancetohuge
databasesandfancysoftware.
Anetworkanalysistracesoutthepeopleandorganizationsthatmakeupthepowerstructure,
andthenfiguresouthowtheyconnecttoandinfluencegovernment.Contentanalysisisthe
termforthesystematicstudyofthepowerstructure'sideologies,policies,andplans,which
arelearnedaboutthroughthecarefulstudyofdocumentssuchasthetextsforspeeches,
policystatementsbyorganizations,anddraftsoflegislation.
BeforeIbegin,Iwanttostressthatthemethodologicalapproachoutlinedinthisdocument
makesitpossibletodiscoveranyconcentrationorconfigurationofpower.Researchersofany
theoreticalpersuasioncanuseitbecauseitisnotbiasedfororagainstanygiventheory.It
containsonlyoneassumption:thereisapowerstructureofsomekindoranother,nomatter
howweakorfragmented,inanylargescalesocietyorsocialgroup.Themethodcandiscover
thatpowerishighlyconcentratedormoredispersed,dependingonthedegreeofdifference
betweenrivalnetworksonthepowerindicators.Itcanshowthatsomegroupsorclasseshave
powerinonearena,someinanotherarena.Itcanrevealchangesinapowerstructureover
timebychangesinthepowerindicators.IntheUnitedStatesitusuallyhasledtocorporate
powerstructuresatthenationallevelandlandowner/developer/realestatepowerstructuresat
thelocallevel,buttheresultscouldbedifferentforothercountriesandtheyaresometimes
differentforcitiesintheUnitedStates.

NetworkAnalysis
Theempiricalstudyofpowerbeginswithasearchforconnectionsamongthepeopleand
organizationsthatarethoughttoconstitutethepowerfulgrouporclass.Thisprocedureis
calledmembershipnetworkanalysis.Itstartswithastudyofpeopleandalltheorganizations
theybelongto.Orconversely,youcouldsaythestudystartswithalistoforganizationsthat
includesalloftheirmembers.Itleadstothesameresultthat'swhyit'scalledmembership
networkanalysis.Theresultsofamembershipnetworkanalysisareusuallypresentedinthe
formofamatrix,asshowninTable1.Thepeoplearelistedfromthetoptobottomandthe
organizationsarearrayedfromlefttoright.The"cells"orboxescreatedbytheintersectionof
apersonandorganizationarefilledwith"relational"informationsuchas"member,"
"director,""owner,"or"financialdonor."Theattitudesthepersonhastowardanygiven
organizationinthematrixalsocanbeincluded,suchas"supporter"or"opponent."Maybe
thinkofattitudinalinformationasa"psychological"relationtotheorganization.The
informationusedinfillingthecellsofthematrixisobtainedinavarietyofwaysdescribed
laterinthisdocument.
Theinformationcontainedinthematrixisusedtocreatebothorganizationaland

interpersonalnetworks.Figure1displaysanorganizationalnetworkbasedontheoverlapping
membersinTable1.ItshowsthatorganizationAisatthe"center"ofthenetworkduetothe
largestnumberofconnectionsamongtheseindividuals.Figure2showstheinterpersonal
networkthatemergesfromTable1.Notethatnoonepersonisatthecenterofthis
interpersonalnetwork,eventhoughtheorganizationalnetworkhadacenter.Thatmayseem
counterintuitive,butitisagoodexampleofthefactthatthesearetwodifferentnetworks,not
justsomemirrorimageofeachother.Notealsothatonepersonisan"isolate,"withno
connections.That'sthesituationfor99%ofAmericanswhenitcomestotheschools,clubs,
policygroups,andcompaniesoftheupperclassandthepowereliteintheUnitedStates.
Table1:HypotheticalMembershipNetwork

Organizations
Org.A

Org.B

Individual1

Individual2

Individual3

Individual4

Org.C

Org.D

Individual5
NOTE:Individual5isan"isolate"withnoconnections.
Figure1:HypotheticalOrganizationalNetworkCreatedByOverlappingMembers

Figure2:HypotheticalInterpersonalNetworkCreatedBy
CommonOrganizationalAffiliations

Largeandcomplicatedmembershipnetworkscanbeanalyzedusingcomputersoftwarebased
onsophisticatedmathematicaltechniques,suchasgraphtheory,matrixalgebra,andboolean
algebra(whichcandetect"hierarchies"or"levels"inalargecomplexnetwork).Mostofthis
software,exceptthebooleanprogram,isavailableinUCINET,aDOSprogramthatismenu
drivenandcanbesetuptorununderWindows.ThelatestversionofUCINETforWindows
canbeobtainedbystudentsforareasonableprice(includinga60dayfreetrial)from
AnalyticTechnologies,Inc.
Oncethemembershipnetworkshavebeenestablished,therearemanyothertypesoflinks
thatmightbeanalyzed,suchaskinshiptiesorflowsofinformationbetweenorganizations.
Oneofthemostimportantoftheseothertypesoflinksconcernsthesizeanddirectionof
moneyflowsinthenetwork.Intheory,moneyflowsareanotherkindofrelationshipbetween
peopleorinstitutions,butinpracticeitisagoodideatoconsiderthemseparatelybecause
theyaresociallydistinctinmostpeople'sminds.Andofcoursetheyareusuallysuper
importantinunderstandinganymoderndaypowerstructure.Therearefourkindsofmoney
flows:
1.Peopletopeople(e.g.,gifts,loans,campaigndonations).
2.Peopletoinstitutions(e.g.,taxestogovernment,individualorfamilygiftsto
foundations).
3.Institutionstopeople(e.g.,corporatedividendstostockholders,foundationgrantsto
researchexperts).
4.Institutionstoinstitutions(e.g.,foundationgrantstopolicydiscussiongroups,
corporatedonationstofoundations).
Thefirstfindingfromnetworkanalysesusingrelationaldataormoneyflowsiswhetheror
notthehypotheticalgrouporclassthatisbeingsearchedforactuallyexistsasasocialreality.
Ifnoconnectionsamongcorporationsarefound,forexample,thenitmakesnosensetospeak
ofa"corporatecommunity."Iftherearefewornooverlappingmembershipsamongexclusive
socialclubsindifferentcities,thenitislesslikelythatthereisanationwide"upperclass."If
therearenomoneyflowsfromwealthypeopletofoundationsorfromfoundationstopolicy
discussiongroups,thenthereisverylittlebasisfortalkingabouta"policyplanningnetwork."
Thesecondfindingfrommembershipnetworkanalysisconcernsvariouscharacteristicsof
organizationalandinterpersonalnetworks,suchastheirdensityandtheexistenceofcentral
pointsorsubgroups.Somepartsinasocialnetworkmayhavemoreinterconnectionsthan
others,forexample,orsometypesofbusinessesmightbemorecentralinthecorporate
community,ortheremightbemoderatelyconservativeandextremelyconservativesubgroups
withintheoverallpolicyplanningnetwork.

UpperClassSocialIndicators

Sincereferencewasjustmadetosocialclubsandthepossibleexistenceofanationwideupper
class,thisisagoodplacetoaddthatupperclassorganizations,suchasprivateschoolsand
socialclubs,canbeunderstoodas"indicators"ofupperclassstanding.Thatis,ifpersonX
wenttoanytheprivateschoolsthatarelistedinAppendixAattheendofthisdocument,oris
amemberofanyofthesocialclubslistedinAppendixA,thensheorheisinferredtobea
memberofthesocialupperclass.That'safairlysafeinference,becausepreviousstudieshave
shownthatmembersoftheseclubsandschoolsarefromhighstatusfamiliesandbelongto
othersocialorganizationsthatareknowntobeupperclassorganizations.
Therearetwothingstokeepinmindinemployingtheseindicators.First,someofthepeople
fromtheseschoolsorintheseclubsmaynot"really"bemembersoftheupperclass.For
example,theymaybescholarshipstudentsattheschoolsorhonorarymembersoftheclub
becausetheyholdsomeelectedoffice.Thesemistakesarecalled"falsepositives,"butthey
arenotaproblemforusinstudiesthatusereasonablylargesamplesizestogainageneral
pictureofwhatpercentofthepeopleonthelistforexample,alonglistofcorporate
directorsarealsomembersoftheupperclass.It'salsothecasethattherearealwaysafew
"falsenegatives"onthelistswearestudying,whichmeanspeoplethatarepartoftheupper
class,butdon'tmentiontheirprepschoolsorsocialclubsinpubliclyavailabledocuments.So
thereisatendencyforthefalsepositivesandfalsenegativestocanceleachotherout.
ThesecondthingtokeepinmindinusingtheupperclassindicatorsinAppendixAisthat
someoftheseschoolsandclubsmayhavegoneoutofexistenceorfadedinstatus.Inthat
regard,thelistcouldbealittleoutofdateeventhoughthereisconsiderablestabilityinthe
socialinstitutionsoftheupperclassovergenerations.Attheleast,itisagoodideatobeon
thelookoutformorerecentschoolsandclubsthataren'tonthislist.

ContentAnalysis
Onceamembershipnetworkisconstructed,itispossibletotakethenextnecessarystepinthe
studyofsocialpower,ananalysisoftheideologyandpolicypreferencesofthegrouporclass
underscrutiny.Thisisdonebystudyingthewritten"output"ofstrategicallylocatedpeopleor
organizationsinthenetwork,thatis,textsofspeeches,policystatements,campaignliterature,
andproposedlegislation.
Asmentionedearlier,suchstudiesarecalledcontentanalysisinthesocialsciences.Content
analysesarenotalwaysdoneformally,butcontentanalysisiswhatinvestigatorsaredoing
whenevertheyinferonthebasisofaspeechorpolicystatementthatapersonororganization
hasspecificvaluesorpolicypreferences.Thatis,manycontentanalysesareinformaland
intuitive,basedonimplicitcategoriesthatexistintheculture.Toinsureagainstpersonal
biases,however,anobjectiveandsystematiccontentanalysisisfarmoreuseful.
Inthepast,asystematiccontentanalysisalwaysbeganwiththecreationofcarefullydefined
categoriesthatrelatetotheattitudeorissuebeingstudied.Categoriescanbeconstructed,for
example,todetermineapersonororganization'sstancetowardcorporationsorlaborunions.
Oncethecategoriesaredeveloped,relevanttextsarestudiedtodeterminethefrequencyand
intensityofelementsthatfitintooneormoreofthecategories.Thenthevariousfrequencies
areanalyzedbycalculatingaveragesorpercentages.Finally,theaveragesorpercentagesfor
twoormoregroupsarecompared.Then,too,researcherscandostudiestodetermineifthere
arelinkagessometimescalledcontingenciesorcorrelationsbetweentwoormorecontent
categories.Proceedinginthisway,thegeneral"worldview"ofthepowergroupcouldin
theorybeestablishedinastepbystepfashion.
Thankstotheadventofpersonalcomputers,computerassistedcontentanalysesnowcanbe
donewithoutasetofpredefinedcategories.Wordsearchesofcomputerizedtextsgiveinstant
frequencycomparisons.Textsalsocanbecomparedfortelltalephrasesthatmightreveala
connectionbetweenaprivatepolicygroupandgovernmentallegislation.Thereisalso
softwaretodeterminewhatconceptsorphrasesareinterconnectedindocuments,atechnique
knownas"semanticnetworkanalysis."Oneofthebeststartingpointsforcontentanalysis
usingsearchsoftwareandtheInternetisCarlRoberts,ed.,TextAnalysisfortheSocial
Sciences(Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum,1997).SeealsotheexcellentpapersbyRobertoFranzosi,
"ComputerAssistedCodingofTextualData:AnApplicationofSemanticGrammars,"

SociologicalMethodsandResearch,1990,19:225257,and"NarrativeasData:linguistic
andStatisticalToolsfortheQuantitativeStudyofHistoricalEvents,"InternationalReviewof
SocialHistory,1998,43,supplement6:81104.

SourcesofInformation
Manydifferentsourcesofinformationareemployedtocreatemembershipnetworksorfind
textualmaterialforcontentanalysis.First,awidevarietyofbiographicalreferencevolumes,
magazines,andnewspapersareusedtogatherrelationalinformation.Theyincludethe
eighteendifferentWho'sWho'spublishedbyMarquis,whichcontainover800,000names.
Theyareonline,butyouhavetosubscribe,sotryforaoneweekfreetrialorseeifthe
fundraisingunitonyouruniversitycampuswillletyouuseitscomputer(ithasthisinfoatits
fingertipsbecauseitisextremelyusefulformoneyraisingpurposes).Thentherearethe
hundredsofmagazinesthatareavailableontheInternetthroughyouruniversitylibrary
informationsystem,alongwiththemanynewspapersthatareavailablethroughthesame
avenue(oftenwithdifferentnamesondifferentcampuses.)Then,too,StandardandPoor's
RegisterofCorporationsandDirectors,theFoundationDirectory,TheFoundationGrants
IndexOnline(mostlyavailablethroughpubliclibrariesandcommunityfoundations),Federal
ElectionsCommissionreportsoncampaigndonations,andtheannualreportsofmany
organizationscanbeconsulted.Manyofthesesourcesarenowavailableonline.Simplestof
all,justGoogleeverypersonandorganization,andbuildfromthere.TheWebsite
Littlesis.orgprovidesmuchofthisinformationaswell.
Foranexceptionalwebsitethatprovidesanexcellentoverviewofresearchonpowerand
linkstoallofthesesources,seeWhoRules?:AnInternetGuidetoPowerStructureResearch,
createdbysociologistValBurrisattheUniversityofOregon.Burris'siteprovidesdirectlinks
tointernetsourcesofdatathatmakeitpossibletostudy,amongmanytopics:(1)thesocial
backgrounds,economicinterests,andinterpersonalconnectionsofindividualmembersofthe
powerfulgrouporclass(2)theinternalpowerstructuresofmajorcorporationsandthe
politicalactivitiesinwhichtheyareengaged(3)theflowofmoneyfromcorporationsand
wealthybusinessownerstopoliticalcandidatesandparties(4)theroleofspecialinterestsin
lobbyingcongressandshapinglegislationand(5)theroleoffoundations,thinktanks,and
businessassociationsincreatingpublicpolicy.Italsocontainsanexcellentdiscussionof
networkanalysis,aguidetolibraryresources,andalistofsuggestedreadings.

HowtoStudyLocalPower
Informationforthestudyofpoweratthecitylevelisnotalwaysasreadilyavailableviathe
Internetasitisforthenationallevel,especiallyforsmalltowns.Forcitystudies,the
followingstepscanbetakentoassemblerelevantinformationinarelativelyquickfashion
thestartingpointisatthereferencedeskofalibrary.
1.UsetheDunandBradstreetMillionDollarDirectory,whichhasasectionorganized
bycity,tolocatethemajorbanksandcorporationsinthecityunderstudy.(It'salsoon
theInternet,butyouhavetosubscribe.)
2.UsetheMartindaleHubbellLawDirectory,whichisorganizedbystateandcity,to
locatethemajorlawfirmsforthecity.Itoftenwilllistthemajorclientsforeachfirm,
whichmakesitpossibletoseewhichlawfirmsarerelatedtothecorporationslocated
throughtheDunandBradstreetvolume.MartindaleHubbellalsocontainsbackground
informationonthemembersofthelawfirms.(Itisusedbylawyerstomakecontacts
forclientsinothercities.)ItisontheInternetandatleastpartsofitarefree.Youcan
findinformationonpeopleandfirmswithaneasysearch.
3.UsetheFoundationDirectorytoseeifthereareanymajorfoundationsinthecity.
Studythedirectorsofthesefoundationstoseeifanyofthemcomefromthe
corporationsandlawfirmslocatedthroughsteps1and2.
4.UsetheFoundationGrantsIndexOnlinetodeterminetheorganizationstowhichthe
localfoundationsgavegrants.(Recallthatpubliclibrariesandthelocalcommunity
foundation,ifthereisone,haveitonlineitisalsoavailableattheofficesofthe
FoundationCenterinNewYork,Washington,andSanFrancisco.)Theseorganizations

maybeimportantonesinthecityforareasrangingfromtheartstopublicpolicyto
socialwelfare.Studytheirboardsofdirectorstoseeiftheyincludepeoplelocated
throughsteps1,2,and3.
5.Usethelibraryindexestofindlocalsocialhistoriesthatmightbeausefulstartingpoint
forthestudyofsocialclassesinthecity.Askthelibraryarchivistifthelibrarycontains
the"papers"ofprominentlocalpeople,whichsometimesincludesocialclub
membershiplistsandinterestingcorrespondencerelatedtopastpolicyissues.
6.GotothelocalChamberofCommerce,CityHall,UnitedWay,laborunions,andother
organizationsinthecityforcopiesofallprintedmaterialontheirpersonneland
policiesthattheymakeavailabletothepublic.(Moreandmore,theywillhavetheir
boardofdirectorsandtheirannualreportslistedonline.)Thecountytaxoffice,the
countryregistryofdeeds,andthecountryhistoricalsocietyalsocanbeusefulsources
formoredetailedinvestigations.Integratethismaterialwithinformationgained
throughsteps1through5.
7.Gotothelocalnewspaperandasktouseitsclipfiles,or"morgue,"asitsolderfilesare
sometimescalled.AskifpastissuesofthenewspaperhavebeenputonaCDROMor
aWebsitethatcanbesearched.Localnewspapersareinvaluablesourceson
businesses,lawfirms,people,andpolicyissues.Theyoftenhavefoldersfullofstories
goingbackovermanyyearsontheorganizationsandpeoplerelevanttoapowerstudy.
8.Usethebylinesonstories,orasknewspaperemployees,todeterminethenamesofthe
reporterswhoaremostknowledgeableonthetopicbeingresearched.Trytointerview
thesepeople.Ifsocialclassisacomponentofthestudy,asktointerviewthe"society"
or"people"editortogatherinformationonhighstatussocialclubsandothersocial
institutions.Fromasocialsciencepointofview,reportersareexcellent"informants."
Alwaysendinterviewswithreporters,andanyoneelse,forthatmatter,byaskingfor
theirsuggestionsastootherpeopleitwouldbehelpfultointerview.
Itisalsopossibletostudypoweratthecitylevelthroughaninterviewtechniquecalledthe
"reputationalmethod."Withthismethod,theevidenceforthepowerofapersonorgroupis
basedonareputationforbeingpowerful,asdeterminedbyaseriesofinterviews.Italsocan
beusedasasupplementorcrosschecktotheseriesofstepsoutlinedabove.
Areputationalsearchbeginsinoneoftwoways:first,nominationscanbeobtainedfroma
crosssectionofobserverswhoarethoughttobeknowledgeableaboutthepowerfulonthe
basisoftheiroccupationalroles(e.g.,reporter,administrator,fundraiser).Or,thepeople
foundthroughsteps1through4whositonseveralcorporateornonprofitboardsofdirectors
canbeusedasastartingpoint.Eitherway,thepeopleonthelistaretheninterviewedand
askedfortheirnominationsastothemostpowerfulpeopleinthelocalebeingstudied,aswell
asfortheiropinionsregardingthepoweroftheotherpeopleontheoriginallist.Itisalsovery
importanttoaskthemabouttheirrelationstoeachofthepeopletheymention,andtoaskif
thereareanyorganizationstowhichmany,orall,ofthesepeoplebelong.Thisgivesyouthe
kindofinformation(connections)thatareusefulforanetworkanalysis.Anynewnominees
aretheninterviewedandaskedfortheiropinions.
Theprocessends,usuallywithintwoorthreerounds,whenthesamenameskeepcomingup
andnonewnamesareaddedtothelist.Forbriefstudies,itcanbedecidedbeforehandtodo
onlyoneortworoundsofinterviewing.Themethodhasafurtheradvantage:thepeoplebeing
interviewedcanbeaskedotherquestions,suchas:whatarethemajorissuesinthecity?how
ispolicymadeinthiscity?whatwasyourroleinoneormoreofthemajorissues?Infact,it
wouldbeashame,andnotveryinteresting,tojustendupwithalistofpeoplewith
reputationsforpower.Youwanttoknowtheirconnections,theirpolicyinvolvements,and
theiropinionsonthemajorissues.
Thereputationalmethodworksbestatthecommunityorcitylevel,whereitislessexpensive
andtimeconsumingtoapplythanatthestateornationallevel.Itisespeciallyvaluablefor
smalltownswhereverylittleprintedinformationisavailable.However,themethodhasbeen
usedwithgoodresultsintwostudiesofnationalpowerintheUnitedStates,andinstudiesof
AustraliaandNorway.ThetwoAmericanstudiesarebyFloydHunter,TopLeadershipUSA

(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1957)andGwenMoore,"TheStructureofa
NationalEliteNetwork,"AmericanSociologicalReview,44(1979):67392.TheAustralian
studyisbyJohnHigley,DesleyDeacon,andDonSmart,ElitesinAustralia(London:
RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1979).TheNorwegianstudyisbyJohnHigley,G.LowellField,
andKnutGroholt,EliteStructureandIdeology(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1976).ForasummaryofreputationalstudiesatthelocallevelintheUnitedStates,seeG.
WilliamDomhoff,WhoReallyRules?NewHavenandCommunityPowerReExamined(New
Brunswick,NJ:TransactionBooks,1978).Thatfinalbookmayseemoutofdate,butthesad
truthisthattherehaven'tbeenmanydetailedstudiesoflocalpowerstructuresinthepastfew
decades.Foronerecentexceptionthatincludesnewreferences,seeRichardGendronandG.
WilliamDomhoff,TheLeftmostCity:PowerandProgressivePoliticsinSantaCruz
(Westview,2009).SeealsothesectiononPowerattheLocalLevelonthissite.

AnalyzingPowerStructures
Nowthatmembershipnetworkanalysisandcontentanalysishavebeenexplained,and
sourcesofinformationhavebeenoutlined,itisalsopossibletoprovideagenericdefinitionof
a"powerstructure,"whichmightbeusefulasanintroductiontoanystudythatyoudo,
especiallyifitisforacollegecourse.Apowerstructureisthenetworkofpeopleand
institutionsinthecityornationunderstudythatstandsatthetoponthepowerindicatorsit
waspossibletoutilizeinthestudy(thepowerindicatorsare"WhoBenefits?","Who
Governs?","WhoWins?",and"AReputationforPower").Seethedocumentinthissite
entitled"BasicsofStudyingPower"foradiscussionofthesepowerindicators.

AppendixA:IndicatorsofUpperClassStanding
CoedandBoys'Schools

Girls'Schools

Asheville(Asheville,NC)
Buckley(NewYork,NY)
Cate(Carpinteria,CA)
CatlinGabel(Portland,OR)
Choate(Wallingford,CT)
CountryDaySchool(St.Louis,MO)
Cranbrook(BloomfieldHills,MI)
Deerfield(Deerfield,MA)
EpiscopalHigh(Alexandria,VA)
Gilman(Baltimore,MD)
Groton(Groton,MA)
Hill(Pottstown,PA)
Hotchkiss(Lakeville,CT)
Kent(Kent,CT)
LakeForest(LakeForest,IL)
Lakeside(Seattle,WA)
Lawrenceville(Lawrenceville,NJ)
Middlesex(Concord,MA)
Milton(Milton,MA)
Pomfret(Pomfret,CT)
Punahou(Honolulu,HI)
PortsmouthPriority(Portsmouth,RI)
St.Andrew's(Middlebury,DE)
St.Christopher's(Richmond,VA)
St.George's(Newport,RI)
St.Mark's(Southborough,MA)
St.Paul's(Concord,NH)
Shattuck(Fairbault,MN)
Taft(Watertown,CT)
Thatcher(Ojai,CA)
UniversitySchool(Cleveland,OH)
Webb(BellBuckle,TN)

AbbotAcademy(Andover,MA)
AgnesIrwin(Wynnewood,PA)
AnnaHead(Berkeley,CA)
AnnieWright(Tacoma,WA)
AshleyHall(Charleston,SC)
Baldwin(BrynMawr,PA)
BerkeleyInstitute(Brooklyn,NY)
Bishop's(LaJolla,CA)
Brearly(NewYork,NY)
Brimmer'sandMay(ChestnutHill,MA)
BrookeHill(Birmingham,AL)
BrynMawr(Baltimore,MD)
Chapin(NewYork,NY)
ChathamHall(Chatham,VA)
Collegiate(Richmond,VA)
ConcordAcademy(Concord,MA)
ConventoftheSacredHeart(NewYork,NY)
Dalton(NewYork,NY)
DanaHall(Wellesley,MA)
EmmaWillard(Troy,NY)
EthelWalker(Simsbury,CT)
Foxcroft(Middleburg,VA)
GarrisonForest(Garrison,MD)
HathawayBrown(Cleveland,OH)
Hockaday(Dallas,TX)
KatherineBranson(Ross,CA)
Kingswood(BloomfieldHills,MI)
Kinkaid(Houston,TX)
LakeForestCountryDay(LakeForest,IL)
Laurel(Cleveland,OH)
LouiseS.McGehee(NewOrleans,LA)
Madeira(Greenway,VA)

Westminster(Atlanta,GA)
WoodberryForest(WoodberryForest,VA)

CountryandMen'sClubs
Arlington(Portland,OR)
Bohemian(SanFrancisco,CA)
Boston(NewOrleans,LA)
Brook(NewYork,NY)
BurlingameCountryClub(SanFrancisco,CA)
California(LosAngeles,CA)
ChagrinValleyHunt(Cleveland,OH)
Charleston(Charleston,SC)
Chicago(Chicago,IL)
Cuyamuca(SanDiego,CA)
Denver(Denver,CO)
Detroit(Detroit,MI)
EagleLake(Houston,TX)
Everglades(PalmBeach,CA)
Hartford(Hartford,CT)
Hope(Providence,RI)
Idlewild(Dallas,TX)
Knickerbocker(NewYork,NY)
Links(NewYork,NY)
Maryland(Baltimore,MD)
Milwaukee(Milwaukee,WI)
Minneapolis(Minneapolis,MN)
PacificUnion(SanFrancisco,CA)
Philadelphia(Philadelphia,PA)
PiedmontDriving(Atlanta,GA)
PipingRock(NewYork,NY)
RacquetClub(St.Louis,MO)
Rainier(Seattle,WA)
RichmondGerman(Richmond,VA)
Rittenhouse(Philadelphia,PA)
River(NewYork,NY)
RollingRock(Pittsburgh,PA)
Saturn(Buffalo,NY)
St.Cecelia(Charleston,SC)
St.LouisCountyClub(St.Louis,MO)
Somerset(Boston,MA)
Union(Cleveland,OH)
WoodhillCountryClub(Minneapolis,MN)

Marlborough(LosAngeles,CA)
MaryInstitute(St.Louis,MO)
Master's(DobbsFerry,NY)
MissHall's(Pittsfield,MA)
MissHewitt's(NewYork,NY)
MissPorter's(Farmington,CT)
Mt.VernonSeminary(Washington,DC)
RosemaryHall(Greenwich,CT)
SalemAcademy(WinstonSalem,NC)
Shipley(BrynMawr,PA)
Spence(NewYork,NY)
St.AgnesEpiscopal(Alexandria,VA)
St.Catherine's(Richmond,VA)
St.Mary'sHall(SanAntonio,TX)
St.Nicholas(Seattle,WA)
St.Timothy's(Stevenson,MD)
StuartHall(Staunton,VA)
WalnutHill(Natick,MA)
Westminster(Atlanta,GA)
Westover(Middlebury,CT)
Westridge(Pasadena,CA)

Women'sClubs
Acorn(Philadelphia,PA)
Chilton(Boston,MA)
Colony(NewYork,NY)
Fortnightly(Chicago,IL)
Friday(Chicago,IL)
Mt.VernonClub(Baltimore,MD)
SocietyofColonialDames
Sulgrave(Washington,DC)
Sunset(Seattle,WA)
Vincent(Boston,MA)

FirstpostedMay2009updatedOctober2012

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