ie TURBINESInformation contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its author shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Tata McGraw-Hill © 2003, 1999 Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited Seventh reprint 2006 RCXXCRBKRCZAX ‘No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-053466-7 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at Pushp Print Services, Delhi 110 053 Cover: Pushp Print ServicesContents Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition ix Nomenclature x 1_Introduction 1 L1_Prime Movers J 1.2 Simple Gas Turbine _3 Review Questions 5 ny Review of Basic Principles 7 2.1__Introduction 7 2.3_Energy Equation /5 2.4 Fluid Dynamics 20 Review Questions 26 we Fundamentals of Rotating Machines 27 3.1_Introduction 27 3.2__General Fluid Dynamics Analysis 27 3.3 The Physical Meaning of the Energy Equation 3] 3.5__General Thermodynamic Analysis 34 3.6 Efficiency of Rotating Machines 36 3.7__ Dimensional Analysis of Rotating Machines 37 3.8__Elementary Airfoil Theory 44 Review Questions 50xii Contents 4 Cycle Arrangements 51 4.1 Introduction 5/7 42 en Cycle ements 51 4.3 The Closed Cycle _57 4.4 Basic Requirements of the Working Medium 60 4.5 Properties of Various Working Media _60 4.6 Applications 61 4.7 Comparison of Gas Turbines with Reciprocating Engines 63 “Review Questions 65 5 Ideal Cycles and their Analysis 67 5.1_Introduction _67 5.2__ Assumptions in Ideal Cycle Analysis 68 5.3 The Simple Gas Turbine Cycle 68 5.4 The Heat Exchange Cycle 72 5.5 The Reheat Cycle 75 5.6 The Reheat and Heat Exchange Cycle 79 5.7__ The Intercooled Cycle 8&/ 5.8 The Intercooled Cycle with Heat Exchanger 84 5.9 The Intercooled and Reheat Cycle 86 5.10 Intercooled Cycle with Heat Exchange and Reheat 89 5.11 Comparison of Various Cycles _9/ 5.12 Ericsson Cycle 93 : Worked out Examples 94 Review Questions 120 Exercise 122 6 Practical Cycles and their Analysis 127 6.1 Introduction 127 6.2 Assumptions /27 : 6.3 Stagnation Properties 128 / 6.4 Compressor and Turbine Efficiency 129 6.6 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness /38 6.7 Effect of Varying Mass Flow 140 6.8 Effect of Variable Specific Heat_14/ 6.9 Mechanical Losses /42 6.10 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion _/42 Copyrighted materialContents xiii 6.11 Cycle Efficiency 743 6.12 Polytropic Efficiency 144 6.13 Performance of Actual Cycle 148 Worked out Examples 162 Review Questions 20/ Exercise 202 Jet Propulsion Cycles and Their Analysis 211 L1__Introduction 2/1 7.2__The Ramjet Engine 2/4 73 The Pulse Jet Engine 220 74 The Turboprop Engine 224 7.5 The Turbojet Engine 227 7.6 Thrust and Thrust Equation 236 7.7__Specific Thrust of the Turbojet Engine 238 18 Efficiencies 239 7.9 Parameters Affecting Flight Performance 247 7.10 Thrust Augmentation 249 Worked out Examples 256 Review Questions 276 Exercise 278 Centrifugal Compressors 283 8.1 Introduction 283 8.2 Essential Parts of a Centrifugal Compressor 285 8.3 Principle of Operation 288 8.4 Ideal Energy Transfer 29] 8.5 Blade Shapes and Velocity Triangles 292 8.6 Analysis of Flow through the Compressor 295 8.7 Diffuser 309 8.8 Volute Casing 313 8.9 Performance Parameter 3/5 8.10 Losses in Centrifugal Compressors 3/7 8.11 Compressor Characteristics 318 8.12 Surging and Choking 3/8 Worked out Examples 32/ Review Questions 335 Exercise 336xiv Contents 9 Axial Flow Compressors 341 9.1 Introduction 34] 9.2 Historical Background 342 9.3 Geometry and Working Principle 343 9.4 Stage Velocity Triangles 344 9.5 Work Done Factor 349 9.6 Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram 35] 9.7 Compressor Stage Efficiency 352 9.8 Performance Coefficients 353 9.9 Degree of Reaction 355 9.10 Flow through Blade Rows 36/ 9.11 Flow Losses 364 9.12 Stage Losses 367 9.13 Pressure Rise Calculation in a Blade Ring 368 9.14 Performance Characteristics 370 Worked out Examples 377 Review Questions 397 Exercise 398 10 Combustion Systems 403 10.1 Introduction 403 10.2 Combustion Theory Applied to Gas Turbine Combustor 404 10.3 Factors Affecting Combustion Chamber Design 408 10.4 Factors Affecting Combustion Chamber Performance 409 10.5 Form of Combustion System 414 10.6 Requirements of the Combustion Chamber _4/5 10.7 The Process of Combustion in a Gas Turbine 4/7 10.8 Combustion Chamber Geometry 4/9 10.9 Mixing and Dilution 422 10.10 Combustion Chamber Arrangements 423 10.11 Some Practical Problems 425 Review Questions 434 11 Impulse and Reaction Turbines 435 1L1 Introduction 435 11.2 A Single Impulse Stage 436 11,3 A Single Reaction Stage 437 11.4 Multistage Machines 438Contents xv 11.5 Velocity Triangles of a Single Stage Machine 439 11.6 Expression for Work Output_44/ 11.7 Blade loading and flow coefficients 442 11.8 Blade and Stage Efficiencies 442 11.9 Maximum Utilization Factor for a Single Impulse Stage 443 11.10 Velocity-compounding of Multistage Impulse Turbine 446 11.11 Pressure Compounding of Multistage Impulse Turbine 450 11.12 The Reaction Turbine 451 11.13 Multistage Reaction Turbines 452 11.14 Blade-to-Gas Speed Ratio 466 11.15 Losses and Efficiencies 468 11.16 Performance Graphs 469 Worked out Examples 47] Review Questions 482 Exercise 482 12.1 Introduction 485 12.3 Subsonic Inlets 486 ‘12.5 Supersonic Inlets_49/ 12.6 Exhaust Nozzles 493 Review Questions 503 13 Blades 5S 12.1 Introduction 505 13.2 Blade Materials 505 13.3 Manufacturing Techniques 507 13.4 Blade Fixing 5/4 13.5 Problems of High ‘Temperature Operation 5/7 13.6 Blade Cooling 519 13.7 Liquid Cooling 52] 13.8 Air Cooling 522 3.9 Practi irc B 52 Review Questions 528xvi Contents 14 Component Matching and Performance Evaluation 529 14.1 Introduction 529 2 Pork c) istics 532 14.3 Equilibrium Running Diagram 533 14.4 To Find the Equilibrium Points 535 14.5 Procedure to find Equilibrium Point 537 14.6 Performance Evaluation of Single-spool Turbojet Engine 539 14.7 Operating Line 544 14.8 General Matching Procedure 55/ 14.9 Transient Operation 554 Review Questions 555 15 Environmental Considerations and Applications 557 15.1 Introduction 557 15.2 Air Pollution 557 15.4 Stationary Engine Emission Standards 564 15.5 NOx Formation 567 15.6 NOx Reduction in Stationary Engines 569 15.7 Noise 570 15.8 Noise Standards 573 15.9 Noise Reduction 576 15.10 Assessment of the Gas Turbine 578 15.11 Typical Applications of Gas Turbines 58] 15.12 The Small Gas Turbine Applications 58/ 15.13 Electric Power Generation Applications 582 15.14 Marine Application 583 15.15 Gas Pumping Applications 584 15.16 Locomotive Applications 584 15.17 Automotive Applications 585 15.18 Aircraft Applications 586 15.19 Process Applications 586 15.20 Additional Features of Gas Turbine Engines 587 15.21 Trends in the Future Dévelopment 59/ Review Questions 592Contents xvii 16 Rocket Propulsion 593 16.1 Introduction 593 16.2 Classification of Rockets 595 16.3 Principle of Rocket Propulsion 596 16.4 Analysis of an Ideal Chemical Rocket 597 16.5 Optimum Expansion Ratio for Rocket 600 16.6 The Chemical Rocket 602 16.7 Advantages of Liquid Propellant Rockets over Solid Propellant Rockets 6/5 16.8 Free Radical Propulsion 6/6 16.9 Nuclear Propulsion 6/6 16.10 Electro Dynamic Propulsion 617 16.11 Photon Propulsion 622 Review Questions 622 Appendix 624 Index. 6289 age Q x RFF wae es bots ~ 2 P NOMENCLATURE area nozzle area velocity of sound in air absolute velocity exhaust velocity from the nozzle specific heat at constant pressure specific heat at constant volume calorific value diameter of the blade diameter of the duct characteristic linear dimension drag activation energy energy energy transfer Fanning’s co-efficient of skin friction fuel-air ratio resultant force thrust. enthalpy Stagnation enthalpy Net calorific value of the fuel Enthalpy of the reaction indicated mean effective pressure impulse ratio of specific heat thermal conductivityxx Gas Turbines et SSeS SEES OOM RR LF NU Ss Pras ss OO > S Hee 8 See RAO bulk modulus of elasticity constant characteristic length length lift mass flow rate molecules Mach number mass mean molecular weight impeller tip diameter/eye tip diameter number of blades polytropic index speed pressure power input propulsive power pressure loss coefficient flow work done heat input heat supplied volume flow rate blade radius pressure ratio compressor pressure ratio degree of reaction resultant force universal gas constant Reynolds number entropy specific fuel consumption blade pitch temperature ratio time temperature torque peripheral velocity specific internal energy internal energyv specific volume w relative velocity Ww work Y loss coefficient z number of blades Zz potential energy GREEK a absolute air angle a acceleration of the rocket a effective speed ratio B relative air angle Ah change in enthalpy Ah, enthalpy of reaction AP pressure loss € effectiveness € utilization factor En pressure loss coefficient n efficiency Npe polytropic efficiency of compressor Noe polytropic efficiency of turbine 4 ratio of specific heats LM dynamic viscosity L slip factor v kinematic viscosity angular speed MoIASESOOOE empirical factor work done factor flow coefficient pressure coefficient loading coefficient density mean molecular diameter shear stress angle enthalpy loss coefficient. Nomenclature xxixxii Gas Turbines SUFFIX a air al axial velocity at inlet act actual adia adiabatic am mean axial amb ambient atm atmosphere A angularity 6 combustion B blade ¢ total head pressure ratio during compression Cact actual work of compression Ca actual work input carnot Carnot comb combustion compressor diameter of wheel diffuser diffuser blade row discharge drag fuel finite process PW EET ZSS SHS oOOoOLAg gs ideal if loss lpe Ipt m mar infinitesimal reversible process acceleration due to gravity gas gross thrust coefficient hub high pressure compressor high pressure turbine inlet inlet casing ideal input factor jet loss low pressure compressor low pressure turbine lift mean maximummech min noz ram mechanical minimum number of blades nozzle net. ambient overall stagnation property optimum pressure propulsive polytropic power turbine power rotor radial velocity ram rotor blade relative rotor blade row shaft slip specific stage static standard tip actual work of turbine tangential velocity at inlet thermal turbine work with losses mean tangential transmission transmission turbine actual work of expansion turbine power velocity volume maximum workdone Work transfer per unit mass flow Nomenclature xxiii1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PRIME MOVERS The distinctive feature of our civilization, one that makes it different from all others, is the wide use of power from mechanical means. At one time the primary source of power, or prime mover, for the work of peace and war was chiefly man’s muscles. Even after animals had been trained to help and after the wind and running streams had been harnessed, man was mainly depending on his muscle power. But when he learned to convert the heat of chemical reactions into mechanical energy, it revolutionized the world. Machines which serve this purpose are known as heat engines. The first heat engine to have a revolutionary effect was the gun. It is perhaps hard to realize that the vital difference between the bow and the gun was the substitution of gunpowder for the bowman’s muscles, because the musket was much inferior to the bow in range and accuracy. In principle, the gun is the ancestor of our internal combustion piston engines. Another revolution began when Watt perfected the steam piston engine. Here, an intermediate working fluid was used, so that the products of combustion did not act directly on the moving parts of the mechanism. Later, the ancient principle of the turbine was adopted to steam, and the piston engine took the back seat. Among engines for the production of mechanical power there were, a few years ago, three principal competitors in the field: (i) the steam turbine plant, (ii) the diesel piston engine and (iii) the gasoline piston engine.2° Gas Turbines Steam turbine, since the beginning of its career around the turn of the nineteenth century, has become the most important prime mover for power generation and a widely used power plant for marine application. However, it has an inherent disadvantage of the need to produce high pressure, high temperature steam. This involves the installation of a bulky and expensive steam generating equipment, a boiler or a nuclear reactor. The hot gases produced in the boiler furnace or reactor core never reach the turbine. They merely are used to produce an intermediate working fluid, namely steam. Clearly, a much more compact power plant results when the water to steam step is eliminated and the hot gases themselves are used to drive the turbine. Diesel piston engines started replacing bulky steam power plants for power generation. Gasoline engines were used in early days for aircraft propulsion. A device known as the gas turbine came into existence to a limited extent in certain types of superchargers used with piston engines. The earliest patent on gas turbine was that of the Englishman, John Barber, in 1879. Early designs were unsuccessful, largely due to two factors: (i) the low efficiency of the compressors and (ii) the combustion temperature limitations imposed by the mate- tials then available. Serious development of the gas turbine began only after the sec- ond world war with shaft power in mind, but attention was soon shifted to the turbojet engine for aircraft propulsion. Since then, the gas turbine made a progressively greater impact in an increasing variety of applications. However, only in the recent past much research effort has been focused on the design and development of efficient gas turbine units. Of the various means of producing mechanical power available today the gas turbine, in many respects, seems to be the most satisfactory power plant. It is mainly due to (i) the absence of reciprocating and rubbing members which re- duces the vibration and balancing problems, (ii) high reliability, (iii) low lubricating oil consumption and (iv) high power to weight ratio.Introduction 3 1.2. SIMPLE GAS TURBINE In order to produce an expansion through a turbine a pressure ratio must be provided. Hence, the first necessary step in the cycle of a gas turbine plant must be compression of the working fluid. If, after the compression, the working fluid is to be expanded directly in the turbine and there were no losses in either component, the power developed by the turbine would just equal that absorbed by the compressor. Thus, if the two were coupled together, the combination. would do no more than turn itself round. The power developed by the turbine can be increased by the addi- tion of energy to raise the temperature of the fluid prior to expansion. When the working fluid is air, a very suitable means of doing this is by the combustion of fuel in the air which has been compressed. Expansion of hot working fluid then produces a greater power output from the turbine than the power necessary to drive the compressor. The three main components are, therefore, a compressor, a combus- tion chamber and a turbine, connected together as shown in Fig. 1.1. Fuel Combustion chamber Air Products of combustion —> a ae [ Powgr output Compressor Turbine Fig. 1.1 A simple gas turbine In a practical cycle, losses do occur in both the compressor and the turbine which increase the power absorbed by the compressor and decrease the power output of the turbine. A certain minimum addition of energy in the form of fuel to the fluid will therefore be re- quired before one component can drive the other. This fuel produces no useful power, due to component losses and lowering of efficiency of the machine. Further addition of fuel will result in a useful power4 Gas Turbines output. However, there is a limit to the amount of fuel that can be added per unit mass of air and therefore to the net power output. The fuel-air ratio that may be used is governed by the working tem- perature of the highly stressed turbine blades. This temperature is limited by the creep strength of the materials used in the turbine blades and the working life required. The two main factors which affect the performance of gas tur- bines are the efficiencies of various components and turbine working temperature. The higher they are made, the better is the all-round performance of the plant. It was, in fact, low efficiencies and poor turbine materials which caused the failure of a number of early at- tempts. For example, in 1904 two French engineers built a unit which did little more than turn itself over, with compressor efficiency of about 60% and the maximum gas temperature of about 740 K. The overall efficiency of the gas turbine cycle mainly depends upon the pressure ratio of the compressor. The development of sci- ence of aerodynamics and that of metallurgy made it possible to employ very high pressure ratios (20:1) with an adequate compres- sor efficiency (85 — 90%) and high turbine inlet temperatures, up to 1500 K. Two possible combustion systems were proposed: one at con- stant pressure and the other at constant volume. Theoretically, the thermal efficiency of the constant volume cycle is higher than that of constant pressure cycle. However, constant volume combustion involves mechanical difficulties requiring valves to isolate the com- bustion chamber from the compressor and turbine. Combustion is intermittent impairing the smooth running of the machine. After certain initial attempts, constant volume type combustion was dis- continued, In the constant pressure gas turbine, combustion is continuous and valves are not necessary. It was soon accepted that the constant. pressure cycle had the greater possibilities for future development. It is important to realize that‘in the gas turbine the process of compression, combustion and expansion do not occur in a sin- gle component as they do in a reciprocating engine. They occur in components which are separate, in the sense that they can be de- signed, tested and developed individually and these components can be linked together to form a gas turbine unit in a variety of ways. The possible number of components is not limited to three already mentioned. More compressors and turbines can be added with inter- coolers between the compressors, and reheat combustion chambers between turbines. Water coolers and heat exchangers can be ad-Introduction 5 ditionally fitted. These refinements are used to increase the power output and efficiency of the plant at the expense of added complex- ity, weight and cost. The way these components are added not only affects the maximum overall thermal efficiency but also the variation of thermal efficiency. Each arrangement is to be chosen depending on its suitability for a given application. Thus, it is seen that a simple gas turbine consists mainly of three components. Of the three, two are rotating machines and the third one is a heat addition device. However, more complex system is pos- sible with the addition of auxiliary devices such as heat exchanger, intercooler and reheater. In order to understand the working princi- ple and cycle arrangements one should first have some fundamental knowledge of rotating machines. This will be taken up in Chapter 3 after the review of some basic principles in Chapter 2. Review Questions 1.1 What is the difference between our civilization and the ancient ones and what action of the man revolutionized the world? 1.2 What is a heat engine and what is its origin? 1.3 What is a steam engine and what are its characteristics? 1.4 What is the inherent disadvantage of a steam power plant? 1.5 Which were the three contemporary power plants for the pro- duction of power? 1.6 When was the earliest gas turbine design attempted and what was the result? 1.7 What are the latest research efforts in gas turbines and why is this power plant considered to be satisfactory? 1.8 Compare the steam and gas turbine power plants. 1.9 Explain with a neat sketch the details of a simple gas turbine power plant. 1.10 Which parameter is most important to determine the overall efficiency of a gas turbine cycle? 1.11 What are the two factors which affect the performance of gas turbine?6 Gas Turbines 1.12 What are the two types of combustion system? 1.19 Why constant pressure heat addition is more advantageous in a gas turbine? 1.14 What advantage a gas turbine power plant has over reciprocat- ing engine from the point of view of component developments? 1.15 How many components are there in a simple gas turbine power plant? Mention the additional components that can be added to improve the power output and efficiency.2 REVIEW OF BASIC PRINCIPLES 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Turbines and compressors are usually analyzed using thermodynamic and fluid dynamic equations. The thermodynamic equations relate temperature, pressure and volume whereas the fluid dynamic equa- tions relate force, mass and velocity. The following are the laws that are frequerttly used in dealing with problems of and operation of these machines : (i) energy equation in its various forms from the first law of ther- modynamics, (ii) temperature, entropy and gas relations from the second law of thermodynamics, . (iii) continuity relationships from the law of conservation of mass, and (iv) momentum equation from Newton’s second law of motion. 2.2 DEFINITIONS AND LAWS Before discussing the various acro-thermodynamic aspects of com- pressors and turbines, let us review some important definitions used in the analysis of compressible flow useful for rotating machines. However, the reader is advised to refer to standard text books on thermodynamics and fluid dynamics for more details.8 Gas Turbines 2.2.1 System A fixed identity with an arbitrary collection of matter is known as a system. The boundary is an imaginary surface which separates the system from its surroundings. Surroundings are those which are outside the system. System can be classified as either an open system or a closed system. Open System : When there is a continuous flow of matter, it is called an open system. Such a system is usually depicted by a control volume. It has a fixed space but does not contain a fixed mass of matter; instead there is a continuous flow of mass through it. The properties of the matter occupying the control volume can vary with time. The surface which encloses a control volume is called control surface. Closed System : When there is a fixed quantity of matter (fluid or gas), it is called a closed system. There is no inflow or outflow of matter to and from a closed system. However, a closed system can interact with its surroundings through work and heat transfers. The boundaries of a closed system containing the fixed mass of matter can change. Expanding gas in a reciprocating internal combustion engine is one such example. 2.2.2 State Condition of a system, defined by its properties, is known as the state of a system. 2.2.3. Process A change or a series of changes in the state of a system is known as a process. 2.2.4 Cycle If the initial and final states of a system experiencing a series of processes are identical, it is said to have executed a cycle. 2.2.5 Pressure Pressure at a point surrounded by an infinitesimal area, AA, is the force per unit area. Pressure is usually designated by Pascal in SI units. It may also be expressed as N/m? or bar. In this book we will follow bar as the unit of pressure.Review of Basic Principles 9 2.2.6 Density The density of a medium is the mass of the matter (gas) per unit volume. Density is expressed in kg/m. 2.2.7 Temperature When two systems are in contact with each other and are in thermal equilibrium, the property common to both the systems having the same value is called temperature. Thus temperature is a measure of the thermal potential of a system. 2.2.8 Energy Energy is the capacity to do work. The state of a system can be changed by adding or removing energy. Heat and work are different forms of energy in transit. They are not contained in any system. Heat is the form of energy which transfers between two systems by virtue of the temperature difference between them. Heat transfer to or from a system changes its state. Work is said to be done by a system on its surroundings when they are moved through a distance by the action of a force; this is exerted by the system on the surroundings in the direction of the displacement of the surroundings. The magnitude of mechanical work is given by Work done = Force x Distance in the direction of force Both heat and work are path functions and they depend on the type of process and therefore, are not properties of a system. In SI units, energy, heat and work are all expressed in joules (J), kilojoules (kJ) or Newton metres (Nm). 2.2.9 First Law of Thermodynamics It states that when a system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of the work transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers. faw fag = J$eQ (2.1) ‘When heat and work are expressed in the same units, then fag- faw =0 (22)10 Gas Turbines It can easily be shown that the quantity (dQ — dW) is indepen- dent of the path of the process and hence it represents a change in the property of the system. This property is referred to as energy, denoted here by the symbol Z. Thus, dE = dQ-aw (2.3) Equation 2.3 for the two states of a system can be written as E,-E, = Q-W Q Heat transfer = Work done + Change in energy W W + (En - Ei) (2.4) 2.2.10 Specific Heats of Gases The specific heat of a gas is the heat carrying capacity in a process. It is the amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree. In thermodynamic analysis two different types of specific heats are used: (i) Specific heat at constant volume, and (ii) Specific heat at constant pressure. The specific heat at constant volume (C,,) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree at constant volume. It is given by «= (B= (as The specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree at constant pressure . It is given by a= (8), = (a The specific heats of actual gases are a function of temperature and vary with temperature Cp Go = F(T) (2.7) The ratio of the two specific heats, (y), is an important parameter in compressible flow problems of turbomachines and is defined as & G (2.8) y =Review of Basic Principles 11 2.2.11 Internal Energy ( The internal energy of a gas is the energy stoted in it by virtue of its molecular motion. If it is assumed that the internal energy of a perfect gas is zero at the absolute, zero temperature, its value at a temperature T is given by U = GT (2.9) 2.2.12 Enthalpy 1 The heat supplied to or rejected by a system at constant pressure is the change of enthalpy during the process. The value of enthalpy at a given state is given by h = Utp = +t (2.10) and for an ideal gas . A = GT (2.11) 2.2.13 Ideal Gas An ideal gas obeys both Boyle’s and Charle’s laws, i.e. (pv), = constant (Boyle’s law) (2.12) (7) = constant (Charle’s law) (2.13) , ° Thus, an ideal gas obeys the simple equation of state pw = RT (2.14) p = pRT (2.18) The two specific heats and the gas constant for an ideal gas are related by the following equation: G-Q =R (2.16) Substituting Eq. 2.8 in 2.16, we get CG =, sak (2.17) c = —uR (2.18) y-112 Gas Turbines 2.2.14 Perfect Gas A perfect gas is an ideal gas whose specific heats remain constant at all temperatures. d gpl) = 0 (2.19) C, = constant with temperature and Gs =0 (2.20) Cy = constant with temperature. Unless otherwise stated, analyses of compressible flow given in this book assume perfect gas relations. 2.2.15 Semi-perfect Gas A semi-perfect gas is an ideal gas whose specific heats vary with temperature. Cy = f(T) and Cp = f(T) (2.21) 2.2.16 Real Gas The real gas behaviour deviates from that of an ideal gas. It does not obey the equation of state (Eqs. 2.14, 2.15, etc.). Different equations of state are used for real gases. 2.2.17 Second Law of Thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in a number of ‘ways. Some of them are as follows: (i) Clausius statement: Heat cannot, on its own, flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature. (ii) Kelvin-Planck’s statement: It is impossible to construct a heat engine which performs a complete cycle and delivers work ex- changing heat from a single source. The following relations can be derived from the second law of ther- modynamics: Definition of entropy a4, = [F (2.22)Review of Basic Principles 13 Clausius inequality dQ an (2.23) In any irreversible process 2dQ a-n > ['S (2.24) In an irreversible adiabatic process més > 0 (2.25) a any veversible eycle dQe _ f SE = 0 (2.26) In an isentropic, i.e. a reversible adiabatic process 82-8, = 0 (2.27) 2.2.18 Reversible Process A process is reversible if the system and its surroundings can be restored to their initial states by reversing the process. A reversible process in a flow machine is possible only in the absence of fluid friction and heat transfer with finite temperature difference. Since these conditions are impossible to achieve in actual processes, all real flows in compressors and turbines are irreversible. The reversible process is used only as an ideal reference process for comparison with its equivalent actual process. 2.2.19 Irreversible Process An irreversible process is one which docs not satisfy the above conditions of reversibility. 2.2.20 Adiabatic Process During a process if there is no heat transfer between the system and the susroundings, it is known as an adiabatic process. All the rotating machines discussed in this book are assumed to follow only adiabatic processes. 2.2.21 Isentropic Process An adiabatic process in which entropy remains constant is known as a reversibly adiabatic or isentropic process. For unit mass, this is14 Gas Turbines governed by the following relations: pv’ = constant (2.28) Brae yl Syd Be (2) ros (2) = (2) (2.29) Te P2 U1 Pa Tds = dh—vdp = dh— Zap = 0 (2.30) 2.2.22 Non-flow Process A process that occurs in a closed system is a non-flow process. One such example is shown in Fig.'2.1. It represents the expansion of a fixed mass of gas inside the cylinders of a reciprocating engine. Fig. 2.1 Iys@ration of a non-flow process The work done in an infinitesimal non-flow process is given by dWiyp = pdv (2.31) The work done between the two states 1 and 2 is 2 Wath = [we (2.32) For an adiabatic process, assuming perfect gas relations 1 Wasp (piv1 — pre) (2.33) Cy(Ty — Tz) = uy — ua (2.34) iReview of Basic Principles 15 2.2.23 Flow Process . A process that occurs in an open system or in a control volume is a flow process. Process occurring in all turbomachines are of this type. Figure 2.2 represents such a process. Pressure 4 pV =constant Volume Fig. 2.2 Ilustration of a flow process The infinitesimal work done in a reversible process is given by dWy, = —vdp (2.35) For a finite process 2 Wp = -[ udp (2.36) 1 For an adiabatic process in a perfect gas, Why = 2 z0m— mm) (2.37) Wjp = Cp(Ti- Te) (2.38) Wyp = bi—hy (2.39) 2.3 ENERGY EQUATION The energy equation (Eq. 2.4) is basically derived from the first law of thermodynamics as given in Section 2.2.9. It is written as Q = W+(- Fi) (2.40) For application in turbomachines, the energy terms will include internal energy, gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy.16 Gas Turbines Other forms of energy which can be included but are not relevant here are strain energy, magnetic energy, etc. E = U +m(oZ) + 5me (2.41) dE aU + mg dZ +m 4(52) (2.42) where U is the internal energy and Z is the potential energy and c is the velocity of the fluid. The change in the energy in a finite process between two states is given by 1 By Ey = (UUs) +mg(Zo— 21) + 5m(e} — ch) (2.43) Substituting Eq. 2.43 in Eq. 2.4, a general form of the energy equation can be obtained. 1 Q=W+ (H-Ui) + mg(Z2- Zi) + 5m(G-4) (2.44) Dividing throughout by m q = wt (ug-u)+9(Z2- 21) + (4-e) (2.45) Nin 2.3.1 Steady-flow Energy Equation For steady flow processes through turbomachines, the work term in Eqs. 2.44 and 2.45 contains shaft work and flow work. Thus, W = We + (pV2- Vi) (2.46) Substituting Eq. 2.46 in Eq. 2.44 and rearranging, we get Q = W, + Ua + paVa) — Ua + riVi) + mg(Za - 21) + 5m(B - 4) Writing enthalpy H for the quantity U + pV, (2.47) Hy+mgzi + hme +Q = Hy+mgzZa+img+W, (248) In terms of specific quantities, hy + 9Zi + 5a +q = hgtghet 5 +W, (2.49) Equation 2.48 or 2.49 is the steady-flow energy equation for a control volume or an open system. This will now be rewritten for processes in various turbomachines and their components.Review of Basic Principles 17 2.3.2 Hydro-turbomachines In hydro-turbomachines = constant eie p= ue w q = 0 Therefore, from Eq. 2.49, shaft work is given by We = %i-%)+5(4-4)+-m)V (250) In a stationary component, such as guide vanes or draught tubes, shaft work is absent. Therefore, Eq. 2.50 gives G-c = Ag(Zi— Zo) + (p1 ~ VI] (2.51) 2.3.3 Compressible Flow Machines Most of the compressible flow turbomachines such as turbines and compressors are considered as adiabatic machines, i.e. g ~ 0. In these machines, change in potential energy (Zi — Za) is also negligi- ble as compared to changes in enthalpy (#1 — hg) and kinetic energy (FG). Therefore, Bq. 2.49 yields 1 L hy + xt = ho+ 3% +W, (2.52) The shaft work is given by 1 Ww, = (m L 34) “ (2 4 34) (2.53) If the entry and exit velocities are small or the difference between them is negligible, then shaft work is given by the difference between the static enthalpies at the two states We = hinhe (2.54) 2.3.4 Energy Transformation It may be noted that energy transfer (shaft work input or output) in a turbomachine stage is possible only in the rotor, whereas en- ergy transformation can occur both in moving and fixed blades. An18 Gas Turbines application of the energy equation for stationary components of com- pressors and turbines such as nozzle blade rings, diffusers and volute casings can be made. The shaft work is absent in these components and the flow is almost adiabatic (q ~ 0). Therefore Eq. 2.52 gives 1 1 nt 5c e hot 56 = constant (2.55) 2.3.5 Stagnation Enthalpy In an adiabatic energy transformation process, if the initial state is represented by h,T,c etc.and the final gas velocity is zero, the resulting value of the enthalpy (hg = ho) has a special significance. Under these conditions, Eq. 2.55 yields 1 ho = ht5e (2.56) Since the gas is stagnant or stationary in the final state, the quantity ho in Eq. 2.56 is known as the stagnation enthalpy. Thus the stagnation enthalpy can be defined as the enthalpy of a gas or vapour when it is adiabatically brought to rest. It may be observed that the definition of stagnation enthalpy in Eq. 2.56 is only another form of the energy equation. 2.3.6 Stagnation Temperature For a perfect gas, a stagnation temperature is defined through stag- nation enthalpy. From Eq. 2.56, 1 Cply = OT + 50 a T = T+ F 0 +g, (2.57) To is known as the stagnation temperature whereas T,, is the static temperature and c?/2C;, is the equivalent of kinetic energy temper- ature (T.) c n= og (2.58) T = T+T (2.59) Equation 2.57 can be used to obtain an important relation for com- pressible flow machinesReview of Basic Principles 19 To e z= LaF (2.60) Using Eq. 2.18, To _ *(2537) T= l+e QyRT The velocity of sound in a gas at a local temperature T is given by a = VyRT (2.61) The Mach number of the flow is defined as the ratio of the local velocity of the gas and of sound (2.62) B= (F(R) = Cae om 2.3.7 Stagnation Velocity of Sound Stagnation values of various flow parameters are used as reference values in the analysis of compressible flow machines. Therefore, an expression for the stagnation velocity of sound is derived here. By definition, ay = V7RTp (2.64) Substituting for R, ay = V(y—1)OpT (2.65) Since CyT> = ho , ag = y(y—-I)ho (2.66) 2.3.8 Stagnation Pressure The stagnation pressure is the pressure of the gas or fluid when it is brought to rest adiabatically and reversibly (i.e. isentropically). The ratio of the stagnation and static pressures can be obtained from Eq. 2.63 mo a = (1475 he)ts (2.67)20 Gas Turbines When the pressure changes are small, the process can be assumed to be incompressible (p + constant). Then the stagnation pressure can be determined from 1 pm = pt spc (2.68) 2.3.9 Stagnation Density The density of a stationary gas or vapour is the stagnation density. For an ideal gas its value at known values of stagnation temperature and pressure is given by Po po = Rh (2.69) For an isentropic process from Eq. 2.29, q aolig ake Ms ay" = (147 *ae) (9.70) p 2.3.10 Stagnation State The concept of a reference state of the gas in a compressible flow machine is very useful. The stagnation state of a gas is often used as a reference state. A state defined by the stagnation temperature and pressure is the stagnation state of the gas. This state is obtained by decelerating a gas isentropically to zero velocity. It should be observed that it is necessary here to qualify the deceleration process as an isentropic process. This is not necessary in defining stagnation enthalpy and temperature. 2.4 FLUID DYNAMICS In this section we shall discuss some basic definitions used in fluid dynamics. The analysis of flow in turbomachines requires the appli- cation of Newton’s second law of motion along with the equations of continuity and energy which will be discussed in this section. The application of Newton's second law of motion provides the equations of motion which are also known as Euler's momentum equations. These, and the continuity equation will be used in the subsequent chapters. We will summarize the various forms of these equations in the next section.Review of Basic Principles 21 2.5 BASIC DEFINITIONS First of all we will define various terms associated with fluid dy- namics. These definitions will help us in understanding the various equations used in the fluid dynamics which will be applied to analyze the flow in turbomachines. 2.5.1 Fluid A fluid is a substance which gets deformed continuously when shear- ing forces are applied. Liquids, gases and vapours are all fluids. A non-viscous or inviscid fluid is referred to as an ideal fluid. 2.5.2 Fluid Velocity The instantaneous velocity of the fluid particle passing through a point is known as the fluid velocity at that point. 2.5.3 Streamline A curve in a flow field which is always tangential to the direction of flow is referred to as a streamline. These are shown in Fig. 2.3. ‘Streamlines oo Fig. 2.3 One-dimensional flow through a stream tube 2.5.4 Stream Tube A stream tube (Fig. 2.3) is an infinitesimal portion of the flow field. It is a collection of a number of streamlines forming an imaginary tube. There is no flow through the walls of a stream tube. The properties of the flow are constant across the section of a stream tube. Therefore, the flow in a stream tube is one-dimensional.22 = Gas Turbines 2.5.5 Incompressible Flow Ifthe relative change in the density of a fluid in a process is negligible, it is referred to as an incompressible process. In such a flow (or process) the fluid velocity is much smaller than the local velocity of sound in it. The flow of gases and vapours at Mach numbers less than 0.30 can be assumed to be incompressible without much sacrifice in accuracy. 2.5.6 Compressible Flow In compressible flows the relative changes in the fluid density are considerable and cannot be neglected. The fluid velocities in such flows are appreciable compared to the local velocity of sound. If the Mach number in a flow is higher than 0.3, it is considered to be compressible. 2.5.7 Steady Flow A flow is known to be steady if its properties do not change with time. The shape of the stream tube does not change in a steady flow. For such a flow dc Op oT Op om = 0 (271) ot a” (Ot a OF 2.5.8 Unsteady Flow If one or more parameters (c,p,T,p,m etc) in a flow change with time, it is known as unsteady flow. 2.5.9 Viscosity Viscosity is the property which resists the shearing motion of two adjacent layers of the fluid. A fluid is known as a Newtonian fluid if the relation between the shear stress and the angular deformation is linear. The shear stress is given by de de TK = oF “Se (2.72) The constant of proportionality, 4, is known as the coefficient of viscosity or dynamic viscosity.Review of Basic Principles 23 The kinematic viscosity, v, is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid. a pee 2.73) 3 (2.73) All real flows experience fluid viscosity. Therefore, their behaviour is influenced by the viscous forces. 2.5.10 Inviscid Flow If the viscosity of the fluid is assumed to be absent, the flow is referred to as inviscid flow. Such a flow glides freely over its boundaries without experiencing viscous forces. 2.5.11 Reynolds Number The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces. Inertia force = pAc? Viscous force = pel Therefore, the Reynolds number is given by pac pel Re = where [= characteristic length, A = ? and 5 =v. Therefore, ne - ol a ji : (2.74) The value of the Reynolds number in a fiow gives an idea about its nature. For example, at higher Reynolds numbers the magnitude of viscous forces is small compared to the inertia forces. 2.5.12 Mach Number The Mach number is an index of the ratio of inertia and elastic forces. This is defined by Inertia force _— pAc* Elastic force = -KA M? where K is the bulk modulus of elasticity and A is the flow area. However, K = pa? and therefore, M = £.24 = Gas Turbines This relation gives another important definition of the Mach num- ber as the ratio of the fluid velocity to the local velocity of sound. Thermodynamic relations derived in sections 2.3.6, 2.3.7, 2.3.8 and 2.3.9 demonstrate its application. 2.5.13 Laminar Flow In laminar flow the fluid flows over a body in orderly parallel layers with no components of fluctuations in any of the three directions (x,y and z directions). In such a flow, the surface friction force predominates and keeps the flow parallel to the surface. Other layers of flow slide on top of the other. The values of the Reynolds number in such flows are comparatively lower. 2.5.14 Turbulent Flow At higher values of the Reynolds number, the inertia force becomes predominant and the fluid particles are no longer constrained to move in parallel layers. Such a flow experiences small fluctuation compo- nents c,,¢, and c, in the three reference directions. These fluctua- tions cause continuous mixing of various layers of the flow leading to flow equalization in the major part of the flow field. On account of different flow patterns in laminar and turbulent flow, the velocity profiles (shown in Fig. 2.4) in these are different. The nature of flow in blade passages in a turbine can be identified to a great extent by the velocity profiles and the values of Reynolds number. Fig. 2.4 Nature of velocity profile in laminar and turbulent flows 2.5.15 Degree of Turbulence The presence of small-scale fluctuations (c,,c, and c,) of velocity superimposed on the main flow is called turbulence. The degree of turbulence is defined by (Breet elm wie] Degree of turbulence =Review of Basic Principles 25 2.5.16 Boundary Layer Figure 2.5 shows the velocity profile at section A in a flow passage. The velocity of the fluid on the passage wall is zero. It is developed fully to the free stream velocity co, over a short distant 6 from the wall. This layer of flow with thickness 6 from the wall is known as the boundary layer. This exists only in a viscous flow. The boundary layer is absent in inviscid flow. The effect of viscosity is predominant in this region, causing high energy losses. The boundary layer thick- ness decreases with an increase in the Reynolds number on account of the lower viscous forces compared to the inertia forces. Free stream Velocity profile at AA Fig. 2.5 Boundary layer and free stream regions in a flow passage 2.5.17 Friction Factor Friction factor or the coefficient of skin friction is a measure of the frictional resistance offered to the flow. This is defined by Tw f = Ta (2.76) 200 where f is the Fanning’s coefficient of skin friction. It may be noted that Darcy’s friction factor is four times the Fanning’s coefficient. 2.5.18 Boundary Layer Separation ‘The boundary layer is the slow-moving or tired layer of the flow near a solid surface. When the flow occurs in the direction of static pressure rise (adverse pressure gradient), the boundary layer becomes thicker and reverses if this static pressure gradient (or the pressure hill) is too high. The leaving of the boundary layer from the surface and