Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Steinar Kvale
Interviews
f
[L if'-
!
'mT 1
SteinarKvale
InteiViews
I
Ail Introduction
to Qualitative
Research
Interviewing
/ \ S A G E Publications
I jL I International Educational and Professional Publisher
/ Thousand Oaks London
New Delhi
Contents
H M 4 8 .K 9
1996
3 0 1 '.0 1 dc2
95-50205
xi
Acknowledgments
x jjj
Preface
PART I:
xv
Introduction
1. Interviewing as Research
Conversation as Research
]()
M ethodological Issues
\2
10 9
Theoretical Issues
13
I
PART II:
17
19
19
21
24
27
Interview Forms
29
36
38
Postmodern Construction
41
Hermeneutical Interpretation
46
Phenomenological Description
52
Dialectical Situating
55
57
Designing
98
99
101
101
Resources Available
103
W hen N ot to Interview
104
105
109
110
Ethical Guidelines
110
Ethical Codes
110
Informed Consent
112
Confidentiality
114
59
Consequences
116
59
1 17
Positivism
61
64
66
70
72
74
74
79
P A RT III:
118
120
124
T he Interview Conversation
124
127
129
Interview Questions
131
136
144
81
Interview Q uality
83
146
Interviewer Qualifications
147
H am lets Interview
151
83
87
89
144
153
157
94
Leading Questions
Content
95
160
Purpose
97
Recording Interviews
160
Thematizing
163
221
166
222
Transcribing Interviews
168
223
173
225
176
229
176
229
177
Generalizability
231
177
235
178
236
179
241
180
244
Transcripts Beware!
182
Pragmatic Validity
248
183
251
184
M ethod of Analysis
253
253
187
256
Steps o f Analysis
187
2.58
188
Ethics of Reporting
259
M eaning Condensation
193
M eaning Categorization
l ^6
262
199
M ethod
262
M eaning Interpretation
201
Results
262
Ad H oc M eaning Generation
203
268
Issues of Analysis
204
271
Control of Analysis
207
Journalistic Interviews
271
210
Dialogues
272
210
273
213
Narratives
274
213
Metaphors
274
217
Visualizing
275
218
276
Contexts of Interpretation
185
262
P A RT IV :
Conclusion
277
279
279
28 1
291
295
References
299
Author Index
307
Subject Index
311
326
List of Boxes,
Figures, and Tables
Boxes
Box 2.1.
Box 3.1.
30
Interview Research
39
Box 3.2.
48
Box 4.1.
75
Box 5.1.
85
Box 5.2.
88
Box 5.3.
90
Box 6.1.
Box 6.2.
119
Box 7.1.
133
Box 8.1.
145
Box 8.2.
148
1 11
XI
xii
In te r v ie w s
189
237
257
263
264
266
Box 15.1.
282
Box 15.2.
284
Box 15.3.
292
Acknowledgments
Figures
Figure
1.1.
Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.2.
15
191
197
Perspective
Figure 11.3.. Influence of Grades on Pupils Relationship to
198
Teacher
Figure 15.1 . Knowledge Construction Through the
Interview and the Research Conversation
280
T ables
Table
5.1.
Table
7.1.
Table
9.1.
Table
9.2.
Passage
94
131
164
165
A. G iorgi, & A. de Koning (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology (pp. 155184). Pittsburgh: Duqucsne University Press.
Thetnes
195
Table 11.2.
196
Table 12.1.
Her Puppy
Table 11.1.
of Validation
F. Wertz, & F. van Zuurcn (Kds.), Advances in qualitative psychology (pp. 25-40).
I.issc, The Netherlands: Swets 6c Zeitlinger.
Kvale, S. (1988). The 1000 page question. Phenomenology 4- Pedagogy, 6, 90-106.
214
I ntervi ews
XIV
The topics of these articles and chapters arc, with the exception of
those from 1986 and 1995, treated more extensively in this book.
Preface
Intervi ews
xvi
Preface
xvi i
the journal articles and the book; and to Kristin Bergstad w ho has
cantly to the present work. These earlier articles and chapters have
now been rewritten and extended as the present book.
of the interviewer and the subject. This book is the result of the variety
qualitative research courses, such as Erie Bryn, Jette Fog, and Tove
tioned above. They do not, however, share all of the views presented
research Klaus Bruhn Jensen, Grethe Skylv, and Jan Helge Larsen, and
Danish
Research
Steinar Kvale
PART
Introducti on
If you want to know how people understand their world and their life,
why not talk with them? In an interview conversation, the researcher
listens to what people themselves tell about their lived world, hears
them express their views and opinions in their own words, learns
about their views on their work situation and family life, their dreams
and hopes. The qualitative research interview attempts to understand
the w orld from the subjects points o f view, to unfold the meaning of
peoples experiences, toluncover their lived world prior to scientific
explanations.
In te r v ie w s
*
The qualitative research interview is a construction site of know l
edge. An interview is literally an interview, an inter change o f views
between two persons conversing about a theme of mutual: interest.
This book attempts to lay o u t the richness and the scope o f qualitative
interviews in social science research. It tries to link methods of and
ideas about interviews, continually drawing attention to the inter
play of practical and theoretical issues of interview research.
Interviewing as Research
In this chapter I first present two alternative metaphors for the
research interviewers role as a miner or as a traveler. I then turn to
the interview as a conversation and give a few examples before
addressing the position o f qualitative interviews in social science
research. Thereafter some theoretical and methodological issues
raised by employing interviews as a research method are introduced.
The chapter concludes with a model of interviews as literally inter
T he Interview er as a M in e r or as a T raveler
T w o contrasting metaphors of the interviewer as a miner or as a
traveler can illustrate the implications of different theoretical under
standings of interview research.
In the miner metaphor, knowledge is understood as buried metal
and the interviewer is a miner who unearths the valuable metal. Some
miners seek objective facts to be quantified, others seek nuggets of
essential meaning. In both conceptions the knowledge is waiting in
the subjects interior to be uncovered, uncontaminated by the miner.
The interviewer digs nuggets of data or meanings out of a subjects
pure experiences, unpolluted by any leading questions. The interview
researcher strips the surface of conscious experiences, the therapeutic
interviewer mines the deeper unconscious layers. The precious facts
and meanings are purified by transcribing them from the oral to the
I nterViews
Interviewing as Research
stage to the written storage. By analysis, the objective facts and the
which has made a difference to the critics conception of who she is,
what she is good for, what she wants to do with herself; an encounter
into their definitive form. Finally the value of the end product, its
experiences.
stands for alternative genres and has different rules of the game. In a
w ith maps, roaming freely around the territory. The traveler may also
the traveler metaphor into the vicinity of the humanities and art.
learn about their experiences, feelings, and hopes and the w orld they
viewers own country, and possibly also to those with w hom the
live in.
tations; the tales are remolded into new narratives, which are convinc
ing in their aesthetic form and are validated through their impact upon
the listeners.
The journey may not only lead to new knowledge; the traveler
and techniques.
tive journey. Through conversations, the traveler can also lead others
Interviews
Interviewing as Research
Pupil: I find that the teachers actually evaluate in a rather fair way.
can. If you sit there and as soon as someone has raised his hand,
and the teacher has asked him and then (raises his hand). W ell,
because the researcher defines and controls the situation. The topic of
* * * * *
Interviewer: D o you think that there arc some pupils who want to
bluff by raising their hands?
Teacher: W ell, I do nt think so, I dont think they are particularly sly
In te rv ie w e r: Y o u
g rad e s,
that they know more than they do. That is not my impression at
least not in my classes.
Pupil: Grades are often unjust, because very often very often they
These later statements contradict the first pupil; the second pupil finds
are only a measure of how much you talk, and how much you
the grading fair and believes that teachers see through other pupils
obtained from these three actors in the classroom scene, one m ight be
m e n t io n e d
p re v io u s ly
s o m e t h in g
about
main issue will be how to obtain reliable and valid knowledge of the
unfair and he spontaneously gives his reasons for why they are
I nterViews
Interviewing as Research
imagine that human conversation did not exist, and therefore that the
for the reader and as general knowledge for hum ankind was nonex
Qualitative Research edited by Denzin and Lincoln (1994) and Handbuch Qualitative Sozialforschung edited by Flick, Kardoff, Keupp,
odology has long been modeled on the natural sciences. The present
of its meanings brings interview research closer to the dom ain o f the
humanities.
search.
ment in the 1950s of small portable tape recorders made the exact
Production).
the everyday lived world and its common language, meaning, and
T hat there has been little systematic reflection on the practical and
Interviews
10
Interviewing as Research
11
T h e o re tic a l Issues
Developing the interview as a research m ethod involves a challenge
to renew, broaden, and enrich the conceptions of knowledge and
research in the social sciences. The research interview is not merely a
new m ethod, yielding qualitative texts rather than quantitative data,
but reflects alternative conceptions of the subject matter of the social
sciences. M any apparently methodological problems do not stem from
the relative newness of the interview method or from insufficiently
developed techniques, but are the consequences of unclarified theo
retical assumptions.
Some authors have pointed out a neglect of theory in current
qualitative research. Strauss (1995) thus criticizes the absence of
theoretical discussions in the large majority of the chapters in Denzin
and Lincolns Handbook of Qualitative Research (1994), mentioned
above. Giorgi (1994) concludes a review of recent literature on
qualitative methods in this way: Thus, greater theoretical clarity and
consistency as well as deeper reflection or better utilization of im agi
native possibilities still seem to be called for in order to bring better
theoretical conceptualization and more consistent practices to quali
tative research (p. 190).
Addressing the methodological questions of conducting an inter
view leads to theoretical issues conceptions of the specific themes
investigated, as well as of the nature of the social world. Qualitative
methods are not merely some new, soft technology added to the
12
I nt crVi ews
Interviewing as Research
13
forms of tables and figures are also available for presenting the
quantitative data.
and its use as a research method w ill be presented. They will provide
quickly resolved, and the task today is rather to find ones way in the
expanding literature on qualitative research. An overview of literature
pertaining to interviewing is given later, in Box 5.3 in Chapter 5.
M e th o d o lo g ic a l Issues
The novice researcher may have a good idea, grab a tape recorder, go
out and find some subjects, and start questioning them. The recorded
study start to come up. This kind of theoretical navet and m ethodo
departments.
questions? Can I be sure that 1 get to know what the subjects really
my extensive interviews?
O v e rv ie w o f the B o o k
! n t (I t V i c w s
14
Interviewing as Research
15
methodological level, the chapters in Part III take the reader through
the methodological stages of an investigation with an emphasis on
interviewing as a craft and on the techniques that that involves,
providing practical guidelines for conducting research interviews. An
interview investigation will be outlined in seven method stages, from
the original idea to the final report: (1) thematizing, with a conceptu
alization of the research topic and form ulation o f the research ques
tions; through (2) designing the study so it addresses the research
questions, treating both knowledge construction and moral im plica
tions; to (3) the interview ing itself; (4) transcribing; (5) analyzing;
(6) verification; and (7) reporting. The chapters take issue w ith the
apparently mystical skills of interviewing, breaking them down in
discrete steps, giving examples, and pointing out the practical and
conceptual complexities involved.
O n a vertical epistemological level, the chapters in Part II suggest
theoretical frames of reference for conceptual clarification o f the
methodological issues, providing contexts for how to think about
interview research. Epistemology here refers to theories of knowledge.
O ne of the books main themes is the interconnectedness of the
practical issues o f the interview m ethod and the theoretical issues of
the nature of interview knowledge.
Because the use of qualitative interviews as a systematic research
Figure 1.1.
method is not only relatively new but controversial as well, I first treat
the epistemological themes in Part II, Conceptualizing the Research
Interview, and then turn to the methodological issues in Part III, The
or as a vase, but not as both at the same time. I use the figure to
views. W e can focus on the two faces of the ambiguous figure, see
cussions in Part II and the overall m ethod design in the first two
Interviews
16
PART
II
C o n c e p tu a liz in g
the Research In te rv iew
17
Interviews
18
chapters on the interview stages and then return to the follow ing
conceptual discussions.
K n o w le d g e as C o n v e rsa tio n
In Chapter 1 a traveler metaphor of interview research was intro
duced, emphasizing conversation. I will distinguish among the use of
conversation as part of everyday interactions, as a professional inter
change, and as a philosophical dialogue. These three uses may be seen
as specific forms of a common language understanding of conversation
as an oral exchange of sentiments, observations, ideas, opinions
19
20
Interviews
21
calls the law o f the subject matter. W hen one enters into a dialogue
meta-level where the aim and form o f the talk is reflected. This may
Rather, the law of the subject matter is at issue, and it elicits statement
be the case if, for example, one of the participants asks, W hy are you
asking me about this?
and counterstatement and in the end plays these into each other.
This ideal description of a conversation pertains to a philosophical
discourse, and may in some cases also apply to the interactions of daily
interview. They each have their different purposes and structures, with
ing purposes.
1 now give an example of a philosophical conversation and exam
research
interview. The
philosophical
conversation
seeks truth
subject matter, with the partners in the dialogue follow ing mutually
A party has been cast in honor o f the poet Agathon, w ho in the year
416 B.C. had received a prize for one of his plays. The guests, each in
their turn, give speeches in honor of Eros, the god of love. I'heir talks
are accom panied by plenty o f wine: Aristophanes has to miss his
turn because o f severe hiccups, but does give his speech; a drunken
him self to the other person, truly accepts his point of view as w orthy of
consideration and gets inside the other to such an extent that he
understands not a particular individual, but w hat he says. The thing that
so that they can agree w ith each other on the subject, (p. 347)
rance and his ironical styje neither confirm nor disconfirm the many
22
l i i t crVi cws
23
o f Love, and then to treat of his acts. Those opening words I thoroughly
adm ire. So com e now , complete your beautiful and m agnificent descrip
given answer, which Agathon then accepts. In the end Agathon is led
tio n o f Love, and tell me this: Are we so to view his character as to take
Love is love o f mother or father- but as though I were asking about our
n o tio n o f father, whether ones father is a father o f somebody or not.
Surely you w o u ld say, if you wished to give the proper answer, that the
objective rightness of what he says, so that the two of them can agree
*
discussion as the objects o f Love: if you like, I w ill rem ind you. W h a t
sesses true knowledge of the nature of love but needs help to uncover
you said, I believe, was to the effect that the gods contrived the w orld
this truth, and Socrates takes the role of midwife, delivering the truth.
from a love o f beautiful things, for o f ugly there was no love. D id you
no t say som ething o f the sort?
Yes, I d id , said Agathon.
A nd quite properly, my friend, said Socrates; then, such being the
case, must not Love be only love o f beauty, and no t o f ugliness? He
assented.
W ell then, we have agreed that he loves w hat he lacks and has n o t?
Yes, he replied.
A nd w hat Love lacks and has no t is beauty?
W ell now , w ill you say that w hat lacks beauty, and in no wise
24
Interviews
tenacious arguments with the subject about the logic and truth of his
or her statements. It is beyond the scope of the research interview for
the interviewer to argue the strength of his or her own conception of
the topic investigated or to try to change the subjects convictions. In
contrast, the therapeutic interview aims at changes through personal
interaction rather than through logical argumentation and the
changes sought are not primarily conceptual, but emotional and
personal.
25
com ing any more. It doesnt do any good. I dont like you. I hate
you! I wish you never were born.
C (Counselor): You just hate me very bitterly.
S: I think Ill throw you in the lake. Ill cut you up! You think people
like you, but they dont. . . . You think you can attract women,
but you can't.. . . I wish you were dead.
C: You detest me and youd really like to get rid o f me.
S: You think my father did bad things with me, but he d id n t! You
think he wasnt a good man, but he was. You think I want
S: . . You think you can get people to come in and tell you everything,
and theyll think theyre being helped, but theyre not! You just
like to make em suffer. You think you can hypnotize them, but
you cant! You think youre good, but you aint. I hate you, I
C: You feel 1 really like to make em suffer, but that 1dont help them.
S: You think I havent been straight, but I have. I hate you. All Ive
had is pain, pain, pain. You think I cant dircct my own life, but
I can. You think I cant get well, but I can. You think I had
hallucinations, but I didn t. I hate you. (Long pause. Leans on
desk in strained, exhausted pose.) You think Im crazy, but Im
not.
C: Y o u re sure 1 think youre crazy.
S: (Pause.) Im tied, and I just cant get loose! (Despairing tone of
voice, quite unlike her usual tone. Does not look at counselor.
There was much repetition, but the following excerpts give the
major thoughts.) You feel I want to come, but I dont! Im not
S: I knew at the office I had to get rid of this somewhere. I felt I could
come dow n and tell you. I knew youd understand. I couldnt
say I hated myself. Thats true but I couldnt say it. So I just
thought o f all the ugly things I could say to you instead.
C: The things you felt about yourself you couldnt say, but you could
say them about me.
S: I know were getting to rock bottom . . . (pp. 211-213)
Interviews
27
*
The emotional tone of this counseling sdssion was described as
follows:
The purpose of the qualitative research interview discussed here is
Just as it is impossible to convey on paper the venom and hatred in the
to understand themes of the lived daily world from the subjects own
In this therapeutic session the subject takes the lead right from the
start, introduces the focal topic the detestable counselor and tells
scribed, and the written text together with the tape recording are the
(1975). The research question guiding the interview was: W hat con
stitutes learning in the everyday world? The first half of the interview,
the end, after she has gotten it all o u t, the subject acknowledges the
to her, which in this case led to the subject interpreting her own
the way you see things. Her view of looking at different rooms
has been altered. She told me that when you come into a room
there are, at least consciously, you dont notice. And yet, if you
home, and I started looking at the lines in our living room, and
from the wall. (Laughs) I found out what was wrong with our
living room design: many, too many, horizontal lines and not
28
Interviews
same way I did. He saw things were different, he saw things were
moved, but he wasnt able to verbalize that there was a deT he M o d e o f U n d e r s ta n d in g in
S: Since I did apply it, I feel that 1 learned when 1 did apply it. I would
I.
lived world of the subjects and their relation to it. The purpose is to
This interview investigated what constitutes learning for a w om an in
situation she would talk about interior decorating; she described this
herself chose the specific instance of learning from her everyday world
in the life world of the high school pupils, and the interviews sought
to describe and reflect the meanings that grades had for the pupils.
interview can then be analyzed primarily with respect to the life world
that is described by the person, or the subject describing his or her life
30
Interviews
world. The interviews about grades were analysed with regard to the
2.
31
and understand the meanings o f central themes in the life w orld o f the
learning. The interviews could also have been analyzed with respect
grading. In this study, however, it was the com mon structures of the
school situation constituted by the grades that were of interest and not
individual differences among the pupils.
lives in.
32
Interviews
33
patient why he is sick, but rather asks the patient what is wrong, what
day conversation often takes place on a factual level. A pupil may state:
level: W hat grades did you get? or W hat are your study habits?
questions that also may yield important inform ation. A meaningoriented reply would, in contrast, be something like, You feel that
hypothesis, and on the basis of the patients answers and results from
other methods o f investigation, the doctor then makes the diagnosis.
For both the doctor and the researcher there are cases where it is
condition and to ask questions about why. The primary task for both
descriptions so they will have relevant and precise material from which
to draw their interpretations.
not general opinions that are asked for. Knowing the opinions, for
the interviewees life world; it works with words and not with num
4.
sible what they experience and feel, and how they act. Recall the
to what is not said and critical of his or her own presuppositions and
diagnosis may be clarifying. The doctor does not start by asking the
34
Interviews
10.
35
ing the same interview guide, may be different due to varying levels
Thus an interviewer who has no ear for music may have difficulties
study was to keep the grades at the focus of the interview, but within
subjects to bring forth the dimensions they find im portant within the
focus area. The interviewer leads the subjecit toward certain themes,
the interview.
The requirement of sensitivity to, and a foreknowledge about, the
cated above. The tension between these two aspects may be expressed
11.
they are describing, and suddenly see relations that they had not been
conscious of earlier. Thus, in the therapeutic interview reported by
Rogers (1965), the patient started, through her talking and the coun
w ithin the interaction and take them into account in the interview
36
Interviews
37
12.
know ing not as having an essence but as a right to believe, we may see
Subjects may wish to continue the dialogue and explore further the
and our worlds in our conversational activity. For us they are founda
39
Postmodern Thought,
Hermeneutics, Phenomenology,
and Dialectics
Literature on Philosophies
Pertaining to Interview Research
P o s tm o d e r n T h o u g h t
38
(continued)
40
Interviews
41
H e r m e n e u tic s
modern thought has now reached the social sciences, too (Kvale,
P h e n o m e n o lo g y
G io r g i, A . (1 970). Psychology as a human science. N e w York: H a rp e r &c
R ow .
G io r g i, A. (19 85 ). (E d.). Phenomenology and psychological research. Pitts
burgh: D uquesne University Press.
M o ustakas, C . (19 94 ). Phenomenological research methods. T h o u sa n d
O aks, C A : Sage.
Spiegelberg, H . (I9 6 0 ). The phenomenological movement, Vol. II. The
H ague , T he N e the rlands: M a rtin u s N ijh o ff.
D ia le c tic s
In te rn atio na l Publishers.
R iegel, K . F. (19 75 ). (E d.). The development of dialectical operations.
Basel, Sw itzerland: Karger.
Sartre, J.-P. (19 63 ). The problem of method. L o n d o n : M e th u e n .
In te r r e la tio n s
42
Intervi ews
43
ow n right, and the authors pose questions, such as, H ow is the talk
view research.
knowledge.
w ith truth to be worked out locally in small narrative units and with
tional, the narrative, the linguistic, the contextual, and the interrela-
in its own way. The focus on language shifts attention away from the
in the form o f tapes and transcripts, also the object of textual inter
Conversations).
for and objects of their research. As one exception, Jensen (1989) has
qualitative research.
44
Interviews
45
edge, the local, m anifold, and changing language contexts come into
situation, the data obtained are neither objective nor subjective but
The m ain thing is that we both get o ut o f the way. W h a t can block the
interview is us, your thinking about w hat you have to get done here,
The y o u and the m e can prevent the inter. Its not o ur views that
I ntcrVicws
46
47
interview, developed by Freud, has since the turn of the century been
social sciences is a new phenomenon of the past decades, and has here
validity.
I now turn to the philosophical positions that to some extent
and reacted against and that in their own right have provided
interpretation.
(1975) starts with Platos dialogues and regards both the conversation
inner contradictions.
48
Interviews
49
Box 3.2
between the parts and the whole that follows from the
hermeneutical circlc. Starting with an often vague and
intuitive understanding of the text as a whole, its different
parts are interpreted, and out of these interpretations the
parts are again related to the totality, and so on. In the
hermeneutical tradition this circularity is not viewed as a
vicious circle, but rather as a circulus fructuosis, or spiral,
which implies the possibility of a continuously deepened
understanding of meaning. The problem is not to get away
from the circularity in the explication of meanings, but to
get into the circle in the right way. During the analysis of
so
Interviews
51
ences between the literary texts of hermeneutics and the texts pro
the methodological ideal for the social sciences. The explicit purpose
are cocreators of the texts they interpret, and they may negotiate their
interpretations with their subjects. The interview text is thus not a
pre-given literary text, but emerges in the same process as its interpre
the culture. The study of literature and history serves in this case to
further the understanding of the human situation.
cipatory knowledge interest. Inform ation about social laws may insti
not only by words but also through gestures and im plicit references
52
Interviews
53
dating both that which appears and the manner in which it appears.
that research interviews have for getting beyond the surface level of
the phenomena, for going deeper than common sense and instigating
nicating the insights obtained about the life world of the interviewees
54
Interviews
55
the com mon sense and scientific foreknowledge about the phenomena
has a unique potential for obtaining access to and describing the lived
world:
of the world, was inspired by phenomenology but does not share its
philosophical assumptions (M arton, 1981 ). The mode o f understand
Dialectical Situating
The geographers map is thus an abstraction of the countryside
where we first learned what a forest, a m ountain, or a river was. In
this phenomenological approach, the qualitative studies o f subjects
experiences of their world are basic to the more abstract scientific
studies of the social world; interviews arc in this sense not merely a
few entertaining curiosities in addition to some basic scientific quan
titative facts obtained by experiments and questionnaires. The quali
tative interview is a research method that gives a privileged access to
our basic experience of the lived world. The descriptive focus on the
lived interactions of the human world may counteract a technological
56
Interviews
57
scribes the economic and social aspects of the wom ens world and the
relation to the individual wom ens personalities, but were also system
differences, but will offer some general implications that dialectics has
Haug (1978) has criticized what she terms the need for consensus and
of the social situation and posit them against each other. In other
about it. But not every petit bourgeois intellectual is Valry (p. 56).
status quo is less im portant than the new tendencies developing as the
status nascendi.
/ contribute to its change. For Sartre, knowledge and action are two
38
In te r v ie w s
0 11
Qualitative Research
in Science and in Practice
Before turning from the philosophical understandings of interview
research to the concrete procedures of designing an interview inquiry,
I will address some current positions on qualitative research in aca
demic and practical social research. I will first discuss conccptual
controversies that are frequently brought up by mainstream social
scientists, such as the scientific status of qualitative research and its
relation to quantification and objectivity. Then I will discuss three
areas in which qualitative interviewing has been prominent in prac
tice: market research, feminist research, and psychoanalysis. Different
as these areas may be, they have in com mon a use of qualitative
interviews in attempts to develop knowledge that may change persons
and conditions.
60
Interviews
61
discussion. T hroughout the follow ing chapters I w ill argue that the
Positivism
e.g., Kerlinger [1979] and M andler &C Kessen [1959] for positivism
the interview does not belong to the methods of the natural sciences,
nated or m inimized.
issues of who is a scientist and who has the power to define an activity
as scientific or unscientific.
atic knowledge.
social change were lost in the Vienna circle in the 1920s. Its strict focus
how these five terms are defined, qualitative research may again be
characterized as either scientific or as unscientific. For example,
sense.
62
Interviews
63
the century physics. Social science should aifn at the prediction and
nor ideals for interview research to approximate; social facts are social
natural sciences one article even talks about the physics of the
interview, as outlined in Box 2.1 (see Chapter 2), either are irrelevant
tation; the data and their interpretations are thus not strictly sepa
the spontaneous tendency that people have to tell stories about their
lives.
A closer look at the practices of formalizing and quantifying
research in the social sciences may show that these are linked less to
tion are ways of ordering and structuring the social world, with
64
Interviews
65
research.
the same phenom enon by different observers should give the same
data. Objectivity may here refer to what a number of subjects or judges
observe, referred to as coder reliability. Scriven (1972) criticized
of the main character in Ibsens play, A?; Enemy of the People The
interpreting a phenom enon. This may take the form of a com m unica
T hird, objective may also mean reflecting the nature o f the object
edge has been com mon in the social sciences. Scientific data must be
Interviews
social sciences than the methods o f the natural sciences, which were
developed for a nonhum an object dom ain. From this perspective the
67
Scientists are not and cannot be concerned w ith the individual case. They
recent job announcement for North Sea oil geologists listed the ability
68
I nt erVi ews
69
research, the content and form of com munication, mainly in the form
hum an and the natural sciences breaks down (see Bernstein, 1983).
Thus, apart from the more basic question of why the social sciences
should try to imitate the natural sciences, a brief look at the actual
heated topic in the social sciences for some time; attempts at bridging
Reichardt & Cook, 1979; Tschudi, 1989) have had little impact. And
concepts and hypotheses for the specific study. The phases of data
tive bifurcation will be pointed out here, and some reasons why a
suggested.
their utility depends on their power to bear upon the research ques
* *
70
Interviews
71
these rather different fields has rested less on their com patibility with
Q ualitativ e M a rk et Research
social sciences.
others their situation from their own perspective and in their own
p. 289). The study was based on case histories in the form of detailed
cal functions, and its social functions help to build up that symbolic
interests and methods were well in line with the hum an engineering
(Kvale, 1976b). This involved extensive time and m otion studies con
trolling the workers behavior, which was made more efficient by the
72
I nterVi ews
73
ment view, the moral and political have priority over scientific and
74
Interviews
75
illusion. The endless play of signs and stories, the shifting sands of
120 ).
lytical therapy, about the coherence of the theory, and about the
enorm ous sense o f relief, hope and responsibility. Far from despair, the
idea that each o f us recreates reality w ith each encounter fills me w ith
w ondrous hope, em pow erm ent and co m m unity connection. If there is
no absolute truth out there to create pristine expert systems that can
Greenberg, 1977). I will not address those critiques here, but focus
instead on the fruitfulness of psychoanalytical therapy in bringing
som ehow solve our problems m ath e m atically ;. . . if we accept that when
reality, w hich in turn creates us then we are called to a new com m unity.
If I can m ake culture I must act responsibly, (p. 155)
Box 4.1
76
In te r v ie w s
77
120 ).
An essential aspect of
78
Interviews
79
4,
continuing paradox that the therapeutic interview, which has not been
T H E R A P E U T IC R E S E A R C H
B E T W E E N S C Y U . A A N D C l 1 A R Y B D IS
tic research voyage can be likened to Odysseus sailing the narrow strait
between Charybdis and Scylla on his return from Troy, a passage that
he declared was the most dangerous part of his long research voyage.
often with the therapist as the hero. There is seldom any methodical
reflection on how the evidence for the story is obtained, nor analyses
views, a research method that has hardly been given any systematical
to the other side of the narrow strait, where the six-headed monster
research interview.
80
Interviews
PART
III
subjects stories of their lived world and that conveys new and valid
knowledge and insights to the listeners to and the readers of the tale.
I now turn from the meaning of the concepts in the books subtitle
82
I ntcrVicws
cal aspects of the interview situation and the issue of leading questions
are also addressed.
The structuring o f the interviews for subsequent analysis is ad
dressed in Chapter 9. Technical questions of transcribing raise princi
pal issues about the differences between oral and written language.
The chapter concludes by outlining the usd of computer programs for
handling interview texts.
The next three chapters focus on the analysis of interviews. A
discussion of the 1,000-page question in Chapter 10 highlights some
key issues of interview analysis. Chapter 11 provides an overview of
approaches to analysis, such as meaning condensation and categoriza
tion, narrative structuring and interpretation, in Chapter 12, the
plurality of interpretations is related to the hermeneutic primacy of
the question, and questions posed to interview statements about
grading are discussed, drawing on different contexts of interpretation
and validation. Finally, a modern quest for meaning is contrasted with
a postmodern deconstruction of reified meanings.
Verification o f the knowledge produced in interviews is treated in
Chapter 13, where gencralizability, reliability, and validity in qualita
tive research are discussed. Validation as a social construction is
treated in some detail, and philosophical conceptions of knowledge
84
I nt erVi ews
85
' dardized affair, often going through five characteristic emotional phases.
beginning, can also occur in the later phases, such as when discovering
Box 5.1
An interview project
whole. The very openness and flexibility of the interview, with its
science methods.
(continued)
86
Interviews
87
an advertising folder for her firm, and added after the five hardship
phases: There is one way to avoid this state of affairs, call Qualitative
and patience.
researcher will have a good starting point for better getting through
that may assist the interviewer through the hardships of the research
and stress.
i
I
I
ji
of interview studies.
The emotional dynamics of an interview study can now be related
'
I
i
>
88
Interviews
89
Box 5.2
1. Thematizing.
6).
3. Interviewing.
study (Chapter
4. Transcribing.
Prepare
the
interview
material
for
5. Analyzing.
Interviews A b o u t Grades
6. Verifying.
12 ).
I.
and a theoretical analysis of the theme investigated, and the form ula
tion of research questions. The grade study, which took place in 1978,
7. Reporting.
Interviews
90
Box 5.3
91
1. Them atizing
5. Analyzing
research. T h o u s a n d O a k s, C A : Sage.
2. Designing
Research Design
L o n d o n : Falm er.
M o rse , J. M . , & Field, P. A . (1 9 95 ). Qualitative research methods for
Ethics
Kisncr, E. W ., & P eshkin, A . (Eds.)- (1 9 9 0 ). Qualitative inquiry in educa
L o n d o n : Falmer.
W o lc o tt, H . F. (19 94 ). Transforming qualitative data. T h o usa n d O aks, C A :
Sage.
6 . Verifying
Eisner, E. W ., & Peshkin, A. (Eds.). (19 90 ). Qualitative inquiry in educa
7. Reporting
A m erican Psychological A ssociation. ( 19 89). Publication manual (3rd ed.).
W a s h in g to n , D C : A uthor.
R ich a rd so n , 1.. (19 90 ). Writing strategies. N e w bury Park, C A : Sage.
Sage.
3. Interviewing
R u b in , H . J., & R u b in , 1. S. (1 9 95 ). Qualitative interviewing. T h o u sa n d
O a k s, C A : Sage.
S eidm an , I. E. (1 9 91 ). Interviewing as qualitative research. N e w York:
Teachers C ollege Press.
S pradley, J. (1 9 79 ). The ethnographic interview. N e w Y o rk : H o lt, R in e h a rt
& W in s to n .
Y o w , V . R . (1 9 94 ). Recording oral history. T h o u s a n d O a k s, C A : Sage.
Intervi ews
92
93
The actual course of the investigation was less neat than that
grade point averages. The purpose of the interviews was to test the
which were conducted in January, took far more time than planned.
ing for grades in school socializes pupils to work for wages in occu
then most of the pupils were too busy with their final exams to be
pational life.
2.
when the interview study was begun, special care was therefore taken
interviewed. They came from one class at each school and were se
lected by their alphabetical name order. Six teachers were also inter
The remaining five stages of the grade study are treated in more
detail in the following chapters and only outlined briefly here.
Stage .3: Interviewing. A detailed guide was used for the individual
interview study w ould have been out of the question. W ith the
validity o f interpretations.
search). The statement, depicted in Table 5.1, was split into two items
pupils on the two items i$ indicated in Table 5.1. It turned out that a
thematic and m ethodic aspects o f the study were also treated in sub
sequent articles in professional journals.
majority of the pupils agreed with the first part of the statement that
grades are an expression of how much one talks, whereas a majority
94
Interviews
T A B L E 5.1
Interview Statement
95
P upil:
G rades are often unjust, because very o fte n very ofte n they are o n ly a
m easure o f h o w m uch you talk, and h o w m u c h you agree w ith the teachers o p in io n .
knowledge
Percentage of 23 9 Pupils
show someone else the way to a goal, one needs to know what the
Strongly
Questionnaire Items
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
20
62
15
20
57
19
the content and the purpose of the study in order to make reflected
decisions on which methods to use at the different stages o f the study.
disagreed with the second part that grades are often an expression
of how much one goes along with the teachers opinion.
The example points out strengths and weaknesses in the two
methods. The interview brought out interesting beliefs about which
T heniatizing
CONTENT
Interview studies today often start without a theory of the themes
investigated, and also w ithout a review of the research literature in
the area. One definition of science is the systematic production of new
knowledge (Chapter 4, The Scientific Status of the Interview). W ith
out any presentation of the existing knowledge about the topic of an
investigation, it is difficult for both researcher and reader to ascertain
whether the knowledge obtained by the interviews is new, and thus
what the scientific contribution of the study is. The theoretical naivete
com m on in the many applied interview projects is not necessarily
confined to qualitative research. The contributions of Freud and later
psychotherapists testify to the potentials of theorizing on the basis of
qualitative interviews.
A significant part of any interview project should take place before
the tape recorder is turned on for the first actual interview. This
96
Interviews
97
of the topic of the study the what will further influence the
how of the study: the many decisions on method that must be made.
the meaning o f these experiences and help the pupil to express his
ics and family situation. Relevant questions m ight address whether the
is, what happens after the teasing occurs. The reactions of others to a
introduction to the local language, the daily routines, and the power
ing w ould focus on what responses the teaser gets from the other
pupils and the teacher; in short, W hat are the immediate consequences
how abstract is the most concrete o f your concepts and questions when
way 2,0 00 miles into north central Brazil and 1 arrived in a small tow n.
of the meaning o f teasing. If they are not introduced until the analysis
stage, after the interviews have been conducted, the relevant inform a
tion for the theoretical interpretations may be lacking.
IHJRPOSF.
tory interview is open and has little structure. The interviewer in this
case introduces an issue, an area to be charted, or a problem complex
to be uncovered, such as in the interview on the experience of learning
reported by G iorgi. The interviewer follows up on the subjects
answers and seeks new inform ation about and new angles on the topic.
Interviews that test hypotheses tend to be more structured. This can
take the form of a comparison o f interviews from different groups,
for example, by testing a hypothesis that boys w ill express more
98
Interviews
99
com petition about grades than will girls. W hen investigating group
may also occur within a single interview, with the interview questions
from the first thematizing of the study topic to the final reporting. I
also discuss some of the overall aspects of the design, such as interview
n I E TEMPORAL DIMENSION
The temporal dimension of an interview design should be kept in
m ind from the first thematizing to the final reporting, taking into
There are more specific uses. Interviews are often applied in case
studies. The purpose may be to develop knowledge about one specific
also be considered.
should be envisaged from the start, and much of the analyzing and
tigation before the interviews start. W hen using the more standardized
in this case already built into the instruments, for instance by the
one might interview pupils and teachers about grades, listen to the
taped interviews, and then theorize. Here the interviews are not
Designing
consequences that both open and limit the alternatives available at the
clarifying its content and purpose the second stage, designing, con
study to larger groups will require that certain criteria regarding size
100
1n t e r V i c w s
101
d im e n s io n s o f a p h e n o m e n o n m ay be d is co v e r e d in the m id dle o f a
le a r n in g m o t iv a ti o n s in a p u blic vers us an e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h o o l . T h e
V ">
Keep the Endpoint in Sight. F r o m the start o f the investig atio n keep
IN T E R V IE W F O R M S
in terview s; and han d lin g any co n trov e rsia l and c o n flictu a l t h e m e s that
s u b je c t s o f t e n lea ds t o s p o n t a n e o u s and e m o t i o n a l st a t e m e n t s a b o u t
the ea rlier stages. T h e so lu tio n is to im prove the qu ality o f the orig inal
Im ber, 1995).
H O W M A N Y IN T E R V IE W S U B JE C T S D O 1 N E E D ?
T o th e c o m m o n q u e s t i o n , H o w m an y in te rv ie w s u b je cts d o I
t o find o u t w h a t you n e e d t o k n o w .
102
Interviews
103
If the g o al is to p re d ict th e o u t c o m e o f a n a t io n a l e l e c t i o n , a r e p r e
sen tative s am p le o f a b o u t
1,000
su bjects is n o rm a lly r e q u i r e d , so
o n e s u b ject is su fficient.
test o f sig n if ica n ce . D e p e n d in g o n the d is trib u tio n o f the fin din gs, a
test o f statis tically s ig n ifica n t d if f e re n c e s b e tw e e n the t w o g ro u p s can
be m a de at a p ro b a b ility level o f
R E S O U R C E S A V A IL A B L E
p < . 0 5 (Siegel, 1 9 5 6 ) . If , h o w e v e r ,
interview s te n d t o be a r o u n d 15 + 1 0 . T h i s n u m b e r m a y be d ue t o a
m ent o r ig in a te d w ith psy ch o an aly tically inspired interv iew s w ith his
104
In terv iew s
105
w o u ld be u n eth ica l.
analysis, say, o f the lin guistic asp ects o f the interview s, also r e q u ire a
away fro m
specia l c o m p e t e n c e .
W H E N N O T T O I N T E R V IE W
in sta n ces, the prim a ry m otiv e for using qu al itativ e interview s a ppea rs
w orld.
F r o m M e t h o d to C r a f t s m a n s h i p
b e t w e e n t h e . m o n s t e r s o f a n o - m e t h o d C h a r y b d i s and an a l l- m e th o d
nair es with p re c o d e d a nsw ers are the rele va n t m eth o d . A lso, w hen
i n t r o d u c t o r y m e ta p h o r s , r e m in d o n e m o r e o f an in t e rv ie w e r as a
m in i n g e n g i n e e r th a n as a c o n v e r s i n g tr aveler.
In te r v ie w in g is a cra f t : It d o e s n o t f o llo w c o n t e n t - a nd c o n t e x t - f r e e
ru le s o f m e t h o d , bu t rests o n the ju d g m e n ts o f a qu a lif ie d res e a rch er.
1o r
is th e i n s tr u m e n t . T h e o u t c o m e o f an in te rv ie w d e p e n d s o n the
R o g e r s ( C h a p t e r 2 , A T h e r a p e u t i c In te rview on H a t e ) . C r e a t i n g these
106
Interviews
107
re q u i r e m e n t s for the h u m a n sc i e n c e r e s e a r c h e r su ch as an a c q u a i n
o f h u m a n sc i e n c e , and an a e s t h e ti c sensibility.
n o t im ply a n e g le ct o f t e c h n i q u e s a nd k n o w le d g e . F o r an artist, a
k n o w le d g e is b e st c o m m u n ic a te d by exe m p la rs , a n e c d o te s , ca se s t o
A w o r k o f art c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , be p ro d u c e d by m e re ly f o llo w in g
ries, n a r rativ es, and m e ta p h o r s and is tested by its im p lica tio n for
i n d ir e c t a nd c o n t e x t - b o u n d
ate the qu alit y o f a w o r k o f art are q u a lif ic a tio n s equ ally d esira b le for
the c ra fts, bu t also for the higher p ro fession s, inclu ding scien tific
the ed u catio n al re s e a rc h e r.
fo rm s o f c o m m u n ic a t i n g k n o w led g e
ru le -g uided k n o w in g t h a t to an e x p e r i e n c e - b a s e d k n o w in g h o w .
a d va nced b e g i n n e r , c o m p e t e n c e , p ro f ic ie n c y , and e x p e r ti s e . W h a t
108
Interviews
6 on
Ethical Issues in
Interview Inquiries
An i n t e rv ie w in q u iry is a m o ra l e n te r p ri s e : T h e per so n al i n t e r a c t i o n
in the i n t e rv ie w a f fe c t s the in t e rv ie w e e , and the k n o w le d g e p ro d u c e d
by the i n t e rv ie w a f fe c t s o u r u n d e r st a n d in g o f the h u m a n s it u a t io n . In
C h a p t e r 5 , an in te rv ie w design w as tre a te d w ith reg a r d to a c q u irin g
k n o w le d g e o f the h u m a n situ a tio n . In this c h a p t e r , the m o r a l i m p l i c a
t io n s o f an in terv iew inq uiry will be ad dressed .
E x p l ic it rules o r cl e a r s o l u t io n s t o ethica l p r o b l e m s th a t m ay arise
d u rin g an in terv iew stud y ca n hardly be p ro v id e d , bu t c o n t e x t s will
b e su g gested f o r th e r e s e a r c h e r s r e f l e c t io n o n the n o r m a ti v e a n d value
t h e m e s invo lv ed. F irst, s o m e e thica l issues t h a t m ay arise at the
d if f e r e n t st ag es o f an in te rv ie w p r o j e c t are o u t lin e d and d iscussed in
r e l a t i o n to th e e th ical gu id eli n es o f in f o r m e d c o n s e n t , c o n f id e n t i a l it y ,
a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e r e a f t e r , the th r e e e t h ic a l t h e o r i e s o f duty,
utility, a nd virt ue are p re sen ted as b r o a d e r c o n t e x t s f o r r e f l e c t io n o n
m o ra l d il e m m a s e n c o u n t e r e d in i n t e rv ie w in q uiries.
A ce n tr a l aim o f so cial sc ie n c e is to co n t r i b u t e k n o w le d g e t o a m e l i o
ra te the h u m a n c o n d it i o n and e n h a n c e h u m a n dignity. T h e p re a m b le
to the A m e r i c a n P s y ch o lo g ica l A s s o c i a t io n s eth ical pri n cip le s states,
P sychologists resp ect th e dignity and w orth o f th e individual and strive
fo r th e preserv ation and p ro tectio n o f fu nd am ental hum an rights. T h ey
are co m m itted to increasing kn ow led ge o f h um an b eh av io r and o f
p e o p le s un derstand in g o f th em selv es and oth ers and to th e utilization
o f such know led ge fo r th e p ro m o tio n o f hum an w elfare. (A m erican
P sychological A sso ciation [APA], 1 9 8 1 , p. 6 3 3 )
10 9
Interviews
Ethical Issues
111
and h u m a n
Box
6. 1
E thical Issues of
the Seven R e s e a rc h Stages
Thematizing.
Designing.
re p o r t .
late d t o the t h e m a tiz in g and des ig ning stages are discu ss ed in this c h a p
Interview Situation.
c h a p ter s.
E t h ic a l Guidelines
Transcription.
E T H IC A L C O D E S
Analysis.
Verification.
co nsid ere d .
as possible.
Reporting.
1 12
Interviews
Ethical Issues
(see
In su ch ca se s any m is le ad in g i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u ld be c o r r e c t e d in a
in te rv ie w study w e re d ep ic ted in B o x 6 . 1 .
d e b r i e f in g a f te r the study.
In the
e.g ., E is ner
8c P eshk in , 1 9 9 0 ; K im m e l, 1 9 8 8 ) .
i n t e rv ie w to p i c w as m a de in o r d e r t o investigate h o w p r o m i n e n t a
place g ra d e s had in the pupils ev er yday s c h o o l life. T h u s the first 5
m in u t e s o f th e in te rv ie w co nsisted o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t the g e nera l
IN F O R M E D C O N S E N T
overa ll p u rp ose o f the investigatio n and the m ain featu res o f the
design, as well as o f any po ssible risks and b enefits fro m p a rticip a tio n
d u rin g th e in te rv ie w itself. W i t h h o l d i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n w as h e re
th e in t e n t i o n o f o b t a in i n g k n o w le d g e as u n c o n t a m i n a t e d by the r e
s e a r c h e r s h y p o t h e s e s as possible.
1 14
Interviews
Ethical Issues
115
I n f o r m e d ? E is ne r ( 1 9 9 1 ) has p o in te d o u t th a t the c o n c e p t o f in
before the e v e n t to
be observed w h a t the even t will be and its po ssible effe cts . T h i s may
the analysis h a lf a year after the interv iew ing. I then w a n ted t o r e p r o
d uce a s p e cific interv iew in full, because it gave a p a rticu la rly vivid
d e sc rip t io n o f the influ en ce o f gra des on the pupils life situ a tio n . In
fo rm e d c o n s e n t im plies th at the r e s e a r c h e r k n o w s
L in co ln ( 1 9 9 0 ) has p ro p o s e d r e p la c i n g the c o n c e p t o f i n f o r m e d
interv iew s with ch ild ren be available to their pare nts and t e a ch e r s? In
clea r b e f o r e the in terview ing w h o will late r have access t o the m ate ria l.
t h e r a p is t s i n t e rp r e ta t io n s is a m a in aspe ct o f the t h e r a p e u t i c p ro ce ss ,
Guidelines, 1 9 9 2 , p.
6).
st at ed ex p licitly in a w ritt e n a g r e e m e n t . T h e p r o t e c t i o n o f s u b je c t s
the basic p rin ciple s o f scie n tific res ea rch , such as in tersubjective
the b o o k a b o u t the stud y, m any q u o t e s fro m the interv iew s w ere given,
In the
Interviews
CO N SEQ U EN CES
Ethical Issues
ju d g m e n t s a b o u t th e d esira b le uses o f th e a c q u i re d k n o w le d g e . As
a s u b je c t a n d the i m p o r t a n c e o f th e k n o w le d g e gained sh o u ld o u t
(Guidelines, 1 9 9 2 , p. 1 5 ).
a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o r in th e in te re s t o f in cr eased
p r o f it s fo r p r o d u c e rs ( C h a p t e r 4 , Q u a lit a tiv e M a r k e t R e s e a r c h ) . O n e
a im o f f e m in is t r e s e a r c h is t o o v e r c o m e th e o p p r e s s i o n o f w o m e n
t h r o u g h giving prio rity t o the m oral and p o lit ic o v e r the s cie n tif ic
( C h a p t e r 4 , F e m in is m a n d Q u a l i t a ti v e R e s e a r c h ) . T h e i m m e d ia t e
as well as the qu ality o f the liste ning, can m a k e an interv iew a unique
I n te r p r e t a t io n ) .
n itive c h o i c e s ; it i n vo lv es th e p e r so n o f th e r e s e a r c h e r , h is o r h e r
sen sitiv ity t o ide n tify an eth ica l issue a n d t h e r e s p o n sib ility t o feel
P e s h k i n , 1 9 9 0 , p. 2 4 4 ) .
&c
c u rric u lu m , such as p ro m o t in g i n d e p e n d e n c e , c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d c r e a
s c i e n t i f i c k n o w le d g e a n d f o r the s o u n d n e s s o f e t h i c a l d e c is i o n s in any
sity w ou ld p r o m o t e d e p e n d e n c e , c o m p e t i t i o n , c o n f o r m i t y , and n e g a
th e i r lea rn in g a n d so cial c o n d it i o n s at s ch o o l.
118
In tc rV ie w s
Ethical Issues
119
*
T h r e e et hica l aspects o f the r e s e a r c h e r s; ro le c o n c e r n s cie n tific
re sponsibility , rela tion to the s u b jects, a nd r e s e a r c h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e .
T h e re s ea rch er has a
Box 6.2
E th ic al Q u e stio n s a t the
d iffere n t roles in
W h a t are the
s ituation?
H o w ca n the
s u b jects be o b ta in e d ?
S h o u ld in f o r m e d co n s e n t be agreed on orally o r sh ou ld
th e r e be a w ritte n c o n tra ct?
su p e riors?
u n reco g n iz ed c o u n t e r t r a n s f e r e n c e , o r to use an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
e x p r e s s io n g o n a t i v e .
E T H IC A L IS S U E S A T T H E S T A R T O F A S T U D Y
H o w can in fo r m e d c o n s e n t be h a n dled in e x p l o r a t o r y
st udies w h e r e the investigators them selves will have little
a d v a n ce k n o w led g e o f h o w the in terview s will p ro c e e d ?
H o w ca n the
p ro t e c te d ?
guid elines give so m e p rin cipa l d ir e c tio n s , and p a rticip a tin g in re s e a rch
c o m m u n it i e s will pro vide a d d itio n al c o n c r e t e b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e
C a n legal p ro b le m s co n c e r n i n g p r o t e c ti o n o f the s u b je c t s
a n o n y m i ty be e x p e c te d ?
(continued)
120
Interviews
Lithical Issues
121
potential benefits?
1988).
The duty ethics of principles, also termed a deontological and an
intentional position, judges an action independently of its conse
quences. M oral actions are those that live up to principles, such as
honesty, justice, and respect for the person. An ethics of duty is
expressed by Kants maxims: Treat every man as an end in himself,
and never as a means only and Act as if the m axim of thy act were
to become by thy will a universal law of nature. These general ethical
Ethical Theories
name moral sciences. W ith the rise of modern social science, a split
developed between facts and values, between the descriptive and the
normative, between what is and what should be. I bis dichotom y was
determine its rightness. The end purpose might be the greatest good
omy, became secondary and were left to the ethical codes o f the
profession and the integrity of the researcher.
t
122
Ethical Issues
Interviews
123
as a h um an being.
ship), and postulate that with increasing expertise, explicit rules and
nique when answering the patient on the phone. The patient, who
19
1.1
Is
rity of the researcher, the interaction with the com m unity studied, and
gories, myths, sagas, morality plays, case stories, and personal exam
behavior.
125
T h e re s e a rch in te rv ie w is an in t e r p e r s o n a l s it u a t io n , a c o n v e r s a t io n
b e t w e e n t w o p a rt n e rs a b o u t a t h e m e o f m utual interest. It is a spe cific
fo rm o f h u m a n in t e r a c t i o n in w h ic h k n o w le d g e evo lv es th r o u g h a
d ia lo g u e . T h e in t e r a c t i o n is n e it h e r as a n o n y m o u s and n e u tra l as w h e n
a s u b ject re s p o n d s t o a su rv ey q u e s t i o n n a i r e , n o r as pe r so n a l and
T h e In te rv iew C o n v e r s a t i o n
b e a b le to h an dle.
T h e p u rp o s e o f a qu alitativ e resea rch interv iew w as d escrib ed
v i e w e e ; th e i n t e r v i e w e e s lived m ea n in g s m ay be im m e d ia t e ly a c c e s s i
ble in the s it u a t io n , c o m m li n ic a t e d n o t on ly by w o rd s, bu t by t o n e o f
tim e t h e r e is an op e n n e ss t o ch a n g es o f s e q u e n c e and f o rm s o f
12 a sp e cts
of
2.1
in C h a p t e r
2 ).
126
I n t e r v ie w s
127
o n th e b e a ch . D o you su n b a th e ?
f o r m u l a t i o n o f qu estion s. S o m e ti m e s o n ly a first, t o p ic - in t ro d u c in g
In te r v ie w e r : W h a t ?
S: D o y o u s u n b a th e ?
I: W e l l , n o I d o not.
S: Y o u have a nice c o lo r .
I: I d o n t spend o n e single su m m e r day o n t h at, bu t as a w h o l e I l o o k
tanned. F
e x p la in the pu rpose and pose direct q u e stio n s fro m the st art o r can
T h e c o n v e r s a t io n in a re s e a rch interview is n o t th e r e c ip r o c a l
intellectual-emotional dimension, f ro m a
In te r v ie w s also vary o n an
by G i o r g i ( C h a p te r 2 ) . S o c r a t e s in te rv iew , despite th e co n v e r s a t io n a l
c h a n g e r e p o r t e d by R og e rs.
t h ro w s in th e t o w e l a n d c o n c e d e s t h a t h e k n o w s n o t h i n g o f w h a t he
was t a lk ing a b o u t ( C h a p t e r 2 ).
Advance p r e p a ra t io n is ess ential to the in t e r a c t i o n and o u t c o m e o f
F r a m i n g th e Interview
what
will be anal yzed and how the fin dings will b e verified and r e p o rt e d .
d eg ree o f
128
interviews
129
ation for the su b je ct; briefly tells a b o u t the purp ose o f the interview ,
10 m in u tes
the interv iew inves tigat ion sh ould prefe rab ly w ait until the interview
is over.
c o n t a c t is estab lish ed by a tte n tiv e liste ning, with the i n terv iew er
T h e In te rv ie w G u ide
sh e w a n ts t o kno w .
The initial b rie fing sh ou ld be f o llo w e d up by a
debriefing a f te r the
1 h av e
no
130
Interviews
T A B L E 7 .1
131
R e s e a rc h Q u e s tio n s a n d In te rv ie w Q u e s tio n s
Research Questions
Interview Questions
im portant?
interesting in itself?
is posed. In the interv iew situ a tio n , the prio rity o f the q u e s t io n types
ch ang e. In the interview itself, the m ain q u e stio n s s h o u ld be in a
descriptive f o rm : W h a t h a p p e n e d and h o w did it h a p p e n ? H o w
In tcrV ie*
T k Interview Situation
B o x 7.1
T y p e s o f In te rv ie w Q u e s ti o n s
sive issue is the i n terv iew ers ability to sense the immediate meaning
o f an answ er and the h o r i z o n o f po ssible m eanings that it opens up. '
T h i s , again, req uires a k n o w le d g e of, and interes t in, both the theme
A.
D o you r e m e m b e r an o c c a s i o n w h e n . . . ? ; W h a t h a p
the q u e stio n s, the in terview er sh ould also try to keep in mind the later
initial q u estion .
B.
C.
co n v e r sa tio n .
c o n t e n t bu t w i t h o u t st atin g w h a t d im e n s io n s are t o be
tak en in t o a c c o u n t.
(continued)
Interviews
134
B o x 7 .1 C o n t i n u e d
135
B o x 7 .1 C o n t in u e d
1
up with m o r e o p e r a t io n a l i z in g q u e stio n s, f o r in s ta n ce :
c a n t in f o r m a t i o n .
D.
I.
*-
d u ces t o p i c s an d d im e n s io n s , f o r e x a m p l e : H a v e you ev er
c o m p e t i t i o n , d o you t h e n th in k o f a s p o r t s m a n l i k e o r a
F.
s ec tio n s titled
H e r m e n e u t i c a l In te r p r e t a t io n ; and P h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l D e s c r i p t io n ) .
G.
th e m e has b e e n e x h a u s te d . T h e in t e rv ie w e r m ay d ir ectly
w ou ld n o w like to in t r o d u c e a n o t h e r to p i c : . . .
H.
Silence: R a t h e r th a n m a k i n g the in te rv ie w a c ro ss e x
E.
!>
Interviews
136
137
my p a re n ts t h e m m a k in g a fuss. A nd s o m e o f th e o t h e r kids no t
r e s p o n d in g s o well w h o d id n t d o so w ell. It was m ix e d e m o t io n s ,
bu t g en e r a lly
1re m e m b e r
Student 4 :
n a n c e w ith in m y c la ss m a t e s e x p e r i e n c e o f m e so cially.
m in o r ch a n g e s in linguist ic style.
S K 5 : C o u l d you d escrib e th a t d is so n a n ce ?
S t u d e n t 5 : W e l l , I th in k t h e r e s alw ays s o m e kind o f d e m a r c a ti o n
n u m b e r th a t you g e t on to p o f y o u r pap er .
SK
6:
Student
SK 7:
6:
T h i r d grade.
S t u d e n t 7 : N o ; it was m o r e f eelin g
SK
8:
Student
SK 9 :
Student 9 : Yeah.
SK 10:
tim e.
S K 2 : L e t s take th a t tim e. C a n you tell me w ha t h a p p e n e d ?
St u d e n t 2 : I did very w ell. I r e m e m b e r g etting a red st ar o n the to p
o f my paper w ith
8:
T h e fee lin g
100 ;
138
Interviews
Student 2 1 :
139
w h a t s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o me is my frien dsh ip s.
Student 2 2 :
S K 2 3 : S o there seem s to be an a lm o st o n g o i n g c o n f li c t in b o th
r e l a t i o n to the t e a c h e r and the re la tion t o the classm ates. And
Student 2 3 :
SK 2 4 :
Yes. 1 ca n see th a t
A nd asking m o r e sp ecifica lly a b o u t th e le a rn in g p ro cess , did
the fact th a t you w ere getting grad ed, did th at have any in fluen ce
o n the way you learn ed ?
S t u d en t 1 4 : It m ade m e w a n t t o d o w ell, so it w as d o b e tt e r.
Stu den t 1 5 : G r a d e ?
S K 1 6 : M o n e y . T h a t s o m e p e o p le get grade m o n e y .
Stu d en t 1 8 : Yes.
SK 2 5 :
I nt e r v i e ws
140
141
R o g e r i a n , a F r e u d ia n , and a S k in n e ria n a p p r o a c h ( C h a p te r 5 , D e s ig n
ing).
Stu de n t 2 6 : N o ; I d o n t th in k so.
T h e in terv iew was then discussed in class, inclu ding the f o llo w in g
exchange:
very w o rd s ( S K 4
m in d e d he r o f o t h e r s itu a tio n s (S K 1 2 ) . T h e s t u d e n t s an s w e r c o n f ir m s
1 w as t o
my
friends and I ve had t o face that a lot. It was fun for me to talk
a b o u t it cause I m pretty clear a b o u t w hat ha p p ened .
T h e m o d e s o f q u estio n in g and the topics co v e re d in this artifici al
d e m o n s t r a t i o n interv iew a b o u t grades are rep resen ta tive o f the 3 0
interv iew s o n grades in D an ish high s ch o o ls discussed t h r o u g h o u t this
b o o k . F e w o f the pupils, h o w e v e r, gave su ch rich and e l o q u e n t
d e scrip tio n s o f thei r e x p e r i e n c e s with grades.
\1). T h e
s t u d e n t th e n tells a b o u t b e in g re w a rd e d for g o o d g ra d es as a ch il d by
g e t tin g t o stay up late t o w a tc h T V o r by b e in g given ice c r e a m . E a r l ie r
in th e in te rv ie w the stu d e n t (3) had m e n t i o n e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t s for
g o o d g rad es, su ch as be in g h o n o r e d by he r cla ss m ates, t e a c h e r , and
p a re n ts. If this had n o t b e e n a d e m o n s t r a t i o n in te rv ie w in f r o n t o f a
class, a n d ha d last ed l o n g e r, o n e or m o r e o f the th re e t h e o r e t ic a l
a p p r o a c h e s w o u ld have be en m o r e e x ten siv ely f o llo w e d up.
grade this even led the stu d en t d elib erately to seek lo w e r g rad es in
or d e r n o t t o be sep a ra ted fro m her peers (Stud ent 1 0 ) . In a pass/fail
ev aluation system in the present P h .D . p ro g ra m , she was reliev ed th a t
this m ad e it difficult to c o m p a r e and co n t ra s t e va lua tion s w ith class
mates. L earn in g th er eb y b e c a m e a m o r e creative e x p e r i e n c e f o r the
st udent, w ith m o re risk t a k in g (Stud ent 2 4 ) .
In the interview guide, the m ean in g s o f gradin g w e r e t o b e a d
dressed fro m the thre e th e o re t ic a l perspectives m e n t i o n e d ea r l i e r a
14 2
Interviews
143
(SK 2 8 ) .
the loy alty c o n f li c t d escrib ed exten sively earlier in the interv iew .
w ith the grad in g you had to play it safe, . . . (SK 25/1), w h ich is
led to an e m o t io n a l re s p on se ri ch in i n f o r m a t i o n ( Stu d en t 3 ) .
C o n t i n u e d p ro b in g , r e p e a tin g a n o t h e r sig n if ic a n t e x p r e s s io n
&c C )
s e q u e n c e un til the c o n c l u d i n g st u d en t ( 1 2 ) re m a rk , A nd w h a t s m o re
c a t i o n and s p a c e ( S tu d en t 5 &
up po sed sp e cify in g (S K
6/D)
8),
and inste ad o f f o l l o w in g th e m
I t h e n w e n t b a c k in th e in terv iew a nd re p e a te d a t e r m in t ro d u c e d
by the stu d en t t h a t w a s o f th e o r e t ic a l in te re s t t o m e r e w a r d e d
and asked for its m e a n in g (S K 1 3/B & C ). T h i s led to a c o n c r e t e a n s w er
a b o u t ice c r e a m and T V as rew ard s, w h e r e a s a d ir ect f o l l o w -u p q u e s
tio n a b o u t rec eiv in g m o n e y for grad es (S K 15/E) gave n o co n f ir m a t i o n .
T h e n f o r the first tim e sin ce the o p e n i n g q u e s t io n I tu r n e d t o the
interview guide and posed a d ir e ct q u estio n a b o u t w h e t h e r the stud ent
had been a ccu sed o f w h e e d lin g (S K 18/E). T h i s was c o n f i r m e d by the
stud ent ( 1 8
8c
1 ch a n g e d
8 I will
145
B o x 8.1
s c r ip tio n s a nd e x p l a n a ti o n s .
Interview Q u ality
T h e in terv iew is the raw m ate ria l for the la ter pro cess o f m e a n i n g
O f the six qu ality crite ria for an interv iew d ep ic ted in B o x 8 . 1 , the
144
146
Interviews
147
Interview er Q u alificatio n s
T h e in terv iew e r is him - o r he rself the resea rch instrum ent. A g o o d I
T h e I n te rv ie w Subject
c o h e r e n t a c c o u n t s and d o n o t co n t in u a l l y c o n t r a d ic t th e m se lv e s, they
su bjects can give lon g and lively d e scrip tio n s o f th e ir life s itu a tio n ,
e x p e r i e n c e w ith interviewing. An in t e rv ie w e rs s e l f -c o n f i d e n c e is a c
148
Interviews
149
'
B o x 8 .2 C ontinued
5.
Sensitive:
T h e in t e rv ie w e r is e m p a th i c , listens t o the e m o t io n a l m e s
sage in w h a t is said , n o t o n l y h e a rin g w h a t is said bu t also
h o w it is said, and n o tice s as well w h a t is n o t said. T h e
in t e rv ie w e r fe els w h en a to p i c is t o o e m o t io n a l t o pu rsue
in the inte rview .
1.
Knowledgeable:
6.
Open:
interview t h e m e , c a n c o n d u c t an in fo r m e d c o n v e r s a t io n
7.
Steering:
K n o w s w h a t h e o r sh e w a n t s t o fin d o u t : is
im p o r t a n t t o a c q u i r e k n o w le d g e a b o u t. T h e i n t e rv i e w e r
c o n t r o l s th e c o u rs e o f th e i n t e rv ie w a n d is n o t a fra id o f
2.
Structuring:
8.
Critical:
ca n p e r ta i n t o th e o b s e r v a ti o n a l e v id e n c e o f th e in t e r
3.
Clear:
9.
Remembering:
t io n s t o stress.
4.
G entle:
d if f e r e n t parts o f th e in te rv ie w t o each o t h e r .
10.
m e n t s ; p r o v i d e s i n t e r p r e ta t i o n s o f w h a t is said , w h i c h m ay
t h e n b e d is co n firm ^ d o r c o n f ir m e d by th e in te rv ie w e e .
Interpreting:
M a n a g e s t h r o u g h o u t the i n t e rv ie w to
150
Interviews
1 51
H a m l e t s Interview
C o n v e r s a t io n as R e s e a r c h ) c a n also be m e n t i o n e d . By b r in g in g up an
in terview .
in t e rv ie w e r o b t a in s t w o interestin g pupil h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t a c o n
n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h o w m u c h a pu pil t a lk s and his g r a d e s as w e ll as
H am let:
H a m l e t : O r like a w hal e?
his p o stula te .
H a m l e t : . . . (Aside)
They
fool
me
to
the
to p
of
my
be nt.
the to p i c really m atters , the a b o v e tech n ical rules and c r it e ria m a y lose
re lev an ce in face o f the ex iste n tia l i m p o r t a n c e o f the in te rv ie w to p ic.
c u r r e n t res earch interv iew s are o fte n t o o lo n g and filled w ith idle
or b r e a k the rules.
O n e e x a m p l e o f br e a k in g rules in th e in teres t o f g o o d in te rv ie w in g
q u e st io n .
personality o f
Polonius, his t rustw o rthine ss. T h e interview th en pro vides reliable,
153
all thre e q u estion s his answ ers are led by H a m l e t s q u e stion s. W i t h the
By rep ea tin g the q u estion in d ifferen t versions and each tim e g etting
p r e ta t i o n : T h e y fool me to the to p o f my b e n t . As to th e s e c o n d
r e q u i r e m e n t v e r i f i c a t i o n few in t e r v i e w r e s e a r c h e r s t o d a y r e p e a t
a p p e a r s as a display o f the
T h e E t h i c s o f In te rv ie w in g
le sso n in w h a t in c u r r e n t t e x t b o o k s o f m e th o d is ca lled an in d ir e c t ,
fu n n e l -s h a p e d , in te rv iew te ch n iq u e . P olo n iu s req u e s ts a m e s s e n g e r
a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e r e a f t e r , c o m p a r is o n s with t h e r a p e u t i c i n t e r
r e s e a r c h intervie w s.
s h o u ld b e i n f o r m e d a b o u t the p u rp o s e a nd th e p r o c e d u r e o f the
v e rs e d in in d ir e c t q u e st io n in g t e c h n i q u e s , is he actually c a u g h t by
H a m l e t s q u e s t i o n in g te c h n i q u e ? O r d o es he see t h ro u g h the s c h e m e
154
Interviews
155
pe u tic interv iew s. A lth ou gh the res earch in terview er can learn m uch
t w o types.
ability t o listen a tte n tiv ely m ay, h o w ev er, in s o m e cases lead t o quasi-
t h e r a p e u t ic co n v e r s a t io n . C o n f i d e n ti a l it y in these ca se s is assure d by
In terview s; C h a p t e r 14 , E th ic s o f R e p o r t i n g ) .
In the
u n p r o b l e m a ti c , n o h a rm s w e r e fo r e s e e n f o r th e pupils in te rv ie w e d ,
and m o r e k n o w le d g e a b o u t the e f fe c ts o f g ra d es w as c o n s i d e r e d to be
t h a t m ig h t be br o u g h t up by the interviews.
vi ew s with the patients during the tra n s itio n p erio d, and in return
Interviews
156
157
a t te m p t e d in this case.
L e a d in g Q u e s ti o n s
i n vo lv es a lia rs p a r a d o x an an s w e r o f Y es , this is a se r io u s d a n g e r
th a t c o n t in u e s ov er m any years.
le a d in g q u e s t i o n s are n o t th a t p o w e r fu l.
inte rview ee has n o t ask ed for, it may be un ethical t o ins tigate new
a n d ethically resp ectin g th e integ rity o f the in terview ee is illu stra ted
sa m e film , bu t w ith
158
Interviews
8c
159
P a lm e r,
le a d in g resea rch qu estion s, but to rec o g n izc the prim acy o f the qu es
in t e r p e r s o n a l re lationship, c o a u t h o r e d and c o p ro d u c e d by i n t e r
J--~\------
16 1
elud e the visual a sp e cts o f the s itu a tio n , n e it h e r the settin g n o r the
facial and b o dily e x p r e s s io n s o f the pa rticipa nts.
A
w ea lth
o f inform ation
From Speech to T e x t
B e f o r e t urn ing t o the analysis o f the k n o w le d g e c o n s t r u c t e d in the
interview in t e ra c t io n , I will ad dress the tra n s crip tion o f in terview s.
R a th e r than be in g a sim ple clerical task, tra n s crip tio n is itself an
in te rp reta tiv e pro cess . W h e r e a s the in t e ra c t io n o f the in terv iew situ
a tio n has been exten sively treated in the literatu re on m e t h o d , the
t ra n s la tio n f ro m or al c o n v e r s a t io n s to w ritten te x ts has r ec eiv ed less
at te n t io n . T h i s c h a p te r a ddresses th e p ro ce d u re s for m a k in g in terv iew
co n v e r s a t io n s accessible to analysis taping the o ra l in te rv ie w i n t e r
a c t i o n , tra n s crib in g the tapes into w ritte n te x ts, and the use o f c o m
pu te r p ro g ra m s to assist the analysis o f the interviews. T h e p ractical
p r o b l e m s o f tra n s crip tio n raise t h eo retic a l issues a b o u t the d if f e r e n c e s
b e tw e e n or al a nd w ritten langu age, w h ich leads to the ra th e r ne g lected
po sition o f language in in terview re searc h.
i n f lu e n c e o f a se le ctive m e m o r y . T h e i n t e r v i e w e r s i m m e d ia t e m e m o r y
w ill, h o w e v e r , i n clu d e the visual i n f o r m a t i o n o f the s it u a t io n as well
as the so cia l a t m o s p h e r e and per so n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , w h ich t o a large
e x t e n t is lost in the a u d io ta p e r e c o rd in g . T h e in t e r v i e w e r s active
lis te n in g and r e m e m b e r i n g m ay ideally also w o r k as a selective filter,
re t a in in g th o se very m ea n in g s th at are ess ential f o r the t o p i c and
p u rp o s e o f th e study.
'62
Interviews
163
t io n s f ro m an or al to a w ritten m o d e o f c o m m u n ic a t i o n . F.very t r a n
f ro m th e ir thera pie s.
p e n d en tly type the sam e passage o f a taped interv iew , and t h e n have
first r e q u i r e m e n t for
check.
T h e in te rp r e ta tio n a l ch a r a c t e r o f tra n s crip tio n is eviden t fro m the
1 he t ra n s c rip t io n s
A se c o n d r e q u i r e m e n t f o r t ra n s c rip t io n is th at the co n v e r s a t io n on
a b o u t the p ro ced u re s and purp oses o f the tra n s crip tio n s , prefe rab ly
164
T A IH l- 9 .1
I nt e r vi e ws
T w o T r a n s c r ip tio n s o f th e S a m e In te rv ie w P assag e
T A B L E 9 .2
T w o T r a n s c r ip t io n s o f L e o n a s S to ry o f H e r Puppy
T ra n scrip tio n A:
I: And are you also saying because you d on t get grades? Is that true(
S: Yes, I think thats true because if I got grades 1 would w'ork toward the grade as
opposed to w orking toward . . . itmm, expanding what I know, or, pushing a limit
back in m yself or, something . . . contributing new id e a s . . .
Transcription 11:
I: And are you also saying that of course you d o n t like grades?
S: Yes, I think thats true, because if I got grades 1 would work toward the grade as
he was asleep
opposed to w orking toward expanding what I know or pushing those limits back . . .
(tape unclear) contributing new ideas.
he tried to get up
an he ripped my pants
an he dropped the oatm eal all over him
an my fath er cam e
an he said
S O llR C I i: F ro m M ish le r ( 1 9 9 1 ).
m is hearin g . O t h e r d ifferen c es, w h ich are o f intere st fro m an interrelatio n a l perspective, may no t be un eq u iv oca lly so lved, as f o r e x a m
ple: W h e r e d o es a se n te n ce en d? W h e r e is there a pause? I l o w lon g
is a silence b e fo re it b e c o m e s a pause in a co n v e r s a t io n ? D o e s a s p e
reliability o f the tra n s crip tio n co uld d evelo p into a resea rch p r o je c t o f
t o e x p l o r e th e ir i m p l i c a t i o n s ( M i s h le r , 1 9 9 1 , p. 2 7 1 ) .
its ow n.
T r a n s c r i p t s are n o t c o p ie s o r re p re s e n ta t i o n s o f s o m e o r ig in a l reality,
166
I liter Vi e ws
If,7
face o f the rep etitio ns, the i n co m p lete s e n ten ces , and the m a n y d ig re s
c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f th e m e a n in g o f th e s u b j e c t s sto r ie s t o re aders .
O r a l an d W r i t t e n L a n g u a g e
traduire
The d ifferen t rh eto rica l form s o f oral and w ritt e n lang u a ge are
f requ ently o v e r l o o k e d during the tr a n s c r i p t i o n o f so cial sc ie n c e i n t e r
views; o n e e x c e p t i o n is P oland ( 1 9 9 5 ) .
R e c o g n i z i n g th e so cially
Interviews
168
m en tal verbal data for in terview re s earch , ra the r than a m eans to evo ke
and t h e o r e t ic a l issues o f t ra n s fo rm in g co n v e r sa t io n s in t o te x ts m a y be
o f c h o i c e s t o be m ade.
res earch . So cial sc ientists are tod ay naive users o f the language that
Who Should Transcribe? In m ost st udies the tapes are tran s crib ed
by a s e c r e t a r y , w h o is likely t o be m o r e e f fi c i e n t at t y pin g tha n the
r e s e a r c h e r . In v estig ato rs w h o em p h a s iz e the m o d e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
and lin g uistic style m ay c h o o s e to d o th e ir o w n t r a n s crib in g in or d e r
to se c u re the m a n y d eta ils Relevant t o th e ir s p e cific analysis. S o m e have
a typist d o a first t ra n s c rip t io n o f all the inte rv iew s in a st ud y; then
a f te r re a d in g th e m t h r o u g h , the r e s e a r c h e r g o e s b a c k and rety p e s th o se
i n terv iew s, o r th o se part s o f the in terv iew s, th a t will be su b je c t e d to
T r a n s c r i b i n g Interv iew s
in tensive analysis.
170
Interviews
171
scr i p ti o n s are to serve as m aterial for so cio lin g u istic o r psy ch olo gica l
types o f a nsw ers by the subject . And, if psy ch olo gical i n te rp r eta tio n s
i n f o r m a t i o n ? S h o u ld pauses, em p h a s e s in i n t o n a t i o n , and e m o t io n a l
in line with the cu lture o f the h u m a nities, in w h ich there is an e m pha sis
a tra n s c rip t io n will d e p en d on its use; reg ard ing pauses, for e x a m p l e ,
I n te r v ie w e r :
(hat will m ake e xte n siv e analyses o f the interview s, o r for critica l
172
Interviews
173
cif ic p e r so n s o r g r o u p s o f p eo p le.
011 o t h e rs
with low
lit e r a tu re , in
1 did,
Hamlet, for e x a m p le :
(Hamlet, a c t III,
2)
g o t t e n tasks goes the ne ed for secure storag e o f tapes and transcrip ts,
and o f era sin g the tapes w hen they are n o lo n g er of use. In sensitive
case s, it may be a d van tag eou s as early as the tran s crip tio n stage to
T h e c o m p u t e r p ro g ra m s serve as t e x t b a s e m a n a g e rs , s to r in g the
mask tile identities o f the interv iew ed su bjects, as well as eve n ts and
in t r o d u c t i o n t o c h o o s i n g a m o n g c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for qu alitative
H u b e r m a n s, 1 9 9 4 , a p p e n d i x gives a s h o r t
w h ile re a d in g th e transcripts.
S o m e su bjects may e x p e r i e n c e a s h o ck as a
T h e m o s t c o m m o n f o r m o f c o m p u t e r analysis to d a y is c o d i n g , or
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , o f the in te rv ie w st a t e m e n t s . T h e r e s e a r c h e r reads
Be m in dful th at the
174
Interviews
175
T h e p o te n ti a l o f s o m e p ro g ra m s t o m a k e c o n n e c t i o n s a m o n g the
r e f e rr e d to as th e o r y build ing.
directly with the rec o rd ed interview ins tead o f with tra n scrip tion s.
g ra m s f o r c e the r e s e a r c h e r t o m a k e e x p l i c i t c o m m a n d s t o the c o m
oral lang u age f ro m the a lie n atio n o f w ritten te x ts, su ch tech n ica l
c o n v e r s a t io n s .
Interview and
Therapy Analysis, d evelo pe d by C a rl V e r n e r S k o u at the C e n t e r o f
Q ua lita tive R e s e a rc h at the U niversity o f A arh us) . T h e tap e r e c o rd in g
is tran s ferre d to a c o m p a c t disk, c o n v e r te d into digital f o r m , and
stored in the co m p u te r . D u rin g replay the spe ech can be c o d e d o n the
m o n it o r , c o m m e n t s on the passages can b e w ritt e n d o w n , and cen tra l
wi
177
10
1,000-p age
q u e s t i o n as it is f o rm u la t e d a b o v e lea ds in the w r o n g d ir e c ti o n it is
c lo s in g and u n p ro d u c t iv e .
A lead f o r the analysis o f the q u e s t io n is ta k en f r o m A n t o n i o n i s
m o v ie
y o u r s e l f .
W h a t D oes the 1 , 0 0 0 - P a g e Q u e s t i o n M e a n ?
H o w shall 1 fi n d a m e t h o d t o a n a l y z e t h e 1 , 0 0 0 p ag es o f i n t e r v i e w
tr a n s c r i p t s 1 ha v e c o l l e c t e d ?
The m a teria l
1 7 w o r d s o f the
b e en co vered and pre p a res the g ro u n d for the analysis stage treated
t o o u t li n e m o d e s o f c o n d u c t i n g in te rv ie w re s e a rch so th a t a r e s e a r c h e r
1, 000 -page
q u e stion is a sk ed , the
H o w ( 3 ) shall 1 fi n d a m e t h o d ( 4 ) t o a n a l y z e ( 7 ) t h e 1 , 0 0 0 p a g e s ( 2 ) o f
in terview transcripts (5) I have (1) co llecte d (6) ?
1, 000 -
1 IA V K T O O I .ATI-.!
after the
176
178
179
o n the q u a n tity
1,000
The m ate ria l is t o o exten siv e to ov erview and to w ork o u t the depth
In su ch f o rm s o f analysis in t e r p r e ti n g as you g o c o n s i d e r a b l e
part s o f the analysis are pu shed f o r w a r d in t o the in terv iew situ a tion
tu rn e d off.
1,000
pages c o r r e s p o n d t o b e
c h a n g in g the t e m p o ra l f o rm :
H ow do I go about
finding the meaning o f the many interesting and com plex stories my
interviewees told me?
1 ,0 0 0 P A C T 'S " T O O M U C H !
H O W A S K W 11 A T A N D W H Y F I R S T
1,000 pages o f
g a tio n . T h e term
180
Interviews
181
t ru s tw o rt h in e s s ( C h a p te r
8 , H a m l e t s In te rview ).
In g en era l, the t h e o
m a te r ia l in vo lv in g d if f e re n t t e c h n ic a l p r o c e d u r e s d o exist . Five-
th e n e x t c h a p t e r , a re : c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , c o n d e n s a t i o n , n ar ra tiv e s t r u c
o f m e a n in g .
s t a t e m e n t s in o r d e r to c o m p a r e the attitud es o f d if f e r e n t g r o u p s of
analysis is c h o se n .
be r e f o r m u la t e d to:
po ssible d e n o m i n a t o r : th at an in t e r p r e ta t i o n is o n ly re liable w h e n it
z atio n o f the in te r p r e ta t i o n s . T h i s m ay again involv e a co n se n su a lis t
M E T H O D V ER SU S K N O W L E D G E
c o n c e p t i o n o f tru th : th at an o b s e r v a ti o n o r an i n t e r p r e ta t i o n is on ly
c o n s i d e r e d valid if it can be r ep ea ted by e v e r y o n e , irre s p e ctiv e o f the
answ ered due to the way the q u estion is form u la ted . T h e r e are n o
T h e e m p h a s is o n m e t h o d in the m e a n in g o f sta n d a rd iz e d t e c h
sta ndard m e th o d s, n o
q u e s t i o n m ay in vo lv e an e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
182
Interviews
t h e r e t o , th e p re se n t p o s itio n e m p h a s iz e s a k n o w le d g e o f th e s u b je c t
q u e s t i o n is:
i n t e rv ie w e e s st a t e m e n t s are n o t c o ll e c t e d the y a re c o
tio n is:
1, 000 -pag e
q u e s t i o n , bu t ra t h e r b e m ea n s,
A re if ic a tio n o f the joi ntly pro d u ced interview into a t r a n s crip tio n
w ritten t e x t cr e a te d f o r a g e n e r a l, d is ta n t, public.
m ay freeze th e inte rview into finished entitie s rathe r than t r e a t its pas
into a
1 84
Interviews
185
q u estio n t h e n b e c o m e s :
M e t h o d o f A n alysis
A N A L Y Z E V ER SU S N A R R A TE
analyze m ea n s to sep a ra te s o m e t h in g
into part s o r elem e n ts. T h e tran s crip tio n o f the co n v e r sa t io n and the
p o in te d to c o m m o n th re a d s o f m e a n in g un d erly in g the q u e s t i o n . By
parts, be they single para graphs, sen ten ce s , or words, ll is then easy
e m p h a s is o n the
vo ice. S o m e b r i e f a t te m p t s at an e t y m o lo g ic a l analysis w e r e m a d e,
1,000
c o n c e r n i n g t e r m s as
T h e stru ctu res and fu n ctio ns o f the narra tiv es o f folk ta les and
1. 000 -pag e
stor y told by the in terview ee and an ticip a tin g the final stor y to be
f o r m o f an im a g in e d d ia lo g u e , an a t te m p t to a n s w er the o rig in a l
analysis res e m b le d th e q u e s t i o n -a n s w e r s e q u e n c e o f an im a g in ed
186
In terview s
11
Methods of Analysis
up.
It may be objected that the analysis of the 1,000-page question was
M ethods exist that can make the interview analysis more amenable
of the question. 1 grant that the above analysis could have been
out im plicit meanings of what was said. Five main approaches to inter
by the question.
expect to find the magical tool for finally uncovering the treasures of
roads to the meanings of the interviews are given here. The techniques
of analysis are tools, useful for some purposes, relevant for some types
of interviews, and suited for some researchers. The central task of
interview analysis rests, however, with the researcher, with the the
matic questions he or she has asked from the start of the investigation
and followed up through designing, interviewing, and transcribing.
Steps o f Analysis
I
The purpose of the qualitative research interview has been depicted
as the description and interpretation of themes in the subjects lived
world. A continuum exists between description and interpretation.
187
188
Interviews
189
Methods of Analysis
Box 11.1 shows six possible steps of analysis. T hey do not neces
sarily presuppose each other chronologically or logically (see Ciorgi
Box 11.1
to qualitative analysis and use the term analysis for these five ap
proaches in general, and reserve the term interpretation for the one
on-the-line interpretation with the possibility of an onthe-spot confirmation or disconfirmation of the inter
correcting interview.
requires far less space than the original interview text. In contrast to
the text reduction of the other approaches, interpretation will often
involve a text expansion, with the outcome formulated in far more
(continued)
190
I n t e r v ie w s
191
Methods o f Analysis
Approaches to
Analysis of Meaning
Interview Text
Outcome of Analysis
Condensation:
Categorization:
+/-
1- 2
Narrative:
Goal
Interpretation:
Ad hoc:
+ /-
1- 2
->
______________________________ *_______
Figure 11.1.
192
Interviews
193
Methods o f Analysis
tives will usually reduce the interview text; it may, however, also
ments are compressed into briefer statements in which the m ain sense
succinct formulations.
structure a large text into a few tables and figures. The categories can
they may be taken from theory or from the vernacular, as well as from
+ or
fied, while more extensive treatment of the many techniques are found
from the grade study. Narrative analysis and ad hoc analysis will be
M eaning C ondensation
194
Interviews
Methods o f Analysis
'
i
T A B L E 11.1
Natural Unit
Central Theme
interior-decorating.
of the subjects answers are given in the left-hand column and their
central themes are presented in the right-hand column. Five steps are
horizontal lines.
interview is read through to get a sense o f the whole. Then, the natural
meaning units as expressed by the subjects are determined by the
horizontal lines in
the latter has its place. The main point of the study is to demonstrate
how one deals systematically with data that remain expressed in terms
195
home.
of the specific purpose of the study. The m ain questions o f the study
in changing its
appearance.
view were tied together into a descriptive statement. The method thus
why.
4. Husband confirms
196
T A B L E 11 .2
Interviews
Learning for S happened when she obtained from a significant other knowledge and
concrete demonstrations of this knowledge that related to a problem that bothered
her for a long time. When S found she could apply this knowledge to her own
situation in her own way, taking into account all the contingencies that the new
situation offered, she felt that learning had been achieved. Thus S learned by being
197
Methods o f Analysis
Subcategories
Main dimensions
Feeling of injustice
Confidence
Dependency
attentive to another, then applying for herself that knowledge which she received,
w ith approval from a different significant other.
W ithholding criticism
M eaning adjustment
Self-concept
Bluffing
Relations to time
W heedling
Em otional relations
Learning motivation
tion). This concerns fidelity to the phenomena, the primacy of the life
w orld, the descriptive approach, expressing the situation from the
Learning form
of content and method, both the interview method and the conception
of learning were based on a phenomenological understanding of the
learning are shown in the left-hand column, and the eight subcate
natural meaning units and explicating their main themes. (For further
The categories were taken from previous studies of grading and from
pilot interviews in this project. F.ach category was defined: for exam
ple, Bluffing the pupil attempts to give the impression that he knows
more than he knows, and with the purpose of obtaining better grades,
M eaning Categorization
thy o f the teacher with the purpose of obtaining better grades (emo
tional, often unrelated to the subject matter, unacceptable).
learning affects both learning and social relations in school. The tran
198
In te rvie w s
Methods of Analysis
199
Bluffing
D ependency
Confidence
a background for judging how typical the quotes used in the accom
panying qualitative analyses were for the interview material as a
W heedling
W ithholding o f critique
N O T E : N um bers to the right show ho w m any o f the 30 pupils confirm ed occurrences o f a grading
attitude and behavior; negative numbers to the left show how m any disconfirm ed a grading attitude
and behavior. As several pupils had no, or vnguc, statements regarding a subcatcgory, the sum of
direct confirm ations and disconfirinations is less than 30.
two coders did not reach a consensus, a third coder was summoned.
techniques will not be reviewed here (see, e.g., Miles & Huberman,
W ith the Teacher. The results in general confirmed the hypothesis that
found for the six other dimensions of the grade perspective. The
Interviews
200
Methods o f Analysis
201
rative forms during the interview, for example by directly asking for
she learned the difference between horizontal and vertical lines when
as leading to a story the researcher wants to tell, where the key points
he or she want to relate to the readers are kept in m ind from the start.
In both cases the characters may take on their own life during the
author, follow ing a structural logic of their own. The result may be a
good story, providing new convincing insights and opening new vistas
giving the story a point and a unity. One of the main social functions
employ the concepts and the tools worked out in the humanities for
long story from a patient about his financial situation. Mishler had
on the basis of Russian fairy tales and Labovs narrative model (see
M eaning Interpretation
ably throughout this book, I here reserve the latter term for more
can encourage the subjects to let their stories unfold. The interviewer
may also help the subjects to produce a coherent story, which can be
trying to tell about some dramatic event it has experienced, but is too
excited by the event itself and needs assistance from someone to create
202
In terv iew s
Methods o f Analysis
203
Scheflen (1978) does not side with any one model: These are usually
are all valid from one point of view or another. And, accordingly, they
are all tactically useful at some point or another (p. 59). The various
deny, ignore, project, and blame: In the course of family therapy our
something within the person. Then one member of the group offered
clients can learn multiple approaches from us and end up with a more
a second interpretation by pointing out that Susan had smiled just after
her father had turned to her, held out his hands, and said I think
Susan loves us. W e certainly love her. The smile is now seen as a
interpretation: After Susan had smiled, her mother turned to her and
said: You never appreciate what we try to do for you. The smile was
reprimand.
In these three explanations Susans smile was interpreted as an
that the three members of the family often acted and reacted to each
other by withdrawal: W hen Susan smiled her father turned his face
away and fell silent, and when the mother began her reprimand Susan
was played back and the therapists looked for incidents similar to the
changes where the father approached, Susan smiled, and the mother
reprimanded. This indicated a programmed interaction in this fam
ily, the actors follow ing an unwritten script and interacting according
to a preexisting scenario. In this interpretation, moving from an
individual-centered to a cultural interpretation, Susan smiled because
this was the part she was expected to play in the family drama. A sixth
interpretation argued that although Susans smile was a response to
her fathers approach, it was not a response in kind. In Batesons
language, the smile was meta to the fathers statement, her metacommunication derailed her fathers offer of involvement.
A d H o c M e a n in g G e n e ra tio n
The most frequent form of interview analysis is probably an ad hoc
use of different approaches and techniques for meaning generation.
In contrast to the above condensation and categorization of meanings,
in this case no standard method is used for analyzing the whole of the
interview material. There is instead a free interplay of techniques
during the analysis. Thus the researcher may read the interviews
204
Methods o f Analysis
In te r v ie w s
205
but permeates an entire interview inquiry. For the six steps of analysis
tion was also emphasized for the seven stages of an interview design
out the interview situation, and it was postulated that the ideal
8). The transformation from oral speech to written text was depicted
tion Reliability and Validity, and Table 9.2). The role of interpretation
will continue during verification and reporting of the interviews
meaning of interviews.
th e re .
were tried out, and one example concerning grades and talkativity will
iors that the categories had been developed qualitatively on the basis
Issues o f A nalysis
gories with clearly different meanings for the pupils, such as com
retical presuppositions.
206
I nt e rV ie w s
207
Methods of Analysis
firmed the more certain the categorization w ould be. In some cases,
nos are needed before they can come to mean yes. Deciding when
the analyst uncovers and purifies the meanings more or less buried in
guistic style, the pauses, and the intonation of the statement. For such
C o n tr o l o f A nalysis
tion provides the context for making decisions about how interviews
poem, the readers of an interview report will not have access to the
that the researchers interpretations are based on. Nor do the inter
208
In terview s
Methods of Analysis
209
using the same coding procedure, would be likely to arrive at the same
he a d o p te d (th is p o in t is g ra n te d b e fo r e h a n d ), b u t w h e th e r a reader,
accepted instead of those o f the paid student assistants. This was found
12
211
There are multiple questions that can be posed to a text, with different
questions leading to different meanings of a text. A hermeneutic
question-answer dialectic is not only a matter of the questions the
reader poses to a text, but also of an openness to the questions with
which the text confronts the reader.
An interpreters presuppositions enter into the questions he or she
poses to a text. These questions codetermine what meanings can be
found in the text. Some hermeneutic distinctions of types of questions
to texts now follow. A first question concerns the relation of the
authors and the readers meaning. Is the purpose of a text interpre
tation to get at the authors intended meaning of the text what Ibsen
really meant to say with his play Peer Gynt or does it concern the
meaning the text has for us today? The interpretation of an interview
involves a related distinction is the purpose to analyze, for example,
interviews about grades in order to arrive at the individual pupils
understanding of their grades? O r is the aim for the researcher to
develop, through the pupils descriptions, a broader interpretation of
the meaning of grades in the educational system?
Another issue in interpretation concerns whether it is the letter of
the text or its spirit that is to be interpreted in, for example, a legal
text. Is what matters to get at the expressed meaning or at the intended
meaning? In interview studies, this becomes a question of the level on
which the interpretations should take place: Should the interviews be
analyzed on a manifest level? O r is the purpose to get at latent mean
ings that are not explicitly conscious for the subject, as in the depth
hermeneutics of psychoanalysis?
A third issue implies the principal question of whether there exists
212
Interviews
7 he Plurality o f hiterfiretations
213
the final decision about the legitimate context for the interpretation
been a neglect o f the social and material context the persons live in;
o f a legal text.
the main problem, but rather the lack of explicit formulation of the
in which the inform ation is empirically invalid, but that may provide
knowledge.
T H R E E C O N T E X T S O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
of the law as it stands today that can be taken into account when
It is, However, not quite clear what her remarks mean. In order to
Z l 'l
In terv iew s
215
Contexts o f Interpretation
Communities o f Validation
the content of the statement or on the person making it. The interpre
Self-understanding
Theoretical understanding
ing a confirmation.
By including general knowledge about the content of the statement
statement. A first line o f inquiry addresses the meaning o f the text in
For the question W hat docs the statement express about the phe
They become mere means toward the goal o f the highest possible grade
The questions put to the text may also center on the person, asking
action was changed from the manifest content, that is, the shape o f a
teacher, but she experiences that other pupils may regard this as
others. The topic involves a conflict for her; her voice is tense, and a
the other pupils wheedle or whether they are actually interested in the
theory of society.
216
Interviews
217
the text. N ot only the questions to the interviewees, but also the
questions to the interview texts co-constitute the answers obtained.
I IIK 1 T , C O M M U N I T I E S ()|- V A L ID A T IO N
the interpretation that she herself does not wheedle but believes that
relation; the knowledge about which they ask interested questions has
other pupils maybe do, is here the criterion for validity. W ith in the
no intrinsic use value for the pupils, the questions only serve the pur
that can be exchanged for a higher grade. At school the pupils thus
learn to subordinate the use value of their work to its exchange value.
Interrelatedness of lnterpretational Contexts. The three interpretational contexts derive from different explications of the researchers
text, also follows from sociological and Marxist theories about edu
cation. At the same time, this means-ends thinking may be part of the
The contexts of interpretation suggested above serve to makeexplicit the questions posed to a statement. One pupils description of
depend oh whether the theory is valid for the area studied, and
218
In terview s
219
ence of grades on the learning and work situations at high school. The
had experienced about the grades influence on their own and other
they describe are the topic of interest. The pupils interviewed are
Marxist theory.
IN T E R P R E T A T IO N O F C O N T E N T O R O F P ER SO N
content of the subjects statements. W hat the subjects tell may be true
statement:
Grades are often unjust, because very often very often they are only
a measure for liovv much you talk and for how m uch you agree w ith the
teachers opinion.
The interview context for this statement was presented earlier (Chap
tive, the indirect message about Poloniuss credibility is for Ham let a
ment above, the pupil gives a rather precise form ulation of two beliefs:
Grades arc very often only a measure for (a) how much you talk, and
A triangulation may be used here. This means that the same phe
therapist hating her were likely distorted (Chapter 2). The probably
false accusations represented, however, something im portant about
the client making the accusations, which she, assisted by the therapists
220
InterV icw s
221
P R O D U C T IO N O F A N IN V A L ID U N D E R S T A N D IN G
the interviews varied in number of pages, even though one school hour
had been set aside for each interview. Following a hunch, 1 ranked the
logical situation in which the pupils are placed by the grading system
pupils grade point averages. The resulting correlation was 0.65, with
between how much the pupils talked during the interviews and their
that they w ould rather not recognize in themselves, but that some
talk a great deal? O r are pupils who get high grades more reflected on
the issues of grading, and more at ease with talking with an interviewer
about grades?
learning is graded.
standing in the conditions of the subjects life w orld that produce and
to new in form atio n. The false stories about sexual seductions had
The discovery that maily of the patients stories were empirically false
of the basis for grading arise, how is it produced? (b) W hat are the
neurosis was not the seixual events themselves, but the fantasies about
the sexual events.
Ill
'
In te rvie w s
223
M others who lived in slum areas were interviewed about their expe
riences with the social welfare system. They had many stories of
interviewed.
Although the pupils belief that there has to be a given grade
hum iliating encounters with social workers. 15y including other evi
dence, Hagan found that some of the episodes told about harsh and
their social reality and may have consequences for their actions at
school. Several pupils reported that the belief that the class was graded
unreliable inform ation about the staffs behavior. She adopted another
pupils, for fear o f others improving their grades with the consequence
tial reading important knowledge about the background for such pupil
phenom enon that empirically false beliefs may have real social conse
Q U E S T IO N S PUT T O TEXTS
inform ation about the effects of grades, here regarding the pupils as
witnesses or informants. The questioning also involved a symptomatic
You m ight take 8 as the average grade in a class. A nd then, if you w ant
more than 8, you have to make yourself more noticed by the teacher
than the other pupils. So, in order to deserve a higher grade, it almost
unavoidably has to be done at the expense o f others.
This pupil and several others were convinced that there had to be
a certain grade average in a class and that the teacher then had only a
limited number of high grades to distribute among all the pupils. If
one pupil got a higher grade, then another pupil iu the class must
automatically get a lower grade in order to m aintain the assumption
224
Interviews
225
T he Q u e s t for T h e R eal M e a n in g
several hundred pages of interview texts. In the present case, the many
like H o w do you know you get to know what the person really
A second point is that the interview quotes selected here are not
point to key issues for the understanding of the impact of grading for
the pupils.
fictitious entity. The quest for real, true meanings came to an end in
w ild goose chases, hunting the real meanings of their subjects expe
meanings raises issues of where the meanings are stored and also of
w ho owns the meanings o f a statement. An imagined dialogue can
illustrate the issue of ownership of meanings:
interviews and are content and context specific. They arose from the
nature of the interview topic the social context of grading as well
has the right and the power to determine the real meaning of the
statement the speaker of the original statement or the interpreting
partner. An interrelational approach would regard the meanings of
the conversation as belonging to neither, but existing between the
subjects, in their inter-action. An interrelational interpretation of the
*
226
Interviews
111
The reader assumes the role of the emancipator o f self and/or other,
text and lead to different answers about the meaning of the text.
with a move from the modern search lor (he one true and real meaning
of ethics and power, of the right and the power to attribute meaning
original speaker might more humbly have accepted the real mean
ings attributed to him or her. The expert might, as the great inter
preter, appropriate the meaning from the subjects world and recon-
tcxtualize
stories told by the interpreter, but if reified as the real meaning of the
view and of finding the texts essence and truth. The reader assumes
the meanings from the subjects lived world and reifies them into his
the
original
intcrrelational
meanings
in
his or
her
228
interviews
13
o f the narrow street and the broad avenue, stood a little w ooden kiosk,
between the earth and the sun. The height at the rear, one hundred and
in other words, to the num ber o f years o f the Greek lunar cycle. The
sum o f the heights o f the tw o front corners and the tw o rear corners is
one hundred and ninety times two plus one hundred and seventy-six
times tw o, which equals seven hundred and thirty-two, the date o f the
victory at Poitiers. The thickness o f the counter is 3.10 centimeters, and
the w id th of the cornice o f the w in d o w is 8.8 centimeters. Replacing the
numbers before the decimals by the corresponding letters o f the
alphabet, we obtain C for ten and H for eight, or C io H s, w hich is the
form ula for naphthalene.
Fantastic, I said. You did all these measurements? (Kco, p. 288).
229
230
I n te r V i e w s
231
for the terms validity and reliability; for example, when told while
personal, and community forms of truth, with a focus on daily life and
argument was not valid. O r that the inform ation about the used car I
was looking at was not reliable, the car dealer was known to be an
unreliable person. Here the terms valid and reliable belong to the
interaction.
Generalizability
few interview subjects ; and The results are not valid, they are only
based on subjective interpretations.
232
I ii t e r V i e w s
23 3
random sample from the population. Their strong motivation for help
extent to which the findings from one study can be used as a guide to
study, rules o f inference that reasonable people can agree on. Whereas
In case law it is the most analogous preceding case, the one with
the most attributes similar to the actual case, that is selected as the
the extent to which the attributes compared are relevant, which again
rests upon rich, dense, thick descriptions of the case. Kennedy outlines
alization. Thus for the correlation found between talkativity and grade
point average it was possible to state that there was only 1/ 1,000
234
Interviews
235
Thus it is the receiver o f the info rm atio n wh(> determines the applicabil
research case the researcher or the reader and the user? H o w much
to more open forms. Donmoyer (1990) thus advocates the use of case
researcher who builds up and argues for the generality of his or her
For the legal and the clinical cases discussed by Kennedy, it is the judge
possible ranges for our own society. Gcrgen (1992) depicts the con
thought and thereby open new and desirable alternatives for thought
and action. Rather than mapping only what is, or predicting future
therapeutic case stories, where his descriptions and analyses have been
so vivid and convincing that readers today still generalize many of the
findings to current cases.
establish the typical, the com m on, the ordinary. One seeks to m axi
mize the fit between the research case and what takes place more
generalizing is not what is, but what may be. Schofield mentions a
study of the use of computers in school that did not select average-
the time when M arx analyzed the situation of the wage laborers and
the contradictions of the use versus the exchange value of labor, wage
Decades later, wage labor became the dom inating form o f labor,
236
Interviews
237
Box 13.1
tive reliability of the transcripts when the same passage was typed by
two different persons (Chapter 9, Transcription Reliability and V alid
ity). D uring categorization of the grading interviews, percentages were
reported for the intersubjective agreement between two coders for the
same interviews (Chapter 11, Control of Analysis). Though increasing
the reliability of the interview findings is desirable in order to coun
teract haphazard subjectivity, a strong emphasis on reliability may
counteract creative innovations and variability.
1. Thematizing.
7. Reporting.
derived from its premises. In social science textbooks one finds both
Interviews
239
definitions of validity have been taken from the criteria developed for
success. The external criterion was here simple grade point average
grades measure, the issue becomes more complex. Grades have been
and the nature of the phenomena investigated. The move from knowl-
cell studies and giant telescopes for the investigation of space, the
the effect that: It is not by the techniques of these instruments and the
Sciences.
The social construction of valid knowledge is brought out in the
240
Interviews
The Son.
( instruction of Validity
241
cation, and as action. This does not lead to new, fixed criteria replac
and its measurement are validated when the discourse about their
survived, the more valid, the more trustworthy the knowledge. V ali
discourse.
essential. Based on the quality of his or her past research in the area,
242
Interviews
243
stronger it stands.
this photograph telling the truth about what? And to decide what a
not valid because the subjects reports may be false. This is a possibility
that needs to be checked in each specific case (see Dean & Whyte,
interpretations; they outline in detail tactics for testing and confirm ing
qualitative
(p. 26.?).
ment. The forms of validation differ for the different questions to the
interview texts. In the grade study they varied from a critical follow-up
his left ear and giving it to a prostitute. M ore than a dozen explana
tions of this act have been proposed in the literature, ranging from
bility of the different interpretations given for the same act. In general,
244
Interviews
245
are equal; the logic of validation allows us to move between the two
standing of the topic. The multiple questions to, and readings of, the
them.
generation of theory.
not mainly concern predicting events, but rather whether the audience
of a report can see new relations and answer new but relevant
is going to remain open and unsettled, the more so because of the role
school reality. Pupils and teachers may live in different social realities
that values play in action based on tests; the aim for a research report
franker we are with ourselves and our clientele, the more valid the use
own work.
but may on the contrary rest 011 their extraordinary power to picture
and to question the complexity of the social reality investigated.
C om m unicative V alidity
I;
tirse
1 he ftms of p<
uasion
7 \ Social .<
te n c c in th e
]
i f i c a o a . I a L i n g a !
t e a m s in ps\ v
t h e r a p y , w h a r e t-
1l i o n )
e o f "ri " - i n g
he
: .n c -w a y m irr<"
reversed a nd
i h e f a m i l y it:
l t m e n i views t h e i h i n p e u t i c t e a m ' s d is c i'
itieit
pi i edin<T'
vers
con
c.i: > tring a.i indiencc, and in a humanistic therapy encounter based
nteipei -
ig ne v; in the n a tu ra 1 science.;
com
tru t
o f a p i o ' o s itio n
ii the social
here r
s< oial
c o n te x t,
i lacing1
I irce
disco !
ion <i
a form of vi/nentati<
, the on
rm o f p>
bett
uinen .
o x im
>
stion
oncern
^no'
. W ha:
. the aim'
led;
y of
. rtna
! I he i !
cal. 1
''9 9 1 ) !
'
.' crit.i;
h" *
>urse
.'.ocat
, pos
theor
at uni
: ; .dilative
see
. d ati
n r
he
pr
! c re;
tr-
an .
of
hnL
ike
i.st
.fid e n c e
.i,;.c
ids.
kno
the-
\lit
'd
The
here
as
isens
1 ia tio n !
.he i
iion, i:.
, . etatioi .
itio.,.
uion ai
n ie n tai.
i .npet
> aers
ahn tio n
; :d mem::
oi nn
- adc
r.
the
)je<.
un
nc
IO
pre
th<
W'
lica*
S1
L* V3
, iith.
ana
iati<
'lin e r :
Vow et i,
ilh a
i et
n g it
,a
gl
ii)je
it
p an-!
<
>r i
id w l. i
nle
io n
ity
;he
; >ly a lac.
i t,o n s ib ih
riv, v;
om
lie C o n m
ere
ii i
i. >ed
cal
lid
vvor
rch
! ite (
bo'
ce c
i.e h a s ."
. f; the
t ati\
w:
. \he avy
n 1
n*
ascert. i
ion:
1oc
t .m e
-s a
XI iVC
1;' . o la
-tig a ti
,gl
rivi :
. i tr u t h r
ipha*
a> 1 ;h a n ; ,
nno'
;e,a
s is tiu
--. out
poc
dui
m un
'iy.
-!y ne >v ; q
\
\h it is reii
tcnsii 'r o f
lie -.ubjccP
ij
and
n o t!
i< n: o f
s e n , 1^87), we might a l s o r o
la l h i t e t a c t i o n ( A i r . !
iial
i 1
sill v, a.i
i cts
v t
so
is
- a
'e i
i i.
.
ti
Tl-
e v
ch
u r th e r m o r e , th e re is the .s pecific
i, ad vers t< !
rathei ..
To
dia
ue t .1 .
. - iecul
H) is a
- '
1
n n m it y to ina ke d e cisio n s a b o u t i
Who. The concept of c:m m unicative validity r i.ses the .pi -stion of
ent
V irim a i'
: 1er o f
1 * s e c tio n o ! '^ m b e rs o i i!
tit , o f trn i i ,i; v a lu e
co ii
>co il idere;
248
IiucrVicws
249
Pragmatic V alidity
gate actual changes in behavior. Freud did not rely on the patients
one. M an must prove the truth, that is, the reality and power o f his
thinking in practice. And his 1 ltli thesis is more pointed; the philoso
inquiry, Lincoln and Guba (1985) have gone farther than consensual
through new actions in the situation, thus testing the validity of the
testing of theory in live-action contexts. The topic was stress that came
them to take increased control of their lives. Action research goes from
drug taking and of chilc^ abuse in the families the health workers
250
Intervi ews
251
Power and Truth. Pragmatic validation raises the issue of power and
truth in social research: Where is the power to decide what the desired
results of a study will be, or the direction of change; what values are
action research.
to constitute the basis for action? And, more generally, where is the
power to decide what kinds of truth seeking are to be pursued, what
tions, and instead analyze the netlike organization and multiple fields
of power-knowledge dynamics.
take actions that produce the desired results. Deciding what the
desired results are involves values and ethics. The moral normative
social research from primarily m apping the social world with respect
to what is, to changing the focus to what could he. Thus Gergens
252
Interviews
14
invalidation. Rather than let the product, the knowledge claim, speak
for itself, validation can involve a legitimation mania that may further
a corrosion of validity the more one validates, the greater the need
for further validation. Such a counterfactuality of strong and repeated
emphasis on the truth of a statement may be expressed in the folk
saying, Beware when they swear they are telling the truth.
Ideally, the quality of the craftsmanship results in products with
ent and the results evident, and the conclusions of a study intrinsically
validity superfluous.
253
In terv iew s
254
255
voyage, later written down, was cast in a form that still engages today.
sim ply be due to researchers not know ing what story they w ant to
tell, and they therefore are not able to select the main points they
want to get across to their audience. W itho ut knowing the w hat and
the w hy o f the story, the how the form of the story becomes
problematic.
reading. The subjects often exciting stories have through the analyz
ing and reporting stages been butchered into atomistic quotes and
isolated variables.
This style of reporting interviews may have been influenced by a
of interest, they may want to know about the design and the methods
encounter a black box. The readers will have to guess about the social
The different rhetorical forms of oral and written language arc over
that have produced this intriguing knowledge. They are then likely to
experiments with their neat logical rigor, elegant designs, clear pres
conspicuously absent.
doned half read, half scanned. Ill order a new bo ok w ith great anticipa
tio n the topic is one Im interested in, the author is someone I w ant to
256
In terview s
257
Box 14.1
Investigating W ith
the Final Report in M in d
1. Thcmatizing.
keep the end product o f their study in sight the story they
want to tell the easier the w riting of the report will be.
2. Designing.
Investigating W ith
the Final Report in M in d
The aim of a report is to inform other researchers and the general
public of the importance and the trustworthiness of the findings. The
report should contribute new knowledge to the development of a field,
and be cast in a form that allows the conclusions to be checked by the
reader. The interview report is the end product of a long process; what
4. Transcribing.
.5. Analysis.
suggest taking the final report into consideration from the very start
directed from the start toward the final report; that the researcher
key issue.
7. Reporting.
vision of the story he or she wants to tell the readers. In Hox 14.1, a
consistent directedness toward the final report is envisaged through
findings.
258
In terview s
259
its expression and style. In literature, the content and form of Shake
speares dramas still capture us today, while little is known about the
often been regarded as merely re-presenting what was done and found,
psychologist about child abuse, eloquence and style are not essential
with little regard for the readers and their use o f the report.
research have been well aware of the effects of the form of their reports
summaries, may have a far stronger impact on the recipients and their
decision making.
addressed.
Ethics of Reporting
entail a conflict between the demands of the scientific and the general
contrasting scenes for the report the art gallery and the court room.
viewees about the later use and possible publication of their inter
essential, and not the methods of the production process. The painting
260
I ntervi ews
261
the published results. This requires altering the form of the inform a
sequences did not directly concern the teacher himself, but rather his
turned out that the Chilean refugee was a disguised Polish refugee.
The student, herself an immigrant, had not taken into account that
The intended result of the grade study was to docum ent the effects
tative inquiry have been discussed by Cilesne and Peshkin (1992), who
and interest in lifelong learning. I had believed that this w ould have
the use o f fictitious names and the like, reporters and others have been
able to track down the actual persons. Among the more easily resolved
the universities. The study had no such consequence: By the time the
book was ready for publication, public interest in the issue had waned.
project and want to be responsible for their statements with full names.
qualitative interview research. The result was that the lived reality of
the pupils school situation was lost, and the book had no appeal to
either the pupils or the general public. I here were a few reviews of
book. In high school, French was an unpopular subject for many pupils
and this teacher was keenly aware of and eloquent about his use of
results, m aintaining that they were based on too few subjects, may
262
I n t e r v ie w s
263
I. Introduction: Thematizing
findings? W hat is the methodical base for the results reported? And
from a practical viewpoint still other questions arise: W hat are the
Analyzing
The methods applied throughout the study are described
in sufficient detail for the reader to ascertain the relevance
of the design for the topic and purpose of the investigation,
cal Association, 1989). The reporting of the methods and the results
M ETHOD
look for.
RESULTS
In terview s
265
Box 14.3
1 l" !
>ns
, vated i . , ,nd i
be
.ted i . . :i.
... ;ccrs
by *.
i at
;s ..
' !--ty,
; Tia-
w\
on
,*pi
,'ti-
i | . i c r v i .
'1
ea/.
a!
by ?
* i>n u
he .
ui a . 1. U; -
. 0,1; v
or.i
M S
.. !-iw
pi-: . in die
ih e r i
a .,
v !ia
it
. 'ter,'
the
MS 'V
"I
)f V
if! he l it..-!
tscrijtv:
What ir
.,
listi-
a y.ri
si
Sn h ihior ;
I1'
i
;fo ui i
.ial and
ierview.
ip
i.eci*
Ol i . . fions
ionc b
m,
irr
il .
;i:
.. :th
ps i f th
JVC
i-lalvsi. '
.at i
id!-
cc:
er.
! iiat t :'c
..
mi impi'twu p read;.Diht
qualitative r.
. will just I
wen
to:
lo iil
aiui nab// ngP V i
io n s .'.lit
on.
a'ego
.,..ini
resp.. e of
liability
...
n .a y a is .
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266
In terv iew s
Box 14.4
267
given. Frames can vary from the lived world of the subjects
to the researchers theoretical models.
then use only the best, the one that is the most extensive,
illum inating, and well-formulated statement. For docu
mentation it is sufficient to mention how many other
subjects expressed the same viewpoints. If there are many
different answers to a question, it will be useful to present
several quotes, indicating the range of viewpoints.
7. interview quotes should be rendered in a written style.
Verbal transcriptions of oral speech, with its repetitions,
digressions, pauses, hms, and the like, are difficult to
grasp when presented in a written form. Interview excerpts
of the quotes.
268
In terview s
269
the essential aspects of the many stories they hear. In contrast, inter
and impressionistic.
with the author absent from the text. The author is the distant one
are not enhanced by increasing its size. I'he short stories o f H em ing
way w ould hardly be more telling if they had been twice as long, nor
on a double-sized canvas.
The realistic tale focuses on the know n, and the confessional talc-
voice, style, and audience, and from this knowledge to select con
sciously and carefully the voice most appropriate for the tales they
social research will be presented. These are van M aanens (1988) Talcs
want to tell.
tive reality, out there, waiting to be seen. Instead, through literary and
(p. 9). This raises questions of criteria for evaluating a text, such as
reading a text (Chapter 12, The Quest for The Real M eaning). From
270
In terview s
271
inspected, edited, and shared with others (p. 6). The act of re
language, where scicntific writing lets the reader see the external
world as it is. She goes on to discuss how writing up what the
tions of events, all have the potential to reveal aspects of the world.
Because w r itin g is alw ays v alue c o n s titu tin g , there are alw ays th e p r o b
lem s o f a u th o r ity a n d a u th o r s h ip . . . . N arra tiv e e x p la n a tio n s , in p ra c
tice, m e a n th a t o n e p e rs o n s voice th e w r ite r s speaks fo r th a t o f the
others. . . . These practices, o f course, raise p o s tm o d e r n is t issues a b o u t
J O U R N A L IS T IC IN T E R V IE W S
tive research from an artistic point of view. The battle that once
interview try to build the situation and the interpretations into the
Eisners use of the term, does not refer to the mental representation
interview itself. The local context and social situation may be intro
sitting in the living room of the house you built when you retired, with
272
I ntcr Views
273
a view through the birch forest to the fjord. Could you tell me
literature.
T H E R A P E U T IC C A S E H IS T O R IE S
sation, with both journalist and interviewee more or less having the
intended audience in mind. The journalist may later edit the sequence
subjects own linguistic style. The guiding line throughout the inter
works of Laing (1962) also show that it is possible through the careful
understandable form.
analyzing the interview. The journalist also has a right to protect his
D IA L O G U E S
case has its own value as an exemplar: It can serve as a vehicle for
learning, as in I.wvlies discussion o f ethics (Chapter 6, Ethical Theo
ries). Donm oyer (1990) has pointed to the use of stories in teaching
sophic disputes that actually took place, or whether they were mainly
narratives become a link between the singular and the general. Such
274
I n t e r v ie w s
N A R R A T IV E S
275
V IS U A L IZ IN G
assist them in developing and clarifying their stories, and during the
analysis work out the narrative structures of the interview stories and
titative data are today often presented visually in the form of graphs
sentation. People can apprehend the w orld narratively and people can
sentation does not exist for qualitative inquiries. There are, however,
several options, such as a tree graph of the main categories and their
M ETAPHORS
plex social reality: Their appeal is that they dramatize, am plify, and
as an opera house under the sea, was better able to comment on the
itself is often figurative and connotative, rather than solely literal and
The collages attained an aesthetic value of their own, and are now
I nt erV ie ws
276
M O D E S O F P R E S E N T A T IO N IN T H E P R E S E N T B O O K
PART
IV
C O N C L U S IO N
with the people they met, their tales may enter into new conversations
with the research community and the general public. The next,
sations with the inhabitants. W hen the traveler returns home with tales
inquiries.
inter views. The interview researcher was depicted in the first chapter
277
15
Conversations About Interviews
It is sometimes easier for interview researchers to carry out conversa
tions with their subjects, than to enter into conversations with col
leagues about the conversations with their subjects. This final chapter
goes beyond conversations with the interviewees to include conversa
tions about the interviews within the research com munity, and also
w ithin the general community. I first discuss standard external objec
tions to interview research and then some internal challenges to the
use of qualitative research interviews. Finally, the investigation of the
hum an conversation through interview conversations is addressed.
279
280
In terview s
281
Interviewer/Researcher
Fellow Researcher
Figure 15.1. Knowledge Construction T hrough the Interview and the Research
Conversation
ence. Though the w ording and tone may vary, there are about 10 basic
responses to the same stimulus-a qualitative research interview.
They may follow nearly automatically, even before the findings and
methods o f a specific interview study have been presented.
research are listed; some point to real problems inherent in the use of
sation about research interviews requires that both parties are open
to what the other tries to say and also open to questioning their own
parentheses.
form, abstracted from the complex and real social and power webs
decide whether they pertain to his or her study. If the objections are
considered valid to the specific study, they can be taken into account
282
In terview s
Box 15.1
283
284
Interviews
Box 15.2
T en S tan d ard R eactions
285
The basic terms o f the question are ambiguous. Some of the many
discussion may save novices some of the time and energy often used
for external defense. This can leave more resources for internal
286
Interviews
287
not to lead, but where the questions do lead, whether they lead in
im portant directions that yield new and worthwhile knowledge.
In current interview research there are too few rather than too many
interpretations.
answers. Rather than being used too much, deliberately leading ques
and interviewee.
In terview s
28 8
289
290
'
In terview s
291
their worldview and the basis for their actions. The deliberate use of
the richness o f meanings of the human life world, the person of the
may then serve as a tribal banner for competing groups; at the start
In te rn a l C ritiq u e s o f In te rv ie w Research
293
views; the use of group interviews may well bring up lively interper
sonal dynamics and show the social interactions leading to the inter
view statements. Interviews can be used to obtain descriptions of the
cultural and the historical, the social and the material context of
subjects lives. Anthropological interviews focus on the respondents
culture, and interviews are employed in recording oral history (Yow,
critiques have been put forth in previous chapters. Some instances will
be reviewed below to demonstrate that the criticized features do not
necessarily pertain to interview inquiries, but rather to what have been
com m on modes o f applying and understanding interviews in research
294
Interviews
295
com bination with other research methods, such as the above, which
There are current trends that could make much of the above
oral speech of the interviews and the written texts analyzed. Postmod
view research.
The impact of Glaser and Strausss grounded theory (see Strauss &
r '
the basis of patient interviews has not been limited to Freuds original
contributions at the turn of the century, but has continued with the
search and feminist research, and art each offering the interviewer-
C o nv ersation s A b o u t C o nv ersation s
current interview studies, the brief responses should indicate that they
for the real scientific studies, but rather conversation permeates the
nity, and with a wider public. Social research becomes one mode of
pointed out that the present book gives a rather puristic view of the
with the literature of tradition, with its theories and findings. The
*
*
296
Interviews
297
about the relation of the interview to the nature of the subject matter
social world studied by the social sciences. This involves not only
vide the context for ascertaining the truth about and value of the
tional world.
out of the conversational circle, but to get into it in the right way.
object investigated, it lets the object speak. This is literally the case
A
298
In terview s
References
299
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S e id m a n , I. E . ( 1 9 9 1 ) .
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S h a k e sp e a r e , W . ( 1 9 5 1 ) .
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R u b in , H . J . , & R u b in , I. S. ( 1 9 9 5 ) .
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S ie g e l, S. ( 1 9 5 6 ) .
M c G r a w -H ill.
S ilv e rm a n , D . ( 1 9 9 3 ) .
S im o n s , H . W . (E d .). ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
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R ie g e l, K . E. ( E d .). ( 1 9 7 5 ) . The
Ryan, M . (1 9 9 2 ).
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M c G r a w -H ill.
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P o lk in g h o rn e , D . E . ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
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H andbook o f
(p p . 2 3 6 - 2 4 7 ) . T h o u s a n d O a k s , C A : S age.
S tra u s s , A . ( 1 9 9 5 ) .; N o te s o n th e n a tu re an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f g e n e ra l th e o r ie s . Journal
Phenomenological Psychology,
S tra u s s , A . M . , & C o r b in , J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) .
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^5, 1 9 0 -2 2 0 .
N e w b u ry P a rk , C A :
306
Interview s
Sul l i van, H. S. ( 1 9 5 4 ) .
T a y lo r , S. J . , & B o g d a n , R . ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
meanings.
N e w Y o r k : J o h n W ile y .
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T esch , R. (1 9 9 0 ).
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T s c h u d i, F . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . D o q u a lita tiv e an d q u a n tita tiv e m e th o d s re q u ire d iffe r e n t a p p ro a c h e s
to v a lid ity ? In S. K v a le
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V an M aan en , J . (1 9 8 8 ).
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Phenomenology
Pedagogy,
Author Index
4 (2 ),
6 5 -7 2 .
(1 9 6 7 ).
S p rin g fie ld , M A :
M e rr ia m
W e b ste r.
W e itz m a n , E. A .,
analysis.
M ile s , M . B. ( 1 9 9 5 ) .
T h o u sa n d O a k s, C A : S age.
A lth c id e , D . L ., 1 0 7
C o o k , T . I ) ., 6 8
A n d ersen , W . I ., 4 I
C o r b in ,
A n d e rs o n , T . , 2 4 7
C o rta z z i, M ., 2 0 1
A n g el, E ., 7 8
C r o n b a c h , L. J . , 2 3 8 , 2 4 0 , 2 4 5
87 , 2 0 6 -2 0 7 , 294
A ris to tle , 1 2 2
D e a n , J . P ., 2 4 3
B e c k e r, H . S ., 2 4 3
D e n z in , N . K ., 9 , 10, 8 9 , 2 9 5
B e c k e r-S c h m id t, R ., 5 7 , 2 9 3
D ic h te r, E ., 7 1
B e rg e r, P. L ., 4 1 , 5 2
D o n m o y e r, R ., 2 3 5 , 2 7 3
B e rn s te in , R . J . , 2 0 , 3 7 , 6 6 , 6 8
D reyfu s, H . L ., 1 0 6 , 123
B ik le n , S. K ., 5 9
D rey fu s, S. E ., 1 0 6 , 1 2 3
B o g d a n , R ., 5 9
B o r u m , F ., 2 6 7
B o ss, M ., 7 8
E c o , U ., 2 2 8
B o w le s, S ., 2 1 6
E is n e r, E. W ., 1 0 6 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 ,
B ra n d t, L. W ., 6 3
2 4 6 , 2 6 8 ,2 7 0 -2 7 1
E lle n b e rg e r, H . F ., 7 8
E n d e ru d , H ., 2 6 7
C a ld e r, B. J . , 6 6
C a rs o n , T . R ., 5 1
C h e rr y h o lm e s , C . H ., 2 4 0
F is c h c r , C ., 5 5 , 1 9 6
C o n g e r, J . J 6 7
F is h e r, S ., 7 5
Interviews
308
Author Index
309
F lic k , U ., 9 , 1 0 1
K e rlin g e r, F . N ., 6 1 , 6 7 , 2 3 8
P a lm e r , J . C ., 1 5 8
S h o tte r , J . , 3 7 , 4 2
Fog, J ., 1 5 6 -1 5 7
K e ssen , W ., 6 1
P a lm e r , R . E ., 4 7
S ie g e l, S ., 1 0 2
F reu d , S ., 2 4 , 4 6 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 1 0 2 , 1 6 2 ,
K e u p p , H ., 9 , 10 1
P a p e r t, S ., 16 1
S ilv e rm a n , D ., 1 8 8
K im m e i, A. J ., 1 1 2 , 121
P a tto n , M . Q ., 2 4 9 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 8
S im o n s , I I . W ., 2 6 8
K o c h , S ., 61
P e rv in , L . A ., 2 3 8
S k in n e r, B. F ., 4 1 , 8 4 , 1 0 2 , 2 7 3
P e s h k in , A ., 1 1 2 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 , 2 6 0 ,
S k o u , C . V ., 1 7 4
G a d a in c r, H . G ., 2 0 - 2 1 , 2 3 , 3 7 , 4 2 , 4 6 ,
47
K v a le , S ., 6 , 4 I, 6 3 , 7 0 , 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 6 , 1 0 7 ,
216, 231, 280
261
S m ith , J . K ., 6 8
P ia g e t, J . , 1 0 2 , 1 5 8
S m ith , L. M ., 1 1 5 , 2 4 2
G e rg e n , K . J 4 5 , 2 3 5 , 2 5 1
P la to , 2 0 , 2 1 - 2 3 , 4 6 , 2 7 2
S o c ra te s , 8 , 1 9 , 2 2 - 2 3 , 3 5 , 4 5 , 1 2 6 ,
G in tis , H ., 2 1 6
P o la n d , B . D ., 1 6 2 , 1 6 6
G io rg i, A ., 1 0 , 1 9 , 2 7 , 2 9 , - 3 1 , 3 2 , 5 3 ,
.L a in g , R ., 7 8 , 2 6 5 , 2 7 3 .
L a th e r, P ., 4 6 , 2 2 6 , 2 3 1 , 2 6 8
1 9 3 -1 9 6 , 2 0 0 , 2 0 9 ,2 1 2 ,2 1 4 ,
L a v e .J., 9 6 , 1 0 7
218, 265
L a z a rsfe ld , P. L ., 6 8
G la s e r , B . G ., 9 8 , 2 0 6 , 2 4 2 , 2 9 4
L ew is, 0 . , 7 0 , 2 9 3
G le s n e , C ., 1 1 8 , 2 6 0 , 2 6 1
L in c o ln , Y. S ., 9 , 1 0 , 8 9 , 1 1 4 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 9 ,
G re e n b e r g , R . P ., 7 5
295
P o lk in g h o rn e , .D. E ., 4 3 , 6 4 , 1 0 7 , 2 0 0 ,
240, 273
P o tte r , J . , 4 2 - 4 3
R a p a p o r t, D ., 7 4
L o ftu s , E. L ., 15 8
R e a s o n , P ., 2 5 0
L a v lie , L ., 1 2 3 , 2 7 3
R e ic h a r d t, C . S ., 6 8
L u ck m a n n , T ., 4 1 , 5 2
R ic h a r d s o n , L ., 2 4 4 , 2 5 4 , 2 6 8 , 2 6 9 - 2 7 0 ,
248
H agan , T ., 2 2 2 , 2 9 3
S p ra d le y , J . , 1 2 4
S tra u ss, A ., 1 0 , 8 7 , 9 8 , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 , 2 4 2 ,
R a d n itz k y , G ., 4 7 - 5 0 , 6 1
G re n n e ss , C . E ., 41
H a b e r m a s, J . , 4 2 , 5 1 - 5 2 , 7 8 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1 ,
S p ie g e lb e rg , H ., 5 3
S ta k e , R . E ., 2 3 2
G u b a , E ., 2 3 1 , 2 4 9
L u n d , N . G ., 2 7 5
274, 275
294
S u lliv a n , H . S ., 3 5 , 4 5
T a n n e n , D ., 1 6 6
T e d lo c k , D ., 1 6 6
L u n d g re n , F ., 2 8 2
R ic h e r , P ., 7 2
L y o ta rd , J . F ., 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 5 8 , 2 4 6 ,
R ic o e u r , P ., 4 6 , 7 8 , 2 4 5
T h u c y d id e s, 8 , 4 5
R o g e r s , C . R ., 1 9 , 2 4 , 3 2 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 5 2 ,
T s c h u d i, F ., 6 8 , 2 4 0
248
H a r d , 1., 161
T e s c h , R ., 8 7 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 9
I lau g , F ., 5 7
R o r ty , R ., 4 - 5 , 3 7 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 2 4 5
H e id e g g e r, M ., 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 8 , 7 8 , 10 7
M a d is o n , G . B ., 4 4
R o s e n a u , M . P ., 4 1 , 2 3 1, 2 4 1
van K aam , A ., 5 5
H e rtz , R ., 101
M a n d le r, G ., 61
R o s e n s tie l, 1.., 9 , 1 0 1
V an M aan en , J ., 2 2 6 , 2 6 8 -2 6 9
H esh u siu s, L ., 6 8
M a rs h a ll, C ., 5 9 , 8 4 , 1 0 4
R o ss m a n , G . B ., 5 9 , 8 4 , 1 0 4
H illm a n , J . , 4 5
M a r to n , F ., 5 5
R u n y a n , W . M ., 2 4 2 , 2 6 5
H o lb e r g , I.., 2 2 0
M a r x , C ., 5 6 , 2 1 8 , 2 3 4 - 2 3 5 , 2 4 8
H o lb r o o k , M . B ., 7 1
M a y , R ., 7 8
H o u s e , E. R ., 2 4 5 , 2 5 0
M a y rin g , P ., 6 9 , 1 9 6
S a ln e r , M ., 1 0 6 , 2 4 2
W e n g e r, E ., 1 0 7
H u b e r m a n , A . M ., 1 7 3 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 4 ,
M e e h l, P. E ., 2 3 8 , 2 4 0
S a rtr e , J .- P . , 4 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 7 8 , 2 1 2
W e r tz , F ., 1 9 6
S c h e fle n , A . E ., 2 0 1 - 2 0 3 , 2 6 5 , 2 7 4
W e th e r e ll, M ., 4 2 - 4 3
S c h e u r ic h , J . J . , 4 6
W h y te , W . F ., 2 4 3
2 4 2 , 275
I Iv o lb o l, C ., 9 3
M e rle a u -P o n ty , M ., 4 1 , 4 4 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 4 ,
5 8 , 196
M ile s, M . B ., 1 7 3 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 4 , 2 4 2 ,
275
Im b e r, J . B ., 1 0 1
M is h le r , E. G ., 4 3 , 4 4 , 6 3 , 1 0 7 , 1 6 4 ,
165, 168, 2 0 0 , 245
W e b e r , S. J., 5 1
W e itz m a n , E . A ., 1 7 3
S c h o fie ld , J . W ., 2 3 4 - 2 3 5
W o lc o t t , H . F 1 8 8
S c o tt , S ., 7 3
W o lf f, S ., 9 , 1 0 1
S c riv e n , M ., 6 5
S e id m a n , I. E ., 1 3 2
M o r g a n , D . L ., 7 1 , 1 0 1
S h a k e sp e a r e , W ., 1 5 1 , 2 5 9
Y in , R . K ., 2 3 3
J a c o b s e n , B ., 1 7 1
M o u s ta k a s , C ., 5 5 , 1 1 2
S h ep h erd , L. J ., 73
Y o w , V . R ., 1 0 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 6 2 , 2 9 3
J e n s e n , K . B ., 4 3 , 2 0 1
M u rra y , E ., 5 5
J o h n s o n , J . M ., 1 0 7
M sse n , P. H ., 6 7
K ag an , J . , 6 7
O H a ra , M ., 7 4
K a n t, I., 121
O le s e n , V ., 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 4
K a rd o ff, E ., 9 , 1 0 1
K e n n ed y , M . M ., 2 3 3 - 2 3 4
O s ia tin s k y , A ., 2 5 8
Subject Index
A n th ro p o lo g ic a l stu d ie s, 9 6 , 2 9 3
A c tio n (s ):
d e s c r ip tio n s o f , 3 0 , 3 2
d ia le c tic s a n d , 5 5 , 5 6
A rg u m en ta tio n :
p h ilo s o p h ic a l d isco u rse a n d , 2 0 , 2 1 ,
23
fe m in is t re sea rch a n d , 7 2 - 7 3
h e rm e n e u tic a l in te rp r e ta tio n an d , 4 6
k n o w le d g e re la tio n s h ip , 3 9 , 2 4 8 ,
2 4 9 -2 5 0
m o r a l, 12 1
ra tio n a l, 6 6 , 2 4 6
A rith m e tic in te rs u b je c tiv ity , 6 5
A u x iliary m e th o d , in te rv ie w s erv in g as,
98
A ctio n re s e a r c h , 2 9 3 , 2 9 4
c o n s u m e r, 7 1
A e s th e tic se n s ib ility , 1 0 6
c o n tr o l o f, 1 1 , 6 2 , 7 0 , 7 2
A m b ig u o u s s ta te m e n ts, 3 1 , 3 4
d ia le c tics an d , 5 5
A m e ric a n P s y c h o lo g ic a l A ss o c ia tio n ,
law s o f, 2 3 2
e th ic a l p rin cip le s an d , 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 ,
A n a lo g ie s, 2 7 4 -2 7 * *
A n a ly sis,
see
p re d ic tio n o f, 11
B e h a v io rist a p p r o a c h , 5 1 , 6 3 , 7 0
117
In te rv ie w analysis
g e n c ra liz a b ility an d , 2 3 2
See also
S k in n e ria n a p p ro a ch
A n o n y m ity , 1 1 5 , 1 1 9 , 1 7 2 , 2 5 9 - 2 6 0
B e tti-G a d a m e r c o n tro v e r sy , 4 7
Intervi ews
312
B ias, 6 4 , 1 1 8 , 2 8 6
in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 2 4 2
m e m o ry o f in te rv ie w a n d , 1 6 2
Biased su b je c tiv ity , 2 1 2 , 2 8 7
Bilduttgsreise,
B o d ily e x p re ss io n s , 1 2 9 , 2 9 3
in te rp r e tin g , 3 1 - 3 2
re p o r tin g an d , 2 7 3
C a te g o rie s :
c o d in g a n d , 2 0 5 - 2 0 6
m u ltip le in te rp re te rs a n d , 2 0 8
an aly sis a n d , 1 8 7 , 1 8 8
C o n t r o l o f b e h a v io r:
c h a n g in g , 3 4
nu anced , 3 0 , 3 2
p o s itiv ism a n d , 1 1 , 6 2
open, 53
in te rp r e ta tio n v ersu s, 1 2 7
C o n v c r s a tio n (s ):
p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l p e rs p e c tiv e an d ,
as b a sic m o d e o f k n o w in g , 3 7
in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 2 0 1 - 2 0 2
o f d a ily life , 5 - 6 , 2 0
ric h , 1 3 3 , 1 4 5 , 2 7 5
d e c o n te x tu a liz e d , 1 6 7
sp o n ta n e o u s, 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 , 1 4 5
p re c is io n in , 3 2
d e fin in g , 19
u n in te rp re te d , 3 2 - 3 3
fo rm s o f, 5
D e sig n ,
h e rm e n e u tic a l in te r p r e ta tio n an d ,
C o n s c io u s n e s s:
3 8 , 4 6 -5 2
D ia le c tic s , 1 1 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 5 5 - 5 7 , 5 8
p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l d e s c r ip tio n s o f , 11
D ia lo g ic a l in te rs u b je c tiv ity , 6 5
a b o u t in te rv ie w s, 2 7 9 - 2 9 8
D ia lo g u e , h e rm e n e u tic a l in te rp r e ta tio n
C o n se n su s, 4 2
k n o w le d g e as, 1 9 - 2 1 , 3 7 , 4 2 - 4 3
c o e rc io n o f, 2 5 0
p a u se s in , 1 3 4 - 1 3 5
re a lity a n d , 3 7
fe m in is t re sea rch a n d , 7 3
o f in te rp r e ta tio n , 5 8
as r e s e a r c h , 5 - 7 , 8 , 1 2 4 - 1 2 7
in te rv ie w p ro ce ss p ro d u c in g , 3 1 , 3 4 ,
in te rs u b je c tiv e , 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 5
tra v e le r m e ta p h o r a n d , 4 - 5
C o n v e rs a tio n a l s k ills, 1 4 7
tru th a n d , 2 4 6 , 2 4 8
C o n v e rs a tio n a l te c h n iq u e , 3 6
p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l in te rv ie w a n d , 7 7 ,
v a lid ity a n d , 2 1 7
C r a ft, in te rv ie w in g as, 1 0 5 - 1 0 8
248
( children:
in fo rm e d c o n s e n t in in te rv ie w in g ,
113
le a d in g q u e stio n s a n d , 1 5 8
C la r ific a tio n , 1 4 5 , 1 7 8
c o m p u te r a n a ly sis a n d , 1 7 4
e th ic a l p o s itio n a n d , 1 2 2 - 1 2 3
h e rm e n e u tic a l in te r p r e ta tio n a n d , 4 6
p h ilo s o p h ic a l, 2 0 - 2 1 , 4 2 - 4 3 , 2 4 6 ,
272
ra tio n a l a rg u m e n ta tio n in , 6 6 , 1 2 7 ,
66, 246
o r a l, 1 6 6
D u ty e th ics o f p r in c ip le s , 1 2 1 - 1 2 2
re n a r ra tiv iz a tio n o f , 4 3
in te rp r e ta tio n a n il, 4 9 , 1 9 3 , 2 1 2 ,
C o n v e rs a tio n (s )
D is c o u rs e a n a ly s is, 4 2 - 4 3
D iscu rsiv e a rg u m e n ta tio n , 2 0 , 2 1, 2 3 ,
C u ltu re :
s e lf-u n d e rs ta n d in g m e d ia te d w ith in ,
in te rp e rs o n a l, 4 4
246
See also
h is to ric a l, 11
a n aly sis a n d , 1 9 0
s ta te m e n t c a te g o riz a tio n an d , 1 3 0
h e rm e n e u tic a l in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 4 9
am b ig u o u s s ta te m e n ts a n d , 1 3 2
c o n tra d ic to r y sta te m e n ts a n d , 3 4
114
D is c o u rs e :
C o n s tru c tio n is m , 4 5
an d , 4 9
D ia lo g u e a p p r o a c h , to in te rv ie w stu d y ,
p o w e r re la tio n s in , 1 2 6
78
R e s e a r c h d esign
in te rv ie w a s, 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 9 - 3 7
h e rm e n e u tic s a n d , 5 1
th e ra p e u tic in te rv ie w a n d , 2 6 , 1 5 6 ,
see
d ia le c tics a n d , 5 5 , 5 8
d ia le c tics a n d , 5 7
190
3 8 , 3 9 , 5 2 -5 5
co n te x t o f, 3 6
c o n tr a d ic tio n s d riv in g , 5 5 - 5 7
C hange:
11,
c o m p u te r a ssista n ce in b u ild in g , 1 7 4
c o n te n t, 9 5 - 9 6
D e s r rip tio n (s ).
c o n s u m e rs a n d , 7 2
C o n c e p tu a l u n d ersta n d in g , o f re s e a rc h
g e n e ra liz a b ility a n d , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 - 2 3 4
D e p th in te rv ie w , 7 1
n a tu ra l s c ie n c e s a n d , 5 1
C ase h is to rie s:
D e fe n s e m e c h a n ism s , 3 5
a n a ly sis a n d , 2 0 7 - 2 0 9
b e h a v io ris m a n d , 7 0
tra n s c rib in g , 1 6 7
an d , 6 3
C o n t r o l( s ), 11 8
an alysis a n d , 8 , 1 7 3 - 1 7 5 , 1 9 0 , 2 9 3
C o n c e p ts , q u a lita tiv e , 6 9
31 3
q u e stio n s f o r , 1 0 0
C o m p u te rs:
re c o rd in g , 1 6 1
B rie fin g , b e fo r e in te rv ie w , 1 2 7 , 1 5 3
Subject Index
51
E d u c a tio n a l c o n v e rs a tio n , 2 3
w ritte n , 1 6 6 - 1 6 7
E lite s, in te rv ie w s w ith , 1 0 1
2 1 3 -2 1 7
E m a n c ip a tio n th ro u g h k n o w le d g e , 7 0 ,
121
k n o w le d g e as, 4 4
C lass s o c ie ty , 5 5 - 5 6
lo c a l, 4 2
C lie n t-c e n te r e d in te rv ie w , 2 4 - 2 6
m a te ria l, 2 1 2 , 2 9 3
C o d e rs :
m e a n in g an d , 1 6 7 - 1 6 8
o b s e r v a b le , 6 1
in te rv ie w stu d y a n d , 8 5 - 8 9 , 1 2 8
s o c ia l, 1 1 , 2 1 2 , 2 9 3
re p r o d u c ib le , 6 5
th e ra p e u tic in te rv ie w a n d , 2 6 , 7 7 ,
m u ltip le , 2 0 8
re lia b ility a n d , 6 5 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 8
C o d in g , 1 9 2 , 2 0 5 - 2 0 6
te sta b le , 6 5
D a ta a n a ly sis, 6 9 .
c o m p u te r a n a ly sis a n d , 1 7 3 - 1 7 4
C o n tra d ic to r y s ta te m e n ts, 3 4 , 3 9 , 1 6 7
m e a n in g c a te g o rie s a n d , 1 9 7 - 1 9 8
C o n tra d ic to r y m e a n in g s, 7 6 , 1 6 7 , 1 6 8 ,
226
E m o tio n (s ):
fe m in is t re s e a rc h a n d , 7.3
1 0 4 -1 0 5
See also
In te rv ie w
a n a ly sis
E m o tio n a l in te r a c tio n , 3 5 , 1 5 6 , 2 9 3
E m o tio n a l to n e , tr a n s c rip tio n s a n d , 171
E m p a th ie a c c e s s , to life w o rld , 1 2 5
D e c o n s tr u c tiv e re a d in g , 2 2 7
E m p a th ie d ia lo g u e , 7 0
Interviews
314
F a c ts :
E m p a th y , 2 9 3
Subject Index
31 5
H a m le ts in te rv ie w , 1 5 1 - 1 5 3
p o s tm o d e rn d e c e n te rin g o f, 4 5
in te rv ie w re c o rd in g an d , 161
m in e r m ietaph or a n d , 3
in fo r m a n t p e rs p e c tiv e a n d , 2 1 8
listen in g a n d , 1 3 5 , 1 4 9
p o sitiv ism a n d , 6 2
m e a n in g in te rp r e ta tio n an d , 1 9 3
In fo rm a n t, in te rv ie w ee as, 2 1 8 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 3
p e rs o n -c e n te re d te x t q u e stio n s and,
In fo rm e d c o n s e n t, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 - 1 1 4 , 1 1 9 ,
E m p o w e rm e n t, 7 0 , 2 4 9
F eed b ack , 1 2 8
E n lig h te n m e n t, p h ilo s o p h y o f , 4 1 , 12 1
F e e lin g s,
E n th u sia sm p h a se, in in te rv ie w p r o je c t,
F e m in is m , in te rv ie w s a n d , 2 8 2
85
E p is te m o lo g ic a l d e m a n d fo r q u a n tific a
tio n , 6 7
see
215
E m o tio n (s )
see
C a se stud ies
1 5 3 -1 5 4 , 2 5 9
s u s p ic io n o f m o tiv e s a n d , 1 5 3 ,
F e m in is t re s e a r c h , 7 2 - 7 4 , 2 9 3
1 5 5 -1 5 7 , 180, 203
e th ic a l issu es a n d , 1 2 1
H a te , th e ra p e u tic in te rv ie w o n , 2 4 - 2 6
uses o f, 1 1 7
H e r m e n e u tic a l a p p ro a c h :
In te ra c tio n , 3 1 , 3 5 - 3 6 , 3 8 , 5 0
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f, 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 ,
1 5 4 -1 5 7
c o n v e rs a tio n as, 1 2 5
E p is te m o lo g y , 1 4 , 1 7
F ie ld stu d ie s, 1 0 4 , 1 1 4
in te r p r e ta tio n an d , 1 1, 3 8 , 4 6 - 5 2
e ffe c t o n in te rv ie w e e , 1 0 9
F o c u s e d in te rv ie w s, 71
lis te n in g a n d , 1 3 5
e th ica l issu es a n d , 1 1 8
E th ic a l c o d e s , 1 1 0 - 1 1 2
F o c u s g ro u p s , 10 1
tra n s la tio n a n d , 1 6 6
E th ic a l issu es, 1 0 9 - 1 2 3 , 1 5 3 - 1 5 7
F o llo w -u p q u e stio n s , 1 3 3 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 8 3
H e r m e n e u tic a l c ir c le , 4 7 - 5 1, 2 9 6
g ro u p in te rv ie w s an d , 2 9 3
F o r e k n o w le d g e , 3 8
H e r m e n e u tic s , 5 8
im p lic it ru les o f , 1 2 5 - 1 2 6
1 5 3 -1 5 4 , 2 5 9
in te rv ie w c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d , 1 1 1 ,
1 1 6 -1 1 7 , 1 1 9 -1 2 0 , 1 5 4 -1 5 7
lite ra tu re o n , 9 0
p ra g m a tic a p p ro a c h a n d , 2 5 0
re s e a r c h e r ro le a n d , 1 1 7 - 1 1 8
F re u d ia n a p p r o a c h , 9 7
c o h e r e n c e c r ite r io n o f tru th an d , 2 3 9
k n o w le d g e c o n s tr u c te d th ro u g h , 1 2 7
c a se stu d ie s a n d , 1 0 2
p sy c h o a n a ly tic a l re sea rc h a n d , 7 6 - 7 7
false s ta te m e n ts a n d , 2 2 1 - 2 2 2
d e fin itio n o f, 4 7
in s tig a tio n o f c h a n g e a n d , 7 7 , 2 4 9
lite ra tu r e o n , 4 0
v id e o re c o rd in g a n d , 161
p r o d u c tio n o f n e w k n o w le d g e
th ro u g h , 4 5 - 4 6
and , 75
In te rp e rs o n a l in te ra c tio n ,
In te rp e rs o n a l re la tio n s , 8 8
2 1 0 -2 1 1
G e n d e r, s o c ia l c o n s tr u c tio n o f , 7 3
G e n e r a liz a b ility , 8 8 , 2 2 9 - 2 3 1 , 2 8 9
see
a m b ig u ity a n d , 3 4
o f s u s p ic io n , 2 0 3 , 2 2 6 - 2 2 7
b ias in , 2 1 2 , 2 4 2 , 2 8 7
c o m m u n ity o f s ch o la rs a n d , 2 4 7 - 2 4 8
c o n firm a tio n o f , 3 1 - 3 2
c o n fr o n tin g s u b je c t w ith , 1 5 6
E th ic a l th e o r ie s , 1 2 0 - 1 2 3
ca se stu d ie s a n d , 1 0 2
H o w in te rv ie w q u e stio n s , 1 3 0 - 1 3 1
c o n te n t, 2 1 8 - 2 2 1
E th n o g r a p h ic stu d ie s, 9 8
fo rm s o f, 2 3 1 - 2 3 4
H o w q u e stio n s , re s e a rc h d esign an d , 9 5 ,
c o n te x t o f, 1 9 3 ,2 1 3 - 2 1 7
E th n o g r a p h y , w ritin g as s o cia l
c o n s tr u c tio n a n d , 2 6 8 - 2 6 9
p o s tm o d e rn p e rs p e c tiv e , 2 3 1
G e n e r a liz a tio n :
9 6 , 1 2 6 , 130
H u m a n in te re sts , k n o w le d g e an d , 5 1 - 5 2 ,
120,
In te ra c tio n
In te rp r e ta tio n s , 11
q u e stio n s p o sed to te x ts an d , 2 4 3
t e x t in te rp r e ta tio n s a n d , 2 1 1
s ta rt o f stu d y a n d , 1 1 8 - 1 2 0
E th ic a l p r o to c o l, 1 1 2
m e a n in g in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 2 0 0
p lu ra lity o f in te rp r e ta tio n s an d ,
re s e a rc h an d tre a tm e n t re la tio n s h ip
re s e a rc h re p o rts a n d , 2 5 9 - 2 6 1
tra n s c rip tio n s a n d , 1 7 2 - 1 7 3
fe m in ist re s e a rc h a n d , 7 2 , 7 3
121, 117
d e s c r ip tio n v ersu s, 1 2 7
e th ic a l issues an d , 1 11
E x a m p le s , in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 1 2 3
a n a ly tic a l, 2 3 3 - 2 3 4
E x is te n tia lis m , 5 6 , 5 8
n a tu r a listic , 2 3 2
H u m a n is tic p sy c h o lo g y , 2 3 2
fo re k n o w le d g e a n d , 5 8
E x p e rie n c e s :
h e rm e n e u tic a l, 1 1 , 3 8 , 4 6 - 5 2 , 5 8
d e s c r ib in g , 3 2
ta rg ets o f , 2 3 3 - 2 3 4
232
in te rv ie w e r q u a lific a tio n s a n d , 1 4 9
fe m in is t re s e a rc h a n d , 7 2 - 7 3
G e stu re s, 3 1 , 5 0
H u m a n s c ie n c e s , h e rm e n e u tic , 4 7
in te rv ie w q u a lity a n d , 1 5 1 , 1 5 3
p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l p e rs p e c tiv e a n d ,
G ra d e stu d y, 6 - 7 , 8 9 - 9 8
H u m a n s u b je c ts p r o to c o l, 1 1 2
m u ltip le , 2 0 3 , 2 4 2 - 2 4 3 , 2 8 7
H u m a n w e lfa r e , p r o m o tio n o f, 1 0 9 ,
o n -th e -lin e , 1 8 9
3 8 , 5 2 -5 5
sen sitiv e a c c o u n ts o f , 1 4 6 - 1 4 7
E x p e rim e n ta l stu d ie s:
111,
1 1 7 , 1 19, 1 2 1 -1 2 2 , 2 5 9
H y p o th e s e s:
p lu ra lity o f, 2 1 0 - 2 2 8
p o s tm o d e rn th o u g h t a n d , 5 8
in fo rm e d c o n s e n t a n d , 1 1 4
in te rv ie w , 1 3 6 - 1 4 3
d iffe r e n c e s a m o n g g ro u p s an d , 1 0 2
q u a n tita tiv e m e th o d s , 6 2 - 6 3
in v alid u n d e rsta n d in g a n d , 2 2 1 - 2 2 3
m e a n in g c a te g o riz a tio n a n d , 1 9 6 - 1 9 9
fo llo w -u p s a n d , 1 4 3
p u rp o se o f, 2 1 1
q u estio n s asked o f te x t a n d , 2 1 3 - 2 2 4 ,
fo rm u la tin g , 91
q u e st fo r real m e a n in g an d , 2 2 5 - 2 2 8
q u a lita tiv e , 6 9
te stin g , 1 3 2 , 2 8 8
te stin g , 9 7 - 9 8 , 1 0 0 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 2 , 2 8 8
th e o re tic a l fra m e , 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , 2 1 7
E x p lo r a tiv e stu d ie s, 9 7
in fo rm e d c o n s e n t a n d , 1 1 4 , 1 1 9
E x p lo r a to r y stu d y, p u rp o se o f , 1 0 0
143
tra n s c rip tio n s a n d , 1 6 9 , 1 7 1 - 1 7 2
G ro u n d e d th e o ry a p p r o a c h , 8 7 , 9 8 ,
F a c ia l e x p re ss io n s , 1 2 9
2 0 6 ,2 9 4
1 7 1 ,1 8 9 -1 9 0
in te rp r e tin g , 3 1 - 3 2
G ro u p d iffe r e n c e s, 9 8 , 1 0 2 , 1 8 0 , 2 8 8
Im p r e s s io n is tic ta le , 2 6 9
re c o rd in g , 1 6 1
G ro u p in te rv ie w s, 1 0 1 , 2 9 3
In d iv id u a l:
fo c u s o n , 2 9 2
v alid ity a n d , 1 4 5 , 2 0 3 , 2 1 7 - 2 2 3 ,
240
See also
In te rv ie w an alysis
316
Interviews
In te rp r e te r:
Subject Index
317
m u ltip le in te rp re te rs a n d , 2 0 8 - 2 0 9
n u m b e r o f s u b je c ts , 1 0 1 - 1 0 3
m u ltip le , 2 0 8 - 2 0 9
n a rra tiv e , 1 8 4 , 1 9 2 - 1 9 3 , 1 9 9 - 2 0 1
o b je c tio n s to , 2 8 1 - 2 9 1
n a rra tiv e , 4 3
p re su p p o sitio n s o f, 2 1 1
q u a lita tiv e , 2 0 5 - 2 0 6
o p e n n e ss a n d , 8 3 - 8 7
p h ilo s o p h ic a l in q u iry a n d , 2 3
In te rp r e tin g q u e stio n s , 1 3 5 , 1 4 2
q u a n tita tiv e , 2 0 5 - 2 0 6
p u rp o se o f , 9 5 , 9 7 - 9 8 , 1 0 0
p o s tm o d e rn c o n s tr u c tio n o f, 4 1 - 4 6
I n t e r r e g i o n a l k n o w le d g e , 4 4 - 4 5
q u e stio n n a ire s a n d , 9 3
r e c e p tio n a n d , 2 7 9 - 2 8 1
p s y c h o a n a ly tic in te rv ie w a n d , 7 4 - 7 9
In te rs u b je c tiv e a g ree m e n t:
step s o f, 1 8 7 - 1 9 0
r e s o u r c e s fo r, 1 0 3 - 1 0 4
s c ie n tific ,
th e o re tic a l p re su p p o sitio n s a n d ,
in s o c ia l s c ie n c e s, 8 - 1 0
s o c ia l c o n s tr u c tio n o f , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 ,
an alysis m e th o d a n d , 181
a rith m e tic , 6 5
2 0 6 -2 0 7
m in e r m e ta p h o r an d , 3 - 4
sta g es o f , 8 1 - 8 2 , 8 7 - 8 9
see
S c ie n tific k n o w le d g e
2 3 9 -2 4 0
d ialo g u e le a d in g to , 6 5 , 2 0 8
1 ,0 0 0 -p a g e q u e stio n a n d , 1 7 6 - 1 8 6
o b je c tiv ity a n d , 6 3 , 6 4
typ es o f q u e stio n s a n d , 1 3 2
h e rm e n e u tic a l in te r p r e ta tio n a n d , 4 6
th e o r e tic a l, 2 3
valid ity a n d , 2 3 3 .
lite ra ry te x ts v ersu s, 4 7 - 5 1
th e ra p e u tic in te rv ie w a n d , 7 8 - 7 9
See also
to p ic , 3 5 , 8 4 , 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 , 1 0 8 ,
v a lid a tio n an d , 2 4 7
In te r v iew , 2 9 6
In te rv ie w e e s,
see
S u b je c t(s)
In te rv ie w ers:
th e m a tiz in g , 8 3 - 1 0 8
In te rv ie w te x ts :
T e x t (s )
s y ste m a tic , 6 0
ta c it, 1 0 7
In tro d u c in g q u e stio n s , 1 3 3
n ew view s o n , 4 5 - 4 6
c o m p e te n c e o f, 8 4 , 1 0 5 - 1 0 6
In tu itio n s , r e s e a r c h e r s e th ic a l, 1 2 2
use o f , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 2 5 1
re s e a rc h in te rv ie w see n as, 1 4 - 1 6
cra ftsm a n sh ip o f, 8 3
In tu itiv e k n o w le d g e , 1 0 6
v a lid a te d th ro u g h p r a c tic e , 4 2
In te rv ie w (s)/ in te rv ie w in g :
d e lib e ra te n a v et a n d , 3 1 , 3 3
v alid ity a n d , 2 3 6 , 2 4 5 - 2 4 8
c lie n t-c e n te r e d , 2 4 - 2 6
e m o tio n a l d y n a m ics a n d , 8 5
c o n v e rs a tio n s a b o u t, 2 7 9 - 2 9 8
e x p e rtise o f, 8 3 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 , 1 0 6
Jo u r n a l is t ic in te rv ie w s, 2 7 1 - 2 7 2
e x p lo ra to ry , 9 7
as m in e r, 3 - 4
J o u r n a l s , q u a lita tiv e re s e a r c h , 9
fo rm s o f, 1 0 1
p re su p p o sitio n s o f , 3 3 , 4 9 , 1 3 5
jo u r n a lis tic , 2 7 1 - 2 7 2
q u a lific a tio n s , 1 0 5 - 1 0 8 , 1 4 7 - 1 5 1
v alu es a n d , 2 4 1
e d ito ria l re q u ir e m e n ts a n d , 8 3
v e rific a tio n o f, 2 2 9
K n o w led g e c la im s , d e fe n s ib le , 2 4 0 , 2 4 1 ,
2 4 5 -2 4 8
J o u r n e y , s ch o la rly an d fo rm a tiv e , 4
k n o w le d g e p ro d u c e d in, 1 4 0 - 1 4 1
re lia b ility , 1 9 9 , 2 0 8 , 2 3 2
n o n s ta n d a rd iz e d , 13
as p r o fe s sio n a l c o n v e rs a tio n , 2 0
ro le o f , 3 - 5 , 1 1 7 - 1 1 8 , 1 2 0 , 2 8 7
KIT c o m p u te r
q u a lity o f, 1 4 4 - 1 5 9
K n o w in g h o w , 1 0 6
k n o w le d g e as, 4 3
K n o w in g t h a t , 1 0 6
lo c a l, 9 6
K n o w in g , b a sic m o d e o f , 3 7
re a lity a n d , 3 7
K n o w le d g e :
re s e a rc h re p o rts a n d , 2 7 0
re -, 1 9 0
149
as re s e a rc h , 3 - 1 6
to p ic k n o w le d g e a n d , 3 5 , 9 5 - 9 6 ,
s e lf-c o m m u n ic a tin g , 1 4 5
s e lf-c o r r e c tin g , 1 8 9
182
s p o n ta n e ity in, 1 2 9 , 1 3 3 , 1 4 5
L an g u ag e:
p ro g ra m , 1 7 4 - 1 7 5
a c tio n a n d , 3 9 , 2 4 8 , 2 4 9 - 2 5 0
tra in in g , 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 , 161
a p p lic a tio n o f, 2 4 1
w h en n o t to , 1 0 4 - 1 0 5
as tra v e le r, 4 - 5 , 19
c o m m u n ic a tio n o f , 2 4 1
See also
See also
c o n s tr u c tin g th ro u g h in te r a c tio n , 3 7 ,
P sy c h o a n a ly tic in te rv ie w ;
Q u a lita tiv e re s e a rc h in te rv ie w ;
T h e r a p e u tic in te rv ie w
In te rv ie w a n aly sis, 8 8
ad h o c m e a n in g g e n e ra tio n a n d , 1 9 3 ,
2 0 3 -2 0 4
a p p ro a c h e s to , 1 8 8 - 1 9 3
c o m p u te rs a n d , 1 7 3 - 1 7 5 , 1 9 0 , 2 9 3
c o n tr o l o f, 2 0 7 - 2 0 9
R e s e a rc h e r
In te rv ie w in g sta g e, 8 8
as c o n v e r s a tio n , 1 9 - 2 1 , 4 2 - 4 3
lite ra tu re o n , 9 0
c o n v e r s a tio n as, 5 - 7 , 3 7 , 1 2 4 - 1 2 7
re sea rc h re p o rts a n d , 2 5 7 , 2 6 3 , 2 6 4
d ia le c tic a l th o u g h t a n d , 5 5 - 5 7
L ife , d aily ,
v a lid ity an d , 2 3 3
e m a n c ip a tio n th ro u g h , 1 2 1
L ife w o rld , 1 1 , 2 9 - 3 1 , 7 0
m e a n in g c a te g o riz a tio n a n d , 1 9 0 ,
In te rv ie w
1 9 2 , 1 9 3 -1 9 6
192,
1 9 3 ,2 0 1 -2 0 3
m e th o d s o f , 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 7 - 2 0 9
gra d e stu d y a n d , 9 2 , 9 3 - 9 4
lin g u istic , 1 6 8 , 2 9 4
m e an in g in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 1 9 0 ,
1 8 3 ,2 8 6
L e a rn in g , re s e a rc h in te rv ie w o n , 2 7 - 2 9
as c o n t e x t , 4 4
In te rv ie w -q u o tin g p h a se, 8 5
m e a n in g c o n d e n s a tio n a n d , 1 9 0 ,
e th ic a l issues an d , 111
e th ic a l issu es a n d , 111
19 2 , 1 9 6 -1 9 9
127
fo rm a l a n aly sis o f e v e ry d ay , 1 0 6
119
L e g itim a c y , c o n s u m e r re s e a rc h a n d ,
7 1 -7 2
see
D a ily life
e n h a n c in g h u m a n c o n d itio n an d , 11
e m p a th ic a c c ess to , 1 2 5
h e rm e n e u tic s a n d , 4 6 - 5 2
f e m in is t re s e a rc h a n d , 7 2 - 7 3
h u m a n in te ra c tio n o f in te r view
h e rm e n e u tic a l in te rp r e ta tio n a n d , 4 9
p r o d u c in g , 1 6 , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1
h u m a n in te re sts a n d , 5 1 - 5 2 , 1 1 7
In te rv ie w stu d ie s, 8 - 1 0
in te r r e la tio n a l, 4 4 - 4 5
c o n te n t a n d , 9 5 - 9 7
in te rs u b je c tiv e , 6 4 - 6 5
n e g o tia te d m e a n in g a n d , 4 2
p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l p e rs p e c tiv e an d ,
3 8 , 5 2 -5 5
th e m e s o f , 2 7 - 2 9
cra ftsm a n sh ip a n d , 1 0 5 - 1 0 8
in tu itiv e , 1 0 6
d e sig n in g , 8 3 - 1 0 8
jo in t c r e a tio n o f , 8 , 3 7 , 4 5 , 1 2 4 - 1 2 7
L in g u istic s , 4 3
d ia lo g u e a p p ro a c h to , 1 1 4
as la n g u a g e, 4 3
a n aly sis a n d , 1 6 8 , 2 9 4
in te rn a l c ritiq u e s o f, 2 9 1 - 2 9 5
m e th o d v e rsu s, 1 8 0 - 1 8 2
in te rv ie w a s p e c ts a n d , 3 8
I nt e rV ie w s
318
transcriptions and, 166-167
Listening, 132-135
empathic, 135, 149
interviewer qualification and,
148-149
interview recording and, 161-162
Literary texts, interview texts versus,
47-51
Literature, on qualitative research, 90-91
Love, Socrates dialogue on, 21-23
220
161-162
M entoring practices, 107
Meta-narratives, 241
Subject Index
Natural sciences:
ambiguous, 34, 76
analysis of, 187-209
Platos dialogues, 20
Method(s), 12-13, 95
black box, 255-256
choice of, 84, 99, 104
descriptions and, 11
Metaphors:
meaning generation and, 204
319
authors, 211
context and, 42, 44, 49, 167-168
280
M oral enterprise, interview inquiry as,
Openness:
38, 46-52
intersubjective agreement and, 181
109
M oral issues, 88
feminist research and, 73
individual and, 45
210-211
validity and, 231, 236-242, 246
writing as social construction and,
268, 269-270
negotiation about, 42
ownership of, 225-226
positivist social science and, 63
postmodern approach and, 41 42,
226-227
interpretation and, 46
O rdinal scale, 68
readers, 211
I nt e rV ie w s
320
positivism and, 11, 62
Predictive validity, 238
Principles, duty ethics of, 121-122
Privacy, right to, 115, 260
Probing questions, 133, 142-143
Professional conversations, 5, 20
research interview on learning, 27-29
technique of, 36
therapeutic interview on hate, 24-26
Psychoanalysis, 26
Subject Index
46-52
interpersonal interaction in, 31,
35-36,38
as inter view, 14-16
321
purpose of, 95, 97-98, 102, 113,
124,131-132
quality of craftsmanship in, 240,
241-244
scientific responsibility, 118, 120
uses of, 117, 154, 294
Reality:
change a n d ,156
action uncovering, 56
51-52
hermeneutics of suspicion and, 203
language constructing, 43
objective, 41, 42, 45
52-55
positive experience of, 36
questioning, 153
Sartre on, 56
Psychoanalytic interview, 45-46, 74-79
qualifications for conducting,
105-106
Psychoanalytical theory, interpretations
and, 2 1 2,2 16
Psychological interpretation, transcrip
tions and, 171
Psychology:
behaviorism and, 63, 70
generalizability and, 232
interviews and, 9
knowledge production and, 9
positivism and, 63
validity and, 238
Psychometric tests, 238, 240
41-42, 4 5 ,5 2 , 226
universal, 41
References, interview texts and, 50
Reflection, 34, 150
conversations of daily life and, 20
professional interview and, 20
control, 100
critical, 149
direct, 134, 142
dynamic, 130
follow-up, 133, 142, 145, 183
Qualitative knowledge, 30
Qualitative research:
leading to scientific knowledge, 238
literature on, 90-91
marketing and, 70-72
indirect, 134
interpreting, 135, 142
interview guide and, 129-130
introducing, 133
leading, 157-159, 176-177, 18 3,2 86
in practice, 70-79
psychoanalysis and, 74-79
Re-interview, 190
ambiguous, 148
behaviorist approach and, 63
Reflective approach, 88
322
In terview s
production of, 60
qualitative research leading to, 238
quantitative, 66-69
Scientific research behavior, realistic
descriptions of, 84
Subject Index
Statements:, 21
action accompanying, 249-250
ambiguous, 31, 34
behaviorist conception of, 180
273
transcription description in, 169
incoherent, 167
incorrect in content, 221
knowledge about content of, 215
false, 218,221-222
contradictions in, 57
multitude o f views, 7
number of, 101-103
323
good, 146-147
identification with, 85, 120
insight and, 128, 156, 189, 190
interview consequences and, 111,
324
In terv iew s
Subject Index
sensitive, 172
sequence of, 129
theoretical conceptions of, 206
Transcription, 88, 24, 27, 160-175
analysis and, 168-173, 189-190
computers and, 173-175
325
statement content and, 218-221
transcriptions and, 164-166
Values, 117
knowledge and, 241
posiiivism and, 62
pragmatic approach and, 250
scientific knowledge and, 120
Unconscious, 77
manifestations of, 203
m ining, 3
Understanding:
consensus of, 5 1
conversation and, 20
literature on, 91
ethical, 120-123
navet and, 95
self-, 4 ,5 1 , 156,2 14
psychoanalytic, 79
content, 95-96
Theories:
Therapeutic interview(s):
Views:
capturing multitude of, 7
Validity, 64, 88, 289
interchange of, 44
Transference, 26, 77
on hate, 24-26
226, 280
Triangulation, 244
Truth:
W hat questions:
in interview, 130-131
research design and, 95, 126, 130
W h y questions:
as professional conversation, 20
purpose of, 78, 125
240
dialectics and, 57
in interview, 130-131
research design and, 95, 126, 130
predictive, 238
objective, 228
introducing, 134
23
positivism and, 61
postmodern perspective on, 239
knowledge of, 84
legal issues about, 115
166-168
of Psychology.
His long-term concern is with the implications of such continental
philosophies as phenomenology, hermeneutics, and dialectics for
psychology and education. He has studied examinations and grading,
and is the author of Priifung und Herrschaft (1972). His current
interests are in evaluation as constituting the knowledge o f a disci
pline, and in addressing the potentialities of apprenticeship as an
educational form. He has written extensively on qualitative research,
including editing the volume Issues of Validity in Qualitative Research.
In Psychology and Postmodernism, which he also edited, he argues that
psychology is a discipline so entrenched in modernity that it can hardly
grasp human relations in a postmodern age.
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