The Stress, Material, and Physical

Properties of Car Bodies in Engineering;

with Analysis of Crumple Zones, Isolated
Systems, Safety Mechanisms, Photoelasticity, Collisions, and Drag Force
Introduction to Collisions in 1D and 2D
Impulse and momentum are concepts in physics which play a large role in the manufacturing
and design of vehicles. When a collision occurs between two objects, an object experiences a force for a
given amount of time, resulting in the mass of the object having a change in velocity. This results in the
change in momentum. This is known as the impulse-momentum change theorem.
Within an isolated system, when two objects of the same mass are to collide, the initial velocity
before the collision of the first object will equal the final velocity of the second object. This is dependent
on it being an elastic collision:

2
= (
+ (

)
)
1
1
+
+ 2
0
2
+ ( )

= ( )
1
2
2 2
2

= ( )
2 2
=

2
= (
+ (

)
)
2
2
+
+ 1
0
2
+ ( )

= ( )
2 2
2 1
2

= ( )
2 1
=

Within the system, momentum and kinetic energy are also perfectly conserved as external
forces are not present. Thus, energy cannot be exchanged to heat, friction, etc. Thus, according to the
law of conservation of kinetic energy; the total kinetic energy of two objects before a collision is equal
to the total kinetic energy of the two objects after the collision. Also, since the external forces are

minimalized (i.e. friction), the momentum will also be perfectly conserved. The following formulas show
the relation:
=
+
=
+

+
=
+

An example of this can be explained with the following: an extremely elastic ball is compressed
during a collision, which stores energy in the ball. In a perfectly elastic collision, this potential energy is
converted back to kinetic energy when the ball decompresses, at the end of the collision.
Although, there are also different circumstances in which objects can collide. These situations
are when objects collide at an angle, or at a different x- position when the y- position remains the same,
and vice-versa. Thus, an elastic collision in two dimensions between two objects in an isolated system
will result in conserved momentum and kinetic energy as there are no external forces to play a role.
Also, as the difference in the initial distance of the first object in the y- position or x- position increases,
the resultant angle of the final velocity of the second object will be greater. This can be determined by
doing theoretical calculations for 2D elastic collisions, when the difference in the positions of the objects
are varied.
Conservation of momentum in 2D is simply momentum split into their components. The
momentum conservation in the x-direction yields:
=
+
=
+


The momentum conservation in the y-direction yields:
=
+
=
+


Thus, momentum is conserved in the 2D collisions.
Equations
The following are the basic equations which can be used in analysing 1D and 2D collisions
between two or more objects:

% = |

| 100%

+
=
+

= ;

+
=
+

= ;

= ; + = +
+
=
+

= ;

= (2 1 )2 + (2 1 )2
= (x)()

What is Momentum and Impulse, and how do they Influence the

Crumple Zone and Car Body Design?
Momentum is the mass of an object in motion at a certain velocity. As all objects have mass, an
object in motion would have momentum in the units: (mass units)*(velocity units), for example: kg*m/s.
Momentum is equal to mass times velocity, or p=m*v. Accordingly, momentum is directly proportional
to the objects mass, and to the objects velocity. Momentum is also a vector quantity, so it has
magnitude and direction. Thus, upon calculation of momentum, the direction must be determined using
a vector diagram which shows the directions and velocity of the object. Recall the Law of Conservation
of Momentum states that for a collision between two objects in an isolated system, the momentum of
the objects before the collision is equal to the total momentum of the objects after the collision;
meaning that the momentum lost by one object is gained by the other. Impulse is the change of
momentum, and is shown below. The following shows how momentum can be determined for a vehicle
in motion:
A car has a mass of 1818.452 kg and a velocity of 30 km/s east. What is the momentum?
The velocity must be converted to m/s. Thus, we multiply by 1,000 as 1,000m = 1km. Thus, the
resultant velocity is 30,000 m/s [E]. Use the formula: p = m*v.
p = m*v ; m = mass, v = velocity, p = impulse
p = (1,818.452 kg)*(30,000 m/s)
p = 54,553,560 kg*m/s [E]
When momentum is suddenly stopped (i.e. in an accident), it is equal to impulse. Change in
momentum is equal to the product of force and time for which it acts. Thus, this formula can be
rearranged:
Force = (change of momentum) / (time over which it acts)
Ft = mv
F = (mv) / (t) ; m = mass, v = change in velocity, t = change in time

The impulse is merely derived from Newtons second law, which states that the acceleration of
an object is directly proportional to the new force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the
mass of the object. It is given the equation: FNET = ma ; where FNET is the net force, m is the mass, and a
is the acceleration. Although, when this is combined with the definition of acceleration: a = v / t, it
results in the equation for impulse. In the momentum equation, if the equation mv is equal to
momentum, mv must be equal to change in momentum. Thus, impulse = change in momentum.
Basic analysis of the equation concludes that as the time of the collision is increased, the force is
decreased. Using the impulse calculated above (as impulse is equal to change in momentum), we can
analyse what would occur in a collision when varying the time. This means that during a collision, the
time of the collision would dissipate the energy of an impact and deaccelerate the car:
F = (mv) / (t)
= (54,553,560 kg*m/s) / 10 s
= 5,455,356 N of force
F = (mv) / (t)
= (54,553,560 kg*m/s) / 0.1 s
= 545,535,600 N of force

As it can be shown, crumple zones can play a large role in vehicle design and may be the reason
someone survives an accident. In the above two calculations, there is a difference of 540,080,244 N.
If crumple zones are thought of as springs (which is similar to the phenomenon that occurs
when a vehicle collides into a crumple zone), an even more exact representation of the force exerted.
This calculation is done using Hookes Law with linear springs. Hookes law states that the force (F) in
Newtons (N) needed to extend or compress a spring by a distance (x) in meters is proportional to that
distance, and k is the spring constant (which is a constant factor character of the spring) in N/m:
F = -kx
Stretch = 0.00406Force + 3.43x10-5
Based on analysis of the slope and y-intercept of the force plotted against the stretch of
a spring.

Using Hookes Law, we can calculate the different the crumple zone makes in these different situations:
1. When there is no crumple zone (similar to the time during the collision being 0.1 s)
2. When the crumple zone is small (0.1 m) and time of impact is small (1 s) with a large spring
constant (10,000 N/m; meaning the material used in the crumple zone is very stiff and not easily
compressible)
3. When the crumple zone is large (0.5 m) and time of impact is large (10 s) with small spring
constant (1000 N/m; meaning the material used in the crumple zone is not stiff and easily
compressible)
It will be assumed that a car has a mass of 1818.452 kg and a velocity of 30 km/h in all
circumstances, and that the collision occurs in an isolated system.
Situation 1:
p = m*v

= (1,818.452 kg)*(30,000 m/s)

= 54,553,560 kg*m/s
F = (mv) / (t)
= (54,553,560 kg*m/s) / 0.1 s

F = 545,535,600 N
Situation 2:
p = m*v
= (1,818.452 kg)*(30,000 m/s)
= 54,553,560 kg*m/s
F = (mv) / (t)
= (54,553,560 kg*m/s) / 1 s
= 54,553,560 N
F = -kx
= - (10,000 N/m)(0.1 m)
= -1000 N
FNET = 54,553,560 N + (-1000 N)

F = 54,552,560 N
Situation 3:
p = m*v
= (1,818.452 kg)*(30,000 m/s)
= 54,553,560 kg*m/s
F = (mv) / (t)
= (54,553,560 kg*m/s) / 10 s
= 5,455,356 N
F = -kx
= - (5000 N/m)(0.5 m)
= -2500 N
FNET = 5,455,356 N + (-2500 N)

F = 5,452,856 N

As seen by the calculations, the situation where: the crumple zone is large (0.5 m) and time of
impact is large (10 s) with small spring constant (1000 N/m; meaning the material used in the crumple
zone is not stiff and easily compressible), is the situation which yielded the least amount of force to the
vehicle in a collision. This highlights the importance of crumple zones in vehicles, and how safety is
increased due to the dissipation of energy (from kinetic energy into less lethal heat and sound) and
force, and acceleration of the colliding car decreasing over time. The force exerted in a collision is
inversely proportional to the time the collision takes. Thus, increasing the crumple zone would increase
the overall time of the collision and decrease the force.

History and Theory of Crumple Zones

Crumple zones were researched in the 1950s, with an increase in automobile sales and
accidents. Studies showed that rigid bodies did not allow for many deformations during collisions. Thus,
the impact and forces from a collision (increased due to weight of cars at the time as well, due to rigid
bodies of steel beams) were transferred to the occupants of the car. This resulted in most accidents
being fatal. In 1953, the first crumple zones were implemented on vehicles by Mercedes-Benz. The
engineer behind the crumple zone, with years of research he had done on them, was Bla Barnyi. The
car it was implemented on was the Mercedes W 120. In 1967, the Mercedes Heckflosse was the
first mass production vehicle to include a larger crumple zone, large trunk (for rear crumple
zone), and a safety cage built into the body.

Due to Newtons first law, stating that an object in motion will stay in motion as the same
speed and in the same direction, unless acted on by an external force, we know that bodies in a car will
also be traveling at the same speed of the car as they would be in an inertial frame of reference (when
acceleration is 0, and velocity is uniform). They would think that velocity is either 0 or constant due to
Einsteins first postulate in his theory of special relativity:
The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these
changes of state be referred to the one or the other of two systems of coordinates in uniform
translatory motion. OR: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
This means that there is no experiment one can conduct which can determine if an object is at
rest or at constant velocity if it is being conducted from within a box with either of the two conditions, in
an inertial frame of reference. However, in a non-inertial frame of reference, the bodies will feel the
change in velocity due to acceleration. This is why when there is a collision and a car is going at a
constant velocity of 50 m/s, all objects in the car are moving at the same velocity relative to the ground.
When the car stops abruptly, the objects are still moving at that velocity resulting in injuries. It is due
to a sudden deceleration of the vehicle. Although, if this deceleration occurred over time, there would
be less force on the vehicle and the objects in the car would be able to slow down.

Placed in the front and rear of cars, crumple zones absorb the energy during an impact and
dissipates it over a larger surface area (meaning crumple zones of a larger width and length are better at
absorbing energy and dissipating the energy and force), and change the energy into different forms (i.e.
sound, heat, elastic (due to the crumpling action of the crumple zone), etc.
The Pininfarina Nido Concept

This concept shows how the impact force can be minimized to a rider. It is comprised of three
parts: the cell, sled, and absorber. It takes properties from elastic force to minimize the impact in a
head-on collision.

The effect of a mass between the two springs is similar to a sinusoidal function, however, over time the
force dissipates into other forms of energy and there is a dampening effect as the mass reaches its
equilibrium effect:

In this model, the impact energy and force are absorbed by the circular cell in which every component is
located. The sled moves back and forth to dampen the remaining force and impact. It works in a similar
way to shock absorbers on vehicles, but in a horizontally linear orientation.

Airbags
Airbags have the same principal of crumple zones. They minimize the time over which the
impact takes place. Although, since bodies in the vehicle have their own inertia, they try to decrease the
acceleration of the human body through a compressive air bag. This drastically reduces the force, which
would otherwise swing ones head forward at the speed the car was moving, while the body stayed in
place due to seatbelts.

Isolated Systems Use in Prediction of Physical Properties in Vehicle Collisions

Isolated systems imply that the object or matter within the confined system does not interact,
interfere, or is affected by external forces in the universe. This includes friction, gravity, etc. Although,
there is no such system known as it is impossible to ignore gravity and electromagnetic forces in the
universe. This theoretical system does allow for the clarification and analysis of laws in physics and
different situations (i.e. a radial engine turning, the power output of an engine, etc.). This is because it
can be presumed that the conservation laws are exact and accurate within the system as the mechanical
properties of the system do not change; conservation laws which result are the basics of mechanics and
play a role in the simulation of cars. The laws are: Conservation of Energy, Conservation of Momentum,
Conservation of Angular Momentum, and Newtons Third Law.
This principal is used in car design as it can allow for computer simulation as to how only certain
physical properties will affect the vehicle (i.e. gravitational and normal force). It can also allow for
analysis of friction within the isolated system. Software such as Autodesk Inventor have simulation
models in which fluid, air, and force simulations can be done on a certain assembly or part. This would
allow for an in-depth analysis of how the forces affect that specific object in an isolated system. For car

bodies, a wind tunnel simulation can be run to see how the air bends around the vehicle and where
there is the most amount of force applied by air resistance. This force variation can be caused by a large
surface area directly opposing the airs motion. It can be reduced by having pockets for the air to pass
through the vehicle, or by having curves of a specified radius to allow the air to bend around an object.
This reduces the drag (a type of friction caused by air). The included files of the V12 Engine and Radial
Engine have the simulations of applied forces done on it. The applied forces allow for an analysis of
where there are significant points of stress, and how much psi (lbf/in2) there is applied.
The process is similar to photo-elastic experimental stress analysis on a plastic model. The
process is also used in some cases, and it is a process we have experimented with in Technological
Design. The process was typically used in the early 20th century, but is not used now due to computer
aided design software having more accurate analysis, and due to the cost for photo-elasticity being
extremely high. The tools required to accurately analyse a product using photo-elasticity would be
expensive due to the whole model being made out of photo-elastic materials, and the methods for
analysis varying. Also, the product would need to be scaled down, and the experimental forces being
analysed on the object would also need to be made proportional to the object. The material cannot
keep memory of the varying degrees of colour, meaning highly sensitive cameras or other equipment
would need to analyse the object as it is being tested with experimental forces. In conclusion, to analyse
car bodies using photo-elastic materials would be extremely inefficient especially with the invention of
wind tunnels, which can simulate drag and other forces. Although, some products are still engineered
with photo-elastic materials. These include hooks, scaled-down buildings, etc. This is to visually see how
the product distorts with force, and for engineers to find ways to counter the points of stress. The rough
models can also be put in wind tunnels for analysis as they would be too large otherwise (i.e. buildings).
Photo-elastic Manual Stress Analysis in Engineering
The use of photo-elastic materials in stress analysis are useful the products can be frozen to
retain the stress profiles exerted on the object and the photo-elastic coating.

The process is extremely useful for objects with multiple geometric faces and angles, resulting in
complicated stress load conditions. Analysis of stress using analytical methods and mathematics/physics
may be cumbersome or impossible due to this complexity. Thus, a physical representation of the stress
would be more appropriate, time-saving, and more efficient. Analytical analysis is still more appropriate
and exact with two dimensional, elastic, and static problems and photo-elasticity. However, with three
dimensional problems, multiple assemblies, dynamic loading, and inelastic materials a more
experimental analysis would yield better results. The use of photo-elasticity uses light rays on photoelastic materials or coatings to determine stress and deformations in elastic bodies (when using only
photo-elastic materials) and inelastic bodies (when using photo-elastic coatings).

Photo-elastic behavior is dependent on the basic principles of light waves and polarization. It
relies on the properties of some transparent materials. When a model is stressed, a ray of light enters
along one of the directions of the principal stress. The light is then divided into two component waves,
each vibrating in a plane of polarization in parallel to one of the two remaining planes on which the
stress is zero. As the medium is different, and the light is polarized and refracted, the velocities of the
two rays are different. The velocity change is largely dependent on the principal stress in the photoelastic material. The light waves are resolved into two components (due to the photo-elastic material
acting as a semi-prism object). Due to the different velocities, the waves also have a phase difference
and are out of phase. This results in constructive and destructive interference depending on the
principal stress. Due to the waves having the same frequency, the wavelength in the material is also
different. This results in relative retardation; the different between the numbers of wave cycles
experienced by the two rays traveling inside the body. The following figure shows this phenomena:

This phenomenon is the same as what happens to light in a prism. It is double refraction, as the
light is split into components and refracted when entering the prism, and when exiting.

Although, in photo-elastic materials, this double refraction is dependent on the principal stress applied,
rather than the material. This refraction can be analytically analysed by using Snells Law in the following
example, which analyses light being refracted in a prism:

When a ray of light enters the following glass triangular prism, it is refracted as it passes through the
first face, and refracted again as it passes through the second face. Calculate the angles of refraction for
a blue light with an angle of incidence of 40.0 degrees, and an index of refraction of 1.47, with the index
of refraction for air being 1.0003. Then calculate the angle of incidence at the right boundary of the
prism, and the angle of refraction as the light exits the prism.
Given: n2 blue = 1.47, nair = 1.0003, = 40.0
Required: 2 blue , 3 blue , 4 blue
Formula: n1sin1 = n2sin2
Solution:
Sin2 blue = (n1sin1/n2 blue)
= (1.0003)sin40.0/ 1.47
2 blue = 25.94

The angle of refraction at the left boundary of the prism is 25.94 for the blue light.
3 blue = 60.0- 2 blue
= 60.0 - 25.94
3 blue = 34.06

The angle of incidence at the right boundary of the prism is 34.06 for the blue light.
sin4 blue = (n2 blue sin3 blue / n1)
= (1.47)(sin34.06) / 1.0003
4 blue = 55.4

The angle of refraction of the blue light as it exits the prism is 55.4

This shows that the dispersion of light plays a large affect in photo-elastic materials and
temporary double refraction. Under stress, the effect on the isotropic material can become anisotropic.
Under compression, there is negative uniaxial crystal. Under tension, there is positive uniaxial crystal.
The optical axis would be in the direction of the stress, and the induced birefringence is proportional to
stress.

White, or polarized light (light which vibrates in only one plane due to polarization and the use
of analysers) is used for illumination as a colorful fringe pattern reveals the points of stress at varying
degrees in the material. Below is an example of the polarized light used, which results in the following
pattern on an object:

Using monochromatic light allows for better distinction between fringes, but does not show the
different colorful fringe patterns. The darker/ denser fringes however show the more concentrated
stress points. The more concentrated/ darker the fringe, the more stress there is on that specific point.
The following is a photo-elastic object illuminated with monochromatic light:

The following are examples of how photo-elastic stress analysis in materials can aid in
engineering and design. This process is typically used in bridge design as it shows significant points of
stress using the colourful fringes, or dark fringes with monochromatic light.

Photo-elastic materials due have some drawbacks. There are a variety of sensitive factors which
could affect the fringe pattern and concentration. These include thickness of the material/coating, room
temperature, Youngs Module, Poissons ratio, etc. The following table shows the most common types
of materials used in photo-elastic material testing:

Due to the vast array of equations needed to calculate the specific force of stress at a point on photoelastic materials, only the common Stress-Optic Law by Maxwell will be used. It analyses the stress in a
linear elastic material. Maxwell concluded that indices of refraction are linearly proportional. This
equation does require the calculation of three states of stress, by measuring three principal indices of
refraction, and then determining the principal optical axis used in the polarized light used to illuminate
the material (as polarized light vibrates in only one plane):

Stress Optic Law

n1 n0 = c1o1+c2(o2+o3)
n2 n0 = c1o2+c2(o3+o1)
n3 n0 = c1o3+c2(o1+o2)
Where:
o1 , o2 , o3 = principal stress at a specific point being measured
no = index of refraction of material or coating when unstressed
n1 , n2 , n3 = principal indices of refraction, where the subscript coincides with the principal stress direction
c1 , c2 , c3 = stress optic coefficient.
Other Stress and Material Testing Methods used in Engineering and Vehicle Part Testing
Transducers
The use of transducers in automobile testing is for measuring torque in a part or assembly with
an accuracy of 0.1% of the full range. This also allows for calibrations. They are electronic devices which
use the law of conservation of energy to convert energy from one form to another. As vehicles are not
tested in a completely isolated system, there is room for error and loss in accuracy as described above. A
basic formula is:
E% = 100Q/P
Where:
E% = efficiency percentage
Q = power output
P = power input

Cryogenic Testing of Materials

Cryogenic testing of materials measures the stress and cracking/breaking point of materials at
cryogenic temperatures. It is useful in analysing if vehicle parts will fail for crack in extremely cold
temperatures. It also allows for materials engineering departments to choose the best materials for a
vehicle. When buying a vehicle in Northern Canada, buyers will often see statistics of what temperatures

the vehicle can withstand. It can also be used to identify materials as each material has different
properties.

Static Load Testing

Static load testing is similar to point load testing. A car part is subjected to equally distributed or
point force to analyse the stress, breaking point, and bend it will cause at specific points. This data is
electronically recorded by the machines through algorithms and useful in engineering. The force and
point of force applied can be varied.

Collisions in Vehicles
There are many types of collisions which can occur between vehicles. The most common being
the head-on elastic collision. Perfectly Elastic Head-on Collision in One Dimension: an impact in which
two objects approach each other from opposite directions; momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved after the collision. In a perfectly elastic collision, the kinetic energy is also conserved. In an
inelastic collision, the total kinetic energy is not conserved, but total energy always is conserved. In a
glancing collision, the collision is in two dimensions. The objects travel at angles after impact. The laws
of conservation of momentum and conservation of kinetic energy remain the same for collisions in two
dimensions. The following examples on how to do collisions for the following are from the Nelson
Physics 12 textbook:

Drag Force
The drag force on a vehicle is the air resistance on a vehicle when it has a velocity. Dra is a
problem for all cars as this force of friction slows down the car and causes the engine to exert more
force. Drag can also cause lift, which makes small cars very unstable as they may be lifted off the ground
due to air moving under and around the object at very high speeds. Aerodynamics is the study of how
gases interact with moving bodies, and people in this field primarily try to minimize lift and drag on
vehicles. The drag coefficient is a dimensionless quantity which describes the degree of the drag on an
object in a fluid environment (i.e. air or water). Drag force is a fluid concept, and as air and gasses are
fluids.
Drag is only present when an object is moving. In a circumstance when there is no wind, the
force/power exerted by an engine can be compared to the frictional force from air. As an engine uses
more power to counter the drag force and reach the required velocity, there is more gas required. At
high speeds, the ratio of the engines power output to the drag is a greater worry than the power-to-

weight ratio of the car. At lower speeds, drag is insignificant. Drag is the main force that limits the top
speed of vehicles due to the engine not exerting enough power to overcome the drag force.

Though one study on drag forces affecting vehicles, it was concluded that rear screens and rear
fairing allow for a more aerodynamic vehicle. Rear screens allow for a reduction of aerodynamic drag by
up to 6.5%. The efficiency in reducing drag by a rear fairing can be up to 26%. Other ways to reduce
aerodynamic drag is to have a car body be very aerodynamic with a bullet shaped, curved body so air
can easily flow over the body. The obstruction by objects such as the door handle and mirrors causes

significant drag as they are wide, and abruptly cut the path of the air. The less surface area the car has
from the front view would decrease drag.

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